good thesis for equality

5 Powerful Essays Advocating for Gender Equality

Gender equality – which becomes reality when all genders are treated fairly and allowed equal opportunities –  is a complicated human rights issue for every country in the world. Recent statistics are sobering. According to the World Economic Forum, it will take 108 years to achieve gender parity . The biggest gaps are found in political empowerment and economics. Also, there are currently just six countries that give women and men equal legal work rights. Generally, women are only given ¾ of the rights given to men. To learn more about how gender equality is measured, how it affects both women and men, and what can be done, here are five essays making a fair point.

Take a free course on Gender Equality offered by top universities!

“Countries With Less Gender Equity Have More Women In STEM — Huh?” – Adam Mastroianni and Dakota McCoy

This essay from two Harvard PhD candidates (Mastroianni in psychology and McCoy in biology) takes a closer look at a recent study that showed that in countries with lower gender equity, more women are in STEM. The study’s researchers suggested that this is because women are actually especially interested in STEM fields, and because they are given more choice in Western countries, they go with different careers. Mastroianni and McCoy disagree.

They argue the research actually shows that cultural attitudes and discrimination are impacting women’s interests, and that bias and discrimination is present even in countries with better gender equality. The problem may lie in the Gender Gap Index (GGI), which tracks factors like wage disparity and government representation. To learn why there’s more women in STEM from countries with less gender equality, a more nuanced and complex approach is needed.

“Men’s health is better, too, in countries with more gender equality” – Liz Plank

When it comes to discussions about gender equality, it isn’t uncommon for someone in the room to say, “What about the men?” Achieving gender equality has been difficult because of the underlying belief that giving women more rights and freedom somehow takes rights away from men. The reality, however, is that gender equality is good for everyone. In Liz Plank’s essay, which is an adaption from her book For the Love of Men: A Vision for Mindful Masculinity, she explores how in Iceland, the #1 ranked country for gender equality, men live longer. Plank lays out the research for why this is, revealing that men who hold “traditional” ideas about masculinity are more likely to die by suicide and suffer worse health. Anxiety about being the only financial provider plays a big role in this, so in countries where women are allowed education and equal earning power, men don’t shoulder the burden alone.

Liz Plank is an author and award-winning journalist with Vox, where she works as a senior producer and political correspondent. In 2015, Forbes named her one of their “30 Under 30” in the Media category. She’s focused on feminist issues throughout her career.

“China’s #MeToo Moment” –  Jiayang Fan

Some of the most visible examples of gender inequality and discrimination comes from “Me Too” stories. Women are coming forward in huge numbers relating how they’ve been harassed and abused by men who have power over them. Most of the time, established systems protect these men from accountability. In this article from Jiayang Fan, a New Yorker staff writer, we get a look at what’s happening in China.

The essay opens with a story from a PhD student inspired by the United States’ Me Too movement to open up about her experience with an academic adviser. Her story led to more accusations against the adviser, and he was eventually dismissed. This is a rare victory, because as Fan says, China employs a more rigid system of patriarchy and hierarchy. There aren’t clear definitions or laws surrounding sexual harassment. Activists are charting unfamiliar territory, which this essay explores.

“Men built this system. No wonder gender equality remains as far off as ever.” – Ellie Mae O’Hagan

Freelance journalist Ellie Mae O’Hagan (whose book The New Normal is scheduled for a May 2020 release) is discouraged that gender equality is so many years away. She argues that it’s because the global system of power at its core is broken.  Even when women are in power, which is proportionally rare on a global scale, they deal with a system built by the patriarchy. O’Hagan’s essay lays out ideas for how to fix what’s fundamentally flawed, so gender equality can become a reality.

Ideas include investing in welfare; reducing gender-based violence (which is mostly men committing violence against women); and strengthening trade unions and improving work conditions. With a system that’s not designed to put women down, the world can finally achieve gender equality.

“Invisibility of Race in Gender Pay Gap Discussions” – Bonnie Chu

The gender pay gap has been a pressing issue for many years in the United States, but most discussions miss the factor of race. In this concise essay, Senior Contributor Bonnie Chu examines the reality, writing that within the gender pay gap, there’s other gaps when it comes to black, Native American, and Latina women. Asian-American women, on the other hand, are paid 85 cents for every dollar. This data is extremely important and should be present in discussions about the gender pay gap. It reminds us that when it comes to gender equality, there’s other factors at play, like racism.

Bonnie Chu is a gender equality advocate and a Forbes 30 Under 30 social entrepreneur. She’s the founder and CEO of Lensational, which empowers women through photography, and the Managing Director of The Social Investment Consultancy.

You may also like

16 Inspiring Civil Rights Leaders You Should Know

15 Trusted Charities Fighting for Housing Rights

15 Examples of Gender Inequality in Everyday Life

11 Approaches to Alleviate World Hunger 

15 Facts About Malala Yousafzai

12 Ways Poverty Affects Society

15 Great Charities to Donate to in 2024

15 Quotes Exposing Injustice in Society

14 Trusted Charities Helping Civilians in Palestine

The Great Migration: History, Causes and Facts

Social Change 101: Meaning, Examples, Learning Opportunities

Rosa Parks: Biography, Quotes, Impact

About the author, emmaline soken-huberty.

Emmaline Soken-Huberty is a freelance writer based in Portland, Oregon. She started to become interested in human rights while attending college, eventually getting a concentration in human rights and humanitarianism. LGBTQ+ rights, women’s rights, and climate change are of special concern to her. In her spare time, she can be found reading or enjoying Oregon’s natural beauty with her husband and dog.

Positional Goods and Social Equality: Examining the Convergence Thesis

• Open access
• Published: 03 May 2023
• Volume 29 , pages 501–520, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Devon Cass   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0607-2086 1  

1573 Accesses

2 Citations

3 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

Several philosophers argue for the ‘convergence thesis’ for positional goods: prioritarians, sufficientarians, and egalitarians may converge on favouring an equal (or not too unequal) distribution of goods that have positional aspects. I discuss some problems for this thesis when applied to two key goods for which it has been proposed: education and wealth. I show, however, that there is a variant of the thesis that avoids these problems. This version of the thesis is significant, I demonstrate, because it applies to a person’s status as a citizen, which I suggest is the central concern of social or ‘relational’ egalitarianism.

Similar content being viewed by others

Egalitarianism

A bitter choice turned sweet: How acknowledging individuals’ concern at having a low relative income serves to align utilitarianism and egalitarianism

Inequality and identity salience.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

A range of goods— e.g., education, wealth, legal representation, political influence—are often regarded as ‘positional’. What these goods have in common is that their value to their possessor depends, at least in part, on how much of them they have compared to others, or where they are positioned in the distribution. While the notion was originally introduced in economics, several philosophers argue that the nature of positional goods bears important implications for the theory of justice; in particular, for the choice of distributive principle: i.e ., deciding between equality, priority, sufficiency, and so on. Footnote 1 The suggestion is that the positional aspects of some goods supplies a new line of support for their equal, or not too unequal, distribution and a rejoinder to some of the critiques that favour principles of priority or sufficiency over equality. Footnote 2 These non-egalitarian views (priority and sufficiency), so it is argued, have reason to support removing or reducing inequalities of goods with positional aspects, on the grounds that doing so may be the best or only way to benefit those who are badly off in absolute terms, or give all ‘enough’ by the relevant criterion. Footnote 3 Call this the convergence thesis .

In this paper, I examine this thesis and take up some concerns that suggest it may fail to hold in a range of cases. I argue that despite these challenges, the convergence thesis is particularly compelling when applied to a case not previously considered: the good of status, and in particular people’s status as citizens, which I suggest is the central concern of social or ‘relational’ egalitarianism. The account I develop brings to light an important distinction between two different kinds of positional goods, or two versions of the idea that positional goods are such that their value to an agent ‘depends on relative position’. For most goods commonly regarded as positional, there is only a contingent connection between relative position and the good’s value to an agent. Greater education than others often provides an advantage on the job market—but only because of contingent factors such as the nature of existing hiring practices, as I will discuss in what follows. By contrast, other goods are positional in a stronger sense. These goods are defined by , or consist in, occupying a particular relative position. For example, the good of placing first in a race is defined by ranking above everyone else. Along these lines, I develop a distinction between what I call ‘position-sensitive’ and ‘position-defined’ goods. I show that that the case for the convergence thesis is more compelling for goods of the second kind. This claim is significant, I argue, because a person’s status as a citizen—their ‘civic status’—is a position-defined good in this sense. Moreover, since a range of other goods are status-conferring—i.e. , they contribute to a person’s civic status, these other goods have position-defined aspects as well.

The paper is in three parts. In part one, I discuss some existing arguments for the claim that goods such as education and wealth have positional aspects and that, as a result, prioritarians and sufficientarians have reason to support their equal, or not too unequal, distribution. In part two, I discuss how the significance of these arguments may be limited as a result of their position-sensitive nature. For position-sensitive goods, it may be that benefits to the worse off can be achieved in two ways other than equal distribution: by growing the supply of the good (or the supply of what it is used for obtaining) or mitigating or removing its positional aspects. Since these strategies may also benefit the worse off, they may be favoured by prioritarians or sufficientarians, and so the convergence thesis will fail to hold in a range of cases. In part three, I propose an account of position-defined goods, and show that for goods of this kind, neither growth nor removal of their positional aspects is a possible strategy. I then characterize an important position-defined good: status—and in particular, ‘civic status’—and I discuss its significance for the convergence thesis.

The Convergence Thesis: Education and Wealth

Harry Brighouse and Adam Swift focus their argument for the convergence thesis primarily on education. Footnote 4 Education is a positional good, they point out, because one’s chances on the job market are largely determined by how educated one is relative to others. A bachelor’s degree will serve as a better means to employment if others are less qualified, worse when others are more qualified, other things being equal. To be sure, there are other valuable aspects of education that are not positional, such as the intrinsic value of learning a subject, which one could enjoy to a greater or lesser extent in isolation. More precisely, then, we can say education-as-a-means-to-employment is a positional good: its value to an agent depends on where they are positioned in the distribution. Footnote 5

Next consider wealth. Philosophers at least since Adam Smith have noted that possessing a relatively low amount of wealth or material goods may cause damage to a person’s self-respect and a loss of inclusion in social life. Footnote 6 A particular absolute level of wealth may provide a person adequate conditions for self-respect and social inclusion in a context where others do not possess a great deal more. But in another context with large differences of wealth, some may suffer stigmatization, living with the common awareness that they are judged as ‘less-than’ or inferior to others. Footnote 7 This might threaten their self-respect understood, as Rawls suggests, as involving ‘a person’s sense of [their] own value, [their] secure conviction that… [their] plan of life…is worth carrying out’ and ‘a confidence in one’s ability…to fulfill one’s intentions’. Footnote 8 Further, these effects of relative poverty may undermine social inclusion, understood, as Brighouse and Swift suggest, as ‘people’s ability to participate in the communal life and shared practices of their society’. Footnote 9

The suggestion, then, is that wealth has positional aspects as a means to self-respect and social inclusion. To be sure, there is another sense in which wealth, as a means to resources, is not positional, since some resources ( e.g., food and shelter) have value in absolute terms, regardless of what others have. Bearing this in mind, it is again more precise to say that wealth has positional aspects in the ways identified, or that wealth-as-a-means-to-self-respect, or wealth-as-a-means-to-social-inclusion, is a positional good.

It is worth noting how the concern with self-respect and social inclusion may come apart. While it might be empirically likely that social exclusion will damage people’s self-respect, it is not necessary that this effect is realized for social exclusion to be found objectionable. Even if relative poverty is not ‘felt’ by people, in the sense that they do not suffer damage to their self-respect, we may nonetheless find a loss of social inclusion problematic. Consider, for example, that social exclusion may involve a denial of what T. M. Scanlon calls ‘associational goods’, or opportunities for valuable association with others: along with being marked out as inferior, the relatively poor may be seen as ‘less eligible to be co-workers, potential friends, possible marriage partners, or even neighbors’. Footnote 10 A related aspect of social exclusion involves a loss of agency . Being regarded as ‘credible’, or as ‘somebody’ worthy of respect and taken seriously, often requires that people are able to present themselves in ways that require a particular amount of wealth. In the contexts discussed by Smith, this involved wearing a linen shirt or leather shoes. In our context, possession of a Smartphone (or at least access to the Internet), a credit card, and an address—all are all plausibly needed to be a ‘normal functioning agent.’ Footnote 11 These agency-impairing effects of relative poverty provide an explanation for why some people ‘waste’ money on things like iPhones and designer clothing. Such items can make a real difference for whether one is able to appear as ‘someone’ and be taken seriously. Footnote 12 Importantly, these exclusionary effects are not a result of people being poor in absolute terms (no one needs an iPhone to survive). Rather, the thought is that as societies become wealthier and inequality widens, the bar for appearing as ‘someone’ may become higher. We could for instance imagine a variation of Smith’s example: a super-wealthy society, where social attitudes are such that people need cashmere shirts and crocodile leather shoes to appear as ‘someone’ and function as a ‘normal’ member. The concern, then, is that relative differences of wealth alone may cause a loss of social inclusion, which may also (or may not) harm people’s self-respect. What it means for a person to have ‘enough’ wealth cannot be specified in absolute terms independently of what others have, but instead depends on the difference between their level of wealth and that of others.

These observations about education and wealth are taken to support the convergence thesis: one does not need to be an egalitarian to support removing or reducing inequalities of goods with positional aspects. Footnote 13 Since education and wealth have positional aspects in the ways described, concern for the worse off, or giving all enough, may support removing or at least reducing inequality with regard to these goods. Allow one group in society a much higher level of education, and the job prospects of the rest will suffer. Allow one group in a society great wealth, and the relatively poor may suffer harm to their self-respect and a loss of social inclusion. With regard to these positional goods, then, if we want to benefit the worse off, or give all enough, it may not be adequate to simply give them more of the good in question. What may be required is that the distance between them and others is not too great. On this basis, an equal, or not too unequal, distribution of these goods may be supported by prioritarians and sufficientarians. In some cases, priority and sufficiency may even support removing advantages from the better off, even when they cannot be transferred to others. As Scanlon notes, ‘the aim of avoiding stigmatization can in principle provide a reason for eliminating the benefits of the better off (or for wishing that they had never been created) even if these cannot be transferred to the worst-off’. Footnote 14 Similarly, the aim of improving the job prospects of the worse off, or giving them ‘enough’ of an opportunity to compete with others, may support eliminating benefits enjoyed by an educated elite, even when these benefits cannot be transferred to others.

Growth and Depositionalization of Position-Sensitive Goods

The convergence thesis is significant because it suggests that with regard to positional goods there may be less at stake than is commonly thought between seemingly opposed principles of justice. Equal, or not too unequal, distribution of positional goods may be supported on the widely accepted basis of concern for the worse off. However, the convergence thesis may be significantly limited, at least for goods such as education and wealth. This is because these goods are only ‘position-sensitive’. There are two features relevant for our purposes that characterize position-sensitive goods. The first is that the supply of the good (or what it is used for obtaining) can be grown; the second is that there is only a contingent connection between relative position and the good’s value, and so this connection can be weakened or eliminated entirely. Education and wealth share these features, as we will see, and this means that the convergence thesis may fail to hold in a range of cases.

Education as a Means to Employment

In the case of education-as-a-means-to-employment, greater equality may be one way to benefit the worse off. But is it the only way? Not necessarily, as Christopher Freiman argues, if permitting inequality creates growth and increases the social product. Footnote 15 The worse off may be benefited by growing the relevant end-use good of education: employment. Footnote 16 Insofar as permitting inequalities of education increases the quantity and quality of jobs available to the worse off, the convergence thesis no longer holds. Priority for those worse off, or giving each enough, may in such cases be better served by allowing instead of removing inequality. Footnote 17

To be sure, however, it seems unlikely that any degree of inequality will benefit the worse off, or that excessive advantages of a privileged elite will necessarily ‘trickle down’ to society’s poorest members. So, removing advantages from those at the top may still be the best way to improve the situation of the worse off or give all enough in some cases. But on the other hand, it is not implausible that some inequalities of education will allow for the creation of new industries, which will lead to the creation of more and better employment opportunities for the worse off. Footnote 18 In cases where this possibility holds, the convergence thesis does not, since prioritarians and sufficientarians might favour an unequal distribution that provides even greater benefits for the worse off, and greater aggregate benefits, than an equal distribution. It may be, too, that egalitarians would favour growth-promoting inequality of particular goods such as education, if this brings about equality of wellbeing, or whichever good is taken to ultimately matter for justice.

In response, it might be argued that at any given point in time, the number of jobs available is fixed, so growth is not a salient strategy. While this makes sense, it may be replied that we ought to be more interested in principles of justice for political institutions persisting through time, and not only for fixed points or ‘time-slices’. Nevertheless, as a matter of non-ideal theory, the fixed supply of employment opportunities may be a durable feature of our societies for the foreseeable future. For that reason, then, the possibility of growth may not entirely undermine the significance of the convergence thesis.

While the convergence thesis may nonetheless hold in a range of cases, then, this range will also be limited to a certain extent by the possibility of growth. This exact range, however, cannot be determined by political philosophy alone, depending as it does on empirical facts. While the significance of the convergence thesis could thus be evaluated by engaging with the relevant empirics, I will not pursue that issue here.

In addition, there is a second way the convergence thesis may fail to hold, which involves what we might call ‘depositionalization’. It is not a necessary truth that having a better education relative to others gives one better prospects on the job market. Because of this, it may be possible to remove or mitigate education’s positional aspects. As Brighouse and Swift note,

it is not simply having more education that makes the person’s income prospects better. It is having more education in an environment in which that causal link holds. We could eliminate the causal link between relative education and absolute income by equalizing wage rates. We could reduce the causal link between relative education and absolute chances of getting interesting and responsible jobs by reducing the stigma attached to nepotism, by allocating jobs by lottery, or by reforming the job structure to make jobs more equally interesting and responsible. Footnote 19

While total wage equalization, nepotism, or the assignment of jobs through lottery are not likely to find much support in liberal democracies, they point towards a relevant possibility. There may be more desirable forms of depositionalizing education. For example, it may be possible to implement policies that require employers to take into consideration only educational qualifications that are necessary for the job, and to avoid assigning positive evaluation to those in excess. Footnote 20 We also might seek to implement policies or to encourage social practices that allow for other kinds of credentials to be evaluated positively. Along these lines Debra Satz notes that in places such as Sweden, it is possible ‘to rise to high political positions because of one’s experiences in the labor union movement’, for example, whereas in other places these positions may tend to be almost exclusively filled by those with elite educations. Footnote 21

Policies that aim to implement these forms of depositionalization may be favoured over equal distribution for a number of reasons, especially if the latter were to require removing advantages from the better off without transferring them to others. For one, removing educational advantages would remove the non-positional benefits of allowing high levels of education in society such as the availability of expertise. Faced with a choice of removing the educational advantages of the better off versus mitigating the extent to which those advantages make labour market competition unfair for the worse off, prioritarians and sufficientarians would likely favour the latter. And again, it is also possible that egalitarians could prefer depositionalizing rather than equalizing particular goods such as education if doing so were a better way to bring about equality of wellbeing or whatever good is ultimately taken to matter. So, the convergence thesis may also fail over a range of cases in which depositionalization is possible. Footnote 22

Again, I only mean to point out that depositionalization is a live alternative to equalization and I will not attempt any decisive claims about whether depositionalization or equalization is more just, all-things-considered. These judgements would require a complex array of empirical and normative considerations that will vary in different contexts. Instead of taking up these issues, my aim is to show (in the ‘ Position-Defined Goods and Social Equality ’ section) that there is a version of the convergence thesis that is not subject to them.

Wealth as a Means to Self-Respect and Social Inclusion

What about the case of wealth as a means to self-respect and social inclusion? In this case it also seems that both the growth and depositionalization strategies are possible. On the one hand, we can ask whether growing the total amount of wealth in a society—making people better off in absolute terms, resource-wise—may improve the self-respect and social inclusion of the worse off, even despite inequality. On the other hand, we can ask whether it is possible to depositionalize wealth by weakening or removing the causal link between one’s relative level of wealth and its impact on self-respect and social inclusion.

One possibility suggested by Freiman involves appealing to what Rawls calls ‘non-comparing groups’, or what sociologists call ‘reference group’. Footnote 23 These include clubs, sports teams, families—even one’s social class. Footnote 24 These different groups provide a source of self-respect that is often somewhat insulated from other sources. For instance, a working-class person may gain a sense of self-respect through membership in their local sports club, and this might have a kind of eclipsing effect over dimensions in which they do not compare favourably, since people tend to emphasize those domains in which they do well. Footnote 25

It may be the case, then, that self-respect can be promoted by fostering, proliferating, and insulating non-comparing groups. The more of these groups there are, and the more independent they are from one another, the more opportunity there will be to score well and gain self-respect from any one of them. This strategy of proliferating and strengthening non-comparing groups is served by material growth, insofar as these groups depend on material resources to develop and function: think, for example, of the creation of the Special Olympics and Paralympics, or the recent growth of E-sports (competitive video games). Footnote 26 In this way, a wealthy but unequal society may provide more opportunities for self-respect than a poor but equal one. Interestingly, it seems here that the growth and depositionalization strategies overlap: by making many sources of self-respect salient, we weaken the contingent connection between relative wealth and self-respect.

We may doubt whether this suggestion is entirely compelling, however, insofar as people are likely to assign high importance to relative economic standing in societies as we know them. But even if we grant for the sake of argument that non-comparing groups function in this self-respect securing way, it is not obvious whether this strategy is plausible with regard to the concern with social inclusion. While non-comparing groups might provide a kind of social inclusion in relation to a particular group, this does not guarantee that a person will not suffer the kinds of loss of ‘associational goods’ and impairment of agency identified above. Footnote 27 In other words, belonging to and ‘scoring well’ in one particular non-comparing group may not guarantee that one is regarded as ‘someone’ in society in general. For example, winning an event in the Paralympics may do much to bolster the self-respect of a person with a physical disability; but they may still suffer stigmatization in society more generally.

Perhaps, though, there are other ways in which material growth might support both self-respect and social inclusion; and perhaps there are other ways in which wealth can be depositionalized. Footnote 28 For one, it seems plausible that self-respect and social inclusion of the worse off in the distribution of wealth is influenced not just by relative position, but by absolute level as well. Suppose there are two societies in which there is the same distance between the poorest and wealthiest groups, but in the first society the worse off have far fewer resources, in absolute terms, than in the other. In the second society the relatively poor group may be much less likely to suffer a loss of self-respect and social inclusion if they do well in absolute terms along key dimensions such as housing, education, healthcare, and so on. Self-respect and social inclusion of the worse off in the second society may be even more secure if the uses of wealth are limited. If having relatively more wealth only allows a person to buy more consumer goods, does not allow them to influence politics to a greater extent, or afford far superior healthcare or education, then having relatively less than others may be unthreatening to one’s self-respect and inclusion as a ‘full’ member of society. Footnote 29 In this way, wealth might become depositionalized.

Again, we might worry that in societies as we know them, people do in fact assign high importance to relative difference in wealth. Thus, we might think that no matter how wealthy a society gets, if we take humans as they are, then great differences in wealth will more or less inevitably pose some threat to self-respect and social inclusion. Recall, for instance, the previous example of a super-wealthy society in which a cashmere shirt and crocodile leather shoes are necessary to count as ‘someone’. In such a society, limiting the uses of wealth would not be enough to depositionalize it. But this points to another possibility for depositionalization: that the social meaning of wealth may be subject to change. It may be possible, for instance, to adopt policies that encourage people to change the relevant kinds of attitudes. One example, Christian Schemmel suggests, could involve ‘pointing out in school that there is no good reason to link social acceptability to the wearing of brand name clothes’. Footnote 30 In addition, policies might be adopted to encourage people to base their self-respect and attitudes towards others on the basis of their moral character or virtue. Footnote 31 That these kinds of social change are live possibilities is evidenced by looking at different historical contexts. According to common standards in Maoist China, for example, great wealth marked one out for stigmatization, and poverty did not, instead serving as evidence of one’s commitment to the cause of the times. Footnote 32

It is not obvious, of course, how feasible it is to change the relevant attitudes. As such, the convergence thesis might hold quite robustly, over an extensive range of cases. But what the previous considerations show is that it is also not obvious that equalizing wealth will always be the best or only way to benefit the worse off with regard to self-respect and social inclusion, and so the convergence thesis may fail to hold in a range of cases.

Position-Defined Goods and Social Equality

To take stock so far, the convergence thesis holds that prioritarians, sufficientarians, and egalitarians all have reason to support the equal distribution of particular goods with positional aspects. This thesis has been advanced with regard to education and wealth, but it is not clear that removing or reducing inequalities of these goods will always be the only or best way to benefit the worse off or bring all up to a standard of sufficiency. In both cases, this can be explained in virtue of fact that the goods in question are ‘position-sensitive’. Position-sensitive goods possess two features, each of which corresponds to one of the strategies that might benefit the worse off instead of equal distribution. The first feature of position-sensitive goods is that they are a means to other goods which do not have a fixed supply. As we saw, relative position in the cases of education and wealth are means to employment or self-respect and social inclusion. But the overall supply of employment, as well as opportunities for self-respect and inclusion, can be grown in various ways, in some cases by permitting inequality. The second feature is that the value of position-sensitive goods to an agent only contingently depends on relative position. It follows from this feature that the situation of the worse off can be improved by weakening or eliminating this link. As a result of these two features, the convergence thesis is limited for these goods. In a range of cases, prioritarians or sufficientarians (and perhaps egalitarians too) may favour growth or depositionalization over equal (or more equal) distribution of these particular goods.

Does this mean the convergence thesis is unimportant? I do not think so. As noted, it may still hold in many cases. I have not meant to suggest that prioritarians or sufficientarians will never have reason to favour greater equality of education and wealth based on the above considerations. And in some cases, the convergence thesis may hold partially: priority or sufficiency may favour reducing inequality in combination with other strategies. What I want to stress, however, is that that favouring the equal distribution of these goods does not follow just in virtue of their position-sensitive features. It must also be shown that neither de-positionalization nor growth can do better. Whether growth, depositionalization, or equal distribution is best supported by a given principle of justice will involve complex and uncertain empirical considerations, such as how far inequalities really do create growth (perhaps a matter best left to economists) as well as how far groups really are ‘non-comparing’ (perhaps best left to sociologists). In addition, the issue will require further normative consideration ( e.g., which kinds of depositionalization would be favoured by justice) that I will not pursue here.

On the other hand, the convergence thesis would be of even greater interest if there are goods for which growth and depositionalization are not just infeasible, but impossible. I will show that this is the case for a different class of ‘position-defined’ goods. This result is significant because people’s civic status is both position-defined and an important (even fundamental) concern of justice, as argued for by social or ‘relational’ relational egalitarians. Moreover, a range of goods are ‘status-conferring’ in that they constitute a person’s civic status, so the version of the convergence thesis I propose bears on their distribution as well.

Position-Defined Goods Characterized

What makes a good position-defined? We have seen that, for position-sensitive goods there is only a contingent connection between relative position and the good’s value to an agent, as in the cases of education-as-a-means-to-employment and wealth-as-a-means-to-self-respect and social inclusion. Position-defined goods, by contrast, are defined by , or consist in a particular relative position. Consider the good of ranking well in a competition; e.g ., coming first place in a race. To enjoy this good just is to occupy a particular position relative to others—namely, performing better than them. While one might have an interest in performing well in absolute terms—by finishing the race in a certain amount of time, regardless of how others perform—this is not the same as the interest one might have in achieving a certain rank, say, taking home the gold medal.

This characteristic of position-defined goods bears on the applicability of the depositionalization and growth strategies. Notice, in the first case, that it would be simply confused to try to ‘depositionalize’ the value of coming first place in a race. Since the value of coming first consists in ranking above all others, an attempt to remove the positional aspect of this good would be to remove its value, or to replace it with something else. If gold medals in the Olympics were awarded according to some other criteria, say through lottery, or if every participant received one, they would no longer be valued in the same way, if at all. The second possibility, growing the supply of position-defined goods (or their uses), is also not entirely coherent. To be sure, it might seem like the supply of first place finishes is enlarged when people tie for first. Following this thought, it might be suggested we can grow the supply of first place finishes by awarding a gold medal to anyone who achieves a certain threshold of performance, in absolute terms. (This may also be regarded as an attempt at mitigating positionality.) But in the case of a tie for first place, or if ‘first-place’ were awarded on the basis of achieving a certain threshold, it would no longer have the same value, since it would no longer mark one out as the uniquely top performer (which is, presumably, what many competitors are after). In this way, depositionalizing or growing the supply by equalizing a position-defined good such as a gold medal involves a kind of incoherence, because it is defined in terms of ranking better than others.

In the case of position-defined goods, then, depositionalization and growth are not entirely coherent possibilities as they are for position-sensitive goods. This would be insignificant if all position-defined goods, such as rank in athletic competition, were not central to the theory of distributive justice. I argue, next, however, that there is another position-defined good—the rank or status people have as citizens—that is of central importance for distributive justice, as argued by social or relational approaches to egalitarianism.

Civic-Status as a Position-Defined Good

To begin, I want to suggest how the notion of ‘status’ in general can be understood as a kind of institutional rank. First, consider how an ‘institution’ is defined by as Rawls as ‘a public system of rules, which defines offices and positions with their rights and duties, powers and immunities, and the like’. Footnote 33 By defining various positions, institutions may assign their members various ranks, as ‘above’, ‘below’, or equal to others. In some cases, this ranking is explicit; but in other cases, it is less clearly so. Academic departments, for example, distinguish between various ranks of professors, with varied powers, responsibilities, and benefits. Martial arts clubs distinguish between the ‘Sensei’ and the various ranks of students (black belts are above the orange belts who are above the yellow belts, and so on). Families, less explicitly, may rank parents as the ‘head(s) of the household’ with older children being ‘above’ the younger ones, having greater rights and responsibilities. Footnote 34 Status, in this sense of an institutional rank, is a position-defined good. What it is to hold a particular status is defined by a particular relative position—as above, below, or equal to others. Footnote 35

Of particular importance for social justice is civic status—the rank people have as citizens under social, political, and legal institutions. Footnote 36 We can think of civic status as involving three elements: one objective; another, communicative; and a third, intersubjective , outlined as follows. Footnote 37

Objective : This element specifies the distribution of goods that are required to confer people a status as equal citizens. This may involve, for example, equal basic liberties; constraints on inequalities of income and wealth, and adequate education and healthcare. Footnote 38

Communicative : It is not enough that people are given these status-conferring goods on any basis ( e.g. , their being equally deserving, intelligent, and so on). Instead, these goods are given to people on the basis that they are antecedently equals; and their distribution publicly communicates respect for persons as equals. Footnote 39

Intersubjective : The equal distribution of status-conferring goods is a matter of common knowledge, setting a public standard for how people ought to regard and treat each other as equal citizens.

I use the term civic status to register that equal status in this sense is compatible with inequalities of social esteem or what might be meant by ‘social status’. Some may enjoy a high level of social status or esteem in virtue of their celebrity as actors, performance as athletes, or their possession of rare paintings. But this sort of local, domain-specific ‘social status’ inequality is compatible with all sharing a kind of global and domain-generic status as equal citizens. Someone being highly esteemed in a domain such as musical performance is no reason for them to be regarded as belonging to a fundamentally different class of citizens, provided all share the same basic liberties, if economic inequalities are not too large, and so on, however the objective element of the account is determined. Footnote 40

The intersubjective and communicative aspects are important because they are required for people to enjoy the position-defined good of equal civic status, as opposed to ‘merely’ enjoying a particular set of goods. To see this, imagine two cases in which each person in a society has an equal amount of the kinds of status-conferring goods identified above. In one society, this is a matter of common knowledge: each person knows that they have the same set of status-conferring goods as anyone else, they know that others know this, they know others know this, and so on (and so the intersubjective dimension is satisfied). Footnote 41 Moreover, there is common knowledge that each person is entitled to these goods on the basis that they are equals (and so the communicative dimension is satisfied). Footnote 42 In the second case, by contrast, each person does in fact objectively possess an equal set of status-conferring goods, but they are unaware of what others have, and the equal distribution does not publicly communicate any particular message. It is only in the first case that each person enjoys the position-defined good of having a status as an equal. Because the intersubjective and communicative dimensions are satisfied, there is a public ranking of people as equal citizens which is not present in the second case. In this sense, then, civic status is a good that is defined by a relative position of equality and involves objective, intersubjective, and communicative aspects.

To be sure, there seems to be a sense in which a person’s civic status may not be entirely determined by relative position. We can imagine two societies in which all enjoy a status as equals, but in one society the level of status-conferring goods— e.g. , rights and liberties, income and wealth—is much higher or more extensive than the other. Here it seems we would want to say that the status people have as equals is ‘higher’ in the society in which the enjoyment of status-conferring goods is greater. In this case, however, what is greater is the enjoyment of non-positional goods. The position-defined good of civic status they confer is the same in each society. By analogy, all runners in a race may simultaneously achieve better scores while their relative ranks stay fixed.

The Convergence Thesis Revisited

Since civic status is a position-defined good, depositionalization and growth are not viable strategies to benefit the worse off. First, it is not possible to reduce the extent to which the value of civic status depends on relative position, since it is defined by or consists in relative position. What matters is not that people have a particular degree of civic status independently from what others have; what matters is that they have a civic status as an equal. Footnote 43 Second, the growth strategy relies on the possibility that the worse off might enjoy a greater amount of a good under an unequal distribution than they would under equality. In other words, benefitting the worse off favours an unequally divided pie, if its smaller slices are bigger than a smaller pie equally shared. As matter of definition, however, some holding a high civic status entails that others hold a low status. It follows, then, that an equal distribution of civic status is better for the worse off than any other distribution (all else equal).

For this reason, there would seem to be little reason to adopt any principle other than equality insofar as we are concerned with benefitting the worse off with regard to this good. Consider, for example Rawls’s difference principle, which permits inequality when it provides the worse off more benefits than they would enjoy under equality. This principle applied to civic status would be equivalent to equality. It would also seem to make little sense to adopt a principle of civic status priority or sufficiency over equality. Perhaps a prioritarian may permit a class of inferiors if they do not assign them a very high degree of priority, or if they judged there to be enough aggregate benefit from allowing a class of superiors. While divergence is still possible in this sense, this kind of view is not likely to be found very plausible, insofar as being ranked as an inferior or second-class citizen has very bad effects on people’s wellbeing.

More plausible, perhaps, is the case of ‘relational sufficiency’, which requires that people are able to ‘relate as sufficients’ rather than as equals. Footnote 44 Kasper Lippert-Rasmussen suggests, for instance, that this view might permit ‘unequal relations between a worshipping religious follower and a sufficiently respectful guru…or a boss with suitably circumscribed powers and an employee with alternative employment opportunities’. Footnote 45 Similarly, John Tosi claims that people do not need equal status ‘across the board’: ‘[t]hey do not need a workplace without hierarchical management, for instance, or the elimination of other voluntary associations that admit of distinctions of status.’ Footnote 46

While these suggestions have some plausibility, they do not seem to involve inequality of civic status. Indeed, if we share the intuition that the kind of unequal relations just mentioned are unobjectionable, it seems to me that we do so because we are assuming a background of equal civic status. As noted before, equality of civic status (and, I think, social or relational equality more broadly) need not involve everyone having exactly the same status in all social dimensions. As Samuel Scheffler noted in an early discussion ‘differences of rank, power, and status are endemic to human social life…’ but further, he suggests it does not seem necessary, ‘in order for a relationship to qualify as having an egalitarian character, that it should be altogether unmarked by distinctions of rank or status’. Footnote 47

Developing this thought, social egalitarians can identify a particularly salient dimension such that if people are equal in that dimension, distinctions of rank and status in other domains may not damage the overall egalitarian character of the relationship. On my account, equal citizenship is this particularly salient dimension. If people rank as equal citizens, then some forms of hierarchy in the workplace, or religious organizations, and so on, may not upset this fundamental equal relationship, especially if the kinds of hierarchy in these contexts are limited in particular ways. It is telling, in this regard, that the examples of relational sufficiency above involve, for instance, a boss with ‘circumscribed powers’ and an employee with ‘alternative opportunities’, or voluntary associations that admit of distinctions of status. None of these examples of supposed relational inequality involve people relating as unequal citizens; and if they did, then we would have reason to find them objectionable. Thus, with regard to civic status, sufficiency is not a plausible alternative to equality. Put another way, what it is to have enough civic status is for it to be equal.

On this basis, there is a compelling case for the convergence thesis when applied to the good of civic status. This is significant, because there are further implications for the range of status-conferring goods (whatever they are determined to be exactly), such as the basic liberties, income and wealth, education, healthcare, and so on. Since these goods function to rank people as citizens, and so have distinctive positional aspects in this regard, this impacts what is required to benefit the worse off, or give all ‘enough’ of these goods. While it would be beyond the scope of this paper to give a complete account of these implications, I will try to further illustrate the idea that there is distinctive concern at stake.

In the case of the basic liberties, for example, it would appear that anything other than an equal distribution would function to rank some as inferiors, and so be unacceptable. Footnote 48 For other status-conferring goods, however, strict equality is not likely to be required. Nevertheless, a greater degree of equality may be required on the basis of a concern with realizing equal civic status, than if we are concerned with other positional aspects—for example, labour market opportunity.

Consider Debra Satz’s account of ‘adequacy’, or sufficiency in the distribution of education, where this threshold is specified by what a person needs to possess a status as an equal citizen. Footnote 49 She claims her conception of sufficiency converges with egalitarian considerations, because ‘adequacy is not only a function of the bottom of the distribution but also of the top of the distribution’. Footnote 50 Furthermore, this conception of sufficiency may support removing advantages from the top, without transferring them, since ‘citizens are not equals when there is a closed intergenerational social elite with disproportionate access to society’s positions of political and economic power’. Footnote 51

These claims are substantiated by the position-defined nature of civic status. Whether one has an adequate level of education to possess the status of an equal citizen depends on how much they have compared to others, and whether the overall distribution of education is equal enough. By contrast, consider education-as-a-means-to-employment. Whether one has ‘enough’ of this good appears, in principle, to be compatible with any range of inequality. For example, on sufficientarian (or prioritarian) grounds, the existence of a social elite may not be unjust if it were to improve the job prospects of the worse off from what they would enjoy under greater equality. This would be a case in which the convergence thesis no longer holds. Sufficiency or priority of education-as-a-means-to-employment would not require greater equality; and it would not be an improvement of justice to remove advantages from the top. On the other hand, the convergence thesis would still hold in this case for sufficiency of education-for-equal-civic-status. While the existence of a social elite may not necessarily threaten the job prospects of the worse off, it would threaten their equal civic status. In this way, the convergence thesis holds more robustly (over a more extensive range of possibilities) for education-for-equal-civic status than for education-as-a-means-to-employment.

It is worth pointing out, however, that this claim depends on the assumption that greater education can make a person a ‘social elite’, defined above  in terms of having ‘disproportionate access to society’s positions of political and economic power’. One could imagine, alternatively, a society that has substantial inequality of education, but where having greater education provided no greater power over others. We could imagine, too, that education is not particularly valued, such that people with more of it are not thought of as ‘better-than’ in any significant way. In this case, inequality of education would not appear to undermine equality of civic status. This suggests two points (familiar from the discussion of wealth earlier in the paper): first, that whether inequality of a status-conferring good is incompatible with social equality depends on the permitted uses of that good; and second, it depends on the social meaning of the good—that is, whether possession of it is something that is valued or regarded in the relevant ways by the relevant community. Nevertheless, given that education is likely to provide a range of advantages in most societies, and to be regarded as something important, concern with equality of civic status is likely to require significant limitations on inequalities of education.

The kind of argument just suggested could be generalized to other status-conferring goods. For example, Brighouse and Swift note that healthcare is ‘latently’ positional, because being healthier than others provides an advantage on the job market. Footnote 52 On the approach taken here, we can point out a further positional aspect of healthcare: inequalities of healthcare may preclude some from being civic equals. Interestingly, because of the central importance of health for all aspects of life, it does not seem that inequality of healthcare may be rendered more compatible with social equality by limiting its uses, as in the case of education; and it also seems that the social meaning of health is likely to remain fairly stable across different contexts. Thus, a concern with equality of civic status is also likely to support significant limitations on inequalities of healthcare. Footnote 53

The category of positional goods warrants examination by political philosophers because they function differently than other goods in the theory of justice. The aim of this paper has been to advance this project. I explored the convergence thesis, or the claim that there may be less at stake than commonly thought between seemingly divergent principles of justice—priority, sufficiency, equality—with regard to positional goods. This idea has been notably advanced in the cases of education-as-a-means-to-employment and wealth-as-a-means-to-self-respect and social inclusion. It may not work so well in those cases. But it works perfectly in a case not considered: that of civic status, the good of central concern on social or ‘relational’ accounts of equality. The difference hinges on a distinction between position-sensitive and position-defined goods. This account is significant, I suggested, because a range of goods, such as education and healthcare, have distinctive positional aspects in virtue of their status-conferring role, and examining these aspects in further detail may be a fruitful topic of further research.

For the original discussion of positional goods see (Hirsch 1995 ); for discussions in the philosophical literature see (Goodin 1995 ), (Scanlon 2003 ), (Brighouse and Swift 2006 ), (Satz 2007 ), (Ypi 2012 ), (Freiman 2014 ), (Halliday 2015 ), (Axelsen and Nielsen 2015 ), (Nielsen and Axelsen 2017 ), and (Harel Ben-Shahar 2018 ).

Some critics doubt a concern for equal distribution per se is important, involving irrationality, or worse, an inappropriate kind of envy towards the better off. Why should we support equal distribution if the worse off could fare better in an unequal distribution than they would under equality? Supporting equal distribution seems to involve holding that there is at least something valuable in ‘levelling down’: removing benefits from some while benefitting no one. For these reasons, many philosophers reject egalitarianism in favour of other principles such as giving each enough (sufficiency) or maximizing with greater weight given to the worse off (priority). See (Parfit 2002 ) and (Frankfurt 1987 ).

See (Brighouse and Swift 2006 ), (Scanlon 2003 ), (Goodin 1995 ), (Satz 2007 ), (Ypi 2012 ), (Axelsen and Nielsen 2015 ), and (Nielsen and Axelsen 2017 ). Some writers such as Brighouse and Swift focus primarily on the case of priortarianism, while others, such as Axelsen and Nielsen, as well as Satz, focus on sufficiency.

Brighouse and Swift ( 2006 ).

I borrow this term (and similar to follow) from Freiman ( 2014 ).

Adam Smith notes the context-sensitivity of the point, as follows:

‘The Greeks and Romans lived, I suppose, very comfortably though they had no linen. But in the present times, through the greater part of Europe, a creditable day-labourer would be ashamed to appear in public without a linen shirt, the want of which would be supposed to denote that disgraceful degree of poverty which, it is presumed, nobody can well fall into without extreme bad conduct. Custom, in the same manner, has rendered leather shoes a necessary of life in England. The poorest creditable person of either sex would be ashamed to appear in public without them’. (Smith 1993 ), bk. 5, Ch. 2.

Rawls suggests that feelings of envy under such circumstances are appropriate or reasonable: ‘sometimes the circumstances evoking envy are so compelling that given human beings as they are, no one can reasonably be asked to overcome his rancorous feelings. A person’s lesser position … may be so great as to wound his self-respect’. (Rawls 1999 ), p. 535.

Rawls ( 1999 ), p. 131. There are various kinds of attitudes at stake here that are sometimes distinguished in the literature. Roughly, one notion of self-respect involves regarding oneself as owed certain forms of moral treatment; the other notion (sometimes called self-esteem) involves regarding oneself as scoring well according to some standard ( e.g., morality, athletics, music, and so on). These notions are defined with various terms such as ‘recognition vs. appraisal’; ‘entitlement vs. standard’; and ‘standing vs. standard’ self-respect. See, respectively, (Darwall 1977 ); (Bird 2010 ); (Schemmel 2021 ), Ch. 6.

Brighouse and Swift ( 2006 ), p. 481.

Scanlon ( 2018 ), p. 26.

Ibid., p. 30.

Consider the example, discussed by Scanlon, of an African American woman whose designer clothing apparently enabled her to have welfare payments for the granddaughter of her neighbour restored (while her neighbour had been turned away). See (Scanlon 2018 ), p. 30, discussing an online editorial (Cottom 2013 ).

The concern in the cases discussed is that inequalities are not too large (intuitively, some inequality with regard to education and wealth is unobjectionable). However, in the case of other positional goods—votes, for example—there appears to be reason to be concerned with any form of inequality. On the importance for the size of inequalities and positional goods, see (Harel Ben Shahar 2018 ).

(Scanlon 2003 ), p. 204.

Freiman ( 2014 ).

Notice that the suggestion here is not to grow the supply of education itself ( e.g ., creating more schools). This would not likely help the problem, because insofar as there remain inequalities of education, the job prospects of the relatively less educated will suffer.

For similar reasons, Rawls prefers the difference principle over a strictly equal distribution of income and wealth (Rawls 1999 ).

Brighouse and Swift ( 2006 ), p. 488.

Goodin ( 1995 ), p. 257. Harel Ben Shahar ( 2018 ), p. 111–113.

Satz ( 2007 ), p. 644.

As noted previously, it is also possible that egalitarians might favour these strategies as well, if they bring about an equal distribution of wellbeing, or whatever metric of justice is ultimately taken to matter.

(Freiman 2014 ).

‘The plurality of associations in a well-ordered society, each with its own secure internal life, tends to reduce the visibility, or at least the painful visibility, of variations in men’s prospects. For we tend to compare our circumstances with others in the same or in a similar group as ourselves, or in positions that we regard as relevant to our aspirations. The various associations in society tend to divide it into so many noncomparing groups, the discrepancies between these divisions not attracting the kind of attention which unsettles the lives of those less well placed’. (Rawls 1999 ), pp. 536–537.

Here is Nozick on the issue: ‘Everyone might view themselves as at the upper end of a distribution through the perspective of the particular weights he assigns. The fewer the dimensions, the less the opportunity for an individual successfully to use as a basis for self esteem a nonuniform weighting strategy that gives greater weight to the dimension he scores highly in’. (Nozick 2013 ), p. 245.

Freiman ( 2014 ), p. 349. Cf. Anderson ( 2012 ).

Freiman seems to hold that the non-comparing group-specific kind of inclusion is all that exists, suggesting ‘there is no monolithic, homogenous good that constitutes social inclusion in a pluralistic society’ (Freiman 2014 ), p. 352. This suggestion, however, ignores the sense in which people can suffer exclusion in the general ways identified in this paper.

This idea seems to be at work in Adam Smith’s discussion of the commercialization that took place early in the Industrial Revolution. Smith saw commercialization as bringing growth and efficiency as benefits; but also important, he thought, was that it opened the possibility for the rich to convert their wealth into something other than power. The rich, he says, ‘gave up their power in the wantonness of plenty, for trinkets and baubles, fitter to be the playthings of children than the serious pursuits of men, they became as insignificant as any substantial burgher or tradesman in a city’ (Smith 1993 ), bk. 3, Ch. 4.

On Smith’s account, then, commercialization created growth; but at the same time, there was a depositionalizing effect. The wealthy no longer used their wealth to exercise power over others, but instead sought material vanities, which could be regarded as ‘childish’ by others.

This is the strategy of ‘blocked exchanges’ identified by (Walzer 2008 ). See also (Miller 1995 ). Cf. (Schemmel 2021 ), pp. 249–250.

Schemmel ( 2021 ), p. 250.

I would like to thank an anonymous referee for this suggestion.

See discussion in (Ci 2013 ) and (Scanlon 2018 ), Ch. 3.

Rawls ( 1999 ), pp. 47–48.

An institutional ranking may be even less explicit, yet still present: in the global order, for example, the ‘Global North’ ranks ‘above’ the ‘Global South’, and certain passports are ‘stronger’ than others, allowing their possessors to travel more freely, and so on.

Rawls notes this point as follows:

‘Status is a positional good…in a status system, not everyone can have the highest rank. High status assumes other positions beneath it; so if we seek a higher status for ourselves, we in effect support a scheme that entails others having lower status’ (Rawls 2001 ), p. 132.

Social equality can be understood to be important on several different grounds, including grounds of personal and impersonal value. See (Tomlin 2014). Most significantly, however, and perhaps least controversially, I hold that a concern with equality of civic status is grounded in the requirement that the state show respect for its members as equals—what Dworkin calls the ‘sovereign virtue’ or what Kymlicka calls the ‘egalitarian plateau’. See (Dworkin 2002 ), (Kymlicka 2002 ). No state respects its members as equals if it assigns some a status as second class or inferior citizens.

It is worth nothing that this understanding of social equality characterized in terms of an institutional rank differs from several recent accounts that characterize social equality in terms of particular interpersonal relations and dispositions. See (Scheffler 2015 ) (Kolodny 2014 ). See also (Viehoff 2019 ), for a useful characterization of political and interpersonal conceptions of social equality. The institutional approach favoured here is closer to the views developed by Elizabeth Anderson and Christian Schemmel. See (Anderson 1999 ) and (Schemmel 2021 ).

It is a difficult matter to resolve the question of exactly what distribution of goods is required to confer the right kind of equal status. For example, we could consider Rawls’s two principles as one possible way to spell out in detail the requirements of equality of civic status. And there are other possibilities, such as Elizabeth Anderson’s ‘democratic equality’ or Philip Pettit’s republicanism. For the most recent and developed account, see (Schemmel 2021 ).

On the communicative or expressive dimension, see (Anderson and Pildes 2000 ; Shiffrin 2017 ; Voigt 2018 ; Schemmel 2021 ).

This is not to say that it is not possible for some norms of esteem to undermine equality of civic status—for instance, if members of some groups are systematically assigned lesser esteem for comparable performances in a particular domain. See (Schemmel 2021 ), Ch. 6.

Lewis ( 1969 ).

We could imagine a society in which each person is given an equal set of status-conferring goods, but not on the basis of people’s equality. Suppose for instance, that one group is regarded as inferior, but given an equal set of status-conferring goods on the basis of pity, or the requirements of ‘noblesse oblige’. Intuitively, this would not suffice to give people a status as equal citizens.

Cf. Gheaus ( 2018 ), pp. 61–62.

Lippert-Rasmussen ( 2018 ), pp. 9–11; Tosi ( 2019 ).

Lippert-Rasmussen ( 2018 ), p. 10.

Tosi ( 2019 ), p. 55.

Scheffler ( 2005 ), pp. 17–18.

Cf. Rawls ( 1999 ), p. 477. See also Cass ( 2021 ).

Satz ( 2007 ). See also Anderson ( 2007 ).

Satz ( 2007 ), p. 638.

See Schemmel ( 2021 ), Ch. 9, for a relational egalitarian account of healthcare.

Anderson, Elizabeth S. 1999. What is the point of equality? Ethics 109 (2): 287–337. https://doi.org/10.1086/233897 .

Article   Google Scholar  

Anderson, Elizabeth. 2007. Fair opportunity in education: A democratic equality perspective. Ethics 117 (4): 595–622.

Anderson, Elizabeth. 2012.  Equality.  The Oxford handbook of political philosophy . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Google Scholar  

Anderson, Elizabeth, and Richard Pildes. 2000. Expressive theories of law: A general restatement. University of Pennsylvania Law Review 148 (5): 1503–1575.

Axelsen, David V., and Lasse Nielsen. 2015. Sufficiency as freedom from duress. Journal of Political Philosophy 23 (4): 406–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopp.12048 .

Bird, Colin. 2010. Self-respect and the respect of others. European Journal of Philosophy 18 (1): 17–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0378.2008.00332.x .

Brighouse, Harry, and Adam Swift. 2006. Equality, priority, and positional goods. Ethics 116 (3): 471–497. https://doi.org/10.1086/500524 .

Cass, Devon. 2021. The priority of liberty: An argument from social equality. Law and Philosophy 40 (2):129–161.

Ci, Jiwei. 2013. Agency and other stakes of poverty. Journal of Political Philosophy 21 (2): 125–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9760.2012.00417.x .

Cottom, Tressie Mcmillan. 2013. Why do poor people ‘waste’ money on luxury goods. Talking Points Memo 12: 853.

Darwall, Stephen L. 1977. Two kinds of respect. Ethics 88 (1): 36–49.

Dworkin, Ronald. 2002. Sovereign virtue: The theory and practice of equality . Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Book   Google Scholar  

Frankfurt, Harry. 1987. Equality as a moral ideal. Ethics 98 (1): 21–43. https://doi.org/10.1086/292913 .

Freiman, Christopher. 2014. Priority and position. Philosophical Studies 167 (2): 341–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11098-013-0099-5 .

Gheaus, Anca. 2018. Hikers in flip-flops: Luck egalitarianism, democratic equality and the distribuenda of justice. The Journal of Applied Philosophy , 35: 54–69. https://doi.org/10.1111/japp.12198

Goodin, Robert E. 1995. Utilitarianism as a public philosophy . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Halliday, Daniel. 2015. Private education, positional goods, and the arms race problem. Politics Philosophy Economics 15 (2): 150–169. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470594X15603717 .

Harel-Ben-Shahar, Tammy. 2018. Positional goods and the size of inequality. Journal of Political Philosophy 26 (1): 103–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopp.12118 .

Hirsch, Fred. 1995. Social limits to growth . London: Routledge.

Kolodny, Niko. 2014. Rule over none II: Social equality and the justification of democracy. Philosophy Public Affairs 42 (4): 287–336. https://doi.org/10.1111/papa.12037 .

Kymlicka, Will. 2002. Contemporary political philosophy: An introduction . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lewis, David K. 1969. Convention: A philosophical study , vol. 20. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell.

Lippert-Rasmussen, Kasper. 2018. Relational egalitarianism: Living as equals . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Miller, David. 1995. Complex equality. In Pluralism justice and equality , ed. David Miller and Michael Walzer. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Nielsen, Lasse, and David V. Axelsen. 2017. Capabilitarian sufficiency: Capabilities and social justice. Journal of Human Development and Capabilities 18 (1): 46–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/19452829.2016.1145632 .

Nozick, Robert. 2013. Anarchy, state, and Utopia . New York: Basic Books.

Parfit, Derek. 2002. Equality or priority? In The ideal of equality , eds Matthew Clayton and Andrew Williams. UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

Rawls, John. 1999. A theory of justice . Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Rawls, John. 2001. Justice as fairness: A restatement . Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Satz, Debra. 2007. Equality, adequacy, and education for citizenship. Ethics 117 (4): 623–648. https://doi.org/10.1086/518805 .

Scanlon, T.M. 2018. Why does inequality matter? Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Scanlon, T. M. 2003. The diversity of objections to inequality. In The difficulty of tolerance: Essays in political philosophy . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511615153

Scheffler, Samuel. 2005. Choice, circumstance, and the value of equality politics. Philosophy and Economics 4 (1): 5–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470594X05049434 .

Scheffler, Samuel. 2015. The practice of equality. In Social equality: On what it means to be equals , ed. Carina Fourie, Fabian Schuppert, and Ivo Walliman-Helmer. New York: Oxford University Press.

Schemmel, Christian. 2021. Justice and egalitarian relations . Oxford Political Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press.

Shiffrin, Seana. 2017. Democratic law. In The tanner lectures on human values . https://tannerlectures.utah.edu/Shiffrin%20Lecture%201.pdf .

Smith, Adam. 1993. An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations , ed. Laurence Dickey. Indianapolis: Hacket Publishing.

Tosi, Justin. 2019. Relational sufficientarianism and basic income. In The future of work, technology, and basic income , ed. Michael Cholbi and Michael Weber. London: Routledge.

Viehoff, Daniel. 2019. Power and equality. In Oxford studies in political philosophy volume 5, eds David Sobel, Peter Vallentyne, and Steven Wall. 5:1–38 https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198841425.003.0001 .

Voigt, Kristin. 2018. Relational equality and the expressive dimension of state action. Social Theory and Practice 44 (3): 437–467.

Walzer, Michael. 2008. Spheres of justice: A defense of pluralism and equality . New York: Basic Books.

Ypi, Lea. 2012. Global justice and avant-garde political agency . Oxford: OUP Oxford.

Download references

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank two anonymous reviewers for Res Publica as well as Kristin Voigt for helpful comments and suggestions. This paper evolved from a chapter of my PhD thesis and I am grateful to those who helped me with discussion and written comments along the way including Alexandra Oprea, Bob Goodin, Christine Sypnowich, Daniel Halliday, David Axelsen, Geoff Brennan, Jesse Hambly, Josef Holden, Lachlan Umbers, Seth Lazar, Shang Long Yeo, Tom Parr, William Tuckwell, and especially Philip Pettit. The research for this article was supported by funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Council of Canada as well as the Portuguese Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, reference PTDC/FER-FIL/6088/2020.

Open access funding provided by FCT|FCCN (b-on).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Institute of Philosophy, Nova University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Devon Cass .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

I declare that there are no conflicts of interest and that the submitted article complies with all of the publisher’s ethical standards.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cass, D. Positional Goods and Social Equality: Examining the Convergence Thesis. Res Publica 29 , 501–520 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-023-09581-8

Download citation

Accepted : 18 January 2023

Published : 03 May 2023

Issue Date : September 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-023-09581-8

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Positional goods
• Social equality
• Relational equality
• Sufficiency
• Levelling down
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

Is Economic Inequality Really a Problem?

Yes, but the answer is less obvious than you might think.

By Samuel Scheffler

Dr. Scheffler is a professor of philosophy.

It is impossible to ignore the stark disparities of income and wealth that prevail in this country, and a great many of us are troubled by this state of affairs.

But is economic inequality really what bothers us? An influential essay published in 1987 by the philosopher Harry Frankfurt suggests that we have misidentified the problem. Professor Frankfurt argued that it does not matter whether some people have less than others. What matters is that some people do not have enough. They lack adequate income, have little or no wealth and do not enjoy decent housing, health care or education. If even the worst-off people had enough resources to lead good and fulfilling lives, then the fact that others had still greater resources would not be troubling.

When some people don’t have enough and others have vastly more than they need, it is easy to conclude that the problem is one of inequality. But this, according to Professor Frankfurt, is a mistake. The problem isn’t inequality as such. It’s the poverty and deprivation suffered by those who have least.

Professor Frankfurt’s essay didn’t persuade all his fellow philosophers, many of whom remained egalitarians. But his challenge continued to resonate and, in 2015, even as concerns about economic inequality were growing in many corners of society, he published a short book in which he reaffirmed his position.

And Professor Frankfurt, it seems, has a point. Those in the top 10 percent of America’s economic distribution are in a very comfortable position. Those in the top 1 percent are in an even more comfortable position than those in the other 9 percent. But few people find this kind of inequality troubling. Inequality bothers us most, it seems, only when some are very rich and others are very poor.

Even when the worst-off people are very poor, moreover, it wouldn’t be an improvement to reduce everyone else to their level. Equality would then prevail, but equal misery is hardly an ideal worth striving for.

So perhaps we shouldn’t object to economic inequality as such. Instead, we should just try to improve the position of those who have least. We should work to eliminate poverty, hunger, bad schools, substandard housing and inadequate medical care. But we shouldn’t make the elimination of inequality our aim.

Is this the correct conclusion? I think not. Economic inequality matters a great deal whether or not it matters “as such.”

Start by considering two points that Professor Frankfurt himself would accept. First, to succeed in eliminating poverty and securing decent conditions of life for all Americans would require raising taxes on the rich significantly. Although the ultimate purpose would not be to reduce inequality, the indirect effect would be to do just that. So even if inequality as such is not the problem, reducing inequality is almost certainly part of the solution.

Second, even if economic inequality is not a problem in and of itself, it can still have bad effects. Great disparities of income and wealth, of the kind we see in the United States today, can have damaging effects even when nobody is badly off in absolute terms. For example, the wealthiest may be able to exert a disproportionate share of political influence and to shape society in conformity with their interests. They may be able to make the law work for them rather than for everyone, and so undermine the rule of law. Enough economic inequality can transform a democracy into a plutocracy, a society ruled by the rich.

Large inequalities of inherited wealth can be particularly damaging, creating, in effect, an economic caste system that inhibits social mobility and undercuts equality of opportunity.

Extreme inequality can also have subtler and more insidious effects, which are especially pronounced when those who have the least are also poor and lack adequate resources, but which may persist even if everyone has enough. The rich may persuade themselves that they fully deserve their enormous wealth and develop attitudes of entitlement and privilege. Those who have less may develop feelings of inferiority and deference, on the one hand, and hostility and resentment on the other. In this way, extreme inequality can distort people’s view of themselves and compromise their relations with one another.

This brings us to a more fundamental point. The great political philosopher John Rawls thought that a liberal society should conceive of itself as a fair system of cooperation among free and equal people. Often, it seems, we do like to think of ourselves that way. We know that our society has always been blighted by grave injustices, beginning with the great moral catastrophe of slavery, but we aspire to create a society of equals, and we are proud of the steps we have taken toward that ideal.

But extreme inequality makes a mockery of our aspiration. In a society marked by the spectacular inequalities of income and wealth that have emerged in the United States in the past few decades, there is no meaningful sense in which all citizens, rich and poor alike, can nevertheless relate to one another on an equal footing. Even if poverty were eliminated and everyone had enough resources to lead a decent life, that would not by itself transform American citizenship into a relationship among equals. There is a limit to the degree of economic inequality that is compatible with the ideal of a society of equals and, although there is room for disagreement about where exactly the limit lies, it is clear that we have long since exceeded it.

If extreme economic inequality undermines the ideal of a society of equals, then is that merely one of its bad effects, like its corrupting influence on the political process? Or, instead, is that simply what it is for economic inequality to matter as such?

For practical purposes, it doesn’t make much difference which answer we give. In either case, the imperative that Professor Frankfurt identified — the imperative to ensure that all citizens have enough resources to lead decent lives — is of the utmost importance. It is appalling that so many people in a society as wealthy as ours continue to lack adequate housing, nutrition, medical care and education, and do not enjoy the full benefits of the rule of law. But addressing Professor Frankfurt’s imperative is not enough. Extreme economic inequality, whether it matters as such or “merely” for its effects, is pernicious. It threatens to transform us from a democracy into a plutocracy, and it makes a mockery of the ideal of equal citizenship.

If, as they say, every crisis is an opportunity, then America today is truly the land of opportunity. Of the many opportunities with which our current crises have presented us, one of the most basic is the opportunity to rethink our conception of ourselves as a society. Going forward, we must decide whether we wish to constitute ourselves as a genuine society of equals or, alternatively, whether we are content to have our relations with one another structured by an increasingly stark and unforgiving economic and social hierarchy.

Samuel Scheffler is a professor of philosophy and law at New York University and the author, most recently, of “Why Worry About Future Generations?”

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

Follow The New York Times Opinion section on Facebook , Twitter (@NYTopinion) and Instagram .

143 Unique Gender Inequality Essay Titles & Examples

Here, you will find 85 thought-provoking topics relating to gender, equality, and discrimination. Browse through our list to find inspiration for your paper – and don’t forget to read the gender inequality essay samples written by other students.

👩 Top 10 Gender Equality Title Ideas

🏆 best gender bias essay topics, 💡 interesting topics to write about gender inequality, 📌 simple & easy gender inequality essay titles, 👍 good gender equality research title ideas, ❓ gender inequality research questions.

• Globalization, gender, and development.
• The Pink Tax.
• Women and unpaid labor.
• Gender stereotypes in media.
• Emma Watson’s speech on gender equality.
• A critique of HeForShe campaign.
• Education for girls in Ghana.
• The suffrage movement.
• Crimes against girls and women.
• Female empowerment in STEM fields.
• Gender Inequality in the Field of Working Wright and Yaeger state that it is the deep intersection of the life and work fields in the current working paradigm that creates daily and long-term problems, limits the available time for male and female […]
• Gender Inequality in the Story of Ama Aidoo “In the Cutting of a Drink” The story of Ama Aidoo In the Cutting of a Drink tells about gender inequality, which is expressed in the clash between the typical values of rural residents and the values of people living in […]
• Gender Inequality: The Role of Media The media plays a major role in gender socialization because of the ways it chooses to portray women. Shows such as Beauty and the Beast, Cinderella, and Snow White are famous because they usher children […]
• Gender Inequality as a Global Issue This essay will examine some of the causes that affect the gap in the treatment of men and women, and its ramifications, particularly regarding developing countries.
• Gender Inequality and Female Leaders in the Hospitality Industry The current literature regarding the challenges and issues facing women in leadership positions in the hospitality industry in France is inadequate.
• Sociological perspectives of Gender Inequality The events taking place in the modern world and the occurrence of the feminist movements during the past few decades can be used to offer a deeper understanding on the subject of gender inequality and […]
• Women’s Rights and Gender Inequality in Saudi Arabia Indeed, it is crucial to understand the importance of women’s rights, see the connections between the past, the present, the local, and the global, and realize how political and media discourse represents the social issue […]
• Social, Cultural and Gender Inequality From a Global Perspective It is the duty of the tutor to craft a lecture-room environment that serves to enhance meaningful discussions concerning gender. This is due to the fact that students learn best in various ways.
• Gender Inequality in Social Media Research shows that teenagers from the age of thirteen use social media to discuss the physical appearances of girls and exchange images with sexual content.
• Gender Inequality in the Labor Force The aim of this article is to assess the assertion that gender inequality exists in the labor force. The table below shows global adult employment-to-population by gender for 1998 and 2008.
• Femicide in Mexico and the Problem of Gender Inequality Femicide remains one of the most devastating issues in Mexico, and it is vital to address the gender oppression and inequality that women face.
• Gender Inequality, Violence Against Women, and Fear in The Sopranos Thus, the major research question will be “Does The Sopranos endorse or criticize VaW through the frequent depiction of the scenes of cruelty?” The hypothesis of the research paper will be “The portrayal of VaW […]
• How Gender Inequality Persists in the Modern World? According Ridgeway, it may not be correct per se to say that its only women who are aggrieved by the gender imbalance but majority of the cases that depict gender inequalities involve women on the […]
• Gender inequality in Canada According to, although it is certain that men and women have actual differences particularly physically, most of the social indifference perception are not because of the biological connotation but because of the over time cultural […]
• Gender Inequality in the Video Games Industry The portrayal of males and females in video games is a subject of study in gender studies and is discussed in the context of sexism in the industry.
• Combating Gender Inequality It is thanks to this approach that humanity will be able to successfully cope with the problem of gender inequality, sexism, and discrimination.
• Gender Inequality: On the Influence of Culture and Religion Therefore, to understand more about the topic, it is essential to study the issues from various perspectives and find the connection of the discourse to other gender-related problems and theories.
• Gender Inequality as a Global Societal Problem For eliminating the gender wage gap, nationwide legislation shows to increase the hiring and promotion of women in the workplace. Unfortunately, there is a gap in scholarly research in regards to reflecting the success of […]
• Gender Inequality in Workplace Gender is the main reason for inequalities in the workplace; this is because nowadays there is a steady increase in the number of women in workplaces in the world.
• The Issue of Gender Inequality Reflection Unfortunately, in the opinion of many, inequality in their treatment is even more pronounced, forming a third group from such persons in addition to binary people and positioning them at the end of the list.
• Gender Inequality in Mass Media However, as a part of society, media organizations are influenced by the same social aspects and biased conclusions as the rest of the community. As a result, the owners and managers of media are mainly […]
• Gender Inequality in American Stories and Plays There are disputes about the sexual desire of men and women and how it is applied, and the use of physical strength of men on women.
• Gender Inequality and Female Empowerment Promotion Therefore, it is crucial to continue celebrating women’s accomplishments and encourage a positive change within the current perception of women as a social and biological class.
• Gender Inequality in Interdisciplinary Lenses Both sociologists and legal experts concur that a gender bias ingrained in society is the primary factor contributing to the issue of women in the workforce.
• Gender Inequality at Work in Developed Countries In France, the Netherlands, Spain, and Great Britain, men are disadvantaged throughout the employment process for professions where women predominate. These are the conclusions of a study conducted by the University of Amsterdam, the University […]
• Gender Inequality and Its Causes Analysis It is evident that the difference is so insignificant to the point where some women can be athletically stronger than men, and there is a vast difference in strength among men themselves.
• Gender Inequality and the Glass Ceiling The significant societal barriers that keep women from achieving the highest levels of their careers include, but are not limited to, organizational barriers, societal barriers, and Personal barriers.
• Human Objectification as a Tool of Gender Inequality Objectification and culture of suppressed emotions of the male gender lead to the further sexual objectification of the females resulting in unequal social positions.
• The Issue of Gender Inequality After Covid-19 To date, the role of women in society has increased many times over, both in the economic, social, and political spheres of public life.
• Gender Inequality in the Construction Field It is important that the main actors in the sector understand that gender equality can help reduce the issue of shortage of skill that exists in that field.
• Social Enterprises and Gender Inequality in Dubai In the context of UAE demographics, the population of Dubai has been rightfully considered the most diverse in terms of age, income, and socio-ethnic background, as this city is a conglomerate for tourists, business visitors, […]
• Gender Inequality in Relation to the Military Service In his article, Soutik Biswas refers to the intention of India’s Supreme Court to influence the government and give women commanding roles in the army.
• The Relationship Between Gender Inequality and Women’s Economic Independence In a scenario where the wife is employed, either of the parents has the means of supporting themselves as well as other dependents, and this is the most remarkable benefit of emancipation.
• Gender Inequality and Its Implications on American Society It is not just the fight for the women’s rights, elimination of the gender pay gap or the harassment phenomenon. The voices of those who disagree with the fact that the resolution of one case […]
• Women From the Downtown Eastside: Gender Inequality One of the main questions that bother many people around the whole world is the identification of the conditions under which the citizens of the Downtown Eastside disappeared.
• Women Labour: Gender Inequality Issues Sexual category or gender is an ingredient of the wider socio-cultural framework that encompasses the societal attributes and opportunities connected with individual male and female and the conduit between women and men and girls and […]
• Issues Surrounding Gender Inequality in the Workplace The main objective of the constructionist point of view is that it is aimed at uncovering how the individuals and the groups tend to participate in the creation of their perceptions of gender and women […]
• Public Policy Analysis on Gender Inequality in Education in South Sudan The major challenges related to the development of the educational system are the ongoing violent attacks and natural disasters. The General Education Strategic Plan, 2017-2022 is the government’s response to the most burning issues in […]
• Race & Gender Inequality and Economic Empowerment This means that the study will analyze the problem of race and gender inequality and examine how it is related to poverty.
• Gender Inequality: “Caliban and the Witch” by Federici Federici shows the fall of female ability for autonomy and the rise of patriarchal societies as a result of an emerging emphasis on global trade and the perceived notion that the wealth of the country […]
• Gender Inequality and Health Disparities Thus, Wacquant not only mentions the problem of gender inequality but also stresses that this issue has a rather long history of development, which is rooted in the past.
• Gender Inequality Index 2013 in the Gulf Countries However, the ratio of women in the parliament is noticeably lower, and that explains why the GII of Kuwait is slightly higher than the one of the UEA.
• Gender Inequality: Reginald Murphy College To establish the accuracy of the allegations raised as a group, the factors to ensuring the retrieval of the correct information about the issue in question are the involvement of all members of the administration […]
• Gender Inequality at the China’s Workplaces Although researchers have quantified the extent of gender pay inequality in the workplace, they hold different opinions regarding the best strategies to use in addressing the problem.
• Gender Inequality and Its Historical Origin Seeing that the effects of the two factors are reciprocal, it can be assumed that, though both have had a tangible impact on the contemporary representation of women in the society, traditions have a significantly […]
• Gender Inequality in Family Business One of the problems that every woman faces in a family business is that of succession. In the model of Royal Families, the right to lead the business belongs to the oldest son.
• Gender Inequality in Europe, America, Asia, Africa The laws and customs of the countries located in Africa and the Middle East are shaped by many factors. Some of the laws in the Middle East are clearly unfair towards women.
• Women in the Workplace: Gender Inequality I examine the idea of work-and-life balance that is proposed as a solution to the problem of having a family and career at the same time and point out the fact that it is typically […]
• Indian Gender Inequality and Reduction Initiatives Coontz discusses these issues from the context of the economic status of American women and their limited role in society at the time.
• Bill Myers’ Leadership and Gender Inequality In this case, the bartenders, wait staff and the busboys all possess the required skills and knowledge for the job, and thus ought to be treated equally.
• Gender Inequality in Afghanistan Thirdly, there is social gender inequality, which is demonstrated by women being the victims of domestic violence and sexual assault, inequalities in education attainment, lack of freedom to marry and divorce, and unequal access to […]
• Gender Inequality and Socio-Economic Development Gender inequality in the US determines who is to be in the kitchen and who is to sit in the White House.
• Gender Inequality in America This event highlighted the extent to which women were vulnerable to the prejudices of the society. This particular event is important because it lead to the exclusion of women from the political life of the […]
• Gender inequality in Algeria The fact that women helped to build back the ruins of society and the heroism they showed in the war efforts, was forgotten by their husbands and the government.
• Gender Inequality in the US Of more importance in the enhancement of gender inequality is the role of the media. The natural constrains described above and the multiplier effects from the historical insubordination of women still play to men’s favor […]
• Observations on the Gender Inequality This is the best way to preserve the stability and order in a gendered society, although the young woman in the street cannot accept this order of things.
• The Effects of International Trade on Gender Inequality: Women Carpet Weavers of Iran
• The Prevailing Gender Inequality in USA
• Perspectives On Gender Inequality And The Barrier Of Culture On Education
• Race, Ethnicity and Gender Inequality in the Rwanda Genocide
• The Scarcity Of Water And Its Effect On Gender Inequality
• Unequal Division Of Economic Growth And Gender Inequality
• The Measurement of Multidimensional Gender Inequality
• The Growing Issue of Gender Inequality in the Workplace
• Understanding Gender Inequality in Employment and Retirement
• The Violation of Women and the Practice of Gender Inequality Through Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
• The Different Elements That Affect Gender Inequality in Society
• How Gender Inequality Is Defined As The Unequal Treatment
• The Controversial Issue of Gender Inequality in the Twentieth Century
• The Correlation between Poverty and Gender Inequality
• The Problem of Gender Inequality in the United States and Its Negative Impact on American Society
• National Culture, Gender Inequality and Women’s Success in Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
• The Institutional Basis of Gender Inequality: The Social Institutions and Gender Index (SIGI)
• The Issue of Gender Stereotypes and Its Contribution to Gender Inequality in the Second Presidential Debate
• Women´s Right Movement: Gender Inequality
• International Relations: Gender Inequality Issues
• Problems of Gender Inequality for Women in India and Other
• The Role of Women Discrimination and Gender Inequality in Development: The Cross-Section Analysis by Different Income Groups
• The Effect of Gender Inequality on Economic Development: Case of African Countries
• The Role of Historical Resource Constraints in Modern Gender Inequality: A Cross-Country Analysis
• The Influence of Gender Budgeting in Indian States on Gender Inequality and Fiscal Spending
• Identity, Society, and Gender Inequality of Women in North West India
• How Debates of Gender Inequality and Gender Roles are Conflicted With Family Structures
• The Features of the Problem of Gender Inequality in the World
• Untapped Potential in the Study of Negotiation and Gender Inequality in Organizations
• The Impact of the Sectoral Allocation of Foreign aid on Gender Inequality
• The Impact Of Gender Inequality On Employee Satisfaction
• The Issue of Gender Inequality Between the North and South in the United States
• The Problem of Gender Inequality in South Asia and Its Effects on Girls and Women in Society
• Whether Patriarchy Is The Leading Cause Of Gender Inequality
• The Issues of Gender Inequality in the Book a Woman on the Edge
• Women Deserve For A Girl : A Real Issue Of Gender Inequality
• The Main Causes And Consequences Of Gender Inequality
• The Experience of Gender Inequality in The Awakening, a Novel by Kate Chopin
• The Issues of Gender Inequality in the Political Landscape Despite the Legal and Theoretical Attempts to Overcome the Gender Gap
• Measuring Key Disparities in Human Development: The Gender Inequality Index
• The Relationship of the Cultural and Historical Specificity of Gender Inequality in Mitchell’s Not Enough of the Past
• Stange Journeys and Gender Inequality in Pullman and Dangarembga
• Help or Hindrance? Religion’s Impact on Gender Inequality in Attitudes and Outcomes
• Should Women Continue Fighting Against Gender Inequality
• Women ‘s Gender Inequality By Chinua Achebe ‘s Things Fall Apart
• Legislation and Labour Market Gender Inequality: An Analysis of OECD Countries
• What Are the Types of Gender Inequality?
• Does Gender Inequality Hinder Development and Economic Growth?
• What Does Gender Inequality Mean?
• Does Trade Liberalization Help to Reduce Gender Inequality?
• What are the main issues of gender inequality?
• How Has Gender Inequality Impacted Contemporary Catholicism?
• What Determines Gender Inequality in Household Food Security in Kenya?
• Who Is Affected by Gender Inequality?
• What Causes Gender Inequality?
• Where Is Gender Inequality Most Common?
• What Are the Effects of Gender Equality?
• How Can We Stop Gender Inequality?
• What Is an Example of Gender Equality?
• Does Gender Inequality Still Exist Today?
• What Is the Impact of Gender Inequality in the Society?
• When Did Gender Inequality Become an Issue?
• What Are the Three Main Areas of Gender Inequality in the World?
• How Does Gender Inequality Affect Development?
• What Is the Difference Between Gender Equity, Gender Equality, and Women’s Empowerment?
• Why Is Gender Equality Important?
• Is Gender Equality a Concern for Men?
• What Are the Manifestations of Gender Inequality in the Modern Society?
• Is Gender Inequality Still a Pending and Pressing Issue in the Modern World?
• What Are the Causes and Effects of Gender Inequality in the European Society?
• Can Gender Inequality Issues Be a Boost for Women’s Progress, Development, and Improvement in the Workplace?
• What Are the Future Consequences and Outcomes of the Present-Day Gender Inequality?
• Where Does Gender Inequality Step From?
• Is It Possible at All to Achieve Gender Equality?
• What Is Gender Blindness and How Does It Impact the Overall Concept of Gender Inequality?
• Is Education a Solution to Solve Inequality Between the Sexes?
• Gender Roles Paper Topics
• Demography Paper Topics
• Family Relationships Research Ideas
• Women’s Rights Titles
• Personal Identity Paper Topics
• Women’s Role Essay Topics
• Workplace Discrimination Research Topics
• Feminism Questions
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2024, February 26). 143 Unique Gender Inequality Essay Titles & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/gender-inequality-essay-topics/

"143 Unique Gender Inequality Essay Titles & Examples." IvyPanda , 26 Feb. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/gender-inequality-essay-topics/.

IvyPanda . (2024) '143 Unique Gender Inequality Essay Titles & Examples'. 26 February.

IvyPanda . 2024. "143 Unique Gender Inequality Essay Titles & Examples." February 26, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/gender-inequality-essay-topics/.

1. IvyPanda . "143 Unique Gender Inequality Essay Titles & Examples." February 26, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/gender-inequality-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "143 Unique Gender Inequality Essay Titles & Examples." February 26, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/gender-inequality-essay-topics/.

GOOD GOVERNANCE AND GENDER EQUALITY

Embargo until, journal title, journal issn, volume title, description, collections.

• How It Works
• PhD thesis writing
• Master thesis writing
• Bachelor thesis writing
• Dissertation writing service
• Dissertation abstract writing
• Thesis proposal writing
• Thesis editing service
• Thesis proofreading service
• Thesis formatting service
• Coursework writing service
• Research paper writing service
• Architecture thesis writing
• Computer science thesis writing
• Engineering thesis writing
• History thesis writing
• MBA thesis writing
• Nursing dissertation writing
• Psychology dissertation writing
• Sociology thesis writing
• Statistics dissertation writing
• Buy dissertation online
• Write my dissertation
• Cheap thesis
• Cheap dissertation
• Custom dissertation
• Dissertation help
• Pay for thesis
• Pay for dissertation
• Senior thesis
• Write my thesis

100 Gender Research Topics For Academic Papers

Gender research topics are very popular across the world. Students in different academic disciplines are often asked to write papers and essays about these topics. Some of the disciplines that require learners to write about gender topics include:

Sociology Psychology Gender studies Business studies

When pursuing higher education in these disciplines, learners can choose what to write about from a wide range of gender issues topics. However, the wide range of issues that learners can research and write about when it comes to gender makes choosing what to write about difficult. Here is a list of the top 100 gender and sexuality topics that students can consider.

Controversial Gender Research Topics

Do you like the idea of writing about something controversial? If yes, this category has some of the best gender topics to write about. They touch on issues like gender stereotypes and issues that are generally associated with members of a specific gender. Here are some of the best controversial gender topics that you can write about.

• How human behavior is affected by gender misconceptions
• How are straight marriages influenced by gay marriages
• Explain the most common sex-role stereotypes
• What are the effects of workplace stereotypes?
• What issues affect modern feminism?
• How sexuality affects sex-role stereotyping
• How does the media break sex-role stereotypes
• Explain the dual approach to equality between women and men
• What are the most outdated sex-role stereotypes
• Are men better than women?
• How equal are men and women?
• How do politics and sexuality relate?
• How can films defy gender-based stereotypes
• What are the advantages of being a woman?
• What are the disadvantages of being a woman?
• What are the advantages of being a man?
• Discuss the disadvantages of being a woman
• Should governments legalize prostitution?
• Explain how sexual orientation came about?
• Women communicate better than men
• Women are the stronger sex
• Explain how the world can be made better for women
• Discuss the future gender norms
• How important are sex roles in society
• Discuss the transgender and feminism theory
• How does feminism help in the creation of alternative women’s culture?
• Gender stereotypes in education and science
• Discuss racial variations when it comes to gender-related attitudes
• Women are better leaders
• Men can’t survive without women

This category also has some of the best gender debate topics. However, learners should be keen to pick topics they are interested in. This will enable them to ensure that they enjoy the research and writing process.

Interesting Gender Inequality Topics

Gender-based inequality is witnessed almost every day. As such, most learners are conversant with gender inequality research paper topics. However, it’s crucial to pick topics that are devoid of discrimination of members of a specific gender. Here are examples of gender inequality essay topics.

• Sex discrimination aspects in schools
• How to identify inequality between sexes
• Sex discrimination causes
• The inferior role played by women in relationships
• Discuss sex differences in the education system
• How can gender discrimination be identified in sports?
• Can inequality issues between men and women be solved through education?
• Why are professional opportunities for women in sports limited?
• Why are there fewer women in leadership positions?
• Discuss gender inequality when it comes to work-family balance
• How does gender-based discrimination affect early childhood development?
• Can sex discrimination be reduced by technology?
• How can sex discrimination be identified in a marriage?
• Explain where sex discrimination originates from
• Discuss segregation and motherhood in labor markets
• Explain classroom sex discrimination
• How can inequality in American history be justified?
• Discuss different types of sex discrimination in modern society
• Discuss various factors that cause gender-based inequality
• Discuss inequality in human resource practices and processes
• Why is inequality between women and men so rampant in developing countries?
• How can governments bridge gender gaps between women and men?
• Work-home conflict is a sign of inequality between women and men
• Explain why women are less wealthy than men
• How can workplace gender-based inequality be addressed?

After choosing the gender inequality essay topics they like, students should research, brainstorm ideas, and come up with an outline before they start writing. This will ensure that their essays have engaging introductions and convincing bodies, as well as, strong conclusions.

Amazing Gender Roles Topics for Academic Papers and Essays

This category has ideas that slightly differ from gender equality topics. That’s because equality or lack of it can be measured by considering the representation of both genders in different roles. As such, some gender roles essay topics might not require tiresome and extensive research to write about. Nevertheless, learners should take time to gather the necessary information required to write about these topics. Here are some of the best gender topics for discussion when it comes to the roles played by men and women in society.

• Describe gender identity
• Describe how a women-dominated society would be
• Compare gender development theories
• How equally important are maternity and paternity levees for babies?
• How can gender-parity be achieved when it comes to parenting?
• Discuss the issues faced by modern feminism
• How do men differ from women emotionally?
• Discuss gender identity and sexual orientation
• Is investing in the education of girls beneficial?
• Explain the adoption of gender-role stereotyped behaviors
• Discuss games and toys for boys and girls
• Describe patriarchal attitudes in families
• Explain patriarchal stereotypes in family relationships
• What roles do women and men play in politics?
• Discuss sex equity and academic careers
• Compare military career opportunities for both genders
• Discuss the perception of women in the military
• Describe feminine traits
• Discus gender-related issues faced by women in gaming
• Men should play major roles in the welfare of their children
• Explain how the aging population affects the economic welfare of women?
• What has historically determined modern differences in gender roles?
• Does society need stereotyped gender roles?
• Does nature have a role to play in stereotyped gender roles?
• The development and adoption of gender roles

The list of gender essay topics that are based on the roles of each sex can be quite extensive. Nevertheless, students should be keen to pick interesting gender topics in this category.

Important Gender Issues Topics for Research Paper

If you want to write a paper or essay on an important gender issue, this category has the best ideas for you. Students can write about different issues that affect individuals of different genders. For instance, this category can include gender wage gap essay topics. Wage variation is a common issue that affects women in different countries. Some of the best gender research paper topics in this category include:

• Discuss gender mainstreaming purpose
• Discuss the issue of gender-based violence
• Why is the wage gap so common in most countries?
• How can society promote equality in opportunities for women and men in sports?
• Explain what it means to be transgender
• Discuss the best practices of gender-neutral management
• What is women’s empowerment?
• Discuss how human trafficking affects women
• How problematic is gender-blindness for women?
• What does the glass ceiling mean in management?
• Why are women at a higher risk of sexual exploitation and violence?
• Why is STEM uptake low among women?
• How does ideology affect the determination of relations between genders
• How are sporting women fighting for equality?
• Discuss sports, women, and media institutions
• How can cities be made safer for girls and women?
• Discuss international trends in the empowerment of women
• How do women contribute to the world economy?
• Explain how feminism on different social relations unites men and women as groups
• Explain how gender diversity influence scientific discovery and innovation

This category has some of the most interesting women’s and gender studies paper topics. However, most of them require extensive research to come up with hard facts and figures that will make academic papers or essays more interesting.

Students in high schools and colleges can pick what to write about from a wide range of gender studies research topics. However, some gender studies topics might not be ideal for some learners based on the given essay prompt. Therefore, make sure that you have understood what the educator wants you to write about before you pick a topic. Our experts can help you choose a good thesis topic . Choosing the right gender studies topics enables learners to answer the asked questions properly. This impresses educators to award them top grades.

Most Popular

11 days ago

How To Write a Synthesis Essay

13 days ago

OpenAI Has Launched A New Voice Assistant, And Here’s What You Need to Know

12 days ago

How To Write An Opinion Essay

From karl marx to toga shortages: reddit’s funniest essay mistakes, how to write a news article, gender & sexuality studies thesis statement examples.

unsplash.com

Gender and sexuality studies is a multifaceted field examining issues related to identity, social structures, and power dynamics. Effective thesis statements in this domain should encapsulate clear and significant research inquiries. Below, find examples of both adept and poor thesis statements regarding gender and sexuality studies, with detailed explanations for their strengths and weaknesses.

Good Thesis Statement Examples

Specific and Clear Good: “This thesis investigates the influence of media representation on the self-esteem and body image of transgender youth in urban environments.” Bad: “Media affects the self-esteem of transgender individuals.”

The good example specifies the demographic (transgender youth), the research setting (urban environments), and the issues under investigation (self-esteem and body image), providing clarity and direction. In contrast, the bad example is vague and lacks defined variables.

Arguable and Debatable Good: “Despite advancements, women of color still face systemic barriers in academia, impacting their career progression and professional development.” Bad: “Women of color face challenges in academia.”

The good statement makes a clear, debatable claim about systemic barriers in academia for women of color, opening the floor for analysis and argumentation. The bad statement, while true, is generic and lacks a clear argument or focus.

Researchable and Measurable Good: “Through an analysis of queer representation in video games, this thesis explores how digital media can either challenge or perpetuate harmful stereotypes.” Bad: “Queer representation in video games is important.”

The good example offers specific areas for research (queer representation in video games) and measurable criteria (the challenging or perpetuating of stereotypes). The bad example, while positive, is broad and does not present clear variables for study.

Bad Thesis Statement Examples

Overly Broad: “Gender inequality is a significant problem in society.”

This statement, though true, is too broad, offering no particular aspect of gender inequality or specified societal area for examination.

Lack of Clear Argument: “Sexuality is complex and diverse.”

While accurate, this statement does not present a clear argument or focus for research, making it ineffective as a guide for scholarly inquiry.

Unmeasurable and Unresearchable: “Understanding gender is key to understanding humanity.”

Though philosophically insightful, this statement is broad, abstract, and provides no clear direction for empirical study or measurement.

Developing a robust thesis statement for research in gender and sexuality studies is vital for guiding your research and providing readers with insight into your study’s objectives and focus. Good thesis statements are clear, arguable, and researchable, serving as cornerstones for insightful academic exploration. Conversely, ineffective ones are usually too broad, lack clear arguments, and do not facilitate empirical analysis. By considering these examples and analyses, students can craft compelling thesis statements that provide a strong foundation for their research on the pressing and complex issues related to gender and sexuality studies.

Follow us on Reddit for more insights and updates.

Comments (0)

Welcome to A*Help comments!

We’re all about debate and discussion at A*Help.

We value the diverse opinions of users, so you may find points of view that you don’t agree with. And that’s cool. However, there are certain things we’re not OK with: attempts to manipulate our data in any way, for example, or the posting of discriminative, offensive, hateful, or disparaging material.

Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

More from Synthesis Thesis Examples & Samples

Sep 30 2023

Criminal Justice Reform Thesis Statement Examples

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Thesis Statement Examples

Sep 29 2023

Social Media & Society Thesis Statement Examples

Remember Me

What is your profession ? Student Teacher Writer Other

Forgotten Password?

Username or Email

We use cookies to enhance our website for you. Proceed if you agree to this policy or learn more about it.

• Essay Database >
• Essays Samples >
• Essay Types >
• Thesis Example

Gender Equality Theses Samples For Students

8 samples of this type

WowEssays.com paper writer service proudly presents to you an open-access database of Gender Equality Theses meant to help struggling students tackle their writing challenges. In a practical sense, each Gender Equality Thesis sample presented here may be a guidebook that walks you through the important stages of the writing procedure and showcases how to pen an academic work that hits the mark. Besides, if you need more visionary assistance, these examples could give you a nudge toward a fresh Gender Equality Thesis topic or encourage a novice approach to a threadbare issue.

In case this is not enough to satisfy the thirst for effective writing help, you can request personalized assistance in the form of a model Thesis on Gender Equality crafted by an expert from scratch and tailored to your particular requirements. Be it a simple 2-page paper or an in-depth, lengthy piece, our writers specialized in Gender Equality and related topics will submit it within the pre-set period. Buy cheap essays or research papers now!

There Are Some General Issues To Be Addressed Thesis Samples

Can you please ensure that the referencing conforms with the OSCOLA standard (available at http://www.legalcitation.ie/page5/files/OSCOLA%20Ireland%202011.pdf

· Can you please ensure that all web links in the footnotes work, and lead the reader to the correct cite

· Can you please use English Ireland or English UK as the default language (as distinct from English US) What I need that those points has to be solved within 18 hours. Please as my submission day is Thursday. also I do not want you to change anything in the piece of the paper just make sure from what I ask for, also I would like you to add Hyperlinks in the footnotes and the reference

Acknowledgement

Thesis on feminism 21st century, introduction, examining gender and gender roles through media thesis example.

Don't waste your time searching for a sample.

Get your thesis done by professional writers!

Just from $10/page

Women in the Mexican Revolution Thesis

Free thesis about gender equality under saudi labour law and european labour law, gender equality under saudi labour law and european labour law thesis examples, chapter one: what kind of equality does sharia law provide, definition and theories of bisexuality theses examples, example of domestic violence perpetuates to the 21st century thesis.

Password recovery email has been sent to [email protected]

Use your new password to log in

You are not register!

By clicking Register, you agree to our Terms of Service and that you have read our Privacy Policy .

Now you can download documents directly to your device!

Check your email! An email with your password has already been sent to you! Now you can download documents directly to your device.

or Use the QR code to Save this Paper to Your Phone

The sample is NOT original!

Short on a deadline?

Don't waste time. Get help with 11% off using code - GETWOWED

No, thanks! I'm fine with missing my deadline

• Nation & World
• Business and Agriculture
• Thank You Letters
• Opinion Columns
• Letters to the Editor
• Editorial Cartoons
• Community Calendar
• 4CornersJobs
• Real Estate
• Classifieds
• Public Notices
• Advertise with Us

Study: Marriage equality has had a positive impact

A recent study found that in the 20 years since Massachusetts became the first state in the U.S. to grant same-sex marriage licenses, same-sex marriage has strengthened the institution of marriage for all couples and improved benefits to children.

Rand, a social policy organization, reviewed 96 studies conducted over the 20-year period since Massachusetts began granting same-sex marriage licenses on May 17, 2004. The researchers found the opposite of what conservatives claimed when opposing same-sex marriage in the decades prior to the U.S. Supreme Court decision, Obergefell v. Hodges, which granted the right to same-sex marriage nationwide. Instead of ill-effects on the institution of marriage, Rand researchers found that the lack of prohibition led to an increase of marriage for difference-sex partners as well as same-sex partners.

New Mexico began granting same-sex marriage licenses in 2014.

The researchers also did not find an increase of cohabitation of either same-sex or different-sex partners, as conservatives once feared. Rand also did not find a consistent change in divorce rates. But they found that since legalization for same-sex couples, young people’s attitudes toward the institution has improved.

Marshall Martinez, executive director of Equality New Mexico, said he was not surprised by the findings.

He said he thought that before marriage equality, the average straight person was not concerned with prohibiting same-sex couples from marrying and that the fight over marriage equality was a battle with the far right.

“They were blowing out of proportion that what we were out to do was to ruin whatever their view of marriage is,” he said. “How many thought marriage had to mean what the church thought it was?”

Martinez said the fact that marriage equality has been a national right since 2015, when the Supreme Court ruled on Obergefell v. Hodges, has meant that it’s much easier now for same-sex married partners to be recognized in a hospital without the partner in the waiting room having to bring in documentation to prove the couple are married.

Martinez said he has seen, first-hand, different-sex couples claim they are married in a hospital waiting room and the staff do not question the couple’s status, as they might question a same-sex couple.

“I would watch and think I know queer couples who had to get powers of attorney to get a basic update from a doctor after surgery,” he said.

Advocates often point to being able to make decisions for a loved one or even being able to visit a loved one in a hospital as a primary reason why marriage equality is so important.

Martinez said another reason is because the U.S. lacks universal health insurance. Being able to marry one’s partner can mean both partners can be on one partner’s health insurance. Although Martinez said that since gay rights activists in the early years of the HIV/AIDS crisis highlighted the importance of universal health care, he found the findings of increased health insurance for same-sex couples “bitter sweet.”

“I’m so grateful for folks who are able to access health insurance because they got married to somebody but it’s also really infuriating. Queer folks were at the forefront of the movement so long ago. The best we could get was to marry someone to get insurance,” he said.

But Martinez said the problem that ensues when one partner lacks good benefits while the other partner, who happens to have a job that provides such, has good benefits is one that resonates for the average American.

The Rand research found that, overall, since marriage equality, same-sex couples have reported lower stress, greater positive mood and fewer depressive symptoms, in addition to higher levels of health care, higher levels of health insurance coverage, and declining rates of sexually transmitted disease and substance abuse disorders.

Martinez said the American Heart Association’s findings a few years ago showing that individuals within the LGBTQ community have higher rates of poor cardiac health came to mind when he looked at the Rand findings.

“Just the benefit of marriage in terms of health outcomes starts with, you have this partner: The government, the hospital, supervisors at work cannot ignore or undermine because the law exists. You have a base level of acceptance of respect for who you are and that immediately mitigates stress and trauma,” he said.

The study also found benefits to children since the beginning of marriage equality. Disparities in academic progress between children of same-sex couples and children of different-sex couples have reduced. Health insurance benefits for children of same-sex couples also improved. When states began legalizing same-sex marriage 20 years ago, same-sex couples within those states experienced higher earnings, more stable relationships and a higher rate of homeownership, the study found.

Martinez said the Supreme Court’s marriage equality ruling was “a very clear message.”

“You are deserving of a life of happiness and sustainability that includes marrying the partner of your choice. You get to have your fantasies about that. Lots of little lesbian girls and gay boys got to dream about their wedding dress for the first time. That is a classic American experience as a child,” he said.

Martinez said that one reason why the findings that same-sex marriage has improved the institution of marriage even for different-sex couples didn’t surprise him was because of research EQNM did a few years ago in New Mexico. They found that 73% of New Mexicans said in the poll that they have a close, personal relationship with someone who identifies as LGBTQ.

“The vitriol we saw from conservatives regularly bringing up marriage equality had a harmful impact on straight folks. Those were our nieces and cousins who were being vilified in the press for the audacity of wanting what their parents had,” he said.

NM Political Report is a nonprofit public news outlet providing in-depth and enterprise reporting on the people and politics across New Mexico.

Ballantine Communications, Inc.

Sign up for email headline alerts:

Choose from several print and digital subscription packages

© 2024 The Journal | Ballantine Communications, Inc. All Rights Reserved. | Terms of Use | Privacy Policy

Account info

Screen name:

• University News
• Faculty & Research
• Health & Medicine
• Science & Technology
• Social Sciences
• Humanities & Arts
• Students & Alumni
• Arts & Culture
• Sports & Athletics
• The Professions
• International
• New England Guide

The Magazine

• Current Issue
• Past Issues

Class Notes & Obituaries

• Browse Class Notes
• Browse Obituaries

Collections

• Commencement
• The Context
• Harvard Squared
• Harvard in the Headlines

Support Harvard Magazine

• Why We Need Your Support
• How We Are Funded
• Ways to Support the Magazine
• Special Gifts
• Behind the Scenes

Classifieds

• Vacation Rentals & Travel
• Real Estate
• Products & Services
• Harvard Authors’ Bookshelf
• Education & Enrichment Resource
• Ad Prices & Information
• Place An Ad

Follow Harvard Magazine:

| 5.23.2024

Shruthi Kumar ’24, Senior English Address: “The Power of Not Knowing”

Amid divisions and uncertainties, finding “space for empathy, solidarity, and a willingness to listen”.

Return to main article:

As prepared for delivery. For Kumar’s additional remarks, please read the accompanying article .

The Power of Not Knowing

Today, we are celebrated for what we know. In fact, for most of our lives, we’ve learned to feel a sense of accomplishment from the awards, accolades, and honors that lined our childhood homes. How much we knew and how we leveraged it got us far. It got us here. But today, I want to convince you of something counterintuitive that I’ve learned from the Class of 2024: the power of not knowing.

I grew up in the Great Plains of Nebraska alongside cattle ranches and cornfields. As the eldest daughter of South Asian immigrants, I was the first in my family to go to college here in the US. There was a lot I didn’t know. When it came time, I asked my parents how to apply to colleges. They too said, “I don’t know.”

The words “I don’t know” used to make me feel powerless. Like there was no answer, and therefore, no way. As if I was admitting defeat.

From Nebraska to Harvard, I found myself redefining this feeling of not knowing. I discovered a newfound power in how much I didn’t know. I didn’t know a field called the “History of Science” even existed. I now find myself a graduate of the Department. In my freshman year of college, for the first time in my life, I was taught by a professor of color. A Historian of Science who made clear to me that history is just as much about the stories we don’t know as the stories we do.

In the History of Science, we often look for what is missing. What documents are not in the archives and whose voices are not captured in history? I’ve learned silence is rarely empty, often loud. What we don’t know can sometimes tell the most powerful story.

I learned this not only in the classroom, but also from the Class of 2024. In reflecting on our collective journey at Harvard, I’ve learned it's often the moments of uncertainty from which something greater than we could have ever imagined grows. Our class has experienced more than our fair share of the unknown.

Our first year, during COVID, we didn’t have Annenberg to meet 100 people in an hour and walk out remembering 5 names. We didn’t know what starting Harvard in the middle of a global pandemic would be like. So what did we do?Jefe’s became the new Annenberg, and we learned, in the midst of uncertainty, to connect differently, building quality over quantity in our friendships. In our sophomore year, Roe v. Wade was overturned and there was and still is, in many parts of the country, an omnipresent uncertainty in accessing reproductive healthcare. In our junior year, Harvard faced the Supreme Court and the decision to reverse affirmative action. Whether we realize it or not, we have been swimming in uncharted waters.

Which brings me to our senior year, a year on campus that has been marked by enormous uncertainty. In the fall, my name and identity alongside other black and brown students at Harvard was publically targeted. For many of us, students of color, doxxing left our jobs uncertain, our safety uncertain, our well-being uncertain.

Now, we are in a moment of intense division and disagreement in our community over the events in Gaza. I see pain, uncertainty, and unrest across campus. It’s now, in a moment like this, that the power of “not knowing” becomes critical.

Maybe we don’t know what it’s like to be ethnically targeted. Maybe we don’t know what it's like to come face to face with violence and death. But, we don’t have to know.

Solidarity is not dependent on what we know, because “not knowing” is an ethical stance. It creates space for empathy, solidarity, and a willingness to listen.

I don’t know – so I ask. I listen. I believe an important type of learning takes place, especially in moments of uncertainty, when we lean into conversations without assuming we have all the answers. Can we see humanity in people we don’t know? Can we feel the pain of people with whom we disagree?

As we graduate, what we know , our material knowledge, may not matter so much anymore. The truth is, it’s what we don’t know and how we navigate it that will set us apart moving forward.

Uncertainty is uncomfortable. But I encourage you to dive into the deep end of discomfort, and as you do, bring with you a Beginner’s mind, an ethic of not knowing.

As Emily Dickinson had said, “Not knowing when the Dawn will come, I open every Door.”

Thank you, and Congratulations Class of 2024!

You might also like

When Harvard Should—And Shouldn’t—Speak

A final report from the faculty working group on institutional neutrality

Equality and Justice

A Radcliffe Day panel discusses pluralism and progress. 

Using the Law for Good

2024 Radcliffe Medalist Sonia Sotomayor on civic engagement and optimism

Most popular

Michelle Yeoh’s Three Tips for Success

Oscar-winning actress offers advice in Harvard Law School Class Day address.

Harvard Corporation Rules Thirteen Students Cannot Graduate

Faculty of Arts and Sciences May 20 vote on protestors’ status does not confer “good standing.”

More to explore

Bernini’s Model Masterpieces at the Harvard Art Museums

Thirteen sculptures from Gian Lorenzo Bernini at Harvard Art Museums.

Private Equity in Medicine and the Quality of Care

Hundreds of U.S. hospitals are owned by private equity firms—does monetizing medicine affect the quality of care?

John Harvard's Journal

Sasha the Harvard Police Dog

Sasha, the police dog of Harvard University

Harvey Milk Diversity Breakfast draws 1,000, honors struggle for LGBTQ equality

C lose to 1,000 guests, including 275 wide-eyed, enthusiastic students, came together for the Harvey Milk Diversity Breakfast on May 9 at the Palm Springs Convention Center to honor Milk's legacy and his struggle to achieve lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender equality.

The event also served to strengthen the partnerships of area organizations with that same goal. Stuart Milk, co-founder and executive chair of the Harvey Milk Foundation, was presented with the Global Activist Award. News anchor Peter Daut, black and LGBTQ historian/author Zaylore Stout, songstress Keisha D, DJ Galaxy, community advocate Scott Nevins and entertainer Matthew Hocutt all played a role in creating this transformative celebration.

Ron deHarte, Breakfast Coalition founder and president of Greater Palm Springs Pride, said: "Here, we're uniting supporters of equality and justice. It was Harvey's courageous work to end discrimination in the '70s that set the stage for many of the civil rights advances of today."

The event also shines a light on local youth. Students participate by writing essays about Harvey Milk. Others are invited to speak.

"They feel empowered, mingling with city officials, educators, law enforcement, media and local businesses in an affirming environment," deHarte said. "Everyone feels the impact of our next generation of leaders."

Safe Schools Desert Cities works with Gay Straight Alliances (GSAs) at more than 20 middle and high schools. They handle the logistics of getting the students to the breakfast.

"With so many youths in attendance, the LGBTQ adults can't help but be moved," said Safe Schools President Eric Ornelas. "Most were in grade school long before anything like this existed. They had no one to turn to for advice, no 'out' role models to look up to. Now, they're seeing the progress firsthand.

"These students, with their bravery and intelligence, give me so much hope for our future."

Honoree Stuart Milk is an LGBTQ rights advocate who's worked with struggling and emerging LGBTQ communities in more than 60 countries. He's also the nephew of the late Harvey Milk.

In a conversation prior to the breakfast, Stuart spoke about the need for unity. "Minority groups are the enemy of communities that want to take away our rights and separate us. We're always subject to the majority's tyranny," he said. "As my uncle emphatically stated, 'You may not be on their shopping list today, but you'll definitely be on their shopping list.' That's why it's critical that we understand each other's struggles and ask, 'How can we provide support within the LGBTQ community?'"

Stuart also provided a global perspective. "We have countries that are going backwards, re-criminalizing homosexuality and enforcing draconian laws. Most people still live in places where it's illegal or socially unacceptable to be LGBTQ. And our own LGBTQ youth in this country are five times more likely to be homeless. So, the battle never ends."

At the breakfast, Monika Ujkic from Shadow Hills High School in Indio was honored as this year's Outstanding GSA Advisor. Ujkic thinks it's important for schools to have a visible GSAs, so "students know they have a place to go and people that provide support." As an advisor for 11 years, Ujkic has helped plan events like Club Rush, National Coming Out Day and the Safe Schools' prom.

"We did a clothing drive for The Center's queer and trans closet and provided 'pride gear' to our students, like bracelets, flags and shirts." About the breakfast, Ujkic said: "We're here every year. Students love seeing the LGBTQ flags and look forward to going on stage. And they really love the great food."

One of more than 50 corporate sponsors, the Coachella Valley Firebirds were honored to support the breakfast. A Firebirds pillar is maximizing the community's access to hockey, and that includes the LGBTQ community.

"The Firebirds had an amazing time at Pride last year, with our 'Hockey is for Everyone' float. We'll be back!" said Andrew Mason, senior director of community relations. "We've donated funds from worn player jerseys to support our LGBTQ youth and will continue that program. This amazing community has welcomed our team with open arms."

Ruth Hill, vice president of finance, said: "Being at the breakfast was a privilege. We all felt emboldened. Milk's heartfelt retelling of his uncle's vision touched me deeply, as did the words of students who were awarded scholarships."

Reflecting on the breakfast, Stuart said: "Occasions like this still play a vital role. My Uncle Harvey believed in the power of visibility and how staying out of sight keeps us from succeeding. Even in places like Palm Springs and at events like this, someone will witness the community support and say, 'maybe it's time I come out.' And that's why we need to keep celebrating our diversity … without exception."

Also recognized at the Breakfast were Frank Figueroa, Ed.D., who received the Leadership Award. He serves as the first openly gay city councilmember in the city of Coachella.\

Fernanda Telles-Quintero from Coachella Valley High School received the Outstanding Youth Scholarship. She will pursue a career in film production.

Edwardo Gallardo received the Burton/May Scholarship Award. Jessica Collins received the Burton/May Pride Award.

For more information about the Harvey Milk Diversity Breakfast, visit pspride.org . To learn more about the Harvey Milk Foundation, go to milkfoundation.org .

Sergio Garcia enjoys writing about the good people that do great things in our community. Reach him at sergio071364@aol.

This article originally appeared on Palm Springs Desert Sun: Harvey Milk Diversity Breakfast draws 1,000, honors struggle for LGBTQ equality