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Case Study: The Amazon Rainforest

The Amazon in context

Tropical rainforests are often considered to be the “cradles of biodiversity.” Though they cover only about 6% of the Earth’s land surface, they are home to over 50% of global biodiversity. Rainforests also take in massive amounts of carbon dioxide and release oxygen through photosynthesis, which has also given them the nickname “lungs of the planet.” They also store very large amounts of carbon, and so cutting and burning their biomass contributes to global climate change. Many modern medicines are derived from rainforest plants, and several very important food crops originated in the rainforest, including bananas, mangos, chocolate, coffee, and sugar cane.

In order to qualify as a tropical rainforest, an area must receive over 250 centimeters of rainfall each year and have an average temperature above 24 degrees centigrade, as well as never experience frosts. The Amazon rainforest in South America is the largest in the world. The second largest is the Congo in central Africa, and other important rainforests can be found in Central America, the Caribbean, and Southeast Asia. Brazil contains about 40% of the world’s remaining tropical rainforest. Its rainforest covers an area of land about 2/3 the size of the continental United States.

There are countless reasons, both anthropocentric and ecocentric, to value rainforests. But they are one of the most threatened types of ecosystems in the world today. It’s somewhat difficult to estimate how quickly rainforests are being cut down, but estimates range from between 50,000 and 170,000 square kilometers per year. Even the most conservative estimates project that if we keep cutting down rainforests as we are today, within about 100 years there will be none left.

How does a rainforest work?

Rainforests are incredibly complex ecosystems, but understanding a few basics about their ecology will help us understand why clear-cutting and fragmentation are such destructive activities for rainforest biodiversity.

High biodiversity in tropical rainforests means that the interrelationships between organisms are very complex. A single tree may house more than 40 different ant species, each of which has a different ecological function and may alter the habitat in distinct and important ways. Ecologists debate about whether systems that have high biodiversity are stable and resilient, like a spider web composed of many strong individual strands, or fragile, like a house of cards. Both metaphors are likely appropriate in some cases. One thing we can be certain of is that it is very difficult in a rainforest system, as in most other ecosystems, to affect just one type of organism. Also, clear cutting one small area may damage hundreds or thousands of established species interactions that reach beyond the cleared area.

Pollination is a challenge for rainforest trees because there are so many different species, unlike forests in the temperate regions that are often dominated by less than a dozen tree species. One solution is for individual trees to grow close together, making pollination simpler, but this can make that species vulnerable to extinction if the one area where it lives is clear cut. Another strategy is to develop a mutualistic relationship with a long-distance pollinator, like a specific bee or hummingbird species. These pollinators develop mental maps of where each tree of a particular species is located and then travel between them on a sort of “trap-line” that allows trees to pollinate each other. One problem is that if a forest is fragmented then these trap-line connections can be disrupted, and so trees can fail to be pollinated and reproduce even if they haven’t been cut.

The quality of rainforest soils is perhaps the most surprising aspect of their ecology. We might expect a lush rainforest to grow from incredibly rich, fertile soils, but actually, the opposite is true. While some rainforest soils that are derived from volcanic ash or from river deposits can be quite fertile, generally rainforest soils are very poor in nutrients and organic matter. Rainforests hold most of their nutrients in their live vegetation, not in the soil. Their soils do not maintain nutrients very well either, which means that existing nutrients quickly “leech” out, being carried away by water as it percolates through the soil. Also, soils in rainforests tend to be acidic, which means that it’s difficult for plants to access even the few existing nutrients. The section on slash and burn agriculture in the previous module describes some of the challenges that farmers face when they attempt to grow crops on tropical rainforest soils, but perhaps the most important lesson is that once a rainforest is cut down and cleared away, very little fertility is left to help a forest regrow.

What is driving deforestation in the Amazon?

Many factors contribute to tropical deforestation, but consider this typical set of circumstances and processes that result in rapid and unsustainable rates of deforestation. This story fits well with the historical experience of Brazil and other countries with territory in the Amazon Basin.

Population growth and poverty encourage poor farmers to clear new areas of rainforest, and their efforts are further exacerbated by government policies that permit landless peasants to establish legal title to land that they have cleared.

At the same time, international lending institutions like the World Bank provide money to the national government for large-scale projects like mining, construction of dams, new roads, and other infrastructure that directly reduces the forest or makes it easier for farmers to access new areas to clear.

The activities most often encouraging new road development are timber harvesting and mining. Loggers cut out the best timber for domestic use or export, and in the process knock over many other less valuable trees. Those trees are eventually cleared and used for wood pulp, or burned, and the area is converted into cattle pastures. After a few years, the vegetation is sufficiently degraded to make it not profitable to raise cattle, and the land is sold to poor farmers seeking out a subsistence living.

Regardless of how poor farmers get their land, they often are only able to gain a few years of decent crop yields before the poor quality of the soil overwhelms their efforts, and then they are forced to move on to another plot of land. Small-scale farmers also hunt for meat in the remaining fragmented forest areas, which reduces the biodiversity in those areas as well.

Another important factor not mentioned in the scenario above is the clearing of rainforest for industrial agriculture plantations of bananas, pineapples, and sugar cane. These crops are primarily grown for export, and so an additional driver to consider is consumer demand for these crops in countries like the United States.

These cycles of land use, which are driven by poverty and population growth as well as government policies, have led to the rapid loss of tropical rainforests. What is lost in many cases is not simply biodiversity, but also valuable renewable resources that could sustain many generations of humans to come. Efforts to protect rainforests and other areas of high biodiversity is the topic of the next section.

Case Studies in Environmental Geography: A CSE Special Collection

Introduction to the Special Collection

Geography and environmental case studies are regularly one and the same. Unpacking environmental case studies requires a geographic framework, examining how flows—economic, environmental, cultural, political—intersect in an absolute location and define the uniqueness of place. Geography and case studies are inherently interdisciplinary. Most case studies are inherently geographic (and everything happens somewhere).

The case studies in this collection, drawn from articles published in Case Studies in the Environment between 2022 and 2023, demonstrate the diverse ways that geographic theories and methods can assist in the analysis of environmental cases, and equip readers with better problem-solving skills. These manuscripts demonstrate the way in which space and place are active actors in creating environmental problems, and perhaps provide a map for navigating potential solutions.

Upholding geography’s cartographic tradition, Müller and colleagues chronicle the use of participatory mapping with respect to wind turbine planning in Switzerland. A winner of the 2022 Prize Competition Honorable Mention, Participatory Mapping and Counter-Representations in Wind Energy Planning: A Radical Democracy Perspective shows how the cartographic process could demonstrate multiple discourses and intersections of protest. In addition, it includes a number of beautiful maps which show a sophisticated understanding of cartographic principles.

In Barriers and Facilitators for Successful Community Forestry: Lessons Learned and Practical Applications From Case Studies in India and Guatemala , Jamkar et. al propose an analytical framework for evaluating community-based forest management projects using community capital, markets, and land tenure. They demonstrate the robustness of this framework at study sites in India and Guatemala.

In The Bronx River and Environmental Justice Through the Lens of a Watershed , Finewood et al. look at environmental justice using a multi-scalar place-based approach. Using the Bronx watershed as a case study, the authors demonstrate how environmental harm caused upstream aggregates in the downstream flow to less-enfranchised communities, causing disproportionate harm.

In a lyrical and unique contribution, Cherry River: Art, Music, and Indigenous Stakeholders of Water Advocacy in Montana , Davidson narrates the story of a music performance designed to bring awareness of drought conditions in Montana. On a deeper level, the performance fostered community engagement, particularly between indigenous and non-indigenous communities. The manuscript casts the arts as a space of collaboration and advocacy.

Turia et. al, in Monitoring the Multiple Functions of Tropical Rainforest on a National Scale: An Overview From Papua New Guinea (part of the special collection, Papua New Guinea’s Forests ) evaluate the effectiveness of national forest inventories in Papua New Guinea, ultimately using rigorous sampling methods to recommend an expanded approach.

The urgency of today’s environmental problems demands interdisciplinary approaches and broad ways of linking together seeming disparate pieces. It involves looking at individuals not in isolation but as parts of networks, and at multiple scales. Geography exemplifies these approaches. We are proud to feature articles from the field of geography, physical and human, wrestling with environmental cases for the good of humanity and nature.

Featured Articles Müller, S., Flacke, J., & Buchecker, M. (2022). Participatory mapping and counter-representations in wind energy planning: A Radical Democracy Perspective. Case Studies in the Environment , 6 (1), 1561651.

Jamkar, V., Butler, M., & Current, D. (2023). Barriers and facilitators for successful community forestry: Lessons learned and practical applications from case studies in India and Guatemala. Case Studies in the Environment , 7 (1), 1827932.

Finewood, M. H., Holloman, D. E., Luebke, M. A., & Leach, S. (2023). The Bronx River and Environmental Justice Through the Lens of a Watershed. Case Studies in the Environment , 7 (1), 1824941.

Davidson, J. C. (2022). Cherry River: Art, Music, and Indigenous Stakeholders of Water Advocacy in Montana. Case Studies in the Environment , 6 (1), 1813541. Turia, R., Gamoga, G., Abe, H., Novotny, V., Attorre, F., & Vesa, L. (2022). Monitoring the Multiple Functions of Tropical Rainforest on a National Scale: An Overview From Papua New Guinea. Case Studies in the Environment , 6 (1), 1547792.

TAGS: #AAG2024 , aag , American Association of Geographers , Case Studies in the Environment , geography

CATEGORIES: Case Studies in the Environment , Environmental Studies , Events , Geography , Journals , Meetings and Exhibits , Sciences

About the Author

Jennifer Moore Bernstein

Editor-in-chief, case studies in the environment.

Marine Critical Issues: Case Studies

Students use case studies to examine human impacts on marine ecosystems. They evaluate case studies in terms of an area's history, geography, habitats, species, stakeholders, human uses and impacts, and management goals.

Oceanography, Earth Science, Biology, Ecology, Geography, Human Geography, Physical Geography

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This resource is also available in Spanish .

Humans are having a negative impact on marine ecosystems due to pollution, overfishing, habitat destruction, and other unsustainable practices. Analyzing case studies of human impacts on marine ecosystems helps students to understand the critical issues facing the world's oceans today, as well as the positive effects that the establishment of marine protected areas can have on the health of the ocean.

Informal Assessment

Assess students based on their responses to the discussion questions and the completeness and accuracy of their worksheets.

Extending the Learning

Using their worksheet Marine Ecosystem Critical Issues: Case Studies as a guide, have students research, create, and present a case study for a local aquatic or terrestrial protected area.

Prior Knowledge

• Marine ecosystems, interrelationships, and human impacts

1. Activate students’ prior knowledge and build background.

Remind students that Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are areas of the marine environment that are protected by laws in order to preserve their natural and cultural resources. In order to establish and manage MPAs, case studies are created. Ask: What are case studies? Elicit from students that case studies outline important information about an area’s history, geography, habitats, species, human uses, and management goals. Case studies also describe threats to the area and explain why the area should be protected. The goals of such protection focus on restoring ecological balance to the area. Case studies help stakeholders understand how humans impact the area and what can be done to restore ecological balance and sustainably manage the area’s cultural and natural resources. Ask: Who are stakeholders? Remind students that stakeholders are people, organizations, or political entities interested in and/or affected by the outcome of management decisions.

2. Use Apo Island as an example case study of human impacts on a marine ecosystem.

Distribute the Marine Ecosystem Critical Issues: Case Studies worksheet and read aloud the directions. Review the categories of information in the chart, making sure that students know what components of the case study they need to record. Explain that for Case Study #1: Apo Island, they will view a video and work together as a class to complete the chart. For Case Study #2: Galápagos Marine Reserve, they will review a written case study and work in small groups to complete the chart. Show students the video, “EcoTipping Point Success Stories: Apo Island” (6 minutes, 30 seconds) and have them take notes on their worksheets as they watch. After the video, discuss the information students recorded. Ask:

• What happened as a result of Apo Islanders changing their fishing practices and establishing an MPA?
• What do you think would have happened if they did not establish the MPA or change the way they used their island’s ocean resources?

3. View the National Geographic video “Galápagos” to build background.

Tell students that they will watch a short video (4 minutes, 30 seconds) to learn about the Galápagos Islands and the establishment of the Galápagos Marine Reserve. As they watch, focus their attention by telling them to look for examples of the case study information they will record in their charts. Tell them to think about the human impacts that threatened the habitat and organisms of the Galápagos and eventually led to the establishment of the MPA.

4. Review the Galápagos Marine Reserve Case Study.

After viewing the video, divide students into small groups and distribute copies of the handout Galápagos Marine Reserve Case Study. Have students read through the case study and complete the charts on their worksheets. Have groups share the information they recorded for each of the case study components in their charts. Next, ask students to brainstorm the human impacts (threats) that led to the creation of the Galápagos Marine Reserve as a MPA. Ask: Why did the Galápagos MPA need to be protected? List student responses on the board. Then ask students to recall the human impacts that led to the creation of Apo Island’s MPA. Draw a circle around the impacts that are the same as those threatening the Galápagos. Underline impacts that are different from those threatening the Galápagos. Lead a discussion about the similarities and differences between the two case studies, including the human impacts that threaten the balance and sustainability of their marine ecosystems.

5. Have students reflect on what they have learned.

• Based on the two case studies, what was done to address human-induced threats and restore balance in the marine ecosystems?
• Do you think more could or should be done to protect the habitat and organisms of the Galápagos and Apo Island? Why or why not?
• If the establishment of a MPA results in so many positive changes that benefit the people and the ocean, why are there not more MPAs throughout the world?

Learning Objectives

Students will:

• identify and describe human impacts to marine ecosystems
• summarize case study information, including the history, geography, habitats, species, human uses, stakeholders, and management goals for different MPAs
• discuss human actions that can be taken to restore balance to threatened marine ecosystems and species

Teaching Approach

• Learning-for-use

Teaching Methods

• Discussions

Skills Summary

This activity targets the following skills:

• Information, Communications, and Technology Literacy
• Communication and Collaboration
• Understanding
• Acquiring Geographic Information
• Organizing Geographic Information

Connections to National Standards, Principles, and Practices

National Geography Standards

• Standard 14 : How human actions modify the physical environment
• Standard 8 : The characteristics and spatial distribution of ecosystems and biomes on Earth's surface

National Science Education Standards

• (9-12) Standard F-3 : Natural resources
• (9-12) Standard F-4 : Environmental quality
• (9-12) Standard F-5 : Natural and human-induced hazards

Ocean Literacy Essential Principles and Fundamental Concepts

• Principle 6e : Humans affect the ocean in a variety of ways. Laws, regulations and resource management affect what is taken out and put into the ocean. Human development and activity leads to pollution (such as point source, non-point source, and noise pollution) and physical modifications (such as changes to beaches, shores and rivers). In addition, humans have removed most of the large vertebrates from the ocean.
• Principle 6g : Everyone is responsible for caring for the ocean. The ocean sustains life on Earth and humans must live in ways that sustain the ocean. Individual and collective actions are needed to effectively manage ocean resources for all.

Preparation

What you’ll need.

Materials You Provide

Required Technology

• Internet Access: Required
• Tech Setup: 1 computer per classroom, Projector, Speakers
• Plug-Ins: Flash

Physical Space

• Large-group instruction
• Small-group instruction

Other Notes

Before starting the activity, download and queue up the videos.

Media Credits

The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.

Educator Reviewers

Expert reviewers.

Special thanks to the educators who participated in National Geographic's 2010-2011 National Teacher Leadership Academy (NTLA), for testing activities in their classrooms and informing the content for all of the Ocean: Marine Ecology, Human Impacts, and Conservation resources.

Last Updated

April 23, 2024

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The Environmental Case Translating Values Into Policy

• Judith A. Layzer - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA
• Sara R. Rinfret - Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, USA
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NEW TO THIS EDITION:

• A new case study on the Salton Sea crisis looks at how natural and unnatural actions inform how we combat global climate change.
• Updates that capture new developments in environmental politics and policy in the post-Trump era.
• Increased focus on examining the status quo in environmental policymaking to determine whether decisions are perpetuating marginalization.
• Two case studies have been removed to reduce the book's length and streamline its focus.

KEY FEATURES:

• Engaging chapter case studies help students examine environmental policy through real-life examples.
• Maps, tables, figures, and questions to consider are provided to help students think critically about environmental policymaking and to facilitate further research.

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Sample materials & chapters.

Chapter 1 : A Policymaking Framework: Defining Problems and Portraying Solutions

Chapter 2: The Nation Tackles Air and Water Pollution: The Environmental Protect

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7.5 Case Study: The Aral Sea – Going, Going, Gone

The Aral Sea is a lake located east of the Caspian Sea between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan in central Asia. This area is part of the Turkestan desert, which is the fourth largest desert in the world; it is produced from a rain shadow effect by Afghanistan’s high mountains to the south. Due to the arid and seasonally hot climate there is extensive evaporation and limited surface waters in general. Summer temperatures can reach 60 ο C (140 ο F)! The water supply to the Aral Sea is mainly from two rivers, the Amu Darya and Syr Darya, which carry snow melt from mountainous areas. In the early 1960s, the then-Soviet Union diverted the Amu Darya and Syr Darya Rivers for irrigation of one of the driest parts of Asia to produce rice, melons, cereals, and especially cotton. The Soviets wanted cotton or white gold to become a major export. They were successful, and, today Uzbekistan is one of the world’s largest exporters of cotton. Unfortunately, this action essentially eliminated any river inflow to the Aral Sea and caused it to disappear almost completely.

In 1960, Aral Sea was the fourth largest inland water body; only the Caspian Sea, Lake Superior, and Lake Victoria were larger. Since then, it has progressively shrunk due to evaporation and lack of recharge by rivers. Before 1965, the Aral Sea received 2060 km 3  of fresh water per year from rivers and by the early 1980s it received none. By 2007, the Aral Sea shrank to about 10% of its original size and its salinity increased from about 1% dissolved salt to about 10% dissolved salt, which is 3 times more saline than seawater. These changes caused an enormous environmental impact. A once thriving fishing industry is dead as are the 24 species of fish that used to live there; the fish could not adapt to the more saline waters. The current shoreline is tens of kilometers from former fishing towns and commercial ports. Large shing boats lie in the dried up lakebed of dust and salt. A frustrating part of the river diversion project is that many of the irrigation canals were poorly built, allowing abundant water to leak or evaporate. An increasing number of dust storms blow salt, pesticides, and herbicides into nearby towns causing a variety of respiratory illnesses including tuberculosis.

The wetlands of the two river deltas and their associated ecosystems have disappeared. The regional climate is drier and has greater temperature extremes due to the absence of moisture and moderating influence from the lake. In 2003, some lake restoration work began on the northern part of the Aral Sea and it provided some relief by raising water levels and reducing salinity somewhat. The southern part of the Aral Sea has seen no relief and remains nearly completely dry. The destruction of the Aral Sea is one of the planet’s biggest environmental disasters and it is caused entirely by humans. Lake Chad in Africa is another example of a massive lake that has nearly disappeared for the same reasons as the Aral Sea. Aral Sea and Lake Chad are the most extreme examples of large lakes destroyed by unsustainable diversions of river water. Other lakes that have shrunk significantly due to human diversions of water include the Dead Sea in the Middle East, Lake Manchar in Pakistan, and Owens Lake and Mono Lake, both in California.

Attribution

Essentials of Environmental Science  by Kamala Doršner is licensed under CC BY 4.0 . Modified from the original by Matthew R. Fisher.

Environmental Biology Copyright © 2017 by Matthew R. Fisher is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Geography/Environmental Studies 339

Climate Impact Case Studies: Bangladesh and the Sahel

Learning Objectives

This chapter concerns the differences in vulnerability to climate change experienced by different countries and social groups around the world.  By working through this chapter, you will be able to:

• Present the argument for why many view climate change as a global environmental justice issue;
• Characterize the reasons why different countries or social groups are more or less vulnerable to climate change than others;
• Describe what is meant by exposure, sensitivity, and capacity to adapt as dimensions of climate change vulnerability;
• Characterize the vulnerability to climate change of rural peoples in Bangladesh and the Sahelian Region of West Africa;
• Describe how groups in these two areas respond to biophysical changes associated with climate change; and
• Characterize why different groups  are more vulnerable than others  within these case study areas.

Climate change as an environmental justice issue

Peoples, economies and countries each benefit differently from the human activities that result in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions  — most importantly fossil fuel use and to lesser extents, deforestation and agricultural activities (livestock rearing, rice cultivation).  The buildup of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere affects our climate in an uneven way. Different areas of the world are more vulnerable to the effects of climate change (temperature rise, drought, flooding, sea level rise, etc.). There is no reason to believe that the entities that have profited from the release of GHG emissions will also be the most vulnerable.  In fact, as will be discussed below, the opposite is more likely true: the major beneficiaries will be the the least vulnerable to climate change effects.

Thus, climate change can be seen as a global environmental justice issue — a social imbalance between the benefits derived from a set of human activities and their environmental costs.  In this chapter we will focus on two areas of the world that contribute insignificantly to global GHG emissions but are also seen as the most vulnerable. Before doing so, we need to develop an understanding of what we mean by vulnerability.

Vulnerability to climate change: exposure, sensitivity, and capacity

Since changes to our climate are necessarily long-term, vulnerability to climate change refers to its more enduring negative effects on human welfare. Vulnerability, so defined, will be unevenly felt and experienced across the globe due to:

• Different exposure to the physical effects   of climate change including sea level rise, drought, flooding, higher temperatures, and other extreme weather events (e.g., hurricanes).
• Sensitivity to physical changes of climate change. Societies that are poor, that have low overall health, that do not benefit from government safety nets, and that rely heavily on agricultural activities, are seen as more sensitive to physical changes.
• Capacity to adapt to the physical effects of a changing climate.  Human societies with limited wealth, lack of education, limited infrastructure, and few technological options are seen as having lower capacities to adapt.

If we consider a society’s sensitivity and capacity to adapt to climate change (items 2 and 3 above), one simple conclusion is that poorer societies are more likely to be more vulnerable to climate change effects (assuming for now that exposure to physical effects are equal). The figure below plots  average per capita (per person) GHG emissions against average per capita GDP for the world’s countries.  GDP stands for gross domestic product, a  measure of the economic output of a country that is often used as a coarse measure of its wealth and level of economic development.

Note that there is a strong positive relationship between a country’s wealth and its greenhouse gas emissions.  Since a country’s wealth is thought to reduce its sensitivity and increase its capacity to adapt to climate change, vulnerability to climate change is most likely highest among those countries who have contributed least to its cause (GHG emissions).

Also note the quite different positions of the United States (red dot) and the two areas that will serve as our case studies in this chapter: 1. Bangladesh in South Asia (cyan dot); and 2 Sahelian countries in West Africa including the countries of Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger (green dots). These two case studies are examples of places in the world that have contributed very little to the problem of global warming while at the same time are extremely vulnerable due to sensitivity and limited capacity, but also due to high exposure. Both are locations that climate models predict will experience substantial but different impacts from climate change. As a low-lying coastal country, Bangladesh is exposed to sea level rise. The Sahelian region, lying just south of the Sahara desert, is exposed to increased variability of rainfall affecting the incidence of drought and flooding.  Both offer examples of 1) the ways in which vulnerable populations may be affected, and 2) the adaptation measures that may be necessary for individuals, households and governments to adopt.

Make sure that you can find Bangladesh on the map of South Asia to the left and the West African Sahelian countries (Senegal, Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger) on the map of Africa to the right.

Considering vulnerability: Bangladesh

Bangladesh is one of the world’s most exposed countries to sea-level rise. This reflects the significant percentage of its land area that is within several meters of the current sea level. The added risks of sea level rise are not simply those caused by the gradual inundation of land as sea levels exceed the land’s elevation. Increased risks of salt water intrusion as well as the increased flooding and top soil erosion caused by more destructive storm surges at higher sea levels are probably more important. In addition, climate models suggest that changes in rainfall patterns tied to the monsoons will also increase the chance of flooding under climate change.

The effect of these exposures are magnified by the sensitivity of Bangladeshi society to them due to widespread poverty and to the fact that almost two-thirds of the population lives in rural areas (2016 statistics) and thus indirectly depends on agriculture. In this way,  Bangladesh represents a range of developing countries vulnerable to sea-level rise, such as Vietnam, India, Thailand, China, and Myanmar as well as Island Nations such as the Maldives, the Philippines, and the Marshall Islands.

In evaluating how people are vulnerable though, it is very important to consider the social and economic systems that affect peoples’ lives.  For example, in a country like Bangladesh, where women tend to have fewer resources to acquire income than do men,  gender affects vulnerability. A female-headed household may be more vulnerable to flooding or sea level rise than a male-headed household simply because a woman will have a harder time finding income to repair the family’s house and to reestablish fields.

Watch the two videos on Bangladesh climate migrants below. As you watch, consider the following questions:

• People in the US who have resources to fall back on during hard times often have savings accounts in banks or retirement accounts. What kinds of resources do Bangladeshi villagers depend on? Why are those resources less transferable (than, say, a bank account) when they migrate?
• What kinds of resources are offered to Bangladeshis who have lost their homes in storms?
• Is there a difference between Bangladeshis and Americans when they lose their homes to weather events? How are their experiences different? Why?

Considering vulnerability: The Sahel

As Bangladesh, the Sahelian region lies in the tropics (+/- 23.5 degrees latitude) but it is farther from the equator and therefore drier.  The word “Sahel” means “shore” in Arabic — the  region which serves as sparsely-vegetated shore of the “sea” which is the Sahara Desert.  It has long been an area of variable and sparse rainfall with native vegetation best described as steppe (brush land) changing, with increasing average rainfall, into savanna as one moves south from the desert edge. Rains always come during the rainy season, which is the northern hemisphere’s summer. Within that period though, rains are often highly variable.

Predicting changes in rainfall due to climate change is difficult anywhere and is especially difficult for the tropics. In general, climate change in the tropics is predicted to make dry areas farther from the equator drier and wet areas, closer to the equator, wetter. The Sahel, as a drier region, has been thought to become drier with climate change.  The historical record of rainfall supports this.  The figure below shows annual deviations of regional rainfall for the Sahel from its long-term average.

Rainfall in the Sahel: 1895 – 2005

Since the early 1970s, there has been a significant drying trend with some recovery of rains since 2000.  The rainfall “recovery” has been marked by changes in the distribution of rainfall within the rainy season, with more rain falling in large events separated by dry periods (associated with early cessation of the rainy season). This explains the flooding that has occurred during some recent years of harvest failure.

As in Bangladesh, the people of the Sahel are some of the world’s poorest, with large fractions of the population dependent on agriculture. The changes in the climate, with rains coming late or ending early, or even causing flash floods, affect how farmers grow their crops. Inadequate or poorly timed rains can mean farmers get no harvest. Sahelian farmers have been dealing with these kinds of conditions for a very long time, but conditions are becoming increasingly difficult. Grain (millet or sorghum) is the staple food for all families with local grain prices all rising rapidly during periods of shortage (drought years and near the end of the dry season when grain stocks become depleted).  While different ethnic groups may specialize in particular livelihood activities, most rural families attempt to reduce the risk of food shortage and malnutrition through involvement multiple livelihood activities including crop agriculture (which provides major food staples), livestock husbandry (livestock is major store of wealth that can move to where rain occurs), and seasonal labor emigration to more resource-rich areas to the south (a source of cash). Small families and those lacking land and livestock are the most vulnerable. Women, due to their limited access to agricultural land, are often very vulnerable if their husbands have left to find work elsewhere. Thus, while there are significant differences in the risks facing Sahelian societies, the distribution of these risks show some similarities to the situation in Bangladesh.

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Climate Change: Vulnerability, Mitigation, and Adaptation Copyright © by Matt Turner. All Rights Reserved.

Publications

Exploring land use change under different policy settings in two case study catchments.

Wairoa River. Photo: Jason Milich, Flickr

The Commissioner has released two case studies to support his major new report on the challenge of land use change.

Exploring land use change under different policy settings in two case study catchments investigates how current, proposed and alternative approaches to environmental policy could affect land use change in the Mataura catchment in Murihiku Southland and the Wairoa catchment in Te Tai Tokerau Northland. The case studies are a companion report to Going with the grain: Changing land uses to fit a changing landscape , which sets out the challenges and possible ways forward when navigating decisions on land use.

For the case studies, a range of tools – including landscape susceptibility mapping, land use and management change modelling, economic modelling and close consultation with mana whenua and local communities – was used to model how these catchments could look in 2030 and 2060 under different environmental policy mixes.

The findings illustrate the striking scale of possible change if we do not carefully manage the interaction between environmental and economic policies. However, the results cannot be extrapolated to other catchments as the different physical geography, whakapapa and land uses would produce different results.

The report instead outlines an approach that could be adapted and developed by others to model the outcomes of various environmental policies on their own land, before making significant decisions.

Explore how land uses are changing

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Posted on 23 May 2024

The UK’s saltmarshes are under threat from climate change, coastal erosion, and sea-level rise, according to a new study.

• Archita Hazarika 1 ,
• Jyoti Saikia   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0996-604X 2 , 3 &
• Sailajananda Saikia 3  

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Urban blue-green space (UBGS) is considered to be an effective way to mitigate Urban Heat Island (UHI) effects. UBGS not only cools the actual space but also influences the surrounding areas; this phenomenon is termed as UBGS cooling effect. The present study tries to anatomize the UBGS of urban Tezpur with the help of geo-technology. Landsat satellite images of Thematic Mapper (TM) and Operational Land Imager (OLI) with 30 m spatial resolution were used to investigate the UBGS scenario for the years 1993 and 2023, respectively. Land Surface Temperature (LST), Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), and Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) were taken into consideration for the ascertainment of UBGS and UHI. The correlation between LST and NDVI was also determined with the aid of simple regression analysis. The NDVI values for the years 1993 and 2023 are − 0.32 to 0.70 and − 0.44 to 0.50 respectively. The LST values of the town for the year 1993 are 28.76 to 20.17 and for 2023, the LST value is 29.47 to 20.36. The NDWI value indicates that the water index increased in the water bodies from the year 1993 to 2023. Though sufficient data are not available on the website, the data used in the study are free from major environmental and geometric disturbances to establish the LST, NDVI, and NDWI. However, the present work is the pioneer that used geo-spatial technology which will also help the urban planners and designers to deal with UBGS and UHI effects.

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Acknowledgements

The authors wish heartfelt thanks to the Center for Studies in Geography, Dibrugarh University; the Department of Geography, DHSK College, Dibrugarh of Assam, India and also gratitude toward the Department of Geography, Rajiv Gandhi University of Arunachal Pradesh, India for giving such an opportunity to conduct the research smoothly.

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Hazarika, A., Saikia, J. & Saikia, S. Evaluating the scenario of urban blue-green space in Tezpur town of Assam using geo-technical approach. Acta Geophys. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11600-024-01360-0

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Case Study Questions Class 7 Geography Environment

Case study questions class 7 geography chapter 1 environment.

CBSE Class 7 Case Study Questions Geography Environment. Important Case Study Questions for Class 7 Board Exam Students. Here we have arranged some Important Case Base Questions for students who are searching for Paragraph Based Questions Environment.

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Place, people, things and nature that surround any living organism is called environment. It is a combination of natural and human made phenomena. While the natural environment refers to both biotic and abiotic conditions existing on the earth,human environment reveals the activities, creations and interactions among human beings.

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CASE STUDY 2 NCERT Class 7 Geography Chapter 1:

Lithosphere is the solid crust or the hard top layer of the earth. It is made up of rocks and minerals and covered by a thin layer of soil. It is an irregular surface with various land forms such as mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, etc. Landforms are found over the continents and also on the ocean floors. Lithosphere is the domain that provides us forests, grasslands for grazing, land for agriculture and human settlements. It is also a source of mineral wealth.

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Answer- Lithosphere is the solid crust or the hard top layer of the earth.

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Answer- It is made up of rocks and minerals and covered by a thin layer of soil.

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Answer- Lithosphere is the domain that provides us forests, grasslands for grazing, land for agriculture and human settlements. It is also a source of mineral wealth.

Case study 3:

The domain of water is referred to as (1). It comprises various sources of water and different types of water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, etc. It is essential for all living organisms. The atmosphere is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth. The gravitational force of the earth holds the atmosphere around it. It protects usfrom the harmful rays and scorching heat of the sun. It consists of a number of gases, dust and water vapour. The changes in the atmosphere produce changes in the weather and climate. Plant and animal kingdom together make biosphere or the living world. It is a narrow zone of the earth where land, water and air interact with each other to support life.

1.) What is domain of water referred to as? Name (1).

Answer- Hydrosphere

2.) What does hydrosphere comprise of?

Answer- it comprises various sources of water and different types of water bodies like rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, etc.

3.) Define Atmosphere?

Answer- The atmosphere is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth.

4.) Name 3 elements that the atmosphere consist of?

Answer-  It consists of a number of gases, dust and water vapour.

5.) ….… and ……… together make biosphere.

Answer- Plant and animal kingdom

6.) Give a brief description where biosphere is situated?

Answer- It is a narrow zone of the earth where land, water and air interact with each other to support life.

Case study 4 – Environment Chapter

Early humans adapted themselves to the natural surroundings. They led a simple life and fulfilled their requirements from the nature around them. With time needs grew and became more varied. Humans learn new ways to use and change environment. They learn to grow crops, domesticate animals and lead a settled life. The wheel was invented, surplus food was produced, barter system emerged, trade started and commerce developed. Industrial revolution enabled large scale production. Transportation became faster. Information revolution made communication easier and speedy across the world.

1.) Early humans adapted themselves to ……….. .

Answer- Natural Surrounding

2.) How did early humans fulfilled their requirements?

Answer- they fulfilled their requirements from the nature around them.

3.) What did early humans do to satisfy their increasing needs?

Answer- They learn to grow crops, domesticate animals and lead a settled life.The wheel was invented, surplus food was produced, barter system emerged, trade started and commerce developed.

4.) Which revolution enabled large scale production?

Answer- Industrial revolution enabled large scale production.

5.) How did information revolution helped the whole world?

Answer- Information revolution made communication easier and speedy across the world.

Hope above Class 7 Social Science Geography Chapter 1 Environment Case Study Questions will also increase Your critical thinking. Share this page through Your friend zone, so they will also read the chapter and will solve questions.

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• Published: 23 May 2024

Weathering increases the acute toxicity of plastic pellets leachates to sea-urchin larvae—a case study with environmental samples

• Michele Ferrari 1 ,
• Filipe Laranjeiro 1 ,
• Marta Sugrañes 2 ,
• Jordi Oliva 2 &
• Ricardo Beiras 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  11784 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Environmental impact
• Marine biology

Microplastics, particles under 5 mm, pervade aquatic environments, notably in Tarragona’s coastal region (NE Iberian Peninsula), hosting a major plastic production complex. To investigate weathering and yellowness impact on plastic pellets toxicity, sea-urchin embryo tests were conducted with pellets from three locations—near the source and at increasing distances. Strikingly, distant samples showed toxicity to invertebrate early stages, contrasting with innocuous results near the production site. Follow-up experiments highlighted the significance of weathering and yellowing in elevated pellet toxicity, with more weathered and colored pellets exhibiting toxicity. This research underscores the overlooked realm of plastic leachate impact on marine organisms while proposes that prolonged exposure of plastic pellets in the environment may lead to toxicity. Despite shedding light on potential chemical sorption as a toxicity source, further investigations are imperative to comprehend weathering, yellowing, and chemical accumulation in plastic particles.

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Introduction.

Microplastics (MP), plastic particles or fragments smaller than 5 mm, have become widespread along the aquatic environments worldwide, posing a serious environmental problem due to their persistence, durability and toxic potential 1 . MPs are commonly classified as primary, intentionally produced within this size range, and secondary, derived from the degradation of larger plastics fragments, such as meso- and macro-plastics 2 .

Plastic pellets, typically found within primary MPs, are raw materials used to manufacture large scale plastic products, thus making them a common item found on sandy shores all over the world 3 , 4 . These items can be released into the environment during manufacturing and transport or as a result of accidental spills during marine and terrestrial shipping 5 . For instance, industrial pellets are listed as the main source of MPs to the marine environment in Spain 6 . Therefore, numerous studies have been conducted to understand their distribution in marine environments, the potential mechanical impacts on marine organisms and consequently their harmful effects on marine organisms (e.g. Ref 7 ). Plastic materials may contain “plastic additives” used to improve their performance, such as phthalates (PAEs), organophosphate esters (OPEs) or bisphenols (BPs) 8 . Besides that, there is an increased interest on the accumulation of hydrophobic chemicals by the pellets. Given their large surface:volume ratio, microplastics have a high ability to absorb hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOCs) from water, effectively concentrating these substances. Also they show the potential to transfer these substances to organisms upon ingestion, although this topic is subject of debate 9 , 10 , 11 .

In fact, plastic pellets act as passive samplers accumulating on their surface organic pollutants present in the surrounding environment 12 . This aspect is particularly relevant in aquatic environment, where the amounts of environmental organic contaminants adsorbed on the plastic surface can be several orders of magnitude higher than that in the surrounding waters 13 . Since the first report that highlighted the presence of toxics in pellets 14 , several other studies have shown the incorporation of toxic compounds in plastic pellets, such as PCBs 4 , 7 , 15 , 16 , 17 , dioxin-like chemicals 11 , OCPs 4 , 17 , PAHs 17 and DDTs 16 . Notably, the concentration of these chemicals varies between the different studies and the researched areas. The key factor driving this variability appears to be the time spent in water environment 16 , where pellets go through weathering and aging effects, mainly via photooxidation 2 . Due to weathering effect, plastic particles commonly undergo coloring of their surface, in a phenomenon known as “yellowing process” 18 . This color transformation potentially offers insights into the residence time in the marine environment, distinguishing aged pellets (yellowish, orange and brownish) from their pristine counterparts (white or translucent) 19 . It is therefore reasonable to hypothesize that more white and translucent pellets will be present near the sources of plastic pellets; on the contrary, moving away from the sources, yellowish and brownish pellets will dominate 20 .

The level of aging, along with the degree of erosion of plastic and the chemical properties of the pollutant, influence the sorption of pollutants; a number of studies, indeed, have noted a greater accumulation of POPs or DLCs in plastic pellets that presents greater aging and coloring 7 , 11 , 16 , 17 . If the aged and colored pellets present higher concentrations of organic contaminants, then these could be transferred more effectively to the aquatic biota 20 . It is possible to objectively quantify the degree of yellowing and weathering of plastic particles using the Yellowness Index (YI), which is a percentage value based on the yellowing of the sample and increases according to plastic degradation 17 .

However, the relationship between the aging process, pollutants accumulation on plastic pellets and their toxicity to aquatic biota, is still poorly understood 17 ; just as it is a complex challenge to trace the life history of each pellet that stranded on the beach 21 .

The Tarragona region (Catalunya, NE Spain) is home to one of the largest and most important petrochemical complexes in the Mediterranean. This complex, known as the Chemical Complex of Tarragona (Complejo Petroquímico de Tarragona), encompasses various facilities and plants dedicated to the production, handling and logistics of chemicals and plastics (Fig.  1 ). The complex is strategically located near the Port of Tarragona for easy transportation of goods. Since 2018, Good Karma Projects association (goodkarmaprojects.org) has dedicated efforts to investigate and document the issue of plastic pellet pollution in Tarragona. Initial reports from witnesses highlighted occurrences of significant pellet influxes on La Pineda Beach and surrounding beaches, particularly coinciding with stormy weather or heavy rainfall in the preceding days. Initially, the prevailing belief was that these incidents were primarily linked to losses in maritime transport or originated from distant sources. However, inspections carried out in 2020 and 2021 by volunteers from our organization, in collaboration with the Corps of Rural Agents of Catalonia, within the region’s hydrographic network, have confirmed the existence of substantial pellet concentrations in these areas. Notably, these concentrations have been identified more than a dozen kilometers inland from the beach, often situated next to the facilities responsible for the production, storage, and distribution of pellets. It is widely acknowledged that companies worldwide, engaged in the handling of plastic pellets, experience unintended chronic and persistent losses 22 , and in Tarragona this is no exception.

Locations where pellets were collected for this study along with photos from those locations pellet pollution. Plastic Industries are identified with industry symbol. TR Sant Ramón stream; PI Pineda Beach; CA Cavalleria Beach. Photo credits for the image of La Pineda Beach go to Anna Lofi.

Taking this into account, the main goal of this study is to investigate whether there are variations between plastic pellets found near their source and those collected from beaches at increasing distances from the production source, displaying signs of weathering. Our objective is to test the hypothesis that greater distances from the source lead to increased weathering and a more pronounced yellowing of the pellet samples. Additionally, we conducted toxicity assessments on leachates from these environmental samples, including sub-samples categorized by their color, using the highly sensitive sea-urchin embryo test (SET).

Material and methods

Plastic pellets were collected during the spring of 2022, at three locations with increasing distance from a local source of plastic pellets waste (Fig.  1 ). The samples were collected as part of the Good Karma citizen science program, aiming to identify new accumulation areas in the territory. The samples were taken as evidence of the presence of pellets in these accumulation areas from a square between 50 and 100 cm wide. The sample from the Sant Ramón stream (TR, henceforth) was taken from the side of the channel where pellets accumulate among the vegetation (41° 10′ 00.5″ N 1° 11′ 08.8″ E). In the case of La Pineda Beach (PI, henceforth), samples were collected from the large southern accumulation area of the beach (41° 03′ 58.2″ N 1° 10′ 48.0″ E), about 60 m from the shoreline. Finally, in the case of Cavalleria Beach (CA, henceforth) on the island of Menorca, samples were collected in a central area of the beach, about 20 m from the shoreline, near the dunes (40° 03′ 32.9″ N 4° 04′ 32.8″ E).

Pellets characterization

In the laboratory, plastic pellets were rinsed with distilled water to remove any attached debris. The three collected stocks were characterized according to the presence of surface cracking and their yellowness. Additional samples were sent to University of Vigo central services (CACTI) for the identification of the polymer by Fourier-Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) by using a Thermo Scientific Nicolet 6700) equipped with a attenuated total reflectance (ATR) diamond crystal.

For each stock, a representative subsample of 35 individual plastic pellets was examined by unaided visual inspection. The examination focused on the identification of two prominent indicators of photo-oxidative stress, as delineated in the classification system proposed by Hunter et al 23 . Briefly, plastic pellets were assigned weathering scores as follows: a score of ‘1’ denoted the absence of both yellowing and cracking, ‘2’ indicated the presence of either yellowing or cracking, and ‘3’ signified the coexistence of yellowing and cracking.

To calculate the yellowness index, we developed a Python script for image processing using the SkImage ( https://scikit-image.org/ ) 24 , Colour ( https://www.colour-science.org/ ) 25 and Scikit-learn ( https://scikit-learn.org ) libraries 26 . The complete script is available at https://github.com/flaranjeiro/Yellowing_Index_ImageAnalysis and can be applied to any jpg image file. In summary, when you upload an image to the script, all its pixels are analyzed for color. Therefore, it is important to upload pellet images with background removed by photo editors. The software then employs statistical clustering of the color values of each pixel to identify the ten most likely colors in the image, represented in the CIE XYZ color space format. Based on this data, the Yellowness Index is computed by the Colour library, following the formula outlined in the ASTM E131 method.

Additionally, and to better understand the influence of these weathering features on the leachate toxicity, subsamples were generated for both PI and CA stations based on the degree of yellowing. These subsamples included those with no yellowing (designated as PIW and CAW), some degree of yellowing (PII and CAI), and significant yellowing (PIY and CAY). The previously described classifications were also applied on these pellet subsamples. Images of the plastic pellets samples used in this work, and analyzed by the script for Yellowness Index, can be found in supplementary material (Fig. S1 ).

Toxicity tests

All pellet samples, as previously referred, were grounded with a CryoMill (Retsch) with the aid of liquid nitrogen and then sieved through a 250 µm metallic mesh to obtain a homogenous particle size. The leachate preparation followed standard methods specifically developed for plastic materials 27 . In summary, 650 mg of each sample was transferred to 65 ml glass bottles containing artificial seawater without any headspace (10 g/L). These bottles were then placed on an overhead rotator (GFL 3040) and gently rotated at 1 rpm for 24 h at a temperature of 20 °C in complete darkness. The resulting leachates were filtered through glass fiber filters (Whatman) previously cleansed with 150 ml of distilled water. Likewise, 200 ml of artificial seawater were filtered and used as control for the bioassays. To ensure optimal testing conditions, various chemical and physical parameters such as temperature, pH, salinity, and dissolved oxygen were monitored. Leachates were tested undiluted and diluted in artificial seawater to 1/3, 1/10 and 1/30.

Marine toxicity of leachates was tested using the SET bioassay according to Beiras et al 28 . Gametes were obtained by dissection of sexually mature sea urchins Paracentrotus lividus , collected in the outer part of the Ría de Vigo, and kept in stock at the ECIMAT (University of Vigo). Gametes viability (egg roundness and sperm motility) was assessed under the microscope and after that oocytes were transferred to a 50 ml measuring cylinder. A small volume of undiluted sperm, collected with a glass Pasteur pipette, was added to the cylinder, followed by gentle stirring with a plunger. The number of fertilized eggs, characterized by the fertilization membrane, were counted in 20 µl aliquots. Eggs with a density of 40 per ml were moved to airtight glass vials with Teflon-lined caps containing 4 ml of the treatment dilutions. In the bioassay were tested: fertilized eggs that were fixed after delivery, artificial seawater controls and dilutions of the leachates. After 48 h incubation at 20 °C in dark, samples were fixed with three drops of 30% formalin.

Statistical analysis

The maximum length of the first 35 individuals per vials was measured using Leica image analysis software; after that, the size increase was calculated subtracting the mean egg size. Acceptability criteria in controls was fertilization > 95% and pluteus size increase > 253 µm 29 . Control corrected size increase was fit to a probit function of the leachate dilution, and the median effective concentration (EC50) was calculated as the dilution reducing size increase by 50%.

To determine the normality of the data was used the Shapiro–Wilk test, while ANOVA and Levene’s test were conducted to test differences ( p  < 0.05) among treatment group means and variances, respectively. In the event of significant differences in homoscedasticity ( p  < 0.05), Dunnett’s post hoc test was used to compare every treatment with the control treatment (filtered artificial seawater); otherwise, Dunnett’s T3 post hoc was used. Through these tests it is possible to calculate the NOEC (No Observed Effect Concentration) and the LOEC (Low Observed Effect Concentration). Finally, toxic units (TU) were calculated as TU = 1/EC20 30 . IBM SPSS statistics software V25 was used to conduct statistical analyses.

FTIR results of the randomly selected pellets from the sampled stations have shown a balanced composition of either polyethylene or polypropylene. Detailed analysis can be seen in supplementary material (Fig. S2 ). It is then fair to assume that both polymers were generally present in all samples and therefore polymer composition wouldn’t influence the obtained results.

The categorization of visual signs of weathering reveals a consistent trend of increased weathering as one moves from inland sources to the farthest point (CA). The majority of pellets are classified as either 2 (46%) or 3 (46%) at CA, in contrast to TR, where no pellets fall into the category of 3, with the majority being classified as 1 (86%) (see Fig.  2 A). PI, on the other hand, predominantly consists of pellets classified as 2 (49%). Notably, when considering subsamples selected based on visual inspection, the expected trend of increased weathering from PIW and CAW to PIY and CAY is evident. However, it is important to highlight that weathering classification is consistently higher in CA subsamples compared to their corresponding PI subsamples (eg. CAY > PIY).

Weathering classification ( A ) and % Yellowness index ( B ) observed in this study samples and subsamples.

As for the Yellowing classification, a similar pattern emerges (see Fig.  2 B). The yellowing index generally increases from TR to CA, with less pronounced differences between PI and CA. %YI is slighlty higher in CAY compared to PIY. Interestingly, even within PI subsamples, there is a slightly higher %YI in those with no yellowing and some degree of yellowing when compared to CA. This discrepancy can be attributed to the subjective nature of visually determining color, which can vary within intermediate ranges. For a comprehensive breakdown of results and colors identified through image analysis, please refer to the Supplementary Excel file.

The outcomes of the SET, conducted using the leachates, are summarized in Table 1 (you can find dose–response curves in Fig. S3 in the supplementary material). Notably, the leachate derived from the TR sample exhibited no statistically significant toxic effects across all tested concentrations. However, significant effects were observed when using undiluted leachate from the PI sample, and in the case of the CA sample, toxicity was evident in undiluted and the three times diluted leachate.

It is worth highlighting that despite the absence of toxicity in the PI leachate as a whole, subsamples taken from PI exhibited varying toxic effects. Specifically, there were no significant effects observed in the leachates from PIW. However, both PII and PIY leachates displayed significant effects on larval growth. This time, PII and PIY were found to be slightly toxic. All CA subsamples exhibited slight toxicity, with the most heavily yellowed subsample demonstrating the highest level of toxicity (TU for CAY was 1.9, compared to 1.4 and 1.5 for CAI and CAW, respectively), mirroring the trends observed in PI. More weathered pellets from Pineda beach (PIY) result now to be more toxic than less weathered pellets subsample from Cavalleria (CAW & CAI).

In the regression analysis, we converted the weathering classification from Fig.  2 into percentages, with a maximum classification of 2 corresponding to 100%. The toxicity values used in the analysis were determined by calculating the average impact on larval growth (in percentage of control) observed in the undiluted leachates. Regression analysis (Fig.  3 ) reveals that the observed toxicity in the leachates cannot be explained by the weathering variables examined when considering all stations or when focusing solely on CA subsamples. In contrast, when looking at the PI subsamples, weathering ( p -value < 0.1) and, to a greater extent, the Yellowing Index ( p -value < 0.01) appear to have an influence on toxicity. However, it’s crucial to be careful when interpreting these findings due to the limited number of observations utilized in the regression analysis.

Regression analysis between weathering variables observed in pellets and toxic effects observed on sea urchin embryos.

Plastic pellets have become a ubiquitous element of the ecosystem, been detected in numerous coastal locations worldwide 7 , 17 , 20 , 31 , 32 , freshwater ecosystems 33 , 34 as well as in biota, including fish 35 , 36 , 37 turtles 38 , 39 , 40 and birds 41 , 42 , 43 . This is also the case for our study area, the Tarragona coast (Western Mediterranean), where microplastics and pellets contamination was previously reported in coastal areas 44 and molluscs 45 .

This is a concerning issue, as plastic pellets have the potential to inflict mechanical harm on marine life by leading to complications such as intestinal blockages, reduced food consumption, and internal injuries 7 , 46 . But also, plastic pellets can both transport and absorb chemical compounds from their surroundings 4 , 47 , a process potentially influenced by the level of weathering they undergo. Some studies have reported a positive correlation between the extent of chemical contamination on the surfaces of these pellets and the degree of weathering they experience in aquatic environments 11 , 16 , 17 .

Understanding the issue of plastic pellet pollution in the Tarragona region, our research aims to provide fresh insights into the harmful effects of plastic pellets on the early life stages of marine invertebrates. Our proposed classifications confirm that plastic pellets exhibit increased weathering and yellowing as they travel farther from the source of pellet leakage. Comparing full samples there is an increase in weathering (Classification 2 + 3) of 500 and 640% from TR to PI and CA, respectively, while the yellowing increased 504% and 537% in the full sample of the same stations. In subsamples, yellowing increases up to 900% in comparison to those found in TR were registered (Fig.  2 ). This aligns with findings by De Monte et al. 19 , who noted that pellets left on beaches and in seawater environments for six months displayed a significant shift in color towards yellow and alterations in surface morphology. Although in our case is not possible to predict how much time pellets have been spent in the environment.

The results of SET, with the leachates of the three samples studied, show an increasing negative effect on larval growth from TR to PI and then to CA, the sample taken at the highest distance from the source which revealed to be slightly toxic. It’s important to note that PI beach is situated immediately after the riverine inflow that carries the pellets from the source to the sea, while CA is located in the Baleares Island in the midst of the Mediterranean. The hydrographic characteristics of the petrochemical complex in Tarragona designate it as a flood-prone region. Consequently, during periods of abundant rainfall, water transports particles from the soil towards the sea. Once in the sea, the pellets remain afloat on the surface, forming accumulations in proximity to their sources along the Tarragona coast. When faced with easterly or southerly winds and waves, the pellets are driven onto La Pineda Beach. Conversely, under conditions of northwesterly or westerly winds (predominant in the region), they are propelled towards the Balearic Sea. Nevertheless, and since no plastic factory is based in Balearic Islands, it’s reasonable to assume that the pellet mixture in CA includes contributions from other sources and various contaminants that may affect the overall toxicity. This could potentially account for the relatively weak correlation between the bioassay results of the sampled pellets and their weathering classifications (see Fig.  3 ). Nevertheless, to gain deeper insights into the influence of weathering on pellet toxicity, we took the collected samples from PI and CA and divided them into three subsamples based on the degree of pellet weathering. In the case of PI subsamples, those with no apparent weathering (PIW) exhibited no toxic effects, like what we observed in TR. However, as the level of weathering increased in the pellets, so did the negative impact on toxicity. Notably, both PII and PIY displayed slight toxicity, a phenomenon that was not observed in the assessment of the full sample. It’s worth noting that the weathering and yellowness classifications in these subsamples exhibit a strong correlation with the toxic effects of undiluted leachates (refer to Fig.  3 ). Likewise, the EC20 values also appear to be significantly influenced by these characteristics. As mentioned earlier, the PI sample was collected relatively close to the local source of pellet production, ensuring sample homogeneity in terms of origin. However, there exists heterogeneity in the residence time of these pellets in the environment, with those exposed for longer periods demonstrating increased toxicity. This information holds significant importance both in monitoring pellet toxicity and in managing this type of pollution. It becomes evident that even if these plastics can be considered chemically harmless at the time of production can turn toxic after an extended period in the environment. This is the case in all the CA subsamples, as they consistently displayed slight toxicity, in line with the results observed in the original CA sample. This may be attributed to the fact that, despite our attempt to categorize them into three distinct groups, all the pellets in CA had experienced a significant degree of weathering and yellowing. It’s also important to consider that this sample is likely more diverse in terms of the pellets’ sources of origin. However, even though there is no direct correlation between the toxicity of undiluted leachate and the weathering classifications (as shown in Fig.  3 ), both the EC50 and, notably, the EC20 demonstrate that the most weathered category is more toxic than the others.

The impact of leachates from environmental pellets on biota remains a relatively understudied and unmonitored area. Nevertheless, several studies have indicated more pronounced negative effects on embryo development when comparing beach-collected pellets to industrial polypropylene pellets in brown mussels 48 or Polyethylene pellets in P. lividus larvae 49 . Similarly, research with the fish Pimephales promelas has shown that leachates from beached pellets are more likely to cause mortality and deformities compared to leachates from industrial polypropylene or polyethylene 50 . This can be justified by the fact that plastics have a high ability to absorb hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOCs) from water, effectively concentrating these substances 10 , 11 . Because of constraints related to pellet availability, we were unable to conduct chemical analyses on these samples. However, previous studies have corroborated elevated levels of toxic chemicals in weathered or aged pellets 11 , 17 .

These findings, alongside our results, suggest that pellets collected near the source and showing minimal weathering, are more likely to be less toxic when compared to pellets displaying significant signs of weathering and yellowing. The latter may have been exposed to the environment for an extended period, potentially leading to the absorption of chemicals from their surroundings. Nonetheless, to gain a more comprehensive understanding of this phenomenon, it will be essential to conduct additional research focused on environmental pellets and the potential toxicity of their leachates to biota. Similarly, further investigations will be necessary to scrutinize the processes of weathering and yellowing that plastic particles undergo, along with the subsequent associations between these processes and the concentration of chemical compounds.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study will be available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the support of Patricia Rubio and Alejandro Vilas during the pellets micronization process and sea-urchin bioassays. We would also like to express our gratitude to the NGO Per La Mar Viva from Menorca Island for their assistance in the conducted samplings. Furthermore, this endeavor would not have been possible without the support of the volunteers from Good Karma Projects, to whom we also extend our thanks.

This study was supported by The RESPONSE project, founded by the “Joint Programming Initiative Healthy and Productive Seas and Oceans, “JPI Oceans” (PCI2020-112110) through the national funding agencies of Spain (Spanish National Research Agency). Pellet samples were collected during the MEDPELLETS (Status and dynamics of pellet contamination in the Western Mediterranean Sea) led by Good Karma Projects with the collaboration of Fundación Biodiversidad, under the Ministry of Transición Ecológica y Reto Demográfico, through Pleamar Program, co-financed by the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund (EMFF).

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Michele Ferrari, Filipe Laranjeiro & Ricardo Beiras

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Michele Ferrari: writing–original draft, laboratory and data analysis methodological application, graphical representations, writing–review & editing. Filipe Laranjeiro: conceptualization, writing–original draft, laboratory and data analysis methodological application, graphical representations, writing–review & editing.  Marta Sugrañes: sampling and samples processing, writing–review & editing writing. Jordi Oliva: writing–review & editing, funding acquisition. Ricardo Beiras: conceptualization, supervision, writing–review & editing, funding acquisition.

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Ferrari, M., Laranjeiro, F., Sugrañes, M. et al. Weathering increases the acute toxicity of plastic pellets leachates to sea-urchin larvae—a case study with environmental samples. Sci Rep 14 , 11784 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-60886-x

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-60886-x

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Nepal Earthquake 2015

A case study of an earthquake in a low income country (LIC).

Nepal, one of the poorest countries in the world, is a low-income country. Nepal is located between China and India in Asia along the Himalayan Mountains.

A map to show the location of Nepal in Asia

What caused the Nepal Earthquake?

The earthquake occurred on a  collision plate boundary between the Indian and Eurasian plates.

What were the impacts of the Nepal earthquake?

Infrastructure.

• Centuries-old buildings were destroyed at UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the Kathmandu Valley, including some at the Changu Narayan Temple and the Dharahara Tower.
• Thousands of houses were destroyed across many districts of the country.

Social and economic

• Eight thousand six hundred thirty-two dead and 19,009 injured.
• It was the worst earthquake in Nepal in more than 80 years.
• People chose to sleep outside in cold temperatures due to the risk of aftershocks causing damaged buildings to collapse.
• Hundreds of thousands of people were made homeless, with entire villages flattened.
• Harvests were reduced or lost that season.
• Economic losses were estimated to be between nine per cent to 50 per cent of GDP by The United States Geological Survey (USGS).
• Tourism is a significant source of revenue in Nepal, and the earthquake led to a sharp drop in the number of visitors.
• An avalanche killed at least 17 people at the Mount Everest Base Camp.
• Many landslides occurred along steep valleys. For example, 250 people were killed when the village of Ghodatabela was covered in material.

What were the primary effects of the 2015 earthquake in Nepal?

The primary effects of the 2015 earthquake in Nepal include:

• Nine thousand people died, and 19,000 people were injured – over 8 million people were affected.
• Three million people were made homeless.
• Electricity and water supplies, along with communications, were affected.
• 1.4 million people needed support with access to water, food and shelter in the days and weeks after the earthquake
• Seven thousand schools were destroyed.
• Hospitals were overwhelmed.
• As aid arrived, the international airport became congested.
• 50% of shops were destroyed, affecting supplies of food and people’s livelihoods.
• The cost of the earthquake was estimated to be US$5 billion.

What were the secondary effects of the 2015 earthquake in Nepal?

The secondary effects of the 2015 earthquake in Nepal include:

• Avalanches and landslides were triggered by the quake, blocking rocks and hampering the relief effort.
• At least nineteen people lost their lives on Mount Everest due to avalanches.
• Two hundred fifty people were missing in the Langtang region due to an avalanche.
• The Kali Gandaki River was blocked by a landslide leading many people to be evacuated due to the increased risk of flooding.
• Tourism employment and income declined.
• Rice seed ruined, causing food shortage and income loss.

What were the immediate responses to the Nepal earthquake?

• India and China provided over $1 billion of international aid .
• Over 100 search and rescue responders, medics and disaster and rescue experts were provided by The UK, along with three Chinook helicopters for use by the Nepali government.
• The GIS tool “Crisis mapping” was used to coordinate the response.
• Aid workers from charities such as the Red Cross came to help.
• Temporary housing was provided, including a ‘Tent city’ in Kathmandu.
• Search and rescue teams, and water and medical support arrived quickly from China, the UK and India.
• Half a million tents were provided to shelter the homeless.
• Helicopters rescued people caught in avalanches on Mount Everest and delivered aid to villages cut off by landslides.
• Field hospitals were set up to take pressure off hospitals.
• Three hundred thousand people migrated from Kathmandu to seek shelter and support from friends and family.
• Facebook launched a safety feature for users to indicate they were safe.

What were the long-term responses to the Nepal earthquake?

• A $3 million grant was provided by The Asian Development Bank (ADB) for immediate relief efforts and up to $200 million for the first phase of rehabilitation.
• Many countries donated aid. £73 million was donated by the UK (£23 million by the government and £50 million by the public). In addition to this, the UK provided 30 tonnes of humanitarian aid and eight tonnes of equipment.
• Landslides were cleared, and roads were repaired.
• Lakes that formed behind rivers damned by landslides were drained to avoid flooding.
• Stricter building codes were introduced.
• Thousands of homeless people were rehoused, and damaged homes were repaired.
• Over 7000 schools were rebuilt.
• Repairs were made to Everest base camp and trekking routes – by August 2015, new routes were established, and the government reopened the mountain to tourists.
• A blockade at the Indian border was cleared in late 2015, allowing better movement of fuels, medicines and construction materials.

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