15 Steps to Good Research
- Define and articulate a research question (formulate a research hypothesis). How to Write a Thesis Statement (Indiana University)
- Identify possible sources of information in many types and formats. Georgetown University Library's Research & Course Guides
- Judge the scope of the project.
- Reevaluate the research question based on the nature and extent of information available and the parameters of the research project.
- Select the most appropriate investigative methods (surveys, interviews, experiments) and research tools (periodical indexes, databases, websites).
- Plan the research project. Writing Anxiety (UNC-Chapel Hill) Strategies for Academic Writing (SUNY Empire State College)
- Retrieve information using a variety of methods (draw on a repertoire of skills).
- Refine the search strategy as necessary.
- Write and organize useful notes and keep track of sources. Taking Notes from Research Reading (University of Toronto) Use a citation manager: Zotero or Refworks
- Evaluate sources using appropriate criteria. Evaluating Internet Sources
- Synthesize, analyze and integrate information sources and prior knowledge. Georgetown University Writing Center
- Revise hypothesis as necessary.
- Use information effectively for a specific purpose.
- Understand such issues as plagiarism, ownership of information (implications of copyright to some extent), and costs of information. Georgetown University Honor Council Copyright Basics (Purdue University) How to Recognize Plagiarism: Tutorials and Tests from Indiana University
- Cite properly and give credit for sources of ideas. MLA Bibliographic Form (7th edition, 2009) MLA Bibliographic Form (8th edition, 2016) Turabian Bibliographic Form: Footnote/Endnote Turabian Bibliographic Form: Parenthetical Reference Use a citation manager: Zotero or Refworks
Adapted from the Association of Colleges and Research Libraries "Objectives for Information Literacy Instruction" , which are more complete and include outcomes. See also the broader "Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education."
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Article Contents
Primacy of the research question, structure of the paper, writing a research article: advice to beginners.
- Article contents
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Thomas V. Perneger, Patricia M. Hudelson, Writing a research article: advice to beginners, International Journal for Quality in Health Care , Volume 16, Issue 3, June 2004, Pages 191–192, https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzh053
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Writing research papers does not come naturally to most of us. The typical research paper is a highly codified rhetorical form [ 1 , 2 ]. Knowledge of the rules—some explicit, others implied—goes a long way toward writing a paper that will get accepted in a peer-reviewed journal.
A good research paper addresses a specific research question. The research question—or study objective or main research hypothesis—is the central organizing principle of the paper. Whatever relates to the research question belongs in the paper; the rest doesn’t. This is perhaps obvious when the paper reports on a well planned research project. However, in applied domains such as quality improvement, some papers are written based on projects that were undertaken for operational reasons, and not with the primary aim of producing new knowledge. In such cases, authors should define the main research question a posteriori and design the paper around it.
Generally, only one main research question should be addressed in a paper (secondary but related questions are allowed). If a project allows you to explore several distinct research questions, write several papers. For instance, if you measured the impact of obtaining written consent on patient satisfaction at a specialized clinic using a newly developed questionnaire, you may want to write one paper on the questionnaire development and validation, and another on the impact of the intervention. The idea is not to split results into ‘least publishable units’, a practice that is rightly decried, but rather into ‘optimally publishable units’.
What is a good research question? The key attributes are: (i) specificity; (ii) originality or novelty; and (iii) general relevance to a broad scientific community. The research question should be precise and not merely identify a general area of inquiry. It can often (but not always) be expressed in terms of a possible association between X and Y in a population Z, for example ‘we examined whether providing patients about to be discharged from the hospital with written information about their medications would improve their compliance with the treatment 1 month later’. A study does not necessarily have to break completely new ground, but it should extend previous knowledge in a useful way, or alternatively refute existing knowledge. Finally, the question should be of interest to others who work in the same scientific area. The latter requirement is more challenging for those who work in applied science than for basic scientists. While it may safely be assumed that the human genome is the same worldwide, whether the results of a local quality improvement project have wider relevance requires careful consideration and argument.
Once the research question is clearly defined, writing the paper becomes considerably easier. The paper will ask the question, then answer it. The key to successful scientific writing is getting the structure of the paper right. The basic structure of a typical research paper is the sequence of Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion (sometimes abbreviated as IMRAD). Each section addresses a different objective. The authors state: (i) the problem they intend to address—in other terms, the research question—in the Introduction; (ii) what they did to answer the question in the Methods section; (iii) what they observed in the Results section; and (iv) what they think the results mean in the Discussion.
In turn, each basic section addresses several topics, and may be divided into subsections (Table 1 ). In the Introduction, the authors should explain the rationale and background to the study. What is the research question, and why is it important to ask it? While it is neither necessary nor desirable to provide a full-blown review of the literature as a prelude to the study, it is helpful to situate the study within some larger field of enquiry. The research question should always be spelled out, and not merely left for the reader to guess.
Typical structure of a research paper
Introduction |
State why the problem you address is important |
State what is lacking in the current knowledge |
State the objectives of your study or the research question |
Methods |
Describe the context and setting of the study |
Specify the study design |
Describe the ‘population’ (patients, doctors, hospitals, etc.) |
Describe the sampling strategy |
Describe the intervention (if applicable) |
Identify the main study variables |
Describe data collection instruments and procedures |
Outline analysis methods |
Results |
Report on data collection and recruitment (response rates, etc.) |
Describe participants (demographic, clinical condition, etc.) |
Present key findings with respect to the central research question |
Present secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.) |
Discussion |
State the main findings of the study |
Discuss the main results with reference to previous research |
Discuss policy and practice implications of the results |
Analyse the strengths and limitations of the study |
Offer perspectives for future work |
Introduction |
State why the problem you address is important |
State what is lacking in the current knowledge |
State the objectives of your study or the research question |
Methods |
Describe the context and setting of the study |
Specify the study design |
Describe the ‘population’ (patients, doctors, hospitals, etc.) |
Describe the sampling strategy |
Describe the intervention (if applicable) |
Identify the main study variables |
Describe data collection instruments and procedures |
Outline analysis methods |
Results |
Report on data collection and recruitment (response rates, etc.) |
Describe participants (demographic, clinical condition, etc.) |
Present key findings with respect to the central research question |
Present secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.) |
Discussion |
State the main findings of the study |
Discuss the main results with reference to previous research |
Discuss policy and practice implications of the results |
Analyse the strengths and limitations of the study |
Offer perspectives for future work |
The Methods section should provide the readers with sufficient detail about the study methods to be able to reproduce the study if so desired. Thus, this section should be specific, concrete, technical, and fairly detailed. The study setting, the sampling strategy used, instruments, data collection methods, and analysis strategies should be described. In the case of qualitative research studies, it is also useful to tell the reader which research tradition the study utilizes and to link the choice of methodological strategies with the research goals [ 3 ].
The Results section is typically fairly straightforward and factual. All results that relate to the research question should be given in detail, including simple counts and percentages. Resist the temptation to demonstrate analytic ability and the richness of the dataset by providing numerous tables of non-essential results.
The Discussion section allows the most freedom. This is why the Discussion is the most difficult to write, and is often the weakest part of a paper. Structured Discussion sections have been proposed by some journal editors [ 4 ]. While strict adherence to such rules may not be necessary, following a plan such as that proposed in Table 1 may help the novice writer stay on track.
References should be used wisely. Key assertions should be referenced, as well as the methods and instruments used. However, unless the paper is a comprehensive review of a topic, there is no need to be exhaustive. Also, references to unpublished work, to documents in the grey literature (technical reports), or to any source that the reader will have difficulty finding or understanding should be avoided.
Having the structure of the paper in place is a good start. However, there are many details that have to be attended to while writing. An obvious recommendation is to read, and follow, the instructions to authors published by the journal (typically found on the journal’s website). Another concerns non-native writers of English: do have a native speaker edit the manuscript. A paper usually goes through several drafts before it is submitted. When revising a paper, it is useful to keep an eye out for the most common mistakes (Table 2 ). If you avoid all those, your paper should be in good shape.
Common mistakes seen in manuscripts submitted to this journal
The research question is not specified |
The stated aim of the paper is tautological (e.g. ‘The aim of this paper is to describe what we did’) or vague (e.g. ‘We explored issues related to X’) |
The structure of the paper is chaotic (e.g. methods are described in the Results section) |
The manuscripts does not follow the journal’s instructions for authors |
The paper much exceeds the maximum number of words allowed |
The Introduction is an extensive review of the literature |
Methods, interventions and instruments are not described in sufficient detail |
Results are reported selectively (e.g. percentages without frequencies, -values without measures of effect) |
The same results appear both in a table and in the text |
Detailed tables are provided for results that do not relate to the main research question |
In the Introduction and Discussion, key arguments are not backed up by appropriate references |
References are out of date or cannot be accessed by most readers |
The Discussion does not provide an answer to the research question |
The Discussion overstates the implications of the results and does not acknowledge the limitations of the study |
The paper is written in poor English |
The research question is not specified |
The stated aim of the paper is tautological (e.g. ‘The aim of this paper is to describe what we did’) or vague (e.g. ‘We explored issues related to X’) |
The structure of the paper is chaotic (e.g. methods are described in the Results section) |
The manuscripts does not follow the journal’s instructions for authors |
The paper much exceeds the maximum number of words allowed |
The Introduction is an extensive review of the literature |
Methods, interventions and instruments are not described in sufficient detail |
Results are reported selectively (e.g. percentages without frequencies, -values without measures of effect) |
The same results appear both in a table and in the text |
Detailed tables are provided for results that do not relate to the main research question |
In the Introduction and Discussion, key arguments are not backed up by appropriate references |
References are out of date or cannot be accessed by most readers |
The Discussion does not provide an answer to the research question |
The Discussion overstates the implications of the results and does not acknowledge the limitations of the study |
The paper is written in poor English |
Huth EJ . How to Write and Publish Papers in the Medical Sciences , 2nd edition. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1990 .
Browner WS . Publishing and Presenting Clinical Research . Baltimore, MD: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 1999 .
Devers KJ , Frankel RM. Getting qualitative research published. Educ Health 2001 ; 14 : 109 –117.
Docherty M , Smith R. The case for structuring the discussion of scientific papers. Br Med J 1999 ; 318 : 1224 –1225.
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May 2021 | 9,880 |
June 2021 | 8,729 |
July 2021 | 6,278 |
August 2021 | 6,723 |
September 2021 | 7,704 |
October 2021 | 8,604 |
November 2021 | 9,733 |
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January 2022 | 7,286 |
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April 2023 | 3,793 |
May 2023 | 3,689 |
June 2023 | 2,548 |
July 2023 | 2,313 |
August 2023 | 2,125 |
September 2023 | 2,172 |
October 2023 | 2,859 |
November 2023 | 2,767 |
December 2023 | 2,335 |
January 2024 | 2,825 |
February 2024 | 2,630 |
March 2024 | 2,874 |
April 2024 | 2,311 |
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How to Find Sources | Scholarly Articles, Books, Etc.
Published on June 13, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.
It’s important to know how to find relevant sources when writing a research paper , literature review , or systematic review .
The types of sources you need will depend on the stage you are at in the research process , but all sources that you use should be credible , up to date, and relevant to your research topic.
There are three main places to look for sources to use in your research:
Research databases
- Your institution’s library
- Other online resources
Table of contents
Library resources, other online sources, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about finding sources.
You can search for scholarly sources online using databases and search engines like Google Scholar . These provide a range of search functions that can help you to find the most relevant sources.
If you are searching for a specific article or book, include the title or the author’s name. Alternatively, if you’re just looking for sources related to your research problem , you can search using keywords. In this case, it’s important to have a clear understanding of the scope of your project and of the most relevant keywords.
Databases can be general (interdisciplinary) or subject-specific.
- You can use subject-specific databases to ensure that the results are relevant to your field.
- When using a general database or search engine, you can still filter results by selecting specific subjects or disciplines.
Example: JSTOR discipline search filter
Check the table below to find a database that’s relevant to your research.
Google Scholar
To get started, you might also try Google Scholar , an academic search engine that can help you find relevant books and articles. Its “Cited by” function lets you see the number of times a source has been cited. This can tell you something about a source’s credibility and importance to the field.
Example: Google Scholar “Cited by” function
Boolean operators
Boolean operators can also help to narrow or expand your search.
Boolean operators are words and symbols like AND , OR , and NOT that you can use to include or exclude keywords to refine your results. For example, a search for “Nietzsche NOT nihilism” will provide results that include the word “Nietzsche” but exclude results that contain the word “nihilism.”
Many databases and search engines have an advanced search function that allows you to refine results in a similar way without typing the Boolean operators manually.
Example: Project Muse advanced search
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You can find helpful print sources in your institution’s library. These include:
- Journal articles
- Encyclopedias
- Newspapers and magazines
Make sure that the sources you consult are appropriate to your research.
You can find these sources using your institution’s library database. This will allow you to explore the library’s catalog and to search relevant keywords. You can refine your results using Boolean operators .
Once you have found a relevant print source in the library:
- Consider what books are beside it. This can be a great way to find related sources, especially when you’ve found a secondary or tertiary source instead of a primary source .
- Consult the index and bibliography to find the bibliographic information of other relevant sources.
You can consult popular online sources to learn more about your topic. These include:
- Crowdsourced encyclopedias like Wikipedia
You can find these sources using search engines. To refine your search, use Boolean operators in combination with relevant keywords.
However, exercise caution when using online sources. Consider what kinds of sources are appropriate for your research and make sure the sites are credible .
Look for sites with trusted domain extensions:
- URLs that end with .edu are educational resources.
- URLs that end with .gov are government-related resources.
- DOIs often indicate that an article is published in a peer-reviewed , scientific article.
Other sites can still be used, but you should evaluate them carefully and consider alternatives.
If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
- ChatGPT vs human editor
- ChatGPT citations
- Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
- Using ChatGPT for your studies
- What is ChatGPT?
- Chicago style
- Paraphrasing
Plagiarism
- Types of plagiarism
- Self-plagiarism
- Avoiding plagiarism
- Academic integrity
- Consequences of plagiarism
- Common knowledge
You can find sources online using databases and search engines like Google Scholar . Use Boolean operators or advanced search functions to narrow or expand your search.
For print sources, you can use your institution’s library database. This will allow you to explore the library’s catalog and to search relevant keywords.
It is important to find credible sources and use those that you can be sure are sufficiently scholarly .
- Consult your institute’s library to find out what books, journals, research databases, and other types of sources they provide access to.
- Look for books published by respected academic publishing houses and university presses, as these are typically considered trustworthy sources.
- Look for journals that use a peer review process. This means that experts in the field assess the quality and credibility of an article before it is published.
When searching for sources in databases, think of specific keywords that are relevant to your topic , and consider variations on them or synonyms that might be relevant.
Once you have a clear idea of your research parameters and key terms, choose a database that is relevant to your research (e.g., Medline, JSTOR, Project MUSE).
Find out if the database has a “subject search” option. This can help to refine your search. Use Boolean operators to combine your keywords, exclude specific search terms, and search exact phrases to find the most relevant sources.
There are many types of sources commonly used in research. These include:
You’ll likely use a variety of these sources throughout the research process , and the kinds of sources you use will depend on your research topic and goals.
Scholarly sources are written by experts in their field and are typically subjected to peer review . They are intended for a scholarly audience, include a full bibliography, and use scholarly or technical language. For these reasons, they are typically considered credible sources .
Popular sources like magazines and news articles are typically written by journalists. These types of sources usually don’t include a bibliography and are written for a popular, rather than academic, audience. They are not always reliable and may be written from a biased or uninformed perspective, but they can still be cited in some contexts.
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Ryan, E. (2023, May 31). How to Find Sources | Scholarly Articles, Books, Etc.. Scribbr. Retrieved October 22, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/working-with-sources/finding-sources/
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This article takes you through the first steps of the research process, helping you narrow down your ideas and build up a strong foundation for your research project.
We describe here the basic steps to follow in writing a scientific article. We outline the main sections that an average article should contain; the elements that should appear in these sections, and some pointers for making the overall result attractive and acceptable for publication. 1.
Reevaluate the research question based on the nature and extent of information available and the parameters of the research project. Select the most appropriate investigative methods (surveys, interviews, experiments) and research tools (periodical indexes, databases, websites).
The key to successful scientific writing is getting the structure of the paper right. The basic structure of a typical research paper is the sequence of Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion (sometimes abbreviated as IMRAD). Each section addresses a different objective.
Table of contents · Start with Your Questions in Mind ∘ What to do if you have no questions & ideas ∘ Organize your questions & ideas · Consult Reliable Resources ∘ How to search for your topic via research databases ∘ Research from non-scientific resources · Digest the Materials ∘ How to digest the material faster and efficiently ...
Research databases. You can search for scholarly sources online using databases and search engines like Google Scholar. These provide a range of search functions that can help you to find the most relevant sources. If you are searching for a specific article or book, include the title or the author’s name.