the primary subject and theme and thesis of quran is

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Course: Start here > Unit 4

Introduction to Islam
The Five Pillars of Islam
Stories of the modern pilgrimage
Introduction to mosque architecture

When and where did Islam begin?

"Recite in the Name of your Lord who created; Created man from a congealed clot of blood; Recite and indeed your Lord is most merciful; He who taught by the pen; Taught man what he knew not"

When was the Qur’an written down?

What is important about the language of the qur’an, themes and contents of the qur’an.

"Say God is One; He is Eternal; He was not begotten nor does he beget; and he has no peer or equal (Q. 112.1–4)"

What does the Qur’an say about Christianity and Judaism?

"Indeed, those who believe, the Jews, the Christians, and the Sabians – all those who acknowledge God and the Last Day and perform good works – will be granted their rewards with their Lord. Fear shall not affect them, nor shall they grieve (Q. 2.62)"

Want to join the conversation?

Quran Recitation with Tajweed Course
Quran Translation Course
Quran Memorization Course
Arabic Language Course

10 Major Themes of the Quran Interpreted by Different Scholars

Islamic Knowledge , Quran

The Quran, Islam’s sacred text, stands as a cornerstone of religious thought and practice for Muslims worldwide. It is a complex, multifaceted work that has been the subject of intense study and interpretation by scholars across centuries. In the article “Major Themes of the Quran by Different Scholars,” we embark on an exploratory journey to understand the diverse and profound themes that these scholars have unearthed from the Quran’s verses. From the theological depths of the Oneness of Allah (Tawheed) to the social imperatives of justice and ethics, and from the intricacies of prophethood and revelation to the eschatological visions of the hereafter, the Quran offers a rich tapestry of themes. Each theme, dissected by scholars from various eras and backgrounds, provides unique insights into the Quran’s guidance on moral, spiritual, and societal matters, highlighting its enduring significance and relevance in the modern world.

1. The Oneness of Allah (Tawheed)

In-Depth Analysis: The concept of Tawheed, or the Oneness of Allah, is foundational in Islamic theology. Renowned scholars like Al-Ghazali have emphasized how the Quran repeatedly asserts God’s unity, omnipotence, and omniscience. This theme transcends mere acknowledgment of God’s existence; it shapes the Islamic worldview, influencing every aspect of a Muslim’s life from worship to ethical conduct. The Quran’s portrayal of God’s attributes, such as mercy, justice, and wisdom, offers a comprehensive understanding of divine nature. This theme also addresses the pitfalls of shirk (associating partners with Allah) and idolatry, warning against deviating from monotheism.

2. Prophethood and Revelation

Extended Interpretations: Scholars like Ibn Kathir have delved deeply into the stories of various prophets chronicled in the Quran. These narratives serve multiple purposes: they offer moral and spiritual lessons, set examples of patience and perseverance, and affirm the continuity of Allah’s message across different eras and societies. The concept of prophethood in the Quran is not just historical recounting but also a means to guide humanity towards ethical and spiritual excellence. The role of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), as the last prophet, is given special emphasis, with his life and teachings (Sunnah) considered an exemplary model for Muslims.

3. The Hereafter and Eschatology

Comprehensive Academic Insights: The Quran’s descriptions of life after death are vivid and detailed. Scholars like Sayyid Qutb have explored these eschatological themes to understand the Islamic perspective on the purpose of earthly life. The Quranic depictions of heaven and hell, the Day of Judgment, and the concept of divine justice serve as a moral compass for believers, urging them to lead righteous lives. This theme also addresses existential questions about the soul, accountability, and the eternal consequences of one’s actions.

4. Social Justice and Ethics

Expanding on Scholarly Views: Modern scholars like Tariq Ramadan have highlighted how the Quran advocates for social justice and ethical conduct. The text addresses various societal issues, including the rights of the poor and marginalized, the equitable treatment of women, orphans, and minorities, and the condemnation of unjust economic practices. These teachings have had a profound impact on Islamic law and ethics and offers guidelines for creating a just and equitable society.

5. The Quran as a Literary and Linguistic Miracle

Advanced Linguistic Analysis: The linguistic brilliance of the Quran is a subject of admiration and study. Scholars of Arabic literature, such as A.J. Arberry, have analyzed its unique style, eloquence, and rhythmic patterns, which set it apart from any other literary work in Arabic. This theme is also significant in understanding the Quran’s challenge to produce a text of comparable magnificence, a challenge that asserts its divine origin.

You also might want to read: Top 10 Linguistic and Literary Miracles of the Quran

6. The Relationship between Humanity and Nature

Scholarly Examination: Eco-theologians like Seyyed Hossein Nasr have focused on the Quran’s portrayal of the natural world as a sign of Allah’s creative power. The Quran encourages a harmonious relationship between humans and nature, advocating for responsible stewardship of the environment. This theme is increasingly relevant in contemporary discussions on environmental sustainability and ecological balance.

7. Moral and Spiritual Development

Deeper Insights by Theologians: The Quran’s emphasis on personal development is profound. Mystics like Rumi have interpreted Quranic teachings as a guide for inner transformation and spiritual growth. The text encourages self-reflection, the cultivation of virtues such as humility and compassion, and warns against ego and materialism. This theme resonates with the universal quest for meaning and fulfillment in life.

8. Historical and Contextual Analysis

Contextual Interpretations by Scholars: Contemporary scholars like Karen Armstrong have examined the Quran within the framework of its historical context. They explore how its revelations addressed the specific circumstances of 7th century Arabian society, and how these messages can be understood in a modern context. This analysis helps in bridging the gap between historical events and current interpretations of Islamic teachings.

9. Interfaith Relations and Tolerance

Insights into Interfaith Dynamics: The Quran’s approach to other religions, especially its references to Christians and Jews as “People of the Book,” is a significant theme. This includes discussions on religious pluralism, tolerance, and coexistence. Scholars have analyzed these verses to understand Islam’s stance on religious diversity and dialogue.

10. Legal and Political Theories

Expanding on Islamic Jurisprudence: The Quran’s influence on Islamic legal and political thought has been significant. Scholars like Ibn Taymiyyah have explored how Quranic teachings inform Sharia law, governance, and societal organization. This includes the rights and responsibilities of rulers and citizens, the implementation of justice, and the balance between individual rights and communal obligations.

Parting Note

The major themes of the Quran as interpreted by different scholars reveal a text that is not only religious but also deeply engaged with moral, social, philosophical, and existential issues. These themes, in their richness and depth, demonstrate the Quran’s relevance across different times and cultures, offering insights into both personal spiritual growth and the broader social and natural order. The diversity of scholarly interpretations underscores the Quran’s role as a continual source of guidance, inspiration, and reflection for millions around the world.

Hafiz Ikram Ullah

Towards a Philosophical Qur'anology: Structure and Meaning in the Qur'an

Related Papers

Tanveer Azmat

The dissertation explores the Qur’anic hermeneutics of Irfan A. Khan (b. 1931), a significant contemporary scholar of the Qur’an and modern western philosophy. It demonstrates that Khan’s Qur’anic hermeneutic is a paradigm shift as compared to classical Qur’anic hermeneutic and provides a substantive theory and methodology of Qur’anic interpretation. For Khan, Qur’anic God is perpetually active in new creation and new guidance. Since the sum total of all current existences is new creation, therefore it requires fresh guidance. Therefore, Khan considers the Qur’an a primary guide for us, as if it were just revealed. Khan proposes that readers should exert themselves directly to understand the Qur’an with their own mind, developing a personal relationship with it. The readers must keep the Sunnah of the Prophet in front of them. The Prophet and his Companions read the Qur’an in their existing socio-historic situation, purified themselves, and changed their socio-historic reality. The current readers should also follow the Sunnah in this sense. Finally, for guidance Qur’anic God has been systematically guiding humankind through prophets. After the Prophet Muhammad we are in post-prophetic stage. Thus, the Prophetic Movement changed into the Qur’anic Movement. Therefore, the responsibility of interpretation rests squarely upon humankind in the absence of any prophet. philosophically speaking humankind’s understanding is limited by its epistemic system. The lower bound of our epistemic system is apprehending Reality, but we always fail to apprehend it as an organic whole. The upper limit of our epistemic system is what we can think. Understanding happens between these two bounds. When we understand texts we convert textual symbols into images, manipulate the images, and get insights about the world of the text in front of us. However, it is only when we act upon it that we find the truth of our textual insights. Since our epistemic capacities keep on increasing due to advances in science, technology and the arts, it is possible to understand the same text in a deeper way in future. Thus, Qur’anic understanding is a continuous process that requires its new concretization in each historic epoch.

Christopher Buck

Islamic Approaches to Symbolism (2017) by Christopher Buck Published online August 8, 2017: Burhan Institute Islamic Approaches to Symbolism by Christopher Buck ABSTRACT “Islamic Approaches to Symbolism”—Chapter Three of Symbolic Quranic Exegesis (Master’s thesis, University of Calgary, 1991, pp. 69–137)—was supervised by Canada’s renowned Islamicist, the late Andrew Rippin (d. 2016), in whose memory this study is respectfully dedicated. Now published in 2017, “Islamic Approaches to Symbolism” surveys interpretations (tafsīr) of “ambiguous” (mutashābihāt) verses of the Qur’an (Q. 3:7) and offers a five-fold topology: (1) rhetorical exegesis (§ 2.0, infra); (2) theological exegesis (§ 3.0); (3) philosophical exegesis (§ 4.0); (4) mystical exegesis (§ 5.0); and (5) sectarian exegesis (§ 6.0). Fine scholarly monographs notwithstanding, no typology, to the best of the author’s knowledge, has been offered as an overview of Islamic approaches to passages in the Qur’an that are figurative, and possibly symbolic. __________

Johanna Pink

Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, sayı: 48, Aralık

Zakir DEMİR

Çevirisini yapmaya çalıştığımız bu makale Massimo Campanini tarafından hazırlanılmış olup “Towards a Philosophical Qur’anology: Structure and Meaning in the Qur’an” (Journal of Qur'anic Studies, Edinburgh University Press, 2018/II, s. 1-18) adıyla neşredilmiştir. Bu çalışmada tartışılan hususlar, yazarın ana hatlarıyla felsefi Kuranoloji fikrini sistematik olarak ele aldığı Philosophical Perspectives on Modern Qur’anic Exegesis [Modern Kur’ân Yorumları Üzerine Felsefi Perspektifler] adlı en son kitabında detaylandırdığı fikirlere dayanmaktadır. Makalenin çevirisinde büyük ölçüde asıl metne bağlı kalmaya çalıştık. Bununla birlikte, cümleler ve pasajlar arasındaki bağlantı kopukluklarını ve bazı ifadelerdeki mana kapalılıklarını gidermek amacıyla asıl metinde bulunmayan bazı kelimeler ilave etmek suretiyle metni daha anlaşılır kılmaya çalıştık. Campanini’nin orijinal metninde dipnotlar (notes) makalenin sonunda yer almaktadır. Fakat inceleme ve okumayı kolaylaştırmak amacıyla Türkçe çeviride bunları ilgili sayfaların altına yerleştirmeyi uygun gördüm.

Michel Cuypers

Moch Nur Ichwan

This thesis (1999) delves into Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd's hermeneutics of the Qur'an, which was, at that time, not yet systematically formulated. It tries to reconstruct his theories of text and interpretation based on his works, and gives some examples in which he implemented his hermeneutics, such as the issues of evil forces (jinn, shayâtîn, sihr and hasad), ribâ and interest, slavery, polygamy, and women's Inheritance. Abu Zayd's contribution to Qur'anic hermeneutics is important in developing critical Qur'anic scholarship.

Heidelberg University Publishing

Omaima Abou-Bakr

This chapter consists of three main parts: first, a revisiting of the trend initiated by Amīn al-Khūlī (1895-1966)-that of the literary approach to the Qurʾānic text-as well as the religious and intellectual debates it sparked at the time around the issue of the divine inimitability (iʿjāz) of the Qurʾān and the legitimacy of moving from the basic classical notion of rhetorical analysis (balāgha) to the modern concept of literary criticism and aesthetics. Three examples of that early modern school of interpretation will be mentioned: the controversial 1947 PhD thesis (Cairo University) by Muḥammad Aḥmad Khalaf Allāh entitled "Narrative Art in the Qurʾān;" ʿĀʾishaʿAbd ar-Raḥmān's (d. 1999) At-Tafsīr al-bayānī li-l-Qurʾān (The Rhetorical Interpretation of the Qurʾān, 1962); and Sayyid Quṭb's At-Taṣwīr al-fannī fī l-Qurʾān (Artistic Illustration in the Qurʾān, 1945). Second, another brief revisiting of the critical school of New Criticism and its emphasis on form is presented. Third, there will be an attempt at an application of New Criticism's mode of analysis to Sūrat ar-Raḥmān (Chap-ter 55: The Compassionate), a reading which can yield an appreciation of its aesthetic characteristics and metaphysical vision at the same time-an integration of textual, spiritual, and moral beauty.

The Quranic Theology, Philosophy and Spirituality

Hafeez Fazli

It contains my work on theological, Philosophical and Spiritual dimensions of Muslim Thought. It was published in 2016. In Print Form it is available online from CreateSpace (Amazon). In Pakistan it is available in Libraries of HEC recognized universities and other renowned institutions. For Free Down Load, my work is also available at www.quranwithscience.com/essays-articles.html. I look forward for the feedback at [email protected]

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The Ethical Worldview of the Qur'an

Published: April 25, 2019 • Updated: October 18, 2020

Author : Dr. Yasien Mohamed

بِسْمِ اللهِ الرَّحْمٰنِ الرَّحِيْمِ

In the name of God, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful.

Introduction

Piety is not to turn your faces towards the East and the West; piety is he who believes in Allah, the Last Day, the angels, the Book and the Prophets; who gives of his money, in spite of loving it, to the near of kin, the orphans, the needy, the wayfarers and the beggars, and for the freeing of slaves. [And truly pious] are those who keep their word whenever they promise, and are patient in misfortune and hardship and in times of peril; it is they that have proved themselves true, and it is they who are conscious of God. 4

Man was created for three purposes. Man’s first purpose is in the cultivation of the earth, as is implied in the verse: He brought you out from the earth and made you inhabit it (Q. 11:61). So man must earn his livelihood, for his own sake and for the benefit of others. Man’s second purpose is to worship God. As He says: I have not created jinn and mankind except to worship Me (Q. 51.56). This means that man should obey God’s commandments and prohibitions. Man’s third purpose is his vicegerency, referred to in: He will make you successors in the land and then observe what you will do (Q. 7:129), and in other verses. Vicegerency is the imitation of God in accordance with one’s ability to rule by applying the noble virtues of the Law: wisdom, justice, forbearance, beneficence, and graciousness. These virtues draw Man to Paradise and close to God Most High . 6

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Morality in the qur’ān.

When the unbelievers instilled in their hearts fierceness, the fierceness of paganism ( ḥamiyyat al-jāhiliyyah ), Allah then sent down His serenity upon His apostle and upon the believers, and imposed on them the word of piety, they being more deserving and worthier. Allah has knowledge of everything. 11

O my son, perform the prayer, command the honorable and forbid the dishonorable and bear patiently what has befallen you. …Do not turn your face away from people and do not walk in the land haughtily. Allah does not love any arrogant or boastful person. Be modest in your stride and lower your voice; for the most hideous voice is that of asses. 15

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Responsibility .

The truth is from your Lord. Whoever wishes, let him believe; and whoever wishes, let him disbelieve. 21 O Children of Adam, when apostles from your own people come to you reciting to you My revelations, then those who fear God and mend their ways have nothing to fear and they will not grieve. But those who deny Our revelations and reject them arrogantly—those are the people of the Fire; therein they shall abide forever. 22

It means that ‘Allah Ta’alla does not change the state of peace and security enjoyed by people into a state of distress and instability until such time that those people themselves change their deeds into evil and disorder. 30

When we act, we have no intentions of acting as instruments of God’s Holy will, since we know nothing of this divine will in advance. Leaving all other considerations aside, we accept it pure and simply as our own and thereby sign our agreement. So man becomes responsible in doing so, as if he becomes a debtor as soon as he surrenders his surety. We can now see why the Qur’ān insists on proclaiming our responsibility before God. The human will seems entirely [subject] to divine will, [as the Qur’an states: ‘And you shall surely be questioned about that which you used to do.’ (Qur’an 16:93) 31

Sin and repentance

And give his other hand to the seeking of forgiveness so that it may be short for evil deeds and will not reach the Zakkum tree of Hell, which is one fruit of that accursed tree. That is, just as supplication and reliance on God greatly strengthen the inclination to good, so too repentance and the seeking of forgiveness cut the inclination to evil and break its transgressions. 47

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Intention and sincerity.

Actions are but by intention and every man shall have but that which he intended. He who migrates for God and His messenger does so for God and His Messenger. But he who migrates for a worldly gain or a woman to wed migrates to whatever he migrates to. 52

Volition is the orientation of the ideal towards the real; and it is along this trajectory, from the inside to the outside, from conscience to experience, that the moral deed is found. It is not a static state, a solitary act of worship enclosed within the sanctuary of the heart; it is a living force, a movement of expansion which has its point of departure at the center, and its point of arrival at the outside. Thus, not only does intention call for action and wait to be followed by it, but it contains it in the form of a seed, if not in a nascent state. 53

So give their due to the near relative, the needy, and the wayfarer—that is best for those whose goal is God’s Face: these are the ones who will prosper. Whatever you lend out in usury to gain value through people’s wealth will not increase in God’s eyes, but whatever you give in charity, in your desire for God’s Face, will earn multiple rewards. 64 [God’s servants] give food to the poor, the orphan, and the captive, though they love it themselves, [saying] ‘We feed you for the sake of God’s Face alone. We seek neither recompense nor thanks from you.’ 65

All this enables one to draw close to God, since any means that preserve the body and free the heart of the body’s requirements are an aid to religion. He who intends by eating to protect his acts of worship and by physical union to fortify his religion to gratify his family’s hearts, and to beget a righteous child who worships God after him, and through him increases the community of Muhammad, is obedient in both food and marriage. 66

He may perform ablution to cool himself off; wash to give himself an agreeable scent; …live secluded in a mosque to avoid renting a dwelling, fast to spare himself from frequent cooking of food, …give alms to a beggar to end his wearisome begging; visit an ailing person, that he, in turn, be visited should he fall ill; attend a funeral that the funerals of his own family be attended. He may do any of these just to be known by his good works, remembered and regarded for his probity and dignity. 68

Although it is of an inferior degree in relation to the former [higher level of intention], it is acceptable all the same. Those people resemble bad merchants but their level is that of those who have simple understanding. 70

Justice and benevolence

He is God, other than Whom there is no god. He knows the unseen and the seen. He is the Merciful, The Compassionate. …To Him belong the most beautiful names. Whatever is in the heavens and on Earth glorifies Him and He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise. 77

1 Hodges, H. A. (1952) The Philosophy of Wilhelm Dilthey , Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, p. 92. Also see Dilthey, W. (1960) Gesammelte Schriften, Band VIII (Weltaushauunslehre), Stuttgart: Abhandlung zur Philosophie der Philosophie.

2 Fakhry, M. (1991) Ethical Theories in Islam , Leiden: E. J. Brill, pp. 6-7.

3 Qur’an 2:231.

4 Qur’an 2:177.

5 Qur’an 33:73.

6 Iṣfahānī, R. (1987) al-Dharī‘ah ilā Makārim al-Sharī‘ah , Cairo: Dār al-Wafā’, pp. 91-92.

7 Mohamed, Y. (2006) The Path to Virtue , Kuala Lumpur: ISTAC, p. 214.

8 Iṣfahānī, R. (1987) al-Dharī‘ah ilā Makārim al-Sharī‘ah , p. 59.

9 Mohamed, The Path to Virtue , p. 215.

10 Goldziher, I. (1967) Muslim Studie s , vol. 1, London: George Allen and Unwin, p. 202f.

11 Qur’an 48:26.

12 Izutsu, T. (1959) The structure of the ethical terms in the Koran , 23f.

13 Qur’an 13:89, 31:32.

14 Qur’an 18:105.

15 Qur’an 31:17-19.

16 Qur’an 2:211.

17 Qur’an 2:104.

18 Draz, M. A. (2011) Introduction to the Qur’an , London: I. B. Taurus, p. 63.

19 Qur’an 2:30.

20 Qur’an 2:31.

21 Qur’an 18:29.

22 Qur’an 7:35.

23 Qur’an 16:104.

24 Qur’an 2:24.

25 Qur’an 40:37.

26 Qur’an 53:39.

27 Qur’an 13:11.

28 Asad, M. (1980) The Message of the Qur’ān , Gibraltar: Darul Andalus, p. 360.

29 Idris, G. S. (1983) The Process of Islamization , USA: Muslim Students Association of America and Canada, pp. 3-5.

30 Shafi, M. Ma’arif al-Qur’an , trans Muhammad Shamim, Maktaba e Darul-Uloom, vol. 5, p. 200.

31 Draz, M. A. (2008) The Moral World of the Qur’an , trans. D. Robinson and R. Masterton, London: I. B. Tauris, p. 108.

32 Qur’an 45:22.

33 Qur’an 11:7.

34 Qur’an 17:14.

35 Qur’an 81:14.

36 Qur’an 31:32.

37 Qur’an 16:106.

38 Qur’an 24:33.

39 Draz, The Moral World of the Qur’an , p. 100.

40 Qur’an 16:93; 35:8.

41 Qur’an 2:36-37.

42 Qur’an 20:84.

43 Qur’an 95: 4-7.

44 Qur’an 17:62.

45 Qur’an 30:41.

46 Haleem, M. A. (2011) Understanding the Qur’an: Themes and Styles , London: I. B. Tauris, pp. 139-140.

47 Nursi, S. (1997) The Words , vol. 2, Izmir: Kaynak, p. 483.

48 Qur’an 75:1-4.

49 Qur’an 5:33-34.

50 Draz, The Moral World of the Qur’an , p. 112.

51 Ibid., p. 176.

52 Sahih Bukhari (1). Also see, Ibrahim, E. and D. J. Davies, trans. (1979) Al-Nawawi’s Forty Hadith , Lahore: S. H. Ashraf, p. 26.

53 Draz, The Moral World of the Qur’an , p. 187.

54 Shaker, Anthony F (2016) Al-Ghazālī: On Intention, Sincerity, and Truthfulness , Book XXXVII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences , Translated with an introduction and notes by A. F. Shaker, Cambridge: Islamic Texts Society, pp. 14-16.

55 Draz, The Moral World of the Qur’an , p. 20.

56 Ibid., p. 21.

57 Rahman, F. (1983) “Some key ethical concepts of the Qur’ān,” Journal of Religious Ethics , 11 (2): 170-185.

58 Qur’an 22:31.

59 Draz, The Moral World of the Qur’an , p. 200.

60 Qur’an 92:17-20.

61 Qur’an 6:52.

62 Nasr, S. H. (1981) Islamic Life and Thought , London: Allen and Unwin, p. 358 .

63 Haleem, M. A. (2011) Understanding the Qur’an: Themes and Style s , pp. 115-116.

64 Qur’an 30:38-39.

65 Qur’an 76:8-9.

66 Draz, The Moral World of the Qur’an , p. 33.

67 Ibid., p. 60.

68 Ibid., p. 59.

69 Qur’an 2:272.

70 Draz, The Moral World of the Qur’an , p. 224.

71 Wild, Stefan (2006) ‘Hell’ in The Qur’an: an Encyclopedia , ed. Oliver Leaman, London and New York: Routledge, p. 262.

72 Qur’an 5:8.

73 Qur’an 5:42.

74 Qur’an 4:58.

75 Qur’an 2:237.

76 Qur’an 10:26; Isfahani, 1987, p. 356.

77 Qur’an 59:23-24.

78 Qur’an 14:48.

79 Iṣfahānī, R. (1987) al-Dharī‘ah ilā Makārim al-Sharī‘ah , p. 355.

80 Knysh, A. (2007) “Multiple areas of influence,” in The Cambridge Companion to the Qur’an , ed. Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 211-212.

Disclaimer: The views, opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed in these papers and articles are strictly those of the authors. Furthermore, Yaqeen does not endorse any of the personal views of the authors on any platform. Our team is diverse on all fronts, allowing for constant, enriching dialogue that helps us produce high-quality research.

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The Oxford Handbook of Wisdom and the Bible

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14 Wisdom in the Qur’an and the Islamic Tradition

U. Isra Yazicioglu, Associate Professor of Islamic Studies at St. Joseph’s University. She is the author of Understanding the Qur’anic Miracle Stories in the Modern Age.

Published: 13 January 2021
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Wisdom is a crucial qur’anic concept that has been discussed in richly variegated ways in the Islamic tradition, including in qur’anic exegesis, Islamic theology and philosophy, Islamic law, and Islamic spirituality. This article offers a general overview of the role of wisdom in the Qur’an and an interpretive presentation of its meaning, with a specific focus on a number of significant Muslim scholars and sages in classical and contemporary eras, such as al-Ghazali, Rumi, Ibn al-’Arabi, and Said Nursi. The article is organized around three questions to the qur’anic text and Muslim sources: How is wisdom a special gift from God? Why is it so precious? Why does it require a certain existential choice? The Qur’an considers wisdom as a gift from God that is linked closely with revelation. Ultimately, in the qur’anic tradition, wisdom is about understanding how the reality points to transcendent beauty, life after death, and living accordingly, in gratitude, with balance and justice.

He [God] grants wisdom unto whom He wills: and whoever is granted wisdom has indeed been granted abundant good, but none bears this in mind except those with insight. (Qur’an 2:269) 1

The qur’anic passage above, well known among Muslims, highlights three characteristics of wisdom. First, wisdom is granted by God to whomever God wills. Given that from a qur’anic perspective everything happens according to God’s will, it is worth asking why wisdom is specially highlighted here. Second, the verse states that wisdom is abundant goodness, which raises the question: What is so good about wisdom? Third, the verse suggests that not all will seek or cherish wisdom, highlighting the relational character of wisdom. How is wisdom particularly relational? Taking these three questions as central, I shall discuss the place of wisdom in the Qur’an and in various interpretive traditions of Islam, such as qur’anic exegesis and Islamic spirituality, theology, and jurisprudence, with special attention to several important Muslim thinkers and sages in the classical and contemporary era, such as al-Ghazali, Rumi, Ibn al-‘Arabi, and Said Nursi. Needless to say, this relatively short article is far from being representative of wisdom in the entire Islamic tradition, but offers general highlights to introduce various streams of thought on the subject.

14.1 Background and Assumptions

The narrator’s voice throughout the Qur’an is God, who is understood as addressing people through the Prophet Muhammad, who claimed to have received the text from God through the angel Gabriel over a period of about twenty-three years (610–32 ce ).The Qur’an bears some similarity to the Bible in terms of content, referring, for example, to the same figures, such as Adam, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. One interpretation of this fact is that the Qur’an was somehow assembled from biblical and post-biblical traditions, which has been almost the default assumption for a long time in Western Islamic studies. Another interpretation considers the similarities as a sign of a shared origin, God, which is how the Qur’an presents itself and is the Muslim view. As a Muslim theologian puts it, “Islam does not believe that it has inherited their teachings through temporal and historical transmission, for a prophet owes nothing to anyone and receives everything from Heaven” (Nasr 2002, 18). Since explanations of origin will always involve an existential decision, this essay will leave such decisions to the reader and instead focus on the qur’anic text and its reception by Muslim interpreters. Throughout the essay, I treat the Qur’an as a separate unit in itself, and, while acknowledging similarities with other traditions, I resist a hierarchical model that deems the Qur’an as “derivative” of biblical literature.

Two qur’anic terms used in this essay that are quite different than the biblical usage also require clarification. First is the term “prophet.” In qur’anic discourse, Muhammad is the final prophet of God, and the term prophet/messenger refers to human beings chosen by God to communicate divine guidance for humanity, calling them to belief in one God and life after death, worship, and just conduct. In the Qur’an, prophethood is a universal phenomenon, not limited to a particular region or race. From the first human, Adam, to Muhammad, God has sent countless prophets to various peoples throughout time (Q 3:33; 40:78, etc.). Second, the term “revelation” ( wahy ) refers to the messages directly given by God to the prophets to convey.

14.2 Wisdom in Arabic and Qur’anic Usage

In classical Arabic, the word for wisdom, ḥikma , is traced to the root ḥ-k-m and related to ḥukm , which means to judge. Its meaning is also sometimes related to iḥkam , which means “to prevent, curb; be strong.” Therefore, wisdom is also defined as preventing harm and guiding to good. When ascribed to a human being, it also communicates that the person is balanced and just (Kutluer 1998 , 503).

Within the qur’anic context, ḥikma is used in a variety of ways. In one of the earliest texts on qur’anic terminology that has reached us, the qur’anic exegete Muqatil b. Sulayman (d. 150/767), 2 lists five aspects ( wujuh ) of wisdom he sees in the Qur’an (Kutluer 1998 , 503):

Commands and guidelines set by God. For instance, “And so, [men] when you divorce women and they are about to reach the end of their waiting-term, then either retain them in a fair manner or let them go in a fair manner. But do not retain them against their will in order to hurt [them]: for he who does so sins indeed against himself. And do not take [these] messages of God in a frivolous spirit; and remember the blessings with which God has graced you, and all the revelation and the wisdom ( ḥikma ) which He has bestowed on you from on high in order to admonish you thereby” (Q 2:231; see also Q 3:48, 4:113).

As understanding and knowledge. For instance, in regards to John the Baptist, “We [God] granted him wisdom ( ḥukma ) while he was yet a little boy” (Q 19:12).

As prophethood. For instance, in regards to Prophet David, “And We strengthened his dominion, and bestowed upon him wisdom and sagacity in judgment” (Q 38:20).

As interpretation of the Qur’an (as in 2:269, quoted in the epigraph).

The Qur’an itself. For instance, “That is from the wisdom thy Lord has revealed unto thee” (Q 17:39). 3

Wisdom is related to revelation in some form throughout the Qur’an. Indeed, the noun wisdom is mentioned in the Qur’an twenty times, with half of the occurrences referring explicitly to revelation ( kitab ). God is said to have bestowed revelation and wisdom on all prophets (see Q 3:79, 81). There are also specific references to certain prophets who have been given wisdom and revelation, such as Jesus: “Now when Jesus came [to his people] with all evidence of the truth, he said: ‘I have now come unto you with wisdom, and to make clear unto you some of that on which you are at variance: hence, be conscious of God, and pay heed unto me’” (Q 43:63). 4 In addition, the noun wisdom is mentioned in the Qur’an in conjunction with several different topics (Kutluer 1998 , 503–504):

Sovereignty ( mulk ). Three times: e.g., “We granted revelation and wisdom unto the House of Abraham, and We did bestow on them a mighty sovereignty” (Q 4:54).

Counsel ( maw’iẓa ). Once: “Call thou [all mankind] unto thy Sustainer’s path with wisdom and goodly exhortation and argue with them in the most kindly manner” (Q 16:125).

Goodness ( khayr ). Once, as wisdom being abundant goodness (Q 2:269, as quoted in the epigraph).

Sign ( aya ), which is a key term in the Qur’an referring to the signs of God in nature and/or in the revelation. Once: “And bear in mind all that is recited in your homes of God’s signs and [His] wisdom” (Q 33:34).

In the Qur’an, therefore, the prophets are the primary conveyers of wisdom. There is also a person mentioned in the Qur’an, Luqman, who is not explicitly called a prophet but is noted as having been granted wisdom (Q 31:12). Not much is known about Luqman historically, but “it is most likely that he was a pre-Islamic [ancient] Arabian sage revered during the time of Muhammad” (Nasr et al. 2015 , 1002). Only a minority of exegetes claim that he was a prophet; others consider him a sage, who is a follower of revelation given to a previous prophet (Nasr et al. 2015 , 1002). In a space of eight verses, the Qur’an narrates his wise advice to his son (Q 31:12–19). In this advice, Luqman emphasizes belief, which should be lived out in gratitude, patience, and humility. He encourages his son to worship one God only and notes that idolatry ( shirk ) is a major injustice. He also counsels him to be grateful to God for his own good, knowing that such gratitude is not needed by God. One should also be grateful to his parents, to be constant in prayer, enjoin goodness and forbid evil, and be patient in what befalls him. Finally, he advises his son to be humble in his interaction with people, avoid false pride, and be modest in bearing and voice.

Commenting on Luqman’s wisdom, Rashid al-din Maybudi (2015, 388), a twelfth-century exegete (and author of the longest Sunni commentary in Persian) says:

Know that wisdom is correct activity or correct speech. Correct activity is to preserve the balance of interaction with self between fear and hope, with the people between tenderness and cajolery, and with the Real between awe and intimacy. Correct speech is that you do not mix levity with the mention of the Real, you preserve reverence, and you connect the end of every talk with its beginning. The wise man is he who puts everything in its own place, does each work as is worthy of that work, and ties each thing to its equal.

Luqman’s wisdom as explained by Maybudi suggests that wisdom is the ability to know the truth (that there is one God, that gratitude is for your own soul only, etc.) and express it in attitude and action (by being balanced in joy and seriousness, between fear and hope, etc.). Given that Luqman is the only non-prophet to be mentioned as having been given wisdom, he unsurprisingly emerges in the Islamic tradition as an exemplary sage. Extra-qur’anic stories about Luqman’s wisdom appear in Islamic literature. Luqman also appears in pre-Islamic Arab literature. The pre-Islamic stories present him as a wise man with insightful ideas about life and action (Kutluer 1998 , 505). In contrast, Islamic traditions talk about his wisdom as that of a God-conscious sage (e.g., Tustari 2011, 138).

In addition to the use of wisdom as a noun in the twenty verses described above, the root ḥ-k-m from which wisdom derives, is used more than two hundred times in the Qur’an. Around a hundred of these describe God as being All-Wise ( ḥakīm ). Additionally, there are many instances where the word wisdom does not appear directly, but the wisdom of creation and wisdom behind God’s actions is explicated, a point to which we will return later. After this brief introduction to wisdom in the Qur’an, let us now turn to our first question: why is wisdom a unique bestowal from God?

14.3 Part 1: Wisdom as a Unique Bestowal

God has bestowed upon thee from on high this divine writ and wisdom and has imparted unto thee the knowledge of what thou didst not know. And God’s favor upon thee is tremendous indeed. (Q 4:113)

From a qur’anic perspective, everything happens through God’s power and will, including a leaf falling (Q 6:102, 25:2, 39:62, 40:62, etc.). Nevertheless, a number of things in the Qur’an are emphasized as being specifically related to God’s will, such as guidance, revelation, forgiveness, sustenance, and, of course, wisdom. Why are certain things specially mentioned as granted by God if all is from God anyway? To answer this question, it will be helpful to look at some theological considerations.

In Islamic disciplines, ranging from theology to mysticism, God is the causer of all causes ( musabbib al-asbab ) and the creator of all events (Chittick 1989, 44). To offer a simplified example: when a flower grows in water, it is not the water that gives life to it, rather God gives life to the flower through the water. Water is merely the apparent cause, with no power to create, while the real cause of the flower’s growth is God. Water and life are regularly connected by God and this apparent causal arrangement is maintained by Him for a wise purpose (see 14.4.2 below) (Mermer 2017, 76–77). These apparent causes act both like a “screen” and a “veil” at the same time. They are screens in the sense that the glimpses of divine qualities, such as power, knowledge, and wisdom, are displayed on them. Yet, apparent causes are also like a veil in that they hide the presence of divine agency from the heedless who may not see the beauty in them (see 14.4.2 below). While many things in the universe are veiled through these apparent causes, there are a number of things in the universe that are not “veiled” under regular patterns or with apparent causes. These are things that are crucial for human beings, like mercy and life, whose association with God’s will does not need veiling (Nursi 1997, 151; cf. Ibn al-‘Arabi’s view in Chittick 1989, 45). From this theological perspective, therefore, the reason why wisdom is singled out as a gift granted by God in the Qur’an may be because it is among the things that are crucial for a well-lived life.

In the reception history of the Qur’an, many exegetes and interpreters took note of the special feature of wisdom as a gift that is not granted through apparent causes. That is, it cannot be obtained through hard work or intelligence (though, of course, one can ready oneself to receive wisdom, as will be discussed in the third part). In that sense, wisdom is unique like revelation; it is granted to whomever God wishes and cannot be reproduced or imitated. Indeed, in exegetical works, the connection between revelation and wisdom is well noted.

Tafsir literature is exegesis of the Qur’an, often composed in the form of line-by-line running commentary. Many of the exegetes who wrote such commentaries highlighted and explored the connection between prophethood and wisdom. For instance, Muhammad Ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d. 310/923), a famous early exegete of the Qur’an, defines wisdom as the understanding of the message the prophet of God has brought. He also notes that it is through wisdom that one distinguishes between truth and falsehood and that is why ḥikma (“wisdom”) comes from the same root as ḥukm (“judgment”). Another classical exegete, al-Harizmi al-Zamakhshari (d. 538/1144), defines wisdom as putting revelation into practice (Kutluer 1998, 504). Putting revealed truths into practice requires wisdom likely because the complexities of lived reality require discernment in applying principles of truth and ethics.

Another important exegete and theologian, Fakhr al-din al-Razi (d. 606/1210), regards wisdom as the tool with which one comprehends revelation. Commenting on the qur’anic command, “Call thou [all mankind] unto thy Sustainer’s path with wisdom and goodly exhortation and argue with them in the most kindly manner” (Q 16:125), al-Razi ( 1934 , 67–68) glosses wisdom “as knowledge with clear evidence” (cited in Kutluer 1998 , 504). Hence, the Prophet invites people to God’s path with clear evidence.

Finally, in his Sufi commentary, Sahl b. ‘Abd Allāh Tustari (d. 283/896) summarizes common interpretations of wisdom, including those mentioned above (Tustari 2011, 36):

Mujāhid and Ṭāwūs said, “Wisdom is the Qur’ān,” as He [God] says in Sūrat al-Naḥl, Call to the way of your Lord with wisdom [16:125], meaning the Qur’ān. Ḥasan said, “Wisdom is the understanding of the Qur’ān, and wisdom is prophethood,” as He says in Sūrat Ṣād, and gave him wisdom [38:20], meaning prophethood ( nubuwwa ). And God said [concerning] David, And God gave him kingship and wisdom [2:251] meaning prophethood, along with the Book. Qatāda said, “Wisdom is understanding the religion of God, Mighty and Majestic is He, and following the Messenger of God”; Suddī said: “Wisdom is prophethood”; Zayd b. Aslam said, “Wisdom is the intellect ( ‘aql )”; while Rabī‘ b. Anas said, “Wisdom is the fear of God, Exalted is He.” Ibn ‘Umar said, “Wisdom is [to be found in] three things: a clear verse ( āya muḥkama ), the Sunna put into practice and a tongue which is articulate with the Qur’ān.”

In sum, many exegetes regard wisdom as closely linked to prophethood and revelation. According to the Qur’an, God grants revelation as a pure grace onto whomever He chooses and revelation goes beyond usual powers given to a human. Indeed, the Qur’an repeatedly challenges its audience to attempt to produce similar revelation on their own: “If you have doubts about the revelation We have sent down to Our servant, then produce a single sura (chapter) like it—enlist whatever supporters you have other than God—if you truly [think you can]” (Q 2:23). Similarly, “Say, [Muhammad], ‘Even if all mankind and jinn came together to produce something like this Qur’an, they could not produce anything like it, however much they helped each other’” (Q 17:88; see also 10:38, 11:13, 52:33–34).

Why is revelation unique like this? According to many Muslim scholars and sages, it is because only revelation fully explains the meaning and purpose of existence that would otherwise remain hidden. As a late Muslim exegete and theologian, Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (d. 1960), puts it, “[W]hile being apparently open, the doors of the universe are in fact closed” (Nursi 2004, 422). That is, while it may seem as if human beings can figure out the meaning of the universe on their own, in reality the “riddle” of existence can only be solved through revelation sent by God through the prophets. Intellect is needed in the process of understanding reality but is not sufficient on its own. Only through a revelation from the Creator and Sustainer of all can humans start to understand reality. Without cues from God, who has infinite and comprehensive vision, human reason is like an illiterate person looking at a text who sees it but does not understand it or even recognize that it is a text (Nursi 2004, 143–145; see also Chittick 1989, 179–180).

The unique connection between revelation and wisdom, therefore, is due to their enlightening perspective on reality. If, from a qur’anic perspective, wisdom is the ability to “read” the universe as a meaningful discourse, what meanings are disclosed in that reading? In exploring this question, we shall also unpack why wisdom is so precious within Islam.

14.4 Part 2: Wisdom Reveals Precious Treasure

Do you not see that all that is in the heavens and the earth praise God, even the birds as they spread out their wings? Each [of them] knows indeed how to pray unto Him and to glorify Him; and God has full knowledge of all that they do. (Q 24:41)

God said: “I was a hidden treasure, I wanted to be known, so I created the creation.” al-hadith al-qudsi

In the act of reading, one ascends, so to speak, from the scribbles and shapes on the page to the meanings expressed by them. Similarly, qur’anic reading of the universe is about ascending from the seen world to the unseen, discovering meanings expressed in the creation. Why is this act of reading the world such an abundant good for humanity? It seems that the qur’anic answer is two-fold. First, such wisdom uncovers the treasure of the beautiful names of God in creation, thereby enabling humanity to discover unending power and beauty through the transient world. Second, through this qur’anic wisdom one discovers that humanity is made for an eternal future.

14.4.1 Wisdom and the “Treasures” of the Beautiful Names of God

The “beautiful names” or “perfect attributes” of God ( al-asma al-ḥusna ), such as All-Powerful, All-Knowing, All-Merciful, All-Wise, the Loving, the Forgiver, the Majestic, and the Punisher, are mentioned throughout the Qur’an repeatedly. Everything in creation, including nature, history, and human life, points to these qualities of God. The created beings, in their beauty and decay, in their apparent power and weakness, reveal these names, the eternal Creator’s power, knowledge, compassion, and beauty (e.g., Q 16:70; 22:5). Thus, everything praises God in its own way (e.g., Q 12:105; 17:44; 41:53).

In a saying attributed to Prophet Muhammad and used extensively in Islamic spirituality, God is quoted as saying, “I was a hidden treasure. I wanted to be known and I created the creation” (Schimmel 1992, 74). Wisdom is seeing the world as revealing the treasures of the beautiful qualities/names of God. While the concept of the beautiful names of God has been recognized as crucial in the Qur’an and expounded upon earlier in the tradition, Muhyiddin Ibn al- ‘Arabi (d. 638/1240) is credited for bringing a renewed emphasis on the beautiful names of God. Ibn al- ‘Arabi notes that the reality of things is grounded in the beautiful names of God. The world is transient in itself but manifests the eternal One’s knowledge, power, wisdom, compassion, and so on at each moment. For Ibn al-‘Arabi, Nursi, and others, the universe is “the macro-Qur’an” ( al-Qur’an al-kabir ). Just as the Qur’an revealed to the Prophet talks about who God is, the “Qur’an of the universe” “talks about” the Creator’s beautiful qualities (Chittick 1998 , 3–16; Mermer and Yazicioglu 2017, 54–59). Nursi ( 2004 , 270–271) suggests that even the sciences will find their perfection only if their origins in the beautiful names of God are recognized:

The reality of the universe and of all beings is based on the Divine Names. The reality of every being is based on one Name or on many. All sciences and arts are also based on and rely upon a Name. The true science of wisdom is based on the Name of All-Wise, true medicine on the Name of Healer, and geometry on the Name of Determiner, and so on.

Seeing the world as a sign of the perfect qualities of God is valuable because it means that passing things disclose enduring meanings. A beautiful flower eventually withers away, but through its existence and decay, it signified that its beauty is from the unending source of beauty that created both it and the other flowers that replace it (Nursi 2004, 87, 710–711). Wisdom given through revelation, therefore, is abundant goodness because it leads humanity to see how transient reality spells out the inscriptions of the source of undying beauty.

14.4.2 God’s Wisdom in Nature

As noted earlier, God is described as All-Wise [ ḥakim ] more than one hundred times in the Qur’an; the All-Wise is regarded as one of the beautiful names of God. The Qur’an repeatedly invites its audience to reflect on the world to witness God’s wisdom. Nature is one locus of manifestation of divine wisdom. The Qur’an attracts attention to intentionality and purposefulness in nature, such as the benefits in wind and rain or the purposeful growth of a baby in stages, and shows them as signs of divine wisdom and power. In the theological tradition ( kalam ), God’s wisdom has been understood as His knowing and creating things with purpose (Ozervarli 1998 , 511). Muslim thinkers as well as scientists have talked about the details of natural structures as disclosing the Creator’s wisdom (Iqbal 2007 , 16–26). They noted the placement of wise and beneficial results in balanced and intricate ways within the living beings and the rest of the world as revealing comprehensive divine knowledge and wisdom. Moreover, qur’anic references to wisdom in creation encouraged impressive Muslim developments in science during the classical and medieval periods (Landau 1958). Contemporary Muslim approaches continue to value studying nature to appreciate God’s wisdom.

Classical theologians defined divine wisdom in the relations of created beings. The classical theologian al-Maturidi notes that wisdom has the connotation of “putting things to their proper place” and in that sense relates to divine justice as well (Ozervarli 1998 , 511). Ibn al- ‘Arabi says in his Futuhat al-Makkiya , God’s name “the All-Wise” “has a face toward the Knowing ( al-‘alim ) and a face toward the Governing ( al-mudabbir ), for the Wise has two properties: It determines the property of the places of affairs and it determines the actual putting of the things to their places” (I 389.31; quoted in Chittick 1989, 174).

Reflecting on the universe so as to appreciate divine wisdom has opened up rich discussions about natural causality in the Islamic tradition, as can be seen in the works of various theologians, such as al-Ghazali’s arguments against Aristotelian Muslim thinkers. Theologians and mystics tend to caution against getting stuck in “apparent causes” by attributing the wisdom seen in the natural order to the things themselves. They emphasize that God does not need natural causes to create; rather He employs them to reveal His wisdom. For instance, God does not need water to create life but He maintains a consistent link between water and life so that his wisdom can be displayed in it. Divine wisdom, thereby, becomes manifest in water being sent down as rain, in the ability of roots to soak up the water, and so on (Yazicioglu 2013 , 146). The affirmation of a need for rain in a frame sustained by the divine wisdom and plan does not mean that rain itself is inherently necessary for God to be able to create life. After all, lifeless rain lacks the necessary qualities—such as knowledge, planning, mercy, and power—to account for the life created through it. Hence, God does not need water to create life, but he connects water and life to display his wisdom and other attributes. The world being structured with apparent causes also makes it possible for human beings to arrange their lives accordingly. For instance, because God maintains a consistent link between water and plant growth, human beings know to water plants if they want them to grow. Various theologians and sages, including Ghazali, Ibn al-‘Arabi, Rumi (d. 672/1273), and Nursi, suggest that the wise person honors the apparent causes as divine missives while knowing that only God makes things happen (Chittick 1989, 177; Schimmel 1992, 78; Yazicioglu 2013 , 145–146).

Furthermore, God’s maintenance of a causal order not only serves as a screen on which divine qualities manifest but also as a veil (Chittick 1989, 45). Apparent causes veil heedless human beings from unjustly complaining about God. For instance, a heedless person who does not see the beauty of death as transition from this world to the next will focus on the veil of the sickness and blame sickness as the cause of a loved one’s death, rather than complaining about the real cause of death, God’s will. Divine wisdom requires veiling the “hand of Divine power” from misguided perceptions through natural causality (Nursi 2004, 300–301).

14.4.3 God’s Wisdom in Destiny

Divine wisdom manifests also in history, in personal and social realms. Indeed, belief in destiny and trust in God’s wisdom has been emphasized as a pillar of faith in the Qur’an and the theological tradition (Yazicioglu 2017 , 130–133). While a person or community may not always understand the particular wisdom behind what is happening to them, their lives are traced with divine wisdom. Discernment is necessary to recognize manifestations of divine wisdom in life. After all, as the Qur’an says, sometimes people like things that are bad for them and dislike things that are good for them, and “God knows and you do not know” (Q 2:216, also see 24:19). The story of Prophet Joseph, the longest narrative in the Qur’an, exemplifies how the fate of societies and individuals are wisely planned by God (Q 12). There is also the story of Prophet Moses’s journey with a mysterious servant of God who commits shocking offenses that turn out to be part of a wise divine plan (Q 18:60–82). The story is also used in the Sufi tradition as signifying the need for a spiritual teacher in the path to understanding. In Islamic tradition, God’s wisdom is also indicated in the reasons for which humanity was created, which brings us to the connection between wisdom and eternal life.

14.4.4 Divine Wisdom and Life after Death

If the [inscriptions] of the heavens and the earth is for the sake of itself, Then there is no wisdom in it. But if there is no wise (Creator), what is this orderly arrangement? And if there is a wise (Creator), how is His action devoid (of meaning)? (Rumi, Mathnawi IV: 2998–3000) 5

A related consequence of qur’anic wisdom valued within Islam is the discovery of life after death. The Qur’an presents life after death as a necessary component of reality indicated by this world. Various Muslim thinkers and sages noted the connection between wisdom and life after death. The wise person realizes that this world is a foretaste of eternal life. The One who made this existence to display His beautiful names will of course take human being from this transient life to continue to witness eternal divine beauty. Such is the requirement of divine wisdom (Nursi 2004, 70–102). Indeed, as noted in Rumi’s verses above, Muslim sages saw God’s wisdom displayed in the visible arrangement of the world as indicating that humans are created for more than just a transient life. Wisdom is knowing that the world reveals the eternal one. Anything else is not real wisdom because what is the point of anything if we are doomed to transience? (Rumi, Mathnawi II: 3200). The wise arrangement of the world is not futile; it is a sign pointing beyond itself to the eternal meanings of the beautiful names of God. The same wisdom shows that human life is also for a larger purpose and is meant for eternity. The One who creates a tree with such wise details and attaches many fruits and flowers would of course not make human life without an enduring purpose. Divine wisdom requires that human life is meant for more than just this fleeting world (Nursi 2004, 77–87). The Wise and Caring God who arranges for the needs of our stomach will of course arrange for the intense yearning of the human heart for eternity (Nursi 2004, 120). Similarly, when one considers the beauty and pleasures of the world, it is clear that, as Nursi ( 2004 , 87, emphasis added) says:

[T]he adornments of this world are not simply for the sake of enjoyment or admiration. For if they yield pleasure for a time, they cause pain for a longer time with their cessation. They give you a taste and whet your appetite, but never satiate you. For either the life of the pleasure is short, or your life is short, too brief for you to become satiated. These adornments of high value and brief duration must, then, be for the sake of instruction in wisdom , for arousing gratitude . . . . They are, then, for other exalted goals beyond themselves.

The wise person is thus the one who sets his heart on the eternal and sees beyond the surface.

14.4.5 Competing Claims for Wisdom

Muslim scholars who identified revelation as a source of wisdom were of course aware of competing claims about wisdom that placed wisdom outside of revelation. One such claim came from classical traditions of philosophy, especially Greek thought. Starting in the eighth century (second century of the Muslim calendar), successive Muslim caliphs sponsored an extensive translation project in Baghdad’s “House of Wisdom” ( bayt al-ḥikma ). During this period, many scientific, philosophical, and cultural texts from various cultures—Indian, Greek, Persian, and so on—were translated into Arabic. Thus, ḥikma accrued a special meaning; referring to insights from other traditions and cultures that did not necessarily link to revelation or any transcendent reality. It also became used as a term for philosophy structured along Aristotelian and Platonist lines as well as for study of nature or natural philosophy. Such developments both signaled openness and tension in the Islamic intellectual tradition.

Openness to learning from other cultures seems to have been underpinned by a trust in one God—that all wisdom comes from One source, and insight cannot be a monopoly of one culture or race. A saying attributed to Prophet Muhammad supported such openness: “Wisdom [or ‘knowledge’ in alternate versions] is the lost item of the believer, he recovers it wherever he finds it.” 6 At the same time, given that wisdom in these contexts did not always align with revelation and even at times contradicted it, there have been discussions about the authenticity of non-revealed wisdom. Such tension between the wisdom of revelation and of other sources is visible in exegetical, philosophical, and spiritual traditions. Rumi claims that if one misses the breakthrough brought by the prophets, what appears as wisdom is in fact futility. He emphasizes the Qur’an as the source of true wisdom: “the wisdom of the Qur’an is the lost item of the believer, and everyone recognizes their lost property” ( Mathnawi II: 2910, italics added).

In contrast, Ibn Rushd, a Muslim philosopher and jurist writing in the thirteenth century, made a case for the importance of Aristotelian philosophy, even suggesting that a philosophically trained mind could arrive at the same truth that the prophets of God bring. Ibn Rushd, however, rejected any contradiction between these two sources of wisdom. His apologetic work is thus tellingly entitled: “Book of Decisive Treatise and Determining the Connection between Revelation and Wisdom” ( Kitab Faṣl al-Maqal wa tafriq ma bayn al-shari‘ah wa al-ḥikma min al-ittiṣal ).

Others emphasized the link between reason and revelation by arguing for the need for both. A tenth-century exegete, linguist, and thinker, Raghib al-Isfahani, for instance, glosses the qur’anic passages that mention revelation and wisdom together as suggesting the need for both revelation and reason. For, if there was no revelation, the intellect would be confused, if there was no intellect, revelation would be of no use (Kutluer 1998 , 508). Some Muslim philosophers of the Ishraqi school also contrasted “Greek wisdom” ( hikmat-i Yunani ) with “Yamanite wisdom” ( hikmat-i yamani ), which represented the wisdom granted through the mystical path (Schimmel 1975 , 262).

14.4.6 Islamic Jurisprudence and Wisdom

Islamic jurisprudence recognizes two main sacred sources, the Qur’an and the sunna , and covers a vast area of human life, including rituals, family law, business law, and dietary guidelines. 7 Muslim exegetes of the Qur’an often considered wisdom as related not only to the revelation but also to the life example ( sunna ) of the “messenger of God,” Muhammad. Indeed, Imam al-Shafi‘i (d. 204/820), an early and foundational figure for Islamic jurisprudence, interprets the wisdom given to Muhammad alongside scripture in Q 4:113 (“God has bestowed upon thee from on high this divine writ [ kitab ] and wisdom”) as the exemplary life and sayings of Muhammad (al-Shafi‘i 1961, 75–76). During the formation period of various schools of Islamic jurisprudence, al-Shafi‘i offered a compelling argument for the significance of sunna and prophetic sayings ( ḥadith ) for understanding the Qur’an and applying its injunctions.

In order to extend the application of an explicit sacred guideline in these two sources to new situations, many jurists sought to identify the “wisdom” behind an injunction in the Qur’an or the prophetic tradition. Therefore, in the context of Islamic law, “wisdom” acquired a technical meaning. For instance, jurists identified the “wisdom” for prohibition of alcohol in the Qur’an as the protection from intoxication, and thus inferred that all other intoxicants, such as drugs, are prohibited in sacred law.

While they sought to identify the “wisdom” behind obligations or prohibitions in the sacred sources, Muslim jurists also recognized that this wisdom may not always be easy to identify or even be completely hidden. In order to avoid arbitrariness, Muslim jurists restricted the use of the perceived wisdom of a divine command as a basis for extending it to new circumstances. Hence, they distinguished the wisdom ( hikma ) behind a ruling from the real reason ( ‘illa ) behind a ruling. For instance, the Qur’an allows shortening of prayers during travel. The “wisdom” behind this permission seems to be the difficulty of travelling. However, given that the permission is explicitly linked to travelling in the Quran, they identified the “real reason” as travel itself. Thus, they inferred that even if the journey is an easy one, the permission to shorten the daily prayers will stand. Similarly, they noted a “wisdom” behind the prohibition of alcohol may be a health benefit, however, being unhealthy may not be the “reason” for it being prohibited. Therefore, one may not declare everything unhealthy, such as excessive sugar, as religiously forbidden.

While being cautious in making use of their perception of “wisdom” behind a commandment, Muslim jurists still considered trying to understand the overall wisdom of sacred guidelines important. The protection of five things have been identified as the aim of the sacred law ( maqasid al-sharia ): life, intellect, lineage, religion, and property. They also noted that the sacred law is given to humanity for bringing justice, compassion, and purpose as opposed to injustice, cruelty, and absurdity. Anything that goes against these aims, even if they are clothed in religious justifications, are actually distortions of the sacred law (Koca 1998 , 514–515).

14.4.7 Theological Debates on God’s Wisdom

Muslim theologians also debated about wisdom in a different context: divine wisdom in relation to divine will and power. The Qur’an contains statements that indicate purpose and wisdom in God’s act of creating everything in the best way (Q 32:7). Similarly, God creates with truth ( bi al-haqq ) (Q 64:3), which can be interpreted as creation being molded according to a just and meaningful purpose. Similarly, God has not created the world in vain ( baṭila ) (Q 38:27). Based on such passages, theologians of various schools agree on God being infinitely wise. They all deny the possibility of injustice or absurdity in divine actions. They note that sometimes things may appear unjust or frivolous to us on the surface, but claim that, in reality, either in themselves or in their results, everything has a meaningful purpose (Ozervarli 1998 , 512).

The early Muslim theologians debated, however, the relation between divine wisdom and divine will. The debate arose partly because of the qur’anic passages that highlight the absolute freedom of God (as in, “He cannot be called to account for whatever He does, whereas they [human beings] will be called to account”; Q 21:23). A minority of theologians, the Mutazilites, argued that God cannot act without a wise purpose ( ‘illah ). Others, Asharite and Maturidi theologians, disagreed by saying that no external criteria, not even a wise purpose, can constrain divine freedom; God does as He wills. Mutazilites accused their opponents of imputing frivolity to divine will. In reality, the latter affirmed that God’s wisdom is manifest in creation and nothing is created in vain. They simply did not recognize any external purpose as a necessitating factor for divine action; God does not need any means to achieve any end or any external reason to act. The purposes in God’s actions do not pertain to himself but to his creatures and the order He set for them. Similarly, according to Ibn al-‘Arabi, who takes a different approach to the Qur’an than these scholastics, the act of the Pre-eternal Being cannot be expected to be bound to any motivating factor; He acts freely as He wishes (Ozervarli 1998 , 513).

Given the fact that the Mutazilite theologian Qadi Abd al-Jabbar also notes that ultimately God’s actions cannot be necessitated by any reason, the implications of the theological debate regarding wisdom and the will of God might seem unclear. In reality, the emphasis on the absoluteness of God’s will, which transcends any human criteria of judgment, has an implication: surrender to God’s will. In turn, this attitude of surrender produces a markedly different attitude toward the problem of evil in traditional Islam than in Western thought (Nasr 2002, 10).

This absolute view of divine will also influenced a medieval Muslim debate on “the best of all possible worlds.” Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 505/1111), a major theologian (usually associated with the Asharite school), claimed that “there is not in possibility anything more wonderful than what is” ( laysa fil imkan abda min ma kana ). The statement opened up a debate among theologians across centuries on the themes of divine power and possibility, divine will and necessity, and divine justice and obligation. For our purposes of understanding divine wisdom in relation to divine will and reason in Islamic theology, it will be helpful to attend to the debate a bit more closely.

14.4.8 God’s Wisdom and Power

One side of the debate focused on divine power and possibility. To Ghazali’s critics, the possibility of a better world seemed so obvious (e.g., people could be richer, harsh climates could be milder) that to deny this possibility seemed an assault on divine power (Ormbsy 1984, 135–150). The defenders of Ghazali’s statement answered that the term “possibility” ( imkan ) in the statement was misunderstood. Ghazali would concede that a more wonderful world than this world may be possible in that it may be conceived by the mind. Yet it is not possible because of an “extrinsic factor,” divine will. The perfection or the wonderfulness of the world is not an inherent quality of the world itself. Rather, God’s will and wisdom renders the world as wonderful. For instance, being blind is an imperfection but it helps appreciation of vision. Hence, blindness is “perfectly” placed by divine wisdom as a necessary precondition for the appreciation of healthy vision (Ormsby 1984 , 79).

Another concern about “the best of all possible worlds” claim relates to divine justice and obligation. To explain his claim, Ghazali said that if there were a possible world and God withheld it, then this would be “miserliness contrary to Divine generosity and injustice contrary to the Divine justice.” This view, the critics said, put a limit on God’s will, as if God had to follow an external criterion of optimum good. The defenders of Ghazali’s view replied by saying that it had nothing to do with the theory of the optimum ( aslah ). For divine wisdom can necessitate something contrary to the optimum and make it good, such that sickness may be suitable for someone. 8 Interestingly, Ghazali distances himself from the Mutazilite view here, saying that while God does everything with His wisdom, “things divine are too exalted in their majesty to be weighed on the scales of the Mutazilites” (Ormsby 1984 , 263). In sum, despite their arguments, theologians agreed on the conclusion that things are just and perfect because God willed them, and since nothing exists apart from God’s will, then this existing world is the best possible and perfect as it exists. Similar to the previous section’s ending, such a conclusion may be a bit surprising, making us wonder what the contention was in the first place if they all agreed that whatever God does is wisdom. I take their debate as a reminder that accepting God’s wisdom does not preclude discussing what appears to be unwise or imperfect and exploring in what ways such imperfections in the world can be wise. More importantly, it suggests that appreciation of divine wisdom goes beyond an intellectual formula and is ultimately an existential stance (Ormsby 1984 , 263). Indeed, according to some Muslim scholars, understanding revelation and embracing wisdom requires a particular spiritual attitude, which brings us to the relational aspect of wisdom.

14.5 Part 3: Wisdom as Relational

Repeat wisdom as much as you want If you are unfit for it, it is far away from you. (Rumi, Mathnawi II: 318)

Whether in the narrations related from the highly regarded Imam Ali (d. 40/661), the close companion and son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad, who was praised as having been gifted wisdom, or in wisdom sayings attributed to later sages like Ibn Ataillah (d. 709/1309), the relational character of wisdom has been emphasized in Islamic spirituality. I use “relational” in the sense that the nature of a thing emerges in one’s interaction with that thing. Wisdom is appreciated only by people who are ready for it. In fact, many Muslim sages considered wisdom to be kept hidden from those who are unprepared. Prophet Jesus, whose wise prophetic counsels were in circulation in Islamic literature from early on, warns not to offer pearls of wisdom to those unable to understand it (Khalidi 2001 , 88). What prepares one for wisdom? The willingness to clear the ego.

To receive wisdom, one needs to be willing to confront the illusionary perspective of one’s ego. As long as the ego’s claim of self-sufficiency persists, one cannot have the wisdom of seeing reality as manifesting the hidden treasures of God (Chittick 1983 , 30–35). In Islamic spirituality, ego ( nafs ) is often used to represent the deluded self, sometimes translated as the “lower self.” In its default state, the ego deludes itself by claiming to be self-sufficient and independent of its Creator. Ego resists its purpose as a sign pointing to the Absolute; it perceives itself to be the source of its existence and power. So long as a person remains in that state and does not cleanse the ego, there is no share of wisdom; even if one hears wisdom, one cannot get it (Schimmel 1975 , 112–113).

The point is not to destroy the ego but to cleanse it. Once cleansed of its illusions, the ego helps in the path to wisdom. Indeed, Nursi ( 2004 , 557–571; Turner 2011 , 190–196) regards the ego, or the “I,” as part of the momentous trust God gives to humanity in the Qur’an (Q 33:72). The selfhood or ego given to humans is to be used as a yardstick to relate to the beautiful names of God and ultimately the divine self. Through the “I,” humans are given the capacity to know, will, build, love, and so on, so that they can relate these accidental qualities to the absolute qualities of the Absolute Knower, Creator, and Loving One. The analogy between human self and the divine is just a heuristic tool, though, to be used as a means to know God. If the ego gets stuck in illusion by supposing to own the “I,” then it leads to betrayal of that purpose. When in that state of betrayal, according to Nursi ( 2004 , 558):

[T]he “I” is in absolute ignorance. Even if it knows thousands of branches of science, with compounded ignorance it is most ignorant. For when its senses and thoughts yield the lights of knowledge of the universe, those lights are extinguished because they do not find [within the ego any support with which] to confirm, illuminate, and perpetuate them.

Thus, whoever polishes the mirror of the heart sees more of divine wisdom. The same information becomes futility or knowledge depending on whether one perceives it in the name of ego or of the Creator (Mermer and Ameur 2004 , 138–139).

Wisdom, then, is given to those who are willing to let go of the illusions of the ego and admit their existential neediness and poverty. Hence, for instance, Ibn Ataillah al-Iskandari, the famous author of the small, widely studied book of aphorisms known as Wisdoms ( ḥikam ), laid great emphasis on admitting one’s neediness and dependence on God. He also emphasized going beyond the surface, as in ḥikma 42 (Ibn Ataillah 1978 , 57):

Travel not from creature to creature, otherwise you will be like a donkey at the mill: Roundabout he turns, his goal the same as his departure. Rather, go from creatures to the Creator: “And that the final end is unto thy Lord.”

Sincerity is also needed to receive wisdom. According to a tradition attributed to Prophet Muhammad and widely used in Islamic spirituality, if one practices what one knows, God teaches one what one does not know. This ḥadith may explain why wisdom is relational and cannot be appreciated by everyone. What is the point of knowing if one is not going to live accordingly? Does one who does not act according to wisdom really know wisdom? In a symbolic tale about a peasant and a philosopher, Rumi denounces the person who knows much but lacks wisdom because his knowledge does not make a difference in his life ( Mathnawi II: 3176–3197).

14.6 Conclusion

In sum, wisdom is a crucial qur’anic concept that has been discussed in richly variegated ways in the Islamic tradition, including in qur’anic exegesis and Islamic theology, philosophy, law, and spirituality. Wisdom is the understanding of reality in light of revelation as signifying the eternal one and acting in accordance with such understanding. As Molla Sadra, a sixteenth-century Muslim thinker defined it, wisdom is knowing things as they are. It is to know the truth that existence, which is pure good, relies on (Kutluer 1998 , 508). If so, whoever has been granted such understanding has indeed been given access to much good.

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Maintaining a common practice in Islamic Studies, I give two dates, first referring to an “after hijra” (AH) date according to the Muslim calendar: hijra, 622 ce , referring to a major transformation during Muhammad’s ministry and the first year of the Muslim calendar. The second date refers to the common era.

Translation is from The Study Quran (2015) edited by Nasr et al.

Similar comments are made about Mary (Q 3:47–48), David (Q 38:20), and Muhammad (e.g., Q 4:113; 17:39).

Nicholson’s translation (1989) was used with slight modification in brackets introduced in light of Celebi’s translation (1946).

This tradition is invoked by many Muslims in the contemporary period as well. See, for instance, the renowned African-American Muslim scholar and leader W.D. Muhammad’s approach in Lawrence 2007 , 164–168.

Much of Islamic law is independent of state sanction, that is, what is inferred as God’s commands, such as prohibitions against drinking alcohol or lying in selling a product, do not have to have a state authority to be considered part of the sacred law.

As a Muslim mystic from Egypt, Ibn Ataillah (709/1309) notes, “[S]ometimes He [God] gives while depriving you, and sometimes He deprives you in giving” (Schimmel 1978 , xv). That sickness can be a means of great blessings (such as remembering God’s care, appreciating things taken for granted, being mindful of the eternal life, and so on), has been noted by various Muslim sages and exegetes. For example, see Nursi’s ( 1996 , 266–285) “Treatise for the Sick.”

Unless otherwise noted, translations of qur’anic passages are from Muhammad Asad 1984 with occasional minor modification.

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