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Descriptive Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

Table of Contents

Descriptive Research Design

Definition:

Descriptive research design is a type of research methodology that aims to describe or document the characteristics, behaviors, attitudes, opinions, or perceptions of a group or population being studied.

Descriptive research design does not attempt to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables or make predictions about future outcomes. Instead, it focuses on providing a detailed and accurate representation of the data collected, which can be useful for generating hypotheses, exploring trends, and identifying patterns in the data.

Types of Descriptive Research Design

Types of Descriptive Research Design are as follows:

Cross-sectional Study

This involves collecting data at a single point in time from a sample or population to describe their characteristics or behaviors. For example, a researcher may conduct a cross-sectional study to investigate the prevalence of certain health conditions among a population, or to describe the attitudes and beliefs of a particular group.

Longitudinal Study

This involves collecting data over an extended period of time, often through repeated observations or surveys of the same group or population. Longitudinal studies can be used to track changes in attitudes, behaviors, or outcomes over time, or to investigate the effects of interventions or treatments.

This involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or situation to gain a detailed understanding of its characteristics or dynamics. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and business to explore complex phenomena or to generate hypotheses for further research.

Survey Research

This involves collecting data from a sample or population through standardized questionnaires or interviews. Surveys can be used to describe attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or demographic characteristics of a group, and can be conducted in person, by phone, or online.

Observational Research

This involves observing and documenting the behavior or interactions of individuals or groups in a natural or controlled setting. Observational studies can be used to describe social, cultural, or environmental phenomena, or to investigate the effects of interventions or treatments.

Correlational Research

This involves examining the relationships between two or more variables to describe their patterns or associations. Correlational studies can be used to identify potential causal relationships or to explore the strength and direction of relationships between variables.

Data Analysis Methods

Descriptive research design data analysis methods depend on the type of data collected and the research question being addressed. Here are some common methods of data analysis for descriptive research:

Descriptive Statistics

This method involves analyzing data to summarize and describe the key features of a sample or population. Descriptive statistics can include measures of central tendency (e.g., mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (e.g., range, standard deviation).

Cross-tabulation

This method involves analyzing data by creating a table that shows the frequency of two or more variables together. Cross-tabulation can help identify patterns or relationships between variables.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing qualitative data (e.g., text, images, audio) to identify themes, patterns, or trends. Content analysis can be used to describe the characteristics of a sample or population, or to identify factors that influence attitudes or behaviors.

Qualitative Coding

This method involves analyzing qualitative data by assigning codes to segments of data based on their meaning or content. Qualitative coding can be used to identify common themes, patterns, or categories within the data.

Visualization

This method involves creating graphs or charts to represent data visually. Visualization can help identify patterns or relationships between variables and make it easier to communicate findings to others.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing data across different groups or time periods to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help describe changes in attitudes or behaviors over time or differences between subgroups within a population.

Applications of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design has numerous applications in various fields. Some of the common applications of descriptive research design are:

Market research: Descriptive research design is widely used in market research to understand consumer preferences, behavior, and attitudes. This helps companies to develop new products and services, improve marketing strategies, and increase customer satisfaction.
Health research: Descriptive research design is used in health research to describe the prevalence and distribution of a disease or health condition in a population. This helps healthcare providers to develop prevention and treatment strategies.
Educational research: Descriptive research design is used in educational research to describe the performance of students, schools, or educational programs. This helps educators to improve teaching methods and develop effective educational programs.
Social science research: Descriptive research design is used in social science research to describe social phenomena such as cultural norms, values, and beliefs. This helps researchers to understand social behavior and develop effective policies.
Public opinion research: Descriptive research design is used in public opinion research to understand the opinions and attitudes of the general public on various issues. This helps policymakers to develop effective policies that are aligned with public opinion.
Environmental research: Descriptive research design is used in environmental research to describe the environmental conditions of a particular region or ecosystem. This helps policymakers and environmentalists to develop effective conservation and preservation strategies.

Descriptive Research Design Examples

Here are some real-time examples of descriptive research designs:

A restaurant chain wants to understand the demographics and attitudes of its customers. They conduct a survey asking customers about their age, gender, income, frequency of visits, favorite menu items, and overall satisfaction. The survey data is analyzed using descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation to describe the characteristics of their customer base.
A medical researcher wants to describe the prevalence and risk factors of a particular disease in a population. They conduct a cross-sectional study in which they collect data from a sample of individuals using a standardized questionnaire. The data is analyzed using descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation to identify patterns in the prevalence and risk factors of the disease.
An education researcher wants to describe the learning outcomes of students in a particular school district. They collect test scores from a representative sample of students in the district and use descriptive statistics to calculate the mean, median, and standard deviation of the scores. They also create visualizations such as histograms and box plots to show the distribution of scores.
A marketing team wants to understand the attitudes and behaviors of consumers towards a new product. They conduct a series of focus groups and use qualitative coding to identify common themes and patterns in the data. They also create visualizations such as word clouds to show the most frequently mentioned topics.
An environmental scientist wants to describe the biodiversity of a particular ecosystem. They conduct an observational study in which they collect data on the species and abundance of plants and animals in the ecosystem. The data is analyzed using descriptive statistics to describe the diversity and richness of the ecosystem.

How to Conduct Descriptive Research Design

To conduct a descriptive research design, you can follow these general steps:

Define your research question: Clearly define the research question or problem that you want to address. Your research question should be specific and focused to guide your data collection and analysis.
Choose your research method: Select the most appropriate research method for your research question. As discussed earlier, common research methods for descriptive research include surveys, case studies, observational studies, cross-sectional studies, and longitudinal studies.
Design your study: Plan the details of your study, including the sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis plan. Determine the sample size and sampling method, decide on the data collection tools (such as questionnaires, interviews, or observations), and outline your data analysis plan.
Collect data: Collect data from your sample or population using the data collection tools you have chosen. Ensure that you follow ethical guidelines for research and obtain informed consent from participants.
Analyze data: Use appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis methods to analyze your data. As discussed earlier, common data analysis methods for descriptive research include descriptive statistics, cross-tabulation, content analysis, qualitative coding, visualization, and comparative analysis.
I nterpret results: Interpret your findings in light of your research question and objectives. Identify patterns, trends, and relationships in the data, and describe the characteristics of your sample or population.
Draw conclusions and report results: Draw conclusions based on your analysis and interpretation of the data. Report your results in a clear and concise manner, using appropriate tables, graphs, or figures to present your findings. Ensure that your report follows accepted research standards and guidelines.

When to Use Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design is used in situations where the researcher wants to describe a population or phenomenon in detail. It is used to gather information about the current status or condition of a group or phenomenon without making any causal inferences. Descriptive research design is useful in the following situations:

Exploratory research: Descriptive research design is often used in exploratory research to gain an initial understanding of a phenomenon or population.
Identifying trends: Descriptive research design can be used to identify trends or patterns in a population, such as changes in consumer behavior or attitudes over time.
Market research: Descriptive research design is commonly used in market research to understand consumer preferences, behavior, and attitudes.
Health research: Descriptive research design is useful in health research to describe the prevalence and distribution of a disease or health condition in a population.
Social science research: Descriptive research design is used in social science research to describe social phenomena such as cultural norms, values, and beliefs.
Educational research: Descriptive research design is used in educational research to describe the performance of students, schools, or educational programs.

Purpose of Descriptive Research Design

The main purpose of descriptive research design is to describe and measure the characteristics of a population or phenomenon in a systematic and objective manner. It involves collecting data that describe the current status or condition of the population or phenomenon of interest, without manipulating or altering any variables.

The purpose of descriptive research design can be summarized as follows:

To provide an accurate description of a population or phenomenon: Descriptive research design aims to provide a comprehensive and accurate description of a population or phenomenon of interest. This can help researchers to develop a better understanding of the characteristics of the population or phenomenon.
To identify trends and patterns: Descriptive research design can help researchers to identify trends and patterns in the data, such as changes in behavior or attitudes over time. This can be useful for making predictions and developing strategies.
To generate hypotheses: Descriptive research design can be used to generate hypotheses or research questions that can be tested in future studies. For example, if a descriptive study finds a correlation between two variables, this could lead to the development of a hypothesis about the causal relationship between the variables.
To establish a baseline: Descriptive research design can establish a baseline or starting point for future research. This can be useful for comparing data from different time periods or populations.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design has several key characteristics that distinguish it from other research designs. Some of the main characteristics of descriptive research design are:

Objective : Descriptive research design is objective in nature, which means that it focuses on collecting factual and accurate data without any personal bias. The researcher aims to report the data objectively without any personal interpretation.
Non-experimental: Descriptive research design is non-experimental, which means that the researcher does not manipulate any variables. The researcher simply observes and records the behavior or characteristics of the population or phenomenon of interest.
Quantitative : Descriptive research design is quantitative in nature, which means that it involves collecting numerical data that can be analyzed using statistical techniques. This helps to provide a more precise and accurate description of the population or phenomenon.
Cross-sectional: Descriptive research design is often cross-sectional, which means that the data is collected at a single point in time. This can be useful for understanding the current state of the population or phenomenon, but it may not provide information about changes over time.
Large sample size: Descriptive research design typically involves a large sample size, which helps to ensure that the data is representative of the population of interest. A large sample size also helps to increase the reliability and validity of the data.
Systematic and structured: Descriptive research design involves a systematic and structured approach to data collection, which helps to ensure that the data is accurate and reliable. This involves using standardized procedures for data collection, such as surveys, questionnaires, or observation checklists.

Advantages of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design has several advantages that make it a popular choice for researchers. Some of the main advantages of descriptive research design are:

Provides an accurate description: Descriptive research design is focused on accurately describing the characteristics of a population or phenomenon. This can help researchers to develop a better understanding of the subject of interest.
Easy to conduct: Descriptive research design is relatively easy to conduct and requires minimal resources compared to other research designs. It can be conducted quickly and efficiently, and data can be collected through surveys, questionnaires, or observations.
Useful for generating hypotheses: Descriptive research design can be used to generate hypotheses or research questions that can be tested in future studies. For example, if a descriptive study finds a correlation between two variables, this could lead to the development of a hypothesis about the causal relationship between the variables.
Large sample size : Descriptive research design typically involves a large sample size, which helps to ensure that the data is representative of the population of interest. A large sample size also helps to increase the reliability and validity of the data.
Can be used to monitor changes : Descriptive research design can be used to monitor changes over time in a population or phenomenon. This can be useful for identifying trends and patterns, and for making predictions about future behavior or attitudes.
Can be used in a variety of fields : Descriptive research design can be used in a variety of fields, including social sciences, healthcare, business, and education.

Limitation of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design also has some limitations that researchers should consider before using this design. Some of the main limitations of descriptive research design are:

Cannot establish cause and effect: Descriptive research design cannot establish cause and effect relationships between variables. It only provides a description of the characteristics of the population or phenomenon of interest.
Limited generalizability: The results of a descriptive study may not be generalizable to other populations or situations. This is because descriptive research design often involves a specific sample or situation, which may not be representative of the broader population.
Potential for bias: Descriptive research design can be subject to bias, particularly if the researcher is not objective in their data collection or interpretation. This can lead to inaccurate or incomplete descriptions of the population or phenomenon of interest.
Limited depth: Descriptive research design may provide a superficial description of the population or phenomenon of interest. It does not delve into the underlying causes or mechanisms behind the observed behavior or characteristics.
Limited utility for theory development: Descriptive research design may not be useful for developing theories about the relationship between variables. It only provides a description of the variables themselves.
Relies on self-report data: Descriptive research design often relies on self-report data, such as surveys or questionnaires. This type of data may be subject to biases, such as social desirability bias or recall bias.

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types of descriptive research slideshare

In order to understand what descriptive research is, one must first understand the different types of research methods. Descriptive research can be defined as a method used to describe something, usually in great detail. This type of research is often used in the sciences, such as in biology or psychology.

It can also be used in other fields, such as marketing or sociology. There are many different ways to collect data for descriptive research, lets take a look on examples, methods, types, pros and cons of Descriptive Research in this article.

Table of Contents

What is Descriptive Research?

Descriptive research is a type of research that is used to describe a population or phenomenon. This type of research is often used in the social sciences, but can be used in other disciplines as well.

Descriptive research is often used to provide a snapshot of a population or phenomenon. It can also be used to answer questions about how something works or why something happens.

When doing a descriptive study, the researcher thoroughly details the circumstance or case in their research materials. This kind of research design is entirely theoretical, and the researcher gathers data, analyses it, prepares it, and then clearly displays it. It is the type of study design that is the most inclusive.

Descriptive research can be either quantitative or qualitative in nature.

Quantitative descriptive research

Quantitative descriptive research involves collecting data that can be quantified, such as age, gender, income levels, etc. This type of data is typically collected through surveys or other means of data collection.

Qualitative descriptive research

Qualitative descriptive research involves collecting data that cannot be quantified, such as opinions, beliefs, attitudes, etc. This type of data is typically collected through interviews or focus groups.

Examples of Descriptive Research

How the real estate market in London has transformed in the last 20 years ?
Which product C or D are clients of firm A most interested in ?
What distinguishes hybrid cows from Indian wild cows in terms of genetics, behavior, and morphology ?
How common is illness 1 in population Z ?

Characteristics of Descriptive Research

There are many different characteristics of descriptive research, which include:

Quantitative in Nature

In descriptive research, data is systematically and quantitatively collected so that the research problem may be statistically analyzed. It does not involve the manipulation of variables. This type of research is typically quantitative, meaning that it uses numerical data to describe the population or phenomenon.

Observational

Descriptive research is observational in that it simply observes and records what is happening. It does not try to explain why something is happening or to manipulate variables.

Uncontrolled Variables

Descriptive research differs from experimental research in that the variables are not managed or controlled. This is one of its most salient features. Instead, they are only recognized, scrutinized, and measured. It does not involve the manipulation of variables. This means that researchers cannot control what happens during the course of the study.

Basis for Further Research

The data gathered during descriptive research serves as a foundation for subsequent study since it aids in gaining a thorough grasp of the research topic in order to properly respond to it.

Cross-sectional Studies

Cross-sectional studies are typically used to do descriptive research. An observational study method known as a cross-sectional study involves obtaining data on various variables at the person level at a specific period.

Pros of Descriptive Research

Comprehensive.

Descriptive research frequently combines quantitative and qualitative methods, giving the research topic a more detailed knowledge.

Various Data Collection Techniques

The case study method, observational method, and survey method are just a few of the many data collection techniques that can be utilized in descriptive research. Quick and economical.

High External Validity

As research is conducted in the respondent’s natural context with no variables being altered, results generated using the descriptive method of research frequently have high levels of external validity.

Quick and Inexpensive

Since surveys are frequently used in descriptive research, it is possible to quickly, cost efficiently and efficiently collect data from a fairly large sample size.

Cons of Descriptive Research

Unable to validate or test research question.

Due to the fact that the data acquired does not assist in elucidating the reason of the phenomenon being examined, the descriptive technique of research cannot be utilized to test or validate the research problem.

Risk of Sampling Error

When choosing a sample group for a descriptive research study, random sampling is typically used. If the sample group isn’t representative of the larger population, chance may cause sampling error. Results from sampling mistake would be unreliable and unreliable.

Absence of Dependability

The data gathered could not be completely reliable if the research problem isn’t well-formulated. Additionally, this makes conducting a reliable investigation more difficult.

Possibility of False Responses

People’s reactions are crucial to descriptive research, especially when employing surveys. False responses may occasionally be given, which would undermine the reliability of the data gathered and, ultimately, the research’s conclusions.

Pros and Cons of Descriptive Research

Why to use descriptive research, comparing variables.

Descriptive research can be used to compare various variables and the responses of various demographics to various variables.

Validate the Current Conditions

Given that it requires a thorough investigation of each variable before drawing conclusions, descriptive research can be an effective method for determining the validity of an actual condition.

Analysis of Data Trends

The descriptive research approach can be used to track changes in variables over time, enabling the discovery and analysis of trends.

Describe the Features of the Subjects

Additionally, it can be utilized to identify the various traits of the participants. This can include qualities, attitudes, behaviors, and other attributes.

Methods of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research can be qualitative or quantitative in nature, and the researcher may choose to use one or both methods in order to best answer their research question(s). There are many different methods that can be used in descriptive research, and the type of method used will often depend on the type of data being collected.

There are three key methods used to carry out descriptive research.

Observations

Questionnaires or polls are used in survey research to get information from respondents on a particular subject. Since both have advantages, surveys should contain a mix of closed- and open-ended items. Because they may be conducted using a variety of digital and non-digital means, including email, websites, and phone surveys, surveys are a cost-effective technique of data collection.

The case study method entails conducting extensive research on specific people or groups of people. Instead of acquiring a wide volume of data to find correlations and trends, case studies include gathering precise data on a specifically defined subject. Therefore, rather of describing facts that can be generalized, this method is frequently used to describe the various traits of a particular subject.

Researchers can develop hypotheses through case studies that can broaden the scope of evaluation when researching the phenomenon.

With this approach, researchers keep a distance from the subjects they are studying and observe them in their natural environment. This enables them to acquire data on the behaviors and traits under investigation without having to rely on respondents to provide truthful and precise answers.

The observational approach is thought to be the best one for conducting descriptive research. Both qualitative and quantitative data must be gathered.

In conclusion, Descriptive Research is a type of research used to observe and describe phenomena. It is useful in providing detailed information about a specific event, behavior, or group. Although it cannot be used to draw causal relationships, it can be helpful in generating hypotheses for further research.

When deciding whether or not to use Descriptive Research, researchers should consider the pros and cons, as well as the specific research question they are trying to answer.

Types of Research

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Types of Research

Apr 01, 2019

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Types of Research. The types of research are determined by the aims of the researcher. A. Based on the Researcher’s Objective. Pure Research when the research is conducted solely to come up with new knowledge or to have a fuller understanding of a particular subject. Applied Research

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Types of Research The types of research are determined by the aims of the researcher.

A. Based on the Researcher’s Objective Pure Research when the research is conducted solely to come up with new knowledge or to have a fuller understanding of a particular subject. Applied Research If the research is done to find an application of the knowledge whether new or old.

B. Based on the conditions under which the study is conducted Descriptive Research type of research that observes and records the changes as they happen in nature. The changes are can’t be manipulated. Experimental Research In its simplest form, experimental research involves comparing two groups on one outcome measure to test some hypothesis regarding causation.

Finding a Topic • People, places and objects around you are possible sources of your research. • The communities where you live are also rich sources of research topics. • It would also be helpful to talk to scientists, researchers or teachers by visiting them in their places of work.

List of Topics • Alternative or nonconventional sources of energy. • Botanical pesticides • Control of environmental pollution • Product development • Food processing • Herbal medicine (antimicrobial property) • Computer science • Biodegradable plastic

Getting Essential Informationfrom Print Sources • Make a list of 5 possible places where you might find as much information about your topic as you can. Public Library Local College or University Public Hospitals Pharmaceutical Companies Research Institution (RITM)

Understanding Printed Sources • Printed material generally includes books, newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, or excerpts of essays—in other words, any written material on your topic. These printed materials are usually grouped into two categories: primary & secondary sources

Primary Sources • All primary source materials are firsthand accounts of circumstances by individuals who are directly involved or have experienced what they are writing about firsthand.

Secondary Sources • Books • magazine articles • pamphlets by authors

Getting Essential Informationfrom Online Sources • Rather than having to go to a library or other institution to seek out and investigate your sources, the Internet brings them to you. You should know that some Internet sites and search engines are better than others.

Citing ReferenceSources? “Borrowed thoughts, like borrowed money, only show the poverty of the borrower.” MARGUERITE CJARDINER

What is Plagiarism? Plagiarism is the technical term for using someone else's words without giving adequate credit.

When and How to Cite the Reference Sources • When you write your research paper you might want to copy words, pictures, diagrams, or ideas from one of your sources. It is OK to copy such information as long as you reference it with a citation.

When and How to Cite the Reference Sources • For a science fair project, a reference citation (a.k.a. author-date citation) is an accepted way to reference information you copy.

How to Cite the Reference Sources • Make sure that the source for every citation item copied appears in your bibliography. • Simply put the author's last name, the year of publication, and page number (if needed) in parentheses after the information you copy. • Place the reference citation at the end of the sentence but before the final period.

Examples of Reference Citations using APA Format (American Psychological Association) • "If you copy a sentence from a book or magazine article by a single author, the reference will look like this. A comma separates the page number (or numbers) from the year" (Bloggs, 2002, p. 37).

Examples of Reference Citations using APA Format • "If you copy a sentence from a book or magazine article by more than one author, the reference will look like this" (Bloggs & Smith, 2002, p. 37).

Examples of Reference Citations using APA Format • "Sometimes the author will have two publications in your bibliography for just one year. In that case, the first publication would have an 'a' after the publication year, the second a 'b', and so on. The reference will look like this" (Nguyen, 2000b).

Examples of Reference Citations using APA Format • "When the author is unknown, the text reference for such an entry may substitute the title, or a shortened version of the title for the author" (The Chicago Manual, 1993). • "For reference citations, only direct quotes need page numbers" (Han, 1995).

Remember… • Plagiarismis when someone copies the words, pictures, diagrams, or ideas of someone else and presents them as his or her own. • When you find information in a book, on the Internet, or from some other source, you MUST give the author of that information credit in a citation. • If you copy a sentence or paragraph exactly, you should also use quotation marks around the text.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format • Your list of works cited should begin at the end of the paper on a new page with the centered title, References. • Alphabetize the entries in your list by the author's last name, using the letter-by-letter system (ignore spaces and other punctuation.) • Only the initials of the first and middle names are given. • If the author's name is unknown, alphabetize by the title, ignoring any A, An, or The.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format Underlining or Italics? • When reports were written on typewriters, the names of publications were underlined because most typewriters had no way to print italics. • If you write a bibliography by hand, you should still underline the names of publications. But, if you use a computer, then publication names should be in italics as they are below.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format • If there is more than one author, use an ampersand (&) before the name of the last author. • If there are more than six authors, list only the first one and use et al. for the rest. • Place the date of publication in parentheses immediately after the name of the author. • Place a period after the closing parenthesis.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format Books Format:Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Book title. Additional information. City of publication: Publishing company. Examples: • Allen, T. (1974). Vanishing wildlife of North America. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. • Boorstin, D. (1992). The creators: A history of the heroes of the imagination. New York: Random House. • Searles, B., & Last, M. (1979). A reader's guide to science fiction. New York: Facts on File, Inc.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format Encyclopedia & Dictionary Format:Author's last name, first initial. (Date). Title of Article. Title of Encyclopedia (Volume, pages). City of publication: Publishing company. Examples: • Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica. • Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. • Pettingill, O. S., Jr. (1980). Falcon and Falconry. World book encyclopedia. (pp. 150-155). Chicago: World Book.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format Magazine & Newspaper Articles Format:Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Article title. Periodical title, volume number(issue number if available), inclusive pages. Note: Do not enclose the title in quotation marks. Put a period after the title. If a periodical includes a volume number, italicize it and then give the page range (in regular type) without "pp." If the periodical does not use volume numbers, as in newspapers, use p. or pp. for page numbers. Note: Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format Magazine & Newspaper Examples: • Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896. • Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31. • Kalette, D. (1986, July 21). California town counts town to big quake. USA Today, 9, p. A1. • Kanfer, S. (1986, July 21). Heard any good books lately? Time, 113, 71-72.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format Website or Webpage Format:Online periodical:Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number, Retrieved month day, year, from full URL Online document:Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of work. Retrieved month day, year, from full URL Note: When citing Internet sources, refer to the specific website document. If a document is undated, use "n.d." (for no date) immediately after the document title. Break a lengthy URL that goes to another line after a slash or before a period. Continually check your references to online documents. There is no period following a URL. Note: If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format Examples of Website or web page references: • Devitt, T. (2001, August 2). Lightning injures four at music festival. The Why? Files. Retrieved January 23, 2002, from http://whyfiles.org/137lightning/index.html • Dove, R. (1998). Lady freedom among us. The Electronic Text Center. Retrieved June 19, 1998, from Alderman Library, University of Virginia website: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/subjects/afam.html

Reference citation using M.l.a. format (Modern language association)

MLA Documentation

Writing a Bibliography: MLA Format • Your list of works cited should begin at the end of the paper on a new page with the centered title, Works Cited. • Alphabetize the entries in your list by the author's last name, using the letter-by-letter system (ignore spaces and other punctuation.) • If the author's name is unknown, alphabetize by the title, ignoring any A, An, or The.

Capitalization, Abbreviation, and Punctuation • The MLA guidelines specify using title case capitalization - capitalize the first words, the last words, and all principal words, including those that follow hyphens in compound terms. Use lowercase abbreviations to identify the parts of a work (e.g., vol. for volume, ed. for editor) except when these designations follow a period.

Capitalization, Abbreviation, and Punctuation • Separate author, title, and publication information with a period followed by one space. Use a colon and a space to separate a title from a subtitle. Include other kinds of punctuation only if it is part of the title. Use quotation marks to indicate the titles of short works appearing within larger works (e.g., "Memories of Childhood." American Short Stories). Also use quotation marks for titles of unpublished works and songs.

Writing a Bibliography: MLA Format Underlining or Italics? • When reports were written on typewriters, the names of publications were underlined because most typewriters had no way to print italics. If you write a bibliography by hand, you should still underline the names of publications. But, if you use a computer, then publication names should be in italics as they are below.

MLA Format Samples Books Format:Author's last name, first name. Book title. Additional information. City of publication: Publishing company, publication date. Examples: • De Vera, Jaime S. Vanishing Wildlife of North America. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 1974. • Boorstin, Daniel J. The Creators: A History of the Heroes of the Imagination. New York: Random, 1992.

MLA Format Samples Encyclopedia & Dictionary Format:Author's last name, first name. "Title of Article." Title of Encyclopedia. Date. Note: If the dictionary or encyclopedia arranges articles alphabetically, you may omit volume and page numbers. Examples: • Pettingill, Olin Sewall, Jr. "Falcon and Falconry." World Book Encyclopedia. 1980. • Tobias, Richard. "Thurber, James." Encyclopedia Americana. 1991 ed.

MLA Format Samples Magazine & Newspaper Articles Format:Author's last name, first name. "Article title." Periodical title Volume # Date: inclusive pages. Examples: • Kanfer, Stefan. "Heard Any Good Books Lately?" Time 113 21 July 1986: 71-72. • Trillin, Calvin. "Culture Shopping." New Yorker 15 Feb. 1993: 48-51.

MLA Format Samples Website or Webpage Format:Author's last name, first name (if available). "Title of work within a project or database." Title of site, project, or database. Editor (if available). Electronic publication information (Date of publication or of the latest update, and name of any sponsoring institution or organization). Date of access and <full URL>. Note: If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available. Examples: • Devitt, Terry. "Lightning injures four at music festival." The Why? Files. 2 Aug. 2001. 23 Jan. 2002 <http://whyfiles.org/137lightning/index.html>. • Dove, Rita. "Lady Freedom among Us." The Electronic Text Center. Ed. David Seaman. 1998. Alderman Lib., U of Virginia. 19 June 1998 <http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/subjects/afam.html>.

THINGS TO CONSIDER IN DOING S.I.P.

Plan Your Project Success Calendar Planned Date Date Completed 1. Choosing a topic (2-5 days) ____________ ______________ 2. Collecting background information ____________ ______________ (1-3 weeks) 3. Problem and hypothesis (1-4 days) ____________ ______________ 4. Design for experiment (1 week) ____________ ______________ 5. Getting materials ready for ____________ ______________ experiment (1 week) 6. Making the data table (1-2 weeks) ____________ ______________ 7. Recording in the data table ____________ ______________ (1-2 weeks) 8. Stating results (1 week) ____________ _____________ 9. Drawing conclusions (1 week) ____________ ______________ 10. Compiling a bibliography (2-3days) ____________ ______________ 11. Making the display (1-2 weeks) ____________ ______________

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Open access
Published: 13 May 2024

Patient medication management, understanding and adherence during the transition from hospital to outpatient care - a qualitative longitudinal study in polymorbid patients with type 2 diabetes

Léa Solh Dost ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5767-1305 1 , 2 ,
Giacomo Gastaldi ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6327-7451 3 &
Marie P. Schneider ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7557-9278 1 , 2

BMC Health Services Research volume 24 , Article number: 620 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Continuity of care is under great pressure during the transition from hospital to outpatient care. Medication changes during hospitalization may be poorly communicated and understood, compromising patient safety during the transition from hospital to home. The main aims of this study were to investigate the perspectives of patients with type 2 diabetes and multimorbidities on their medications from hospital discharge to outpatient care, and their healthcare journey through the outpatient healthcare system. In this article, we present the results focusing on patients’ perspectives of their medications from hospital to two months after discharge.

Patients with type 2 diabetes, with at least two comorbidities and who returned home after discharge, were recruited during their hospitalization. A descriptive qualitative longitudinal research approach was adopted, with four in-depth semi-structured interviews per participant over a period of two months after discharge. Interviews were based on semi-structured guides, transcribed verbatim, and a thematic analysis was conducted.

Twenty-one participants were included from October 2020 to July 2021. Seventy-five interviews were conducted. Three main themes were identified: (A) Medication management, (B) Medication understanding, and (C) Medication adherence, during three periods: (1) Hospitalization, (2) Care transition, and (3) Outpatient care. Participants had varying levels of need for medication information and involvement in medication management during hospitalization and in outpatient care. The transition from hospital to autonomous medication management was difficult for most participants, who quickly returned to their routines with some participants experiencing difficulties in medication adherence.

Conclusions

The transition from hospital to outpatient care is a challenging process during which discharged patients are vulnerable and are willing to take steps to better manage, understand, and adhere to their medications. The resulting tension between patients’ difficulties with their medications and lack of standardized healthcare support calls for interprofessional guidelines to better address patients’ needs, increase their safety, and standardize physicians’, pharmacists’, and nurses’ roles and responsibilities.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Continuity of patient care is characterized as the collaborative engagement between the patient and their physician-led care team in the ongoing management of healthcare, with the mutual objective of delivering high-quality and cost-effective medical care [ 1 ]. Continuity of care is under great pressure during the transition of care from hospital to outpatient care, with a risk of compromising patients’ safety [ 2 , 3 ]. The early post-discharge period is a high-risk and fragile transition: once discharged, one in five patients experience at least one adverse event during the first three weeks following discharge, and more than half of these adverse events are drug-related [ 4 , 5 ]. A retrospective study examining all discharged patients showed that adverse drug events (ADEs) account for up to 20% of 30-day hospital emergency readmissions [ 6 ]. During hospitalization, patients’ medications are generally modified, with an average of nearly four medication changes per patient [ 7 ]. Information regarding medications such as medication changes, the expected effect, side effects, and instructions for use are frequently poorly communicated to patients during hospitalization and at discharge [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Between 20 and 60% of discharged patients lack knowledge of their medications [ 12 , 13 ]. Consideration of patients’ needs and their active engagement in decision-making during hospitalization regarding their medications are often lacking [ 11 , 14 , 15 ]. This can lead to unsafe discharge and contribute to medication adherence difficulties, such as non-implementation of newly prescribed medications [ 16 , 17 ].

Patients with multiple comorbidities and polypharmacy are at higher risk of ADE [ 18 ]. Type 2 diabetes is one of the chronic health conditions most frequently associated with comorbidities and patients with type 2 diabetes often lack care continuum [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. The prevalence of patients hospitalized with type 2 diabetes can exceed 40% [ 22 ] and these patients are at higher risk for readmission due to their comorbidities and their medications, such as insulin and oral hypoglycemic agents [ 23 , 24 , 25 ].

Interventions and strategies to improve patient care and safety at transition have shown mixed results worldwide in reducing cost, rehospitalization, ADE, and non-adherence [ 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 ]. However, interventions that are patient-centered, with a patient follow-up and led by interprofessional healthcare teams showed promising results [ 34 , 35 , 36 ]. Most of these interventions have not been implemented routinely due to the extensive time to translate research into practice and the lack of hybrid implementation studies [ 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 ]. In addition, patient-reported outcomes and perspectives have rarely been considered, yet patients’ involvement is essential for seamless and integrated care [ 42 , 43 ]. Interprofessional collaboration in which patients are full members of the interprofessional team, is still in its infancy in outpatient care [ 44 ]. Barriers and facilitators regarding medications at the transition of care have been explored in multiple qualitative studies at one given time in a given setting (e.g., at discharge, one-month post-discharge) [ 8 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 ]. However, few studies have adopted a holistic methodology from the hospital to the outpatient setting to explore changes in patients’ perspectives over time [ 49 , 50 , 51 ]. Finally, little is known about whether, how, and when patients return to their daily routine following hospitalization and the impact of hospitalization weeks after discharge.

In Switzerland, continuity of care after hospital discharge is still poorly documented, both in terms of contextual analysis and interventional studies, and is mainly conducted in the hospital setting [ 31 , 35 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 ]. The first step of an implementation science approach is to perform a contextual analysis to set up effective interventions adapted to patients’ needs and aligned to healthcare professionals’ activities in a specific context [ 41 , 57 ]. Therefore, the main aims of this study were to investigate the perspectives of patients with type 2 diabetes and multimorbidities on their medications from hospital discharge to outpatient care, and on their healthcare journey through the outpatient healthcare system. In this article, we present the results focusing on patients’ perspectives of their medications from hospital to two months after discharge.

Study design

This qualitative longitudinal study, conducted from October 2020 to July 2021, used a qualitative descriptive methodology through four consecutive in-depth semi-structured interviews per participant at three, 10-, 30- and 60-days post-discharge, as illustrated in Fig. 1 . Longitudinal qualitative research is characterized by qualitative data collection at different points in time and focuses on temporality, such as time and change [ 58 , 59 ]. Qualitative descriptive studies aim to explore and describe the depth and complexity of human experiences or phenomena [ 60 , 61 , 62 ]. We focused our qualitative study on the 60 first days after discharge as this period is considered highly vulnerable and because studies often use 30- or 60-days readmission as an outcome measure [ 5 , 63 ].

This qualitative study follows the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ). Ethics committee approval was sought and granted by the Cantonal Research Ethics Commission, Geneva (CCER) (2020 − 01779).

Recruitment took place during participants’ hospitalization in the general internal medicine divisions at the Geneva University Hospitals in the canton of Geneva (500 000 inhabitants), Switzerland. Interviews took place at participants’ homes, in a private office at the University of Geneva, by telephone or by secure video call, according to participants’ preference. Informal caregivers could also participate alongside the participants.

Study flowchart

Researcher characteristics

All the researchers were trained in qualitative studies. The diabetologist and researcher (GG) who enrolled the patients in the study was involved directly or indirectly (advice asked to the Geneva University Hospital diabetes team of which he was a part) for most participants’ care during hospitalization. LS (Ph.D. student and community pharmacist) was unknown to participants and presented herself during hospitalization as a “researcher” and not as a healthcare professional to avoid any risk of influencing participants’ answers. This study was not interventional, and the interviewer (LS) invited participants to contact a healthcare professional for any questions related to their medication or medical issues.

Population and sampling strategy

Patients with type 2 diabetes were chosen as an example population to describe polypharmacy patients as these patients usually have several health issues and polypharmacy [ 20 , 22 , 25 ]. Inclusions criteria for the study were: adult patients with type 2 diabetes, with at least two other comorbidities, hospitalized for at least three days in a general internal medicine ward, with a minimum of one medication change during hospital stay, and who self-managed their medications once discharged home. Exclusion criteria were patients not reachable by telephone following discharge, unable to give consent (patients with schizophrenia, dementia, brain damage, or drug/alcohol misuse), and who could not communicate in French. A purposive sampling methodology was applied aiming to include participants with different ages, genders, types, and numbers of health conditions by listing participants’ characteristics in a double-entry table, available in Supplementary Material 1 , until thematic saturation was reached. Thematic saturation was considered achieved when no new code or theme emerged and new data repeated previously coded information [ 64 ]. The participants were identified if they were hospitalized in the ward dedicated to diabetes care or when the diabetes team was contacted for advice. The senior ward physician (GG) screened eligible patients and the interviewer (LS) obtained written consent before hospital discharge.

Data collection and instruments

Sociodemographic (age, gender, educational level, living arrangement) and clinical characteristics (reason for hospitalization, date of admission, health conditions, diabetes diagnosis, medications before and during hospitalization) were collected by interviewing participants before their discharge and by extracting participants’ data from electronic hospital files by GG and LS. Participants’ pharmacies were contacted with the participant’s consent to obtain medication records from the last three months if information regarding medications before hospitalization was missing in the hospital files.

Semi-structured interview guides for each interview (at three, 10-, 30- and 60-days post-discharge) were developed based on different theories and components of health behavior and medication adherence: the World Health Organization’s (WHO) five dimensions for adherence, the Information-Motivation-Behavioral skills model and the Social Cognitive Theory [ 65 , 66 , 67 ]. Each interview explored participants’ itinerary in the healthcare system and their perspectives on their medications. Regarding medications, the following themes were mentioned at each interview: changes in medications, patients’ understanding and implication; information on their medications, self-management of their medications, and patients’ medication adherence. Other aspects were mentioned in specific interviews: patients’ hospitalization and experience on their return home (interview 1), motivation (interviews 2 and 4), and patient’s feedback on the past two months (interview 4). Interview guides translated from French are available in Supplementary Material 2 . The participants completed self-reported and self-administrated questionnaires at different interviews to obtain descriptive information on different factors that may affect medication management and adherence: self-report questionnaires on quality of life (EQ-5D-5 L) [ 68 ], literacy (Schooling-Opinion-Support questionnaire) [ 69 ], medication adherence (Adherence Visual Analogue Scale, A-VAS) [ 70 ] and Belief in Medication Questionnaire (BMQ) [ 71 ] were administered to each participant at the end of selected interviews to address the different factors that may affect medication management and adherence as well as to determine a trend of determinants over time. The BMQ contains two subscores: Specific-Necessity and Specific-Concerns, addressing respectively their perceived needs for their medications, and their concerns about adverse consequences associated with taking their medication [ 72 ].

Data management

Informed consent forms, including consent to obtain health data, were securely stored in a private office at the University of Geneva. The participants’ identification key was protected by a password known only by MS and LS. Confidentiality was guaranteed by pseudonymization of participants’ information and audio-recordings were destroyed once analyzed. Sociodemographic and clinical characteristics, medication changes, and answers to questionnaires were securely collected by electronic case report forms (eCRFs) on RedCap®. Interviews were double audio-recorded and field notes were taken during interviews. Recorded interviews were manually transcribed verbatim in MAXQDA® (2018.2) by research assistants and LS and transcripts were validated for accuracy by LS. A random sample of 20% of questionnaires was checked for accuracy for the transcription from the paper questionnaires to the eCRFs. Recorded sequences with no link to the discussed topics were not transcribed and this was noted in the transcripts.

Data analysis

A descriptive statistical analysis of sociodemographic, clinical characteristics and self-reported questionnaire data was carried out. A thematic analysis of transcripts was performed, as described by Braun and Clarke [ 73 ], by following six steps: raw data was read, text segments related to the study objectives were identified, text segments to create new categories were identified, similar or redundant categories were reduced and a model that integrated all significant categories was created. The analysis was conducted in parallel with patient enrolment to ensure data saturation. To ensure the validity of the coding method, transcripts were double coded independently and discussed by the research team until similar themes were obtained. The research group developed and validated an analysis grid, with which LS coded systematically the transcriptions and met regularly with the research team to discuss questions on data analysis and to ensure the quality of coding. The analysis was carried out in French, and the verbatims of interest cited in the manuscript were translated and validated by a native English-speaking researcher to preserve the meaning.

In this analysis, we used the term “healthcare professionals” when more than one profession could be involved in participants’ medication management. Otherwise, when a specific healthcare professional was involved, we used the designated profession (e.g. physicians, pharmacists).

Patient and public involvement

During the development phase of the study, interview guides and questionnaires were reviewed for clarity and validity and adapted by two patient partners, with multiple health conditions and who experienced previously a hospital discharge. They are part of the HUG Patients Partners + 3P platform for research and patient and public involvement.

Interviews and participants’ descriptions

A total of 75 interviews were conducted with 21 participants. In total, 31 patients were contacted, seven refused to participate (four at the project presentation and three at consent), two did not enter the selection criteria at discharge and one was unreachable after discharge. Among the 21 participants, 15 participated in all interviews, four in three interviews, one in two interviews, and one in one interview, due to scheduling constraints. Details regarding interviews and participants characteristics are presented in Tables 1 and 2 .

The median length of time between hospital discharge and interviews 1,2,3 and 4 was 5 (IQR: 4–7), 14 (13-20), 35 (22-38), and 63 days (61-68), respectively. On average, by comparing medications at hospital admission and discharge, a median of 7 medication changes (IQR: 6–9, range:2;17) occurred per participant during hospitalization and a median of 7 changes (5–12) during the two months following discharge. Details regarding participants’ medications are described in Table 3 .

Patient self-reported adherence over the past week for their three most challenging medications are available in Supplementary Material 3 .

Qualitative analysis

We defined care transition as the period from discharge until the first medical appointment post-discharge, and outpatient care as the period starting after the first medical appointment. Data was organized into three key themes (A. Medication management, B. Medication understanding, and C. Medication adherence) divided into subthemes at three time points (1. Hospitalization, 2. Care transition and 3. Outpatient care). Figure 2 summarizes and illustrates the themes and subthemes with their influencing factors as bullet points.

Participants’ medication management, understanding and adherence during hospitalization, care transition and outpatient care

A. Medication management

A.1 medication management during hospitalization: medication management by hospital staff.

Medications during hospitalization were mainly managed by hospital healthcare professionals (i.e. nurses and physicians) with varying degrees of patient involvement: “At the hospital, they prepared the medications for me. […] I didn’t even know what the packages looked like.” Participant 22; interview 1 (P22.1) Some participants reported having therapeutic education sessions with specialized nurses and physicians, such as the explanation and demonstration of insulin injection and glucose monitoring. A patient reported that he was given the choice of several treatments and was involved in shared decision-making. Other participants had an active role in managing and optimizing dosages, such as rapid insulin, due to prior knowledge and use of medications before hospitalization.

A.2 Medication management at transition: obtaining the medication and initiating self-management

Once discharged, some participants had difficulties obtaining their medications at the pharmacy because some medications were not stored and had to be ordered, delaying medication initiation. To counter this problem upstream, a few participants were provided a 24-to-48-hour supply of medications at discharge. It was sometimes requested by the patient or suggested by the healthcare professionals but was not systematic. The transition from medication management by hospital staff to self-management was exhausting for most participants who were faced with a large amount of new information and changes in their medications: “ When I was in the hospital, I didn’t even realize all the changes. When I came back home, I took away the old medication packages and got out the new ones. And then I thought : « my God, all this…I didn’t know I had all these changes » ” P2.1 Written documentation, such as the discharge prescription or dosage labels on medication packages, was helpful in managing their medication at home. Most participants used weekly pill organizers to manage their medications, which were either already used before hospitalization or were introduced post-discharge. The help of a family caregiver in managing and obtaining medications was reported as a facilitator.

A.3 Medication management in outpatient care: daily self-management and medication burden

A couple of days or weeks after discharge, most participants had acquired a routine so that medication management was less demanding, but the medication burden varied depending on the participants. For some, medication management became a simple action well implemented in their routine (“It has become automatic” , P23.4), while for others, the number of medications and the fact that the medications reminded them of the disease was a heavy burden to bear on a daily basis (“ During the first few days after getting out of the hospital, I thought I was going to do everything right. In the end, well [laughs] it’s complicated. I ended up not always taking the medication, not monitoring the blood sugar” P12.2) To support medication self-management, some participants had written documentation such as treatment plans, medication lists, and pictures of their medication packages on their phones. Some participants had difficulties obtaining medications weeks after discharge as discharge prescriptions were not renewable and participants did not see their physician in time. Others had to visit multiple physicians to have their prescriptions updated. A few participants were faced with prescription or dispensing errors, such as prescribing or dispensing the wrong dosage, which affected medication management and decreased trust in healthcare professionals. In most cases, according to participants, the pharmacy staff worked in an interprofessional collaboration with physicians to provide new and updated prescriptions.

B. Medication understanding

B.1 medication understanding during hospitalization: new information and instructions.

The amount of information received during hospitalization varied considerably among participants with some reporting having received too much, while others saying they received too little information regarding medication changes, the reason for changes, or for introducing new medications: “They told me I had to take this medication all my life, but they didn’t tell me what the effects were or why I was taking it.” P5.3

Hospitalization was seen by some participants as a vulnerable and tiring period during which they were less receptive to information. Information and explanations were generally given verbally, making it complicated for most participants to recall it. Some participants reported that hospital staff was attentive to their needs for information and used communication techniques such as teach-back (a way of checking understanding by asking participants to say in their own words what they need to know or do about their health or medications). Some participants were willing to be proactive in the understanding of their medications while others were more passive, had no specific needs for information, and did not see how they could be engaged more.

B.2 Medication understanding at transition: facing medication changes

At hospital discharge, the most challenging difficulty for participants was to understand the changes made regarding their medications. For newly diagnosed participants, the addition of new medications was more difficult to understand, whereas, for experienced participants, changes in known medications such as dosage modification, changes within a therapeutic class, and generic substitutions were the most difficult to understand. Not having been informed about changes caused confusion and misunderstanding. Therefore, medication reconciliation done by the patient was time-consuming, especially for participants with multiple medications: “ They didn’t tell me at all that they had changed my treatment completely. They just told me : « We’ve changed a few things. But it was the whole treatment ». ” P2.3 Written information, such as the discharge prescription, the discharge report (brief letter summarizing information about the hospitalization, given to the patient at discharge), or the label on the medication box (written by the pharmacist with instructions on dosage) helped them find or recall information about their medications and diagnoses. However, technical terms were used in hospital documentations and were not always understandable. For example, this participant said: “ On the prescription of valsartan, they wrote: ‘resume in the morning once profile…’[once hypertension profile allows]… I don’t know what that means.” P8.1 In addition, some documents were incomplete, as mentioned by a patient who did not have the insulin dosage mentioned on the hospital prescription. Some participants sought help from healthcare professionals, such as pharmacists, hospital physicians, or general practitioners a few days after discharge to review medications, answer questions, or obtain additional information.

B.3 Medication understanding in the outpatient care: concerns and knowledge

Weeks after discharge, most participants had concerns about the long-term use of their medications, their usefulness, and the possible risk of interactions or side effects. Some participants also reported having some lack of knowledge regarding indications, names, or how the medication worked: “I don’t even know what Brilique® [ticagrelor, antiplatelet agent] is for. It’s for blood pressure, isn’t it?. I don’t know.” P11.4 According to participants, the main reasons for the lack of understanding were the lack of information at the time of prescribing and the large number of medications, making it difficult to search for information and remember it. Participants sought information from different healthcare professionals or by themselves, on package inserts, through the internet, or from family and friends. Others reported having had all the information needed or were not interested in having more information. In addition, participants with low medication literacy, such as non-native speakers or elderly people, struggled more with medication understanding and sought help from family caregivers or healthcare professionals, even weeks after discharge: “ I don’t understand French very well […] [The doctor] explained it very quickly…[…] I didn’t understand everything he was saying” P16.2

C. Medication adherence

C.2 medication adherence at transition: adopting new behaviors.

Medication adherence was not mentioned as a concern during hospitalization and a few participants reported difficulties in medication initiation once back home: “I have an injection of Lantus® [insulin] in the morning, but obviously, the first day [after discharge], I forgot to do it because I was not used to it.” P23.1 Participants had to quickly adopt new behaviors in the first few days after discharge, especially for participants with few medications pre-hospitalization. The use of weekly pill organizers, alarms and specific storage space were reported as facilitators to support adherence. One patient did not initiate one of his medications because he did not understand the medication indication, and another patient took her old medications because she was used to them. Moreover, most participants experienced their hospitalization as a turning point, a time when they focused on their health, thought about the importance of their medications, and discussed any new lifestyle or dietary measures that might be implemented.

C.3 Medication adherence in outpatient care: ongoing medication adherence

More medication adherence difficulties appeared a few weeks after hospital discharge when most participants reported nonadherence behaviors, such as difficulties implementing the dosage regimen, or intentionally discontinuing the medication and modifying the medication regimen on their initiative. Determinants positively influencing medication adherence were the establishment of a routine; organizing medications in weekly pill-organizers; organizing pocket doses (medications for a short period that participants take with them when away from home); seeking support from family caregivers; using alarm clocks; and using specific storage places. Reasons for nonadherence were changes in daily routine; intake times that were not convenient for the patient; the large number of medications; and poor knowledge of the medication or side effects. Healthcare professionals’ assistance for medication management, such as the help of home nurses or pharmacists for the preparation of weekly pill-organizers, was requested by participants or offered by healthcare professionals to support medication adherence: “ I needed [a home nurse] to put my pills in the pillbox. […] I felt really weak […] and I was making mistakes. So, I’m very happy [the doctor] offered me [home care]. […] I have so many medications.” P22.3 Some participants who experienced prehospitalization non-adherence were more aware of their non-adherence and implemented strategies, such as modifying the timing of intake: “I said to my doctor : « I forget one time out of two […], can I take them in the morning? » We looked it up and yes, I can take it in the morning.” P11.2 In contrast, some participants were still struggling with adherence difficulties that they had before hospitalization. Motivations for taking medications two months after discharge were to improve health, avoid complications, reduce symptoms, reduce the number of medications in the future or out of obligation: “ I force myself to take them because I want to get to the end of my diabetes, I want to reduce the number of pills as much as possible.” P14.2 After a few weeks post-hospitalization, for some participants, health and illness were no longer the priority because of other life imperatives (e.g., family or financial situation).

This longitudinal study provided a multi-faceted representation of how patients manage, understand, and adhere to their medications from hospital discharge to two months after discharge. Our findings highlighted the varying degree of participants’ involvement in managing their medications during their hospitalization, the individualized needs for information during and after hospitalization, the complicated transition from hospital to autonomous medication management, the adaptation of daily routines around medication once back home, and the adherence difficulties that surfaced in the outpatient care, with nonadherence prior to hospitalization being an indicator of the behavior after discharge. Finally, our results confirmed the lack of continuity in care and showed the lack of patient care standardization experienced by the participants during the transition from hospital to outpatient care.

This in-depth analysis of patients’ experiences reinforces common challenges identified in the existing literature such as the lack of personalized information [ 9 , 10 , 11 ], loss of autonomy during hospitalization [ 14 , 74 , 75 ], difficulties in obtaining medication at discharge [ 11 , 45 , 76 ] and challenges in understanding treatment modifications and generics substitution [ 11 , 32 , 77 , 78 ]. Some of these studies were conducted during patients’ hospitalization [ 10 , 75 , 79 ] or up to 12 months after discharge [ 80 , 81 ], but most studies focused on the few days following hospital discharge [ 9 , 11 , 14 , 82 ]. Qualitative studies on medications at transition often focused on a specific topic, such as medication information, or a specific moment in time, and often included healthcare professionals, which muted patients’ voices [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 47 , 49 ]. Our qualitative longitudinal methodology was interested in capturing the temporal dynamics, in-depth narratives, and contextual nuances of patients’ medication experiences during transitions of care [ 59 , 83 ]. This approach provided a comprehensive understanding of how patients’ perspectives and behaviors evolved over time, offering insights into the complex interactions of medication management, understanding and adherence, and turning points within their medication journeys. A qualitative longitudinal design was used by Fylan et al. to underline patients’ resilience in medication management during and after discharge, by Brandberg et al. to show the dynamic process of self-management during the 4 weeks post-discharge and by Lawton et al. to examine how patients with type 2 diabetes perceived their care after discharge over a period of four years [ 49 , 50 , 51 ]. Our study focused on the first two months following hospitalization and future studies should focus on following discharged and at-risk patients over a longer period, as “transitions of care do not comprise linear trajectories of patients’ movements, with a starting and finishing point. Instead, they are endless loops of movements” [ 47 ].

Our results provide a particularly thorough description of how participants move from a state of total dependency during hospitalization regarding their medication management to a sudden and complete autonomy after hospital discharge impacting medication management, understanding, and adherence in the first days after discharge for some participants. Several qualitative studies have described the lack of shared decision-making and the loss of patient autonomy during hospitalization, which had an impact on self-management and created conflicts with healthcare professionals [ 75 , 81 , 84 ]. Our study also highlights nuanced patient experiences, including varying levels of patient needs, involvement, and proactivity during hospitalization and outpatient care, and our results contribute to capturing different perspectives that contrast with some literature that often portrays patients as more passive recipients of care [ 14 , 15 , 74 , 75 ]. Shared decision-making and proactive medication are key elements as they contribute to a smoother transition and better outcomes for patients post-discharge [ 85 , 86 , 87 ].

Consistent with the literature, the study identifies some challenges in medication initiation post-discharge [ 16 , 17 , 88 ] but our results also describe how daily routine rapidly takes over, either solidifying adherence behavior or generating barriers to medication adherence. Participants’ nonadherence prior to hospitalization was a factor influencing participants’ adherence post-hospitalization and this association should be further investigated, as literature showed that hospitalized patients have high scores of non-adherence [ 89 ]. Mortel et al. showed that more than 20% of discharged patients stopped their medications earlier than agreed with the physician and 25% adapted their medication intake [ 90 ]. Furthermore, patients who self-managed their medications had a lower perception of the necessity of their medication than patients who received help, which could negatively impact medication adherence [ 91 ]. Although participants in our study had high BMQ scores for necessity and lower scores for concerns, some participants expressed doubts about the need for their medications and a lack of motivation a few weeks after discharge. Targeted pharmacy interventions for newly prescribed medications have been shown to improve medication adherence, and hospital discharge is an opportune moment to implement this service [ 92 , 93 ].

Many medication changes were made during the transition of care (a median number of 7 changes during hospitalization and 7 changes during the two months after discharge), especially medication additions during hospitalization and interruptions after hospitalization. While medication changes during hospitalization are well described, the many changes following discharge are less discussed [ 7 , 94 ]. A Danish study showed that approximately 65% of changes made during hospitalization were accepted by primary healthcare professionals but only 43% of new medications initiated during hospitalization were continued after discharge [ 95 ]. The numerous changes after discharge may be caused by unnecessary intensification of medications during hospitalization, delayed discharge letters, lack of standardized procedures, miscommunication, patient self-management difficulties, or in response to an acute situation [ 96 , 97 , 98 ]. During the transition of care, in our study, both new and experienced participants were faced with difficulties in managing and understanding medication changes, either for newly prescribed medication or changes in previous medications. Such difficulties corroborate the findings of the literature [ 9 , 10 , 47 ] and our results showed that the lack of understanding during hospitalization led to participants having questions about their medications, even weeks after discharge. Particular attention should be given to patients’ understanding of medication changes jointly by physicians, nurses and pharmacists during the transition of care and in the months that follow as medications are likely to undergo as many changes as during hospitalization.

Implication for practice and future research

The patients’ perspectives in this study showed, at a system level, that there was a lack of standardization in healthcare professional practices regarding medication dispensing and follow-up. For now, in Switzerland, there are no official guidelines on medication prescription and dispensation during the transition of care although some international guidelines have been developed for outpatient healthcare professionals [ 3 , 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 ]. Here are some suggestions for improvement arising from our results. Patients should be included as partners and healthcare professionals should systematically assess (i) previous medication adherence, (ii) patients’ desired level of involvement and (iii) their needs for information during hospitalization. Hospital discharge processes should be routinely implemented to standardize hospital discharge preparation, medication prescribing, and dispensing. Discharge from the hospital should be planned with community pharmacies to ensure that all medications are available and, if necessary, doses of medications should be supplied by the hospital to bridge the gap. A partnership with outpatient healthcare professionals, such as general practitioners, community pharmacists, and homecare nurses, should be set up for effective asynchronous interprofessional collaboration to consolidate patients’ medication management, knowledge, and adherence, as well as to monitor signs of deterioration or adverse drug events.

Future research should consolidate our first attempt to develop a framework to better characterize medication at the transition of care, using Fig. 2 as a starting point. Contextualized interventions, co-designed by health professionals, patients and stakeholders, should be tested in a hybrid implementation study to test the implementation and effectiveness of the intervention for the health system [ 103 ].

Limitations

This study has some limitations. First, the transcripts were validated for accuracy by the interviewer but not by a third party, which could have increased the robustness of the transcription. Nevertheless, the interviewer followed all methodological recommendations for transcription. Second, patient inclusion took place during the COVID-19 pandemic, which may have had an impact on patient care and the availability of healthcare professionals. Third, we cannot guarantee the accuracy of some participants’ medication history before hospitalization, even though we contacted the participants’ main pharmacy, as participants could have gone to different pharmacies to obtain their medications. Fourth, our findings may not be generalizable to other populations and other healthcare systems because some issues may be specific to multimorbid patients with type 2 diabetes or to the Swiss healthcare setting. Nevertheless, issues encountered by our participants regarding their medications correlate with findings in the literature. Fifth, only 15 out of 21 participants took part in all the interviews, but most participants took part in at least three interviews and data saturation was reached. Lastly, by its qualitative and longitudinal design, it is possible that the discussion during interviews and participants’ reflections between interviews influenced participants’ management, knowledge, and adherence, even though this study was observational, and no advice or recommendations were given by the interviewer during interviews.

Discharged patients are willing to take steps to better manage, understand, and adhere to their medications, yet they are also faced with difficulties in the hospital and outpatient care. Furthermore, extensive changes in medications not only occur during hospitalization but also during the two months following hospital discharge, for which healthcare professionals should give particular attention. The different degrees of patients’ involvement, needs and resources should be carefully considered to enable them to better manage, understand and adhere to their medications. At a system level, patients’ experiences revealed a lack of standardization of medication practices during the transition of care. The healthcare system should provide the ecosystem needed for healthcare professionals responsible for or involved in the management of patients’ medications during the hospital stay, discharge, and outpatient care to standardize their practices while considering the patient as an active partner.

Data availability

The anonymized quantitative survey datasets and the qualitative codes are available in French from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

adverse drug events

Adherence Visual Analogue Scale

Belief in Medication Questionnaire

Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research

case report form

standard deviation

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all the patients who took part in this study. We would also like to thank the Geneva University Hospitals Patients Partners + 3P platform as well as Mrs. Tourane Corbière and Mr. Joël Mermoud, patient partners, who reviewed interview guides for clarity and significance. We would like to thank Samuel Fabbi, Vitcoryavarman Koh, and Pierre Repiton for the transcriptions of the audio recordings.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Open access funding provided by University of Geneva

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Léa Solh Dost & Marie P. Schneider

Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes, Hypertension and Nutrition, Department of Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland

Giacomo Gastaldi

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Contributions

LS, GG, and MS conceptualized and designed the study. LS and GG screened and recruited participants. LS conducted the interviews. LS, GG, and MS performed data analysis and interpretation. LS drafted the manuscript and LS and MS worked on the different versions. MS and GG approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Léa Solh Dost or Marie P. Schneider .

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Ethics approval was sought and granted by the Cantonal Research Ethics Commission, Geneva (CCER) (2020 − 01779), and informed consent to participate was obtained from all participants.

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Solh Dost, L., Gastaldi, G. & Schneider, M. Patient medication management, understanding and adherence during the transition from hospital to outpatient care - a qualitative longitudinal study in polymorbid patients with type 2 diabetes. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 620 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-10784-9

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Received : 28 June 2023

Accepted : 26 February 2024

Published : 13 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-10784-9

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Descriptive research
Jul 10, 2011 • Download as PPTX, PDF •. 182 likes • 233,408 views. M. Markquee Alceso. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH. Technology Health & Medicine. Slideshow view. Download now. Descriptive research - Download as a PDF or view online for free.
Descriptive Research
9. Observational Method The observational method is the most effective method to conduct descriptive research and both quantitative observation and qualitative observation are used in this research method. Quantitative observation is the objective collection of data which is primarily focused on numbers and values - it suggests "associated to, of or depicted in terms of a quantity ...
Descriptive research
3. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH IN EDUCATION • It helps to explain educational phenomena in terms of the conditions or relationships that exist, opinions that are held by the students, teachers, parents and experts, processes that are going on, effects that are evident, or trends that are developing. • At times, descriptive survey is the only means through which opinions, attitudes, suggestions ...
PPTX Descriptive Research
The term descriptive research encompasses a variety of methodologies that are best suited to examining and trying to make sense of a situation or event as it currently exists in the world. This general category of research designs includes both (a) designs aimed at characterizing the general nature of an observed phenomenon and (b) designs ...
Types of Descriptive Research
Presentation Transcript. Types of Descriptive Research • The Case Study • The Survey • Naturalistic Observation. The Case Study • Where one person (or situation) is observed in depth. What are the strengths and weaknesses of using a tragedy like the Columbine School Shootings as a case study?
Study designs: Part 2
INTRODUCTION. In our previous article in this series, [ 1] we introduced the concept of "study designs"- as "the set of methods and procedures used to collect and analyze data on variables specified in a particular research question.". Study designs are primarily of two types - observational and interventional, with the former being ...
Descriptive Research Design
As discussed earlier, common research methods for descriptive research include surveys, case studies, observational studies, cross-sectional studies, and longitudinal studies. Design your study: Plan the details of your study, including the sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis plan.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when and how questions, but not why questions. A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods to investigate one or more variables. Unlike in experimental research, the researcher does ...
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Presentation Transcript. Observation research • "You can observe a lot by watching.". • Yogi Berra. In direct observation of behavior, the researcher must: • (1) identify the behavior (s) of interest; • (2) create an operational definition of the behavior (s) to be observed; • (3) train observers who will conduct the observations ...
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Descriptive Research. Marketing Research - MKTG 446. Angela D'Auria Stanton, Ph.D. Descriptive Research. Descriptive research (often referred to as survey research) is aimed at characterizing phenomena and identifying association among selected variables. Descriptive research can be used to: 5.09k views • 18 slides
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Descriptive Research Marketing Research - MKTG 446 Angela D'Auria Stanton, Ph.D. Descriptive Research • Descriptive research (often referred to as survey research) is aimed at characterizing phenomena and identifying association among selected variables. Descriptive research can be used to: • describe the characteristics of certain ...
PPT
Types of study designs: from descriptive studies to randomized controlled trials Kirsten Bibbins-Domingo, PhD, MD Assistant Professor of Medicine and of Epidemiology and Biostatistics University of California, San Francisco. Objectives • To understand the difference between descriptive and analytic studies • To identify the hierarchy of study designs, and the strengths and weakness of each ...
Descriptive Research: Methods, Types, and Examples
Descriptive research can be defined as a method used to describe something, usually in great detail. This type of research is often used in the sciences, such as in biology or psychology. It can also be used in other fields, such as marketing or sociology. There are many different ways to collect data for descriptive research, lets take a look ...
(PPT) Types of Research
Research can be defined as the search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, with an open mind, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method. Egesa Romans. According to Mugenda & Mugenda (2010), research is process of carrying out a diligent ...
PPT
Presentation Transcript. Types of Research The types of research are determined by the aims of the researcher. A. Based on the Researcher's Objective Pure Research when the research is conducted solely to come up with new knowledge or to have a fuller understanding of a particular subject. Applied Research If the research is done to find an ...
Descriptive Research PowerPoint Presentation and Slides
Presenting Descriptive Research Method Types In Powerpoint And Google Slides Cpb. slide which is completely adaptable. The graphics in this PowerPoint slide showcase five stages that will help you succinctly convey the information. In addition, you can alternate the color, font size, font type, and shapes of this PPT layout according to your ...
Descriptive Research PowerPoint and Google Slides Template
Grab our Descriptive Research presentation template for MS PowerPoint and Google Slides to depict the method that establishes baselines and generates hypotheses for investigation. ... You can showcase the different types, applications, methods, and key aspects of this research method. You can also explain how descriptive research is fundamental ...
Types of descriptive research
2. Descriptive-survey This type is suitable wherever the subject vary among themselves and sole is inquisitive go know the extent to which different conditions and situations are obtained within these subjects. The phrase TAKE signifies the gathering of data regarding present environment. A polling is useful in: (1) if the value of facts, and (2) focusing attention the the most critical things ...
Patient medication management, understanding and adherence during the
Study design. This qualitative longitudinal study, conducted from October 2020 to July 2021, used a qualitative descriptive methodology through four consecutive in-depth semi-structured interviews per participant at three, 10-, 30- and 60-days post-discharge, as illustrated in Fig. 1.Longitudinal qualitative research is characterized by qualitative data collection at different points in time ...
The Ecumene: A Research Program for Future Knowledge and Governance
Analytically, the ecumene has a descriptive, normative, and critical dimension, and can be empirically accessed through operational concepts such as triggers, hubs, and types of beyond-border conviviality. To apply the ecumene as a research program means to detect convivial common-sense spaces within the global context.
Descriptive Research Designs PowerPoint Presentation and Slides
This is a job description market research project manager sample ppt files. This is a one stage process. The stages in this process are success, job, quality, plan teamwork, concept, strategy, project, management. Slide 1 of 6. Descriptive Research Designs In Powerpoint And Google Slides Cpb.

Descriptive Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

Descriptive Research Design

Types of Descriptive Research Design

Cross-sectional Study

Longitudinal Study

Survey Research

Observational Research

Correlational Research

Data Analysis Methods

Descriptive Statistics

Cross-tabulation

Content Analysis

Qualitative Coding

Visualization

Comparative Analysis

Applications of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive Research Design Examples

How to Conduct Descriptive Research Design

When to Use Descriptive Research Design

Purpose of Descriptive Research Design

Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design

Advantages of Descriptive Research Design

Limitation of Descriptive Research Design

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Muhammad Hassan

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Descriptive Research: Methods, Types, and Examples | PPT

What is Descriptive Research?

Quantitative descriptive research

Qualitative descriptive research

Examples of Descriptive Research

Characteristics of Descriptive Research

Quantitative in Nature

Observational

Uncontrolled Variables

Basis for Further Research

Cross-sectional Studies

Pros of Descriptive Research

Various Data Collection Techniques

High External Validity

Quick and Inexpensive

Cons of Descriptive Research

Risk of Sampling Error

Absence of Dependability

Possibility of False Responses

Pros and Cons of Descriptive Research

Validate the Current Conditions

Analysis of Data Trends

Describe the Features of the Subjects

Methods of Descriptive Research

Observations

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Presentation Transcript

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Types of Scientific Research

Types Of Research

Types of research design – experiments

Types of Descriptive Research

Types of Marketing Research

Types of Research Design

Types of Research Papers

Types of Research Studies Architecture of Clinical Research

Types of Research Designs

Types of Evaluation Research:

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Patient medication management, understanding and adherence during the transition from hospital to outpatient care - a qualitative longitudinal study in polymorbid patients with type 2 diabetes

Conclusions