qualitative research designs quiz

Qualitative Research MCQ Quiz With Answers

Take this exciting Qualitative research MCQ quiz that is designed to test your knowledge regarding the same. Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in several different academic disciplines, such as social sciences and natural sciences. It is also used in non-academic contexts, including market research, business, and service demonstrations by non-profits. Here, we'll ask you a few questions related to qualitative research methods. If you think you have a good understanding of this subject, then you must take this quiz and see if you know enough to pass this test.

Which of the following is NOT a method of quantitative research?

Grounded Theory Research

Correlational Research

Quasi-Experimental Research

Experimental Research

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The grounded theory approach was developed by

Glaser and Strauss

Deductive Reasoning is applied in the:

Qualitative research

Quantitative research

Action research

Applied research

Which of the following is a qualitative research design where lived experiences of individuals are examined in their "lifeworld"?

Ethnography

Phenomenology

Grounded theory

Which of the following is a characteristic of qualitative research?

Deductive process

Control over the context

Fixed research design

Inductive process

The qualitative research design involves

Emergent design

Correlative design

Experimental design

Cohort design

The phenomenological study involves all the following features EXCEPT.

Bracket out

Description

Manipulation

Which of the following qualitative methods focuses on the description and interpretation of cultural behavior?

Symbolic interactionism

The area of inquiry in the grounded theory approach is

The holistic view of culture

Lived experiences

The behavior is observed over time in a natural context.

Social structural processes within a social setting

The research design in which the area inquiry is the manner by which people make sense of social interactions:

The term triangulation was coined by:.

Denzin (1989)

Leininger (1985)

Glaser and Strauss (1967)

In qualitative research, a guiding principle in deciding sample size is:

Effect size

Number of variables

Data saturation

Sub-group analysis

The term refers to the use of multiple referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth:

Item analysis

Factor analysis

Error measurement

Triangulation

Characteristics of qualitative research design are

Flexible and elastic design

Use of mixed methodologies

Ongoing analysis to formulate subsequent strategies

The researcher becomes the instrument.

All of the above

The tendency in qualitative research to derive a complex array of data from a variety of sources, using a variety of methods, is termed as:

Cross-tabulation

Confirmability

The term “action research” was coined by:

Glaser & Strauss

Karl Pearson

Jacob Cohen

The standards for critiquing qualitative research include except:

Descriptive vividness

Methodological Congruence

Analytical and interpretative preciseness

Heuristic relevance

Chance for committing Type-I error

A method of analyzing qualitative data that involves an interactive approach to testing the research hypothesis:

Analytic induction

Axial coding

'Blind' review

Inquiry audit

The process of identifying and holding in abeyance any preconceived beliefs and opinions one has about the phenomena of understanding is:

Content Analysis

A design that unfolds in the course of a qualitative study as the researcher makes ongoing design:

Quasi-experimental design

Exploratory design

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How to write qualitative research questions.

11 min read Here’s how to write effective qualitative research questions for your projects, and why getting it right matters so much.

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a blanket term covering a wide range of research methods and theoretical framing approaches. The unifying factor in all these types of qualitative study is that they deal with data that cannot be counted. Typically this means things like people’s stories, feelings, opinions and emotions , and the meanings they ascribe to their experiences.

Qualitative study is one of two main categories of research, the other being quantitative research. Quantitative research deals with numerical data – that which can be counted and quantified, and which is mostly concerned with trends and patterns in large-scale datasets.

What are research questions?

Research questions are questions you are trying to answer with your research. To put it another way, your research question is the reason for your study, and the beginning point for your research design. There is normally only one research question per study, although if your project is very complex, you may have multiple research questions that are closely linked to one central question.

A good qualitative research question sums up your research objective. It’s a way of expressing the central question of your research, identifying your particular topic and the central issue you are examining.

Research questions are quite different from survey questions, questions used in focus groups or interview questions. A long list of questions is used in these types of study, as opposed to one central question. Additionally, interview or survey questions are asked of participants, whereas research questions are only for the researcher to maintain a clear understanding of the research design.

Research questions are used in both qualitative and quantitative research , although what makes a good research question might vary between the two.

In fact, the type of research questions you are asking can help you decide whether you need to take a quantitative or qualitative approach to your research project.

Discover the fundamentals of qualitative research

Quantitative vs. qualitative research questions

Writing research questions is very important in both qualitative and quantitative research, but the research questions that perform best in the two types of studies are quite different.

Quantitative research questions

Quantitative research questions usually relate to quantities, similarities and differences.

It might reflect the researchers’ interest in determining whether relationships between variables exist, and if so whether they are statistically significant. Or it may focus on establishing differences between things through comparison, and using statistical analysis to determine whether those differences are meaningful or due to chance.

How much? This kind of research question is one of the simplest. It focuses on quantifying something. For example:

How many Yoruba speakers are there in the state of Maine?

What is the connection?

This type of quantitative research question examines how one variable affects another.

For example:

How does a low level of sunlight affect the mood scores (1-10) of Antarctic explorers during winter?

What is the difference? Quantitative research questions in this category identify two categories and measure the difference between them using numerical data.

Do white cats stay cooler than tabby cats in hot weather?

If your research question fits into one of the above categories, you’re probably going to be doing a quantitative study.

Qualitative research questions

Qualitative research questions focus on exploring phenomena, meanings and experiences.

Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research isn’t about finding causal relationships between variables. So although qualitative research questions might touch on topics that involve one variable influencing another, or looking at the difference between things, finding and quantifying those relationships isn’t the primary objective.

In fact, you as a qualitative researcher might end up studying a very similar topic to your colleague who is doing a quantitative study, but your areas of focus will be quite different. Your research methods will also be different – they might include focus groups, ethnography studies, and other kinds of qualitative study.

A few example qualitative research questions:

What is it like being an Antarctic explorer during winter?
What are the experiences of Yoruba speakers in the USA?
How do white cat owners describe their pets?

Qualitative research question types

Marshall and Rossman (1989) identified 4 qualitative research question types, each with its own typical research strategy and methods.

Exploratory questions

Exploratory questions are used when relatively little is known about the research topic. The process researchers follow when pursuing exploratory questions might involve interviewing participants, holding focus groups, or diving deep with a case study.

Explanatory questions

With explanatory questions, the research topic is approached with a view to understanding the causes that lie behind phenomena. However, unlike a quantitative project, the focus of explanatory questions is on qualitative analysis of multiple interconnected factors that have influenced a particular group or area, rather than a provable causal link between dependent and independent variables.

Descriptive questions

As the name suggests, descriptive questions aim to document and record what is happening. In answering descriptive questions , researchers might interact directly with participants with surveys or interviews, as well as using observational studies and ethnography studies that collect data on how participants interact with their wider environment.

Predictive questions

Predictive questions start from the phenomena of interest and investigate what ramifications it might have in the future. Answering predictive questions may involve looking back as well as forward, with content analysis, questionnaires and studies of non-verbal communication (kinesics).

Why are good qualitative research questions important?

We know research questions are very important. But what makes them so essential? (And is that question a qualitative or quantitative one?)

Getting your qualitative research questions right has a number of benefits.

It defines your qualitative research project Qualitative research questions definitively nail down the research population, the thing you’re examining, and what the nature of your answer will be.This means you can explain your research project to other people both inside and outside your business or organization. That could be critical when it comes to securing funding for your project, recruiting participants and members of your research team, and ultimately for publishing your results. It can also help you assess right the ethical considerations for your population of study.
It maintains focus Good qualitative research questions help researchers to stick to the area of focus as they carry out their research. Keeping the research question in mind will help them steer away from tangents during their research or while they are carrying out qualitative research interviews. This holds true whatever the qualitative methods are, whether it’s a focus group, survey, thematic analysis or other type of inquiry.That doesn’t mean the research project can’t morph and change during its execution – sometimes this is acceptable and even welcome – but having a research question helps demarcate the starting point for the research. It can be referred back to if the scope and focus of the project does change.
It helps make sure your outcomes are achievable

Because qualitative research questions help determine the kind of results you’re going to get, it helps make sure those results are achievable. By formulating good qualitative research questions in advance, you can make sure the things you want to know and the way you’re going to investigate them are grounded in practical reality. Otherwise, you may be at risk of taking on a research project that can’t be satisfactorily completed.

Developing good qualitative research questions

All researchers use research questions to define their parameters, keep their study on track and maintain focus on the research topic. This is especially important with qualitative questions, where there may be exploratory or inductive methods in use that introduce researchers to new and interesting areas of inquiry. Here are some tips for writing good qualitative research questions.

1. Keep it specific

Broader research questions are difficult to act on. They may also be open to interpretation, or leave some parameters undefined.

Strong example: How do Baby Boomers in the USA feel about their gender identity?

Weak example: Do people feel different about gender now?

2. Be original

Look for research questions that haven’t been widely addressed by others already.

Strong example: What are the effects of video calling on women’s experiences of work?

Weak example: Are women given less respect than men at work?

3. Make it research-worthy

Don’t ask a question that can be answered with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’, or with a quick Google search.

Strong example: What do people like and dislike about living in a highly multi-lingual country?

Weak example: What languages are spoken in India?

4. Focus your question

Don’t roll multiple topics or questions into one. Qualitative data may involve multiple topics, but your qualitative questions should be focused.

Strong example: What is the experience of disabled children and their families when using social services?

Weak example: How can we improve social services for children affected by poverty and disability?

4. Focus on your own discipline, not someone else’s

Avoid asking questions that are for the politicians, police or others to address.

Strong example: What does it feel like to be the victim of a hate crime?

Weak example: How can hate crimes be prevented?

5. Ask something researchable

Big questions, questions about hypothetical events or questions that would require vastly more resources than you have access to are not useful starting points for qualitative studies. Qualitative words or subjective ideas that lack definition are also not helpful.

Strong example: How do perceptions of physical beauty vary between today’s youth and their parents’ generation?

Weak example: Which country has the most beautiful people in it?

Related resources

Qualitative research design 12 min read, primary vs secondary research 14 min read, business research methods 12 min read, qualitative research interviews 11 min read, market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, request demo.

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What is a scientist, scientific method, 9th - 12th , independent & dependent variables, random funny trivia, professional development , experimental design.

Qualitative Research Designs

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Which of the following are key components in the definition of research approach?

Philosophical assumptions

Research validity

Rigour and trustworthiness

Distinct methods or procedures

Which of the following is "an approach for exploring & understanding the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social problem" (Creswell 2014)

Transformative research approach

Qualitative research approach

Quantitative research approach

Which of the following is "an approach for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables" (Creswell 2014)

Quantitative research

Qualitative research

Which of the following is NOT a qualitative research design?

Single Case Studies

Phenomenology

Ethnography

All of the following are qualitative research designs except

Focus Group Discussion

Which of the following best defines research design?

Types of inquiry within broader research approaches that provide specific direction for procedures when conducting research

Types of inquiry within the quantitative research approach that provide specific direction for procedures when conducting research

Types of inquiry within the qualitative research approach that provide specific direction for procedures when conducting research

None of the options presented

Your research design dictates your research methods and or procedures

Which of the following is a benefit of conducting qualitative research?

You can do in depth exploration of real life experiences

You can collect data from a large sample quickly

You do not need to do a literature review

None of the above

Qualitative research should not be conducted by social scientists

There a various qualitative case study designs

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Questions and Answers

In qualitative research, which methodology focuses on understanding the subjective experiences of participants.

Ethnography
Grounded theory
Phenomenology (correct)

What is a key consideration when appraising qualitative research?

The statistical significance of the findings
The number of variables studied
The availability of funding for the study
The appropriateness of the sample to the research question (correct)

Which qualitative research approach emphasizes the importance of understanding social interactions and language use?

Visual methods
Participatory/action research
Interpretive/narrative
Discursive approaches (correct)

What type of research design involves the in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon?

<p>Case study</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which question is essential for evaluating the transferability of qualitative research findings?

<p>Can I transfer the results of this study to another relevant setting?</p> Signup and view all the answers

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Doing Research in the Real World

Student resources, multiple choice quiz.

Take the quiz to test your understanding of the key concepts covered in the chapter. Try testing yourself before you read the chapter to see where your strengths and weaknesses are, then test yourself again once you’ve read the chapter to see how well you’ve understood.

Tip: Click on each link to expand and view the content. Click again to collapse.

PART A: PRINCIPLES AND PLANNING FOR RESEARCH

1. Which of the following should not be a criterion for a good research project?

Demonstrates the abilities of the researcher
Is dependent on the completion of other projects
Demonstrates the integration of different fields of knowledge
Develops the skills of the researcher

b. Is dependent on the completion of other projects

2. Which form of reasoning is the process of drawing a specific conclusion from a set of premises?

Objective reasoning
Positivistic reasoning
Inductive reasoning
Deductive reasoning

d: Deductive reasoning

3. Research that seeks to examine the findings of a study by using the same design but a different sample is which of the following?

An exploratory study
A replication study
An empirical study
Hypothesis testing

b: A replication study

4. A researcher designs an experiment to test how variables interact to influence job-seeking behaviours. The main purpose of the study was:

Description
Exploration
Explanation

d: Explanation

5. Cyber bullying at work is a growing threat to employee job satisfaction. Researchers want to find out why people do this and how they feel about it. The primary purpose of the study is:

c: Exploration

6. A theory:

Is an accumulated body of knowledge
Includes inconsequential ideas
Is independent of research methodology
Should be viewed uncritically

a: Is an accumulated body of knowledge

7. Which research method is a bottom-up approach to research?

Deductive method
Explanatory method
Inductive method
Exploratory method

c: Inductive method

8. How much confidence should you place in a single research study?

You should trust research findings after different researchers have replicated the findings
You should completely trust a single research study
Neither a nor b
Both a and b

a: You should trust research findings after different researchers have replicated the findings

9. A qualitative research problem statement:

Specifies the research methods to be utilized
Specifies a research hypothesis
Expresses a relationship between variables
Conveys a sense of emerging design

d: Conveys a sense of emerging design

10. Which of the following is a good research question?

To produce a report on student job searching behaviours
To identify the relationship between self-efficacy and student job searching behaviours
Students with higher levels of self-efficacy will demonstrate more active job searching behaviours
Do students with high levels of self-efficacy demonstrate more active job searching behaviours?

d: Do students with high levels of self-efficacy demonstrate more active job searching behaviours?

11. A review of the literature prior to formulating research questions allows the researcher to :

Provide an up-to-date understanding of the subject, its significance, and structure
Guide the development of research questions
Present the kinds of research methodologies used in previous studies
All of the above

d: All of the above

12. Sometimes a comprehensive review of the literature prior to data collection is not recommended by:

Ethnomethodology
Grounded theory
Symbolic interactionism
Feminist theory

b: Grounded theory

13. The feasibility of a research study should be considered in light of:

Cost and time required to conduct the study
Access to gatekeepers and respondents
Potential ethical concerns

14. Research that uses qualitative methods for one phase and quantitative methods for the next phase is known as:

Action research
Mixed-method research
Quantitative research
Pragmatic research

b: Mixed-method research

15. Research hypotheses are:

Formulated prior to a review of the literature
Statements of predicted relationships between variables
B but not A
Both A and B

c: B but not A

16. Which research approach is based on the epistemological viewpoint of pragmatism?

Qualitative research
Mixed-methods research

c: Mixed-methods research

17. Adopting ethical principles in research means:

Avoiding harm to participants
The researcher is anonymous
Deception is only used when necessary
Selected informants give their consent

a: Avoiding harm to participants

18. A radical perspective on ethics suggests that:

Researchers can do anything they want
The use of checklists of ethical actions is essential
The powers of Institutional Review Boards should be strengthened
Ethics should be based on self-reflexivity

d: Ethics should be based on self-reflexivity

19. Ethical problems can arise when researching the Internet because:

Everyone has access to digital media
Respondents may fake their identities
Researchers may fake their identities
Internet research has to be covert

b: Respondents may fake their identities

20. The Kappa statistic:

Is a measure of inter-judge validity
Compares the level of agreement between two judges against what might have been predicted by chance
Ranges from 0 to +1
Is acceptable above a score of 0.5

b: Compares the level of agreement between two judges against what might have been predicted by chance

PART B: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. Which research paradigm is most concerned about generalizing its findings?

a: Quantitative research

2. A variable that is presumed to cause a change in another variable is called:

An intervening variable
A dependent variable
An independent variable
A numerical variable

c: An independent variable

3. A study of teaching professionals posits that their performance-related pay increases their motivation which in turn leads to an increase in their job satisfaction. What kind of variable is ‘motivation”’ in this study?

Extraneous
Confounding
Intervening
Manipulated

c: Intervening

4. Which correlation is the strongest?

5. When interpreting a correlation coefficient expressing the relationship between two variables, it is important not to:

Assume causality
Measure the values for X and Y independently
Choose X and Y values that are normally distributed
Check the direction of the relationship

a: Assume causality

6. Which of the following can be described as a nominal variable?

Annual income
Annual sales
Geographical location of a firm

d: Geographical location of a firm

7. A positive correlation occurs when:

Two variables remain constant
Two variables move in the same direction
One variable goes up and the other goes down
Two variables move in opposite directions

b: Two variables move in the same direction

8. The key defining characteristic of experimental research is that:

The independent variable is manipulated
Hypotheses are proved
A positive correlation exists
Samples are large

a: The independent variable is manipulated

9. Qualitative research is used in all the following circumstances, EXCEPT:

It is based on a collection of non-numerical data such as words and pictures
It often uses small samples
It uses the inductive method
It is typically used when a great deal is already known about the topic of interest

d: It is typically used when a great deal is already known about the topic of interest

10. In an experiment, the group that does not receive the intervention is called:

The experimental group
The participant group
The control group
The treatment group

c: The control group

11. Which generally cannot be guaranteed in conducting qualitative studies in the field?

Keeping participants from physical and emotional harm
Gaining informed consent
Assuring anonymity rather than just confidentiality
Maintaining consent forms

c: Assuring anonymity rather than just confidentiality

12. Which of the following is not ethical practice in research with humans?

Maintaining participants’ anonymity
Informing participants that they are free to withdraw at any time
Requiring participants to continue until the study has been completed

d: Requiring participants to continue until the study has been completed

13. What do we call data that are used for a new study but which were collected by an earlier researcher for a different set of research questions?

Secondary data
Field notes
Qualitative data
Primary data

a: Secondary data

14. When each member of a population has an equal chance of being selected, this is called:

A snowball sample
A stratified sample
A random probability sample
A non-random sample

c: A random probability sample

15. Which of the following techniques yields a simple random sample of hospitals?

Randomly selecting a district and then sampling all hospitals within the district
Numbering all the elements of a hospital sampling frame and then using a random number generator to pick hospitals from the table
Listing hospitals by sector and choosing a proportion from within each sector at random
Choosing volunteer hospitals to participate

b: Numbering all the elements of a hospital sampling frame and then using a random number generator to pick hospitals from the table

16. Which of the following statements are true?

The larger the sample size, the larger the confidence interval
The smaller the sample size, the greater the sampling error
The more categories being measured, the smaller the sample size
A confidence level of 95 percent is always sufficient

b: The smaller the sample size, the greater the sampling error

17. Which of the following will produce the least sampling error?

A large sample based on convenience sampling
A small sample based on random sampling
A large snowball sample
A large sample based on random sampling

d: A large sample based on random sampling

18. When people are readily available, volunteer, or are easily recruited to the sample, this is called:

Snowball sampling
Convenience sampling
Stratified sampling
Random sampling

b: Convenience sampling

19. In qualitative research, sampling that involves selecting diverse cases is referred to as:

Typical-case sampling
Critical-case sampling
Intensity sampling
Maximum variation sampling

d: Maximum variation sampling

20. A test accurately indicates an employee’s scores on a future criterion (e.g., conscientiousness). What kind of validity is this?

a: Predictive

PART C: DATA COLLECTION METHODS

1. When designing a questionnaire it is important to do each of the following EXCEPT

Pilot the questionnaire
Avoid jargon
Avoid double questions
Use leading questions

d: Use leading questions

2. One advantage of using a questionnaire is that:

Probe questions can be asked
Respondents can be put at ease
Interview bias can be avoided
Response rates are always high

c: Interview bias can be avoided

3. Which of the following is true of observations?

It takes less time than interviews
It is often not possible to determine exactly why people behave as they do
Covert observation raises fewer ethical concerns than overt

b: It is often not possible to determine exactly why people behave as they do

4. A researcher secretly becomes an active member of a group in order to observe their behaviour. This researcher is acting as:

An overt participant observer
A covert non-participant observer
A covert participant observer
None of the above

c: A covert participant observer

5. All of the following are advantages of structured observation, EXCEPT:

Results can be replicated at a different time
The coding schedule might impose a framework on what is being observed
Data can be collected that participants may not realize is important
Data do not have to rely on the recall of participants

b: The coding schedule might impose a framework on what is being observed

6. When conducting an interview, asking questions such as: "What else? or ‘Could you expand on that?’ are all forms of:

Structured responses
Category questions

7. Secondary data can include which of the following?

Government statistics
Personal diaries
Organizational records

8. An ordinal scale is:

The simplest form of measurement
A scale with an absolute zero point
A rank-order scale of measurement
A scale with equal intervals between ranks

c: A rank-order scale of measurement

9. Which term measures the extent to which scores from a test can be used to infer or predict performance in some activity?

Face validity
Content reliability
Criterion-related validity
Construct validity

c: Criterion-related validity

10. The ‘reliability’of a measure refers to the researcher asking:

Does it give consistent results?
Does it measure what it is supposed to measure?
Can the results be generalized?
Does it have face reliability?

a: Does it give consistent results?

11. Interviewing is the favoured approach EXCEPT when:

There is a need for highly personalized data
It is important to ask supplementary questions
High numbers of respondents are needed
Respondents have difficulty with written language

c: High numbers of respondents are needed

12. Validity in interviews is strengthened by the following EXCEPT:

Building rapport with interviewees
Multiple questions cover the same theme
Constructing interview schedules that contain themes drawn from the literature
Prompting respondents to expand on initial responses

b: Multiple questions cover the same theme

13. Interview questions should:

Lead the respondent
Probe sensitive issues
Be delivered in a neutral tone
Test the respondents’ powers of memory

c: Be delivered in a neutral tone

14. Active listening skills means:

Asking as many questions as possible
Avoiding silences
Keeping to time
Attentive listening

d: Attentive listening

15. All the following are strengths of focus groups EXCEPT:

They allow access to a wide range of participants
Discussion allows for the validation of ideas and views
They can generate a collective perspective
They help maintain confidentiality

d: They help maintain confidentiality

16. Which of the following is not always true about focus groups?

The ideal size is normally between 6 and 12 participants
Moderators should introduce themselves to the group
Participants should come from diverse backgrounds
The moderator poses preplanned questions

c: Participants should come from diverse backgrounds

17. A disadvantage of using secondary data is that:

The data may have been collected with reference to research questions that are not those of the researcher
The researcher may bring more detachment in viewing the data than original researchers could muster
Data have often been collected by teams of experienced researchers
Secondary data sets are often available and accessible

a: The data may have been collected with reference to research questions that are not those of the researcher

18. All of the following are sources of secondary data EXCEPT:

Official statistics
A television documentary
The researcher’s research diary
A company’s annual report

c: The researcher’s research diary

19. Which of the following is not true about visual methods?

They are not reliant on respondent recall
The have low resource requirements
They do not rely on words to capture what is happening
They can capture what is happening in real time

b: The have low resource requirements

20. Avoiding naïve empiricism in the interpretation of visual data means:

Understanding the context in which they were produced
Ensuring that visual images such as photographs are accurately taken
Only using visual images with other data gathering sources
Planning the capture of visual data carefully

a: Understanding the context in which they were produced

PART D: ANALYSIS AND REPORT WRITING

1. Which of the following is incorrect when naming a variable in SPSS?

Must begin with a letter and not a number
Must end in a full stop
Cannot exceed 64 characters
Cannot include symbols such as ?, & and %

b: Must end in a full stop

2. Which of the following is not an SPSS Type variable?

3. A graph that uses vertical bars to represent data is called:

A bar chart
A pie chart
A line graph
A vertical graph

a: A bar chart

4. The purpose of descriptive statistics is to:

Summarize the characteristics of a data set
Draw conclusions from the data

a: Summarize the characteristics of a data set

5. The measure of the extent to which responses vary from the mean is called:

The normal distribution
The standard deviation
The variance

c: The standard deviation

6. To compare the performance of a group at time T1 and then at T2, we would use:

A chi-squared test
One-way analysis of variance
Analysis of variance
A paired t-test

d: A paired t-test

7. A Type 1 error occurs in a situation where:

The null hypothesis is accepted when it is in fact true
The null hypothesis is rejected when it is in fact false
The null hypothesis is rejected when it is in fact true
The null hypothesis is accepted when it is in fact false

c: The null hypothesis is rejected when it is in fact true

8. The significance level

Is set after a statistical test is conducted
Is always set at 0.05
Results in a p -value
Measures the probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis

d: Measures the probability of rejecting a true null hypothesis

9. To predict the value of the dependent variable for a new case based on the knowledge of one or more independent variables, we would use

Regression analysis
Correlation analysis
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test

a: Regression analysis

10. In conducting secondary data analysis, researchers should ask themselves all of the following EXCEPT:

Who produced the document?
Is the material genuine?
How can respondents be re-interviewed?
Why was the document produced?

c: How can respondents be re-interviewed?

11. Which of the following are not true of reflexivity?

It recognizes that the researcher is not a neutral observer
It has mainly been applied to the analysis of qualitative data
It is part of a post-positivist tradition
A danger of adopting a reflexive stance is the researcher can become the focus of the study

c: It is part of a post-positivist tradition

12. Validity in qualitative research can be strengthened by all of the following EXCEPT:

Member checking for accuracy and interpretation
Transcribing interviews to improve accuracy of data
Exploring rival explanations
Analysing negative cases

b: Transcribing interviews to improve accuracy of data

13. Qualitative data analysis programs are useful for each of the following EXCEPT:

Manipulation of large amounts of data
Exploring of the data against new dimensions
Querying of data
Generating codes

d: Generating codes

14. Which part of a research report contains details of how the research was planned and conducted?

Introduction

b: Design

15. Which of the following is a form of research typically conducted by managers and other professionals to address issues in their organizations and/or professional practice?

Basic research
Professional research
Predictive research

a: Action research

16. Plagiarism can be avoided by:

Copying the work of others accurately
Paraphrasing the author’s text in your own words
Cut and pasting from the Internet
Quoting directly without revealing the source

b: Paraphrasing the author’s text in your own words

17. In preparing for a presentation, you should do all of the following EXCEPT:

Practice the presentation
Ignore your nerves
Get to know more about your audience
Take an advanced look, if possible, at the facilities

b: Ignore your nerves

18. You can create interest in your presentation by:

Using bullet points
Reading from notes
Maximizing the use of animation effects
Using metaphors

d: Using metaphors

19. In preparing for a viva or similar oral examination, it is best if you have:

Avoided citing the examiner in your thesis
Made exaggerated claims on the basis of your data
Published and referenced your own article(s)
Tried to memorize your work

c: Published and referenced your own article(s)

20. Grounded theory coding:

Makes use of a priori concepts from the literature
Uses open coding, selective coding, then axial coding
Adopts a deductive stance
Stops when theoretical saturation has been reached

d: Stops when theoretical saturation has been reached

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What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
How is anxiety experienced around the world?
How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Qualitative research approaches
Approach	What does it involve?
Grounded theory	Researchers collect rich data on a topic of interest and develop theories .
	Researchers immerse themselves in groups or organizations to understand their cultures.
Action research	Researchers and participants collaboratively link theory to practice to drive social change.
Phenomenological research	Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by describing and interpreting participants’ lived experiences.
Narrative research	Researchers examine how stories are told to understand how participants perceive and make sense of their experiences.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative data analysis
Approach	When to use	Example
	To describe and categorize common words, phrases, and ideas in qualitative data.	A market researcher could perform content analysis to find out what kind of language is used in descriptions of therapeutic apps.
	To identify and interpret patterns and themes in qualitative data.	A psychologist could apply thematic analysis to travel blogs to explore how tourism shapes self-identity.
	To examine the content, structure, and design of texts.	A media researcher could use textual analysis to understand how news coverage of celebrities has changed in the past decade.
	To study communication and how language is used to achieve effects in specific contexts.	A political scientist could use discourse analysis to study how politicians generate trust in election campaigns.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

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Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Chi square goodness of fit test
Degrees of freedom
Null hypothesis
Discourse analysis
Control groups
Mixed methods research
Non-probability sampling
Quantitative research
Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

Rosenthal effect
Implicit bias
Cognitive bias
Selection bias
Negativity bias
Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

Prepare and organize your data.
Review and explore your data.
Develop a data coding system.
Assign codes to the data.
Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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Quiz 9: Qualitative Research Designs: Recognizing the Overall Plan for a Study

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Multiple Choice

Which of the following describes the major intention of using a case study design?

Which of the following best describes the major intention of using a grounded theory design?

Which of the following design types would a researcher use to describe a culture-sharing group?

Collect field texts to document an individual's story. Which qualitative research design best fits this description?

Conduct extensive fieldwork. Which qualitative research design best fits this description?

Report a model and propositions. Which qualitative research design best fits this description?

Report description, themes, and lessons learned. Which qualitative research design best fits this description?

Report a chronological retelling of a story. Which qualitative research design best fits this description?

Story, biography, and autobiography indicate which of the following qualitative research designs?

Narrative research is associated with which type of data analysis procedures?

Analyze the data using open, axial, and selective coding. Which qualitative research design best fits this description?

Report a cultural portrait. Which qualitative research design best fits this description?

Which of the following best describes the procedures you can use to recognize the qualitative research design used in a study?

Researchers choose to use a general thematic approach for which of the following purposes?

Which research design would you expect the researcher to have used to study this purpose? The purpose of this study is to explore the meaning of counselors' stories as they describe "sacred places" in their high school.

Which research design would you expect the researcher to have used to study this purpose? The purpose of this study is to describe the problems that counselors at one high school encounter as they make their high school into a "sacred place" for students.

Study a system bounded in time and place. Which qualitative research design best fits this description?

Which research design would you expect the researcher to have used to study this purpose? The purpose of this study is to generate a theory about the process used by school counselors as they make their high school a "sacred place" in which to work.

Which of the following approaches would be least helpful when developing a qualitative research design?

Which qualitative research design typically collects interviews, observations, pictures, documents, videotapes, and/or e-mails?

showing 1 - 20 of 20

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What is Qualitative Research Design? Definition, Types, Examples and Best Practices

What is Qualitative Research Design?

Qualitative research design is defined as a systematic and flexible approach to conducting research that focuses on understanding and interpreting the complexity of human phenomena.

Unlike quantitative research, which seeks to measure and quantify variables, qualitative research is concerned with exploring the underlying meanings, patterns, and perspectives that shape individuals’ experiences and behaviors. This type of research design is particularly useful when studying social and cultural phenomena, as it allows researchers to delve deeply into the context and nuances of a particular subject.

In qualitative research, data is often collected through methods such as interviews, focus groups, participant observation, and document analysis. These methods aim to gather rich, detailed information that can provide insights into the subjective experiences of individuals or groups.

Researchers employing qualitative design are often interested in exploring social processes, cultural norms, and the lived experiences of participants. The emphasis is on understanding the depth and context of the phenomena under investigation, rather than generating statistical generalizations.

One key characteristic of qualitative research design is its iterative nature. The research process is dynamic and may evolve as new insights emerge. Researchers continually engage with the data, refining their questions and methods based on ongoing analysis.

This flexibility allows for a more organic and responsive exploration of the research topic, making it well-suited for complex and multifaceted inquiries.

Qualitative research design also involves careful consideration of ethical concerns, as researchers often work closely with participants to gather personal and sensitive information.

Establishing trust, maintaining confidentiality, and ensuring participants’ autonomy are critical aspects of ethical practice in qualitative research. In summary, qualitative research design is a holistic and interpretive approach that prioritizes understanding the intricacies of human experience, offering depth and context to our comprehension of social and cultural phenomena.

Key Characteristics of Qualitative Research Design

Qualitative research design is characterized by several key features that distinguish it from quantitative approaches. Here are some of the essential characteristics:

Open-ended Nature: Qualitative research is open-ended and flexible, allowing for the exploration of complex social phenomena without preconceived hypotheses. Researchers often start with broad questions and adapt their focus based on emerging insights.
Rich Descriptions: Qualitative research emphasizes rich and detailed descriptions of the subject under investigation. This depth helps capture the context, nuances, and subtleties of human experiences, behaviors, and social phenomena.
Subjective Understanding: Qualitative researchers acknowledge the role of the researcher in shaping the study. The subjective interpretations and perspectives of both researchers and participants are considered valuable for understanding the phenomena being studied.
Interpretive Approach: Rather than seeking universal laws or generalizations, qualitative research aims to interpret and make sense of the meanings and patterns inherent in the data. Interpretation is often context-dependent and involves understanding the social and cultural context in which the study takes place.
Non-probability Sampling: Qualitative studies typically use non-probability sampling methods, such as purposeful or snowball sampling, to select participants deliberately chosen for their relevance to the research question. Sample sizes are often small but information-rich, allowing for a deep understanding of the selected cases.
Inductive Reasoning: Qualitative data analysis is often inductive, meaning that it involves identifying patterns, themes, and categories that emerge from the data itself. Researchers let the data shape the analysis, rather than fitting it into preconceived categories.
Coding and Categorization: Researchers use coding techniques to systematically organize and categorize data. This involves assigning labels or codes to segments of data based on recurring themes or patterns.
Flexible Design: Qualitative research design is adaptable and allows for changes in research questions, methods, and strategies as the study progresses. This flexibility accommodates the evolving nature of the research process.
Iterative Nature: Researchers engage in an iterative process of data collection, analysis, and refinement. As new insights emerge, researchers may revisit previous stages of the research, leading to a deeper and more nuanced understanding of the subject.

By embracing these key characteristics, qualitative research design offers a holistic and contextualized approach to studying the complexities of human behavior, culture, and social phenomena.

Key Components of Qualitative Research Design

Qualitative research design involves several key components that shape the overall framework and methodology of the study. These components help guide researchers in conducting in-depth investigations into the complexities of human experiences, behaviors, and social phenomena. Here are the key components of qualitative research design:

Central Inquiry: Qualitative research begins with a well-defined central research question or objective. This question guides the entire study and determines the focus of data collection and analysis. The question is often broad and open-ended to allow for exploration and discovery.
Rationale: Researchers provide a clear rationale for why the study is being conducted, outlining its significance and relevance. This may involve identifying gaps in existing literature, addressing practical problems, or contributing to theoretical debates.
Theoretical Framework: Qualitative studies often draw on existing theories or conceptual frameworks to guide their inquiry. The theoretical lens helps shape the research design and provides a basis for interpreting findings.
Study Design: Researchers decide on the overall approach to the study, whether it’s a case study, ethnography, grounded theory, phenomenology, or another qualitative design. The choice depends on the research question and the nature of the phenomenon under investigation.
Sampling Strategy: Qualitative research employs purposeful or theoretical sampling to select participants who can provide rich and relevant information related to the research question. Sampling decisions are made to ensure diversity and depth in the data.
Interviews: In-depth interviews are a common method in qualitative research. These interviews are typically semi-structured, allowing for flexibility while ensuring key topics are covered.
Observation: Researchers may engage in direct observation of participants in natural settings. This can involve participant observation, where the researcher becomes part of the environment, or non-participant observation, where the researcher remains separate.
Document Analysis: Researchers analyze existing documents, artifacts, or texts relevant to the study, such as diaries, letters, organizational records, or media content.
Thematic Analysis: Researchers identify and analyze recurring themes or patterns in the data. This involves coding and categorizing data to uncover underlying meanings and concepts.
Constant Comparative Analysis: Common in grounded theory, this method involves comparing data as it is collected, allowing researchers to refine categories and theories iteratively.
Narrative Analysis: Focuses on the stories people tell, examining the structure and content of narratives to understand the meaning-making process.
Informed Consent: Researchers obtain informed consent from participants, explaining the purpose of the study, potential risks, and ensuring participants have the right to withdraw at any time.
Confidentiality and Anonymity: Researchers take measures to protect the privacy of participants by ensuring that their identities and personal information are kept confidential or anonymized.
Credibility: Establishing credibility involves demonstrating that the study accurately represents participants’ perspectives. Techniques such as member checking, peer debriefing, and prolonged engagement contribute to credibility.
Transferability: Researchers aim to make the study findings applicable to similar contexts. Detailed descriptions and thick descriptions enhance the transferability of qualitative research.
Dependability and Confirmability: Ensuring dependability involves maintaining consistency in data collection and analysis, while confirmability ensures that findings are rooted in the data rather than researcher bias.
Reflexivity: Researchers acknowledge their role in shaping the study and consider how their background, experiences, and biases may influence the research process and interpretation of findings. Reflexivity enhances transparency and the researcher’s self-awareness.

By carefully considering and integrating these key components, qualitative researchers can design studies that yield rich, contextually grounded insights into the social phenomena they aim to explore.

Types of Qualitative Research Design

Qualitative research design encompasses various approaches, each suited to different research questions and objectives. Here are some common types of qualitative research designs:

Focus: Ethnography involves immersing the researcher in the natural environment of the participants to observe and understand their behaviors, practices, and cultural context.
Data Collection: Researchers often use participant observation, interviews, and document analysis to gather data.
Example: An anthropologist immersed in a remote tribe might live with the community for an extended period, participating in their daily activities, conducting interviews, and documenting observations. By doing so, the researcher gains a deep understanding of the tribe’s cultural practices, social relationships, and the significance of rituals in their way of life.
Focus: Phenomenology explores the lived experiences of individuals to uncover the essence of a phenomenon.
Data Collection: In-depth interviews and sometimes participant observation are common methods.
Purpose: It seeks to understand the subjective meaning individuals attribute to an experience.
In a study on the lived experiences of cancer survivors, researchers might conduct in-depth interviews to explore the subjective meaning individuals attach to their diagnosis, treatment, and recovery. Phenomenology seeks to uncover the essence of these experiences, capturing the emotional, psychological, and social dimensions that shape survivors’ perspectives on their journey through cancer.
Focus: Grounded theory aims to develop a theory grounded in the data, allowing patterns and concepts to emerge organically.
Data Collection: It involves constant comparative analysis of interviews or observations, with coding and categorization.
Purpose: This approach is used when researchers want to generate theories or concepts based on the data itself.
Research on retirement transitions using grounded theory might involve interviewing retirees from various backgrounds. Through constant comparison and iterative analysis, researchers may identify emerging themes and categories, ultimately developing a theory that explains the commonalities and variations in retirees’ experiences as they navigate this life stage.
Focus: Case studies delve deeply into a specific case or context to understand it in detail.
Data Collection: Multiple sources of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents, are used to provide a comprehensive view.
Purpose: Case studies are useful for exploring complex phenomena within their real-life context.
A case study on a company’s crisis response could involve a detailed examination of communication strategies, decision-making processes, and the organizational dynamics during a specific crisis. By analyzing the case in-depth, researchers gain insights into how the company’s actions and decisions influenced the outcome of the crisis and what lessons can be learned for future situations.
Focus: Narrative research examines the stories people tell to understand how individuals construct meaning and identity.
Data Collection: It involves collecting and analyzing narratives through interviews, personal accounts, or written documents.
Purpose: Narrative research is often used to explore personal or cultural stories and their implications.
Examining the life stories of refugees may involve collecting and analyzing personal narratives through interviews or written accounts. Researchers explore how displacement has shaped the refugees’ identities, relationships, and perceptions of home, providing a nuanced understanding of their experiences through the lens of storytelling.
Focus: Action research involves collaboration between researchers and participants to identify and solve practical problems.
Data Collection: Researchers collect data through cycles of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting.
Purpose: It is geared towards facilitating positive change in a particular context or community.
In an educational setting, action research might involve teachers and researchers collaborating to address a specific classroom challenge. Through cycles of planning, implementing interventions, and reflecting, the aim is to improve teaching practices and student learning outcomes, with the findings contributing to both practical solutions and the broader understanding of effective pedagogy.
Focus: Content analysis examines the content of written, visual, or audio materials to identify patterns or themes.
Data Collection: Researchers systematically analyze texts, images, or media content using coding and categorization.
Purpose: It is often used to study communication, media, or cultural artifacts.
A content analysis of news articles covering a specific social issue, such as climate change, could involve systematically coding and categorizing language and themes. This approach allows researchers to identify patterns in media discourse, explore public perceptions, and understand how the issue is framed in the media.
Focus: Critical ethnography combines ethnographic methods with a critical perspective to examine power structures and social inequalities.
Data Collection: Researchers engage in participant observation, interviews, and document analysis with a focus on social justice issues.
Purpose: This approach aims to explore and challenge existing power dynamics and social structures.
A critical ethnography examining gender dynamics in a workplace might involve observing daily interactions, conducting interviews, and analyzing policies. Researchers, guided by a critical perspective, aim to uncover power imbalances, stereotypes, and systemic inequalities within the organizational culture, contributing to a deeper understanding of gender dynamics in the workplace.
Focus: Similar to grounded theory, constructivist grounded theory acknowledges the role of the researcher in shaping interpretations.
Data Collection: It involves a flexible approach to data collection, including interviews, observations, or documents.
Purpose: This approach recognizes the co-construction of meaning between researchers and participants.
In a study on the experiences of individuals with chronic illness, researchers employing constructivist grounded theory might engage in open-ended interviews and data collection. The focus is on co-constructing meanings with participants, acknowledging the dynamic relationship between the researcher and those being studied, ultimately leading to a theory that reflects the collaborative nature of knowledge creation.

These qualitative research designs offer diverse methods for exploring and understanding the complexities of human experiences, behaviors, and social phenomena. The choice of design depends on the research question, the context of the study, and the desired depth of understanding.

Best practices for Qualitative Research Design

Qualitative research design requires careful planning and execution to ensure the credibility, reliability, and richness of the findings. Here are some best practices to consider when designing qualitative research:

Clearly articulate the research questions or objectives to guide the study. Ensure they are specific, open-ended, and aligned with the qualitative research approach.
Select a qualitative research design that aligns with the research questions and objectives. Consider approaches such as ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, or case study based on the nature of the study.
Conduct a comprehensive literature review to understand existing theories, concepts, and research related to the study. This helps situate the research within the broader scholarly context.
Use purposeful or theoretical sampling to select participants who can provide rich information related to the research questions. Aim for diversity in participants to capture a range of perspectives.
Clearly outline the data collection methods, such as interviews, observations, or document analysis. Develop detailed protocols, guides, or questionnaires to maintain consistency across data collection sessions.
Prioritize building trust and rapport with participants. Clearly communicate the study’s purpose, obtain informed consent, and establish a comfortable environment for open and honest discussions.
Adhere to ethical guidelines throughout the research process. Protect participant confidentiality, respect their autonomy, and obtain ethical approval from relevant review boards.
Pilot the data collection instruments and procedures with a small sample to identify and address any ambiguities, refine questions, and enhance the overall quality of data collection.
Use a systematic approach to analyze data, such as thematic analysis, constant comparison, or narrative analysis. Maintain transparency in the coding process, and consider inter-coder reliability if multiple researchers are involved.
Acknowledge and document the researcher’s background, biases, and perspectives. Practice reflexivity by continually reflecting on how the researcher’s positionality may influence the study.
Enhance the credibility of findings by using multiple data sources and methods. Triangulation helps validate results and provides a more comprehensive understanding of the research topic.
Consider member checking, where researchers share preliminary findings with participants to validate interpretations. This process enhances the credibility and trustworthiness of the study.
Keep a detailed journal documenting decisions, reflections, and insights throughout the research process. This journal helps provide transparency and can contribute to the rigor of the study.
Aim for data saturation, the point at which new data no longer provide additional insights. Saturation ensures thorough exploration of the research questions and increases the robustness of the findings.
Clearly document the research process, from design to findings. Provide a detailed and transparent account of the study methodology, facilitating the reproducibility and evaluation of the research.

By incorporating these best practices, qualitative researchers can enhance the rigor, credibility, and relevance of their studies, ultimately contributing valuable insights to the field.

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Qualitative Research Questionnaire – Types & Examples

Published by Alvin Nicolas at August 19th, 2024 , Revised On August 19, 2024

Before you start your research, the first thing you need to identify is the research method . Depending on different factors, you will either choose a quantitative or qualitative study.

Qualitative research is a great tool that helps understand the depth and richness of human opinions and experiences. Unlike quantitative research, which focuses on numerical data , qualitative research allows exploring and interpreting the experiences of the subject. Questionnaires, although mostly associated with quantitative research, can also be a valuable instrument in qualitative studies. Let’s explore what qualitative research questionnaires are and how you can create one.

What Is A Qualitative Research Questionnaire

Qualitative research questionnaires are a structured or semi-structured set of questions designed to gather detailed, open-ended participant responses. It allows you to uncover underlying reasons and opinions and provides insights into a particular phenomenon.

While quantitative questionnaires often have closed-ended questions and numerical responses, a qualitative questionnaire encourages participants to express themselves freely. Before you design your questionnaire, you should know exactly what you need so you can keep your questions specific enough for the participants to understand.

For example:

Describe your experience using our product.
How has technology impacted your work-life balance?

Types of Qualitative Research Questions With Examples

Now that you are familiar with what qualitative research questions are, let’s look at the different types of questions you can use in your survey .

Descriptive Questions

These are used to explore and describe a phenomenon in detail. It helps answer the “what” part of the research, and the questions are mostly foundational.

Example: How do students experience online learning?

Comparative Questions

This type allows you to compare and contrast different groups or situations. You can explore the differences and similarities to highlight the impact of specific variables.

Example: How do the study habits of first-year and fourth-year university students differ?

Interpretive Questions

These questions help you understand the meanings people attach to experiences or phenomena by answering the “how” and “why”.

Example: What does “success” mean to entrepreneurs?

Evaluative Questions

You can use these to assess the quality or value of something. These allow you to understand the outcomes of various situations.

Example: How effective is the new customer service training program?

Process-Oriented Questions

To understand how something happens or develops over time, researchers often use process-oriented questions.

Example: How do individuals develop their career goals?

Exploratory Questions

These allow you to discover new perspectives on a topic. However, you have to be careful that there must be no preconceived notions or research biases to it.

Example: What are the emerging trends in the mobile gaming industry?

How To Write Qualitative Research Questions?

For your study to be successful, it is important to consider designing a questionnaire for qualitative research critically, as it will shape your research and data collection. Here is an easy guide to writing your qualitative research questions perfectly.

Tip 1: Understand Your Research Goals

Many students start their research without clear goals, and they have to make substantial changes to their study in the middle of the research. This wastes time and resources.

Before you start crafting your questions, it is important to know your research objectives. You should know what you aim to discover through your research, or what specific knowledge gaps you are going to fill. With the help of a well-defined research focus, you can develop relevant and meaningful information.

Tip 2: Choose The Structure For Research Questions

There are mostly open-ended questionnaires in qualitative research. They begin with words like “how,” “what,” and “why.” However, the structure of your research questions depends on your research design . You have to consider using broad, overarching questions to explore the main research focus, and then add some specific probes to further research the particular aspects of the topic.

Tip 3: Use Clear Language

The more clear and concise your research questions are, the more effective and free from ambiguity they will be. Do not use complex terminology that might confuse participants. Try using simple and direct language that accurately conveys your intended meaning.

Here is a table to explain the wrong and right ways of writing your qualitative research questions.


How would you characterise your attitude towards e-commerce transactions?	How do you feel about online shopping?
Could you elucidate on the obstacles encountered in your professional role?	What challenges do you face in your job?
What is your evaluation of the innovative product aesthetic?	What do you think about the new product design?
Can you elaborate on the influence of social networking platforms on your interpersonal connections?	How has social media impacted your relationships?

Tip 4: Check Relevance With Research Goals

Once you have developed some questions, check if they align with your research objectives. You must ensure that each question contributes to your overall research questions. After this, you can eliminate any questions that do not serve a clear purpose in your study.

Tip 5: Concentrate On A Single Theme

While it is tempting to cover multiple aspects of a topic in one question, it is best to focus on a single theme per question. This helps to elicit focused responses from participants. Moreover, you have to avoid combining unrelated concepts into a single question.

If your main research question is complicated, you can create sub-questions with a “ladder structure”. These allow you to understand the attributes, consequences, and core values of your research. For example, let’s say your main broad research question is:

How do you feel about your overall experience with our company?

The intermediate questions may be:

What aspects of your experience were positive?
What aspects of your experience were negative?
How likely are you to recommend our company to a friend or colleague?

Types Of Survey Questionnaires In Qualitative Research

It is important to consider your research objectives, target population, resources and needed depth of research when selecting a survey method. The main types of qualitative surveys are discussed below.

Face To Face Surveys

Face-to-face surveys involve direct interaction between the researcher and the participant. This method allows observers to capture non-verbal cues, body language, and facial expressions, and helps adapt questions based on participant responses. They also let you clarify any misunderstandings. Moreover, there is a higher response rate because of personal interaction.

Example: A researcher conducting a study on consumer experiences with a new product might visit participants’ homes to conduct a detailed interview.

Telephone Surveys

These type of qualitative research survey questionnaires provide a less intrusive method for collecting qualitative data. The benefits of telephone surveys include, that it allows you to collect data from a wider population. Moreover, it is generally less expensive than face-to-face interviews and interviews can be conducted efficiently.

Example: A market research firm might conduct telephone surveys to understand customer satisfaction with a telecommunication service.

Online Surveys

Online survey questionnaires are a convenient and cost-effective way to gather qualitative data. You can reach a wide audience quickly, and participants may feel more comfortable sharing sensitive information because of anonymity. Additionally, there are no travel or printing expenses.

Example: A university might use online surveys to explore students’ perceptions of online learning experiences.

Strengths & Limitations Of Questionnaires In Qualitative Research

Questionnaires are undoubtedly a great data collection tool. However, it comes with its fair share of advantages and disadvantages. Let’s discuss the benefits of questionnaires in qualitative research and their cons as well.


Can be inexpensive to distribute and collect	Can suffer from low response rates
Allow researchers to reach a wide audience	There is a lack of control over the environment
Consistent across participants	Once the questionnaire is distributed, it cannot be modified
Anonymity helps make participants feel more comfortable	Participants may not fully understand questions
Open-ended questions provide rich, detailed responses	Open-ended questions may not capture the right answers

Qualitative Research Questionnaire Example

Here is a concise qualitative research questionnaire sample for research papers to give you a better idea of its format and how it is presented.

Thank you for participating in our survey. We value your feedback on our new mobile app. Your responses will help us improve the applications and better meet your needs.

Demographic Information

Occupation:
How long have you been using smartphones:
How would you describe your overall experience with the new mobile app?
What do you like most about the app?
What do you dislike most about the app?
Are there any specific features you find particularly useful or helpful? Please explain.
Are there any features you think are missing or could be improved? Please elaborate.
How easy is the app to navigate? Please explain any difficulties you encountered.
How does this app compare to other similar apps you have used?
What are your expectations for future updates or improvements to the app?
Is there anything else you would like to share about your experience with the app?

Are questionnaires quantitative or qualitative research?

A survey research questionnaire can have both qualitative and quantitative questions. The qualitative questions are mostly open-ended, and quantitative questions take the form of yes/no, or Likert scale rating.

Can we use questionnaires in qualitative research?

Yes, survey questionnaires can be used in qualitative research for data collection. However, instead of a Likert scale or rating, you can post open-ended questions to your respondents. The participants can provide detailed responses to the questions asked.

Why are questionnaires good for qualitative research?

In qualitative research, questionnaires allow you to collect qualitative data. The open-ended and unstructured questions help respondents present their ideas freely and provide insights.

Radiology education for medical students: a qualitative exploration of educational topics, teaching methods and future strategies

Frederike S. Harthoorn 1 , 2 ,
Sascha W. J. Scharenborg 1 , 2 ,
Monique Brink 2 ,
Liesbeth Peters-Bax 2 &
Dylan Henssen 2

BMC Medical Education volume 24 , Article number: 891 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Imaging techniques play a central role in modern medicine and therefore it would be beneficial for all medical students to incorporate radiology education in medical school curricula. However, a formal undergraduate radiology curriculum with well-defined learning objectives remains lacking in The Netherlands. This study aims to qualitatively ascertain opinions from clinicians (radiologists and non-radiologists) with regard to radiology education in the medical school curricula, including topics, teaching methods and strategies.

A qualitative study with in-depth semi-structured interviews was conducted. Inclusion was carried out until saturation was achieved, after which 2 additional interviews were held. Interviews were conducted using open-ended questions, following a predefined topic list. The constant comparative method was applied in order to include new questions when unexpected topics arose during the interviews. All interviews were transcribed verbatim and coded using a thematic analysis approach. Codes were organized into categories and themes by discussion between the researchers.

Forty-four clinicians were interviewed (8 radiologists, 36 non-radiologists). The three main themes that were derived from the interviews were: (1) expectations of indispensable knowledge and skills on radiology, (2) organization of radiology education within the medical curriculum and (3) promising educational innovations for the radiology curriculum. The qualitative study design provides more in-depth knowledge on clinicians’ views on educational topics.

Conclusions

The themes and statements of this study provided new insights into educational methods, timing of radiology education and new topics to teach. More research is needed to gain consensus on these subjects and inclusion of the opinion of medical students with regard to radiology education is needed.

• Radiology education in medical curricula was considered important by all interviewees

• Integrating radiology and anatomy in Longitudinal learning communities (LLC’s) could be a promising educational strategy

• Integration of ultrasound education in medical curricula should be investigated further

Peer Review reports

Imaging technologies play a central role in the practice of modern medicine. Therefore, it is not surprising that previous studies suggest that all medical students would benefit from (basic) knowledge concerning medical imaging technologies and radiology [ 24 , 37 , 63 ]. However, radiology education is not well integrated in the medical curricula [ 21 , 25 , 29 , 37 ] and students’ lacking knowledge can be potentially dangerous [ 19 , 63 ]. In turn, medical students (including interns) and residents reported a lack of confidence when interpreting radiology examinations, including (chest) radiographs [ 19 , 48 ]. Moreover, lacking radiological knowledge was found to be correlated with an overutilization of medical imaging services [ 27 ], leading to increased societal healthcare-related expenses. Consequently, a need for radiology education in medical schools is recognized among teachers, medical students and curriculum designers [ 1 , 29 , 37 , 42 , 44 , 47 , 48 , 52 , 61 ]. Albeit, the learning objectives of such a radiology curriculum remains a topic of debate [ 61 ]. Therefore, proper identification of useful learning objectives for radiology education in medical curricula should be carried out [ 23 , 54 , 60 , 61 ]. The first step of defining learning objectives is to determine which educational topics are important to teach [ 26 , 34 , 60 , 5 ].

When defining these, it is important to identify the opinions of both clinicians (radiologists and non-radiologists) and medical students since both groups influence which topics are considered important to teach during medical school [ 39 ]. Opinions on this topic diverse, due to the fast technological developments in this broad field, which covers nearly every medical discipline for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes [ 23 , 34 , 63 ]. Several studies have previously aimed to determine radiology curriculum topics by questioning different groups of physicians (both radiologists and non-radiologists) and educational experts using questionnaires [ 32 , 36 , 48 , 53 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 55 , 61 ]. Overall, these studies provided lists of interpretative and non-interpretative skills that respondents agreed on what should be taught in medical school regarding radiology. The most commonly mentioned interpretative skill concerned the systematic approach of reading chest radiographs [ 32 , 36 , 48 , 53 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 55 ]. Suggested non-interpretative skills were more diverse and included (a) the basic physical mechanisms of ionizing radiation, including knowledge on radiation risks [ 32 , 36 , 53 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 55 , 61 ], (b) the principles of justification of procedures (e.g., knowing when to use intravenous contrast agents) [ 32 , 36 , 48 , 53 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 55 , 61 ], and comprehension of the role, indications and limitations of diagnostic imaging (and interventional) techniques [ 32 , 36 , 48 , 53 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 55 , 61 ].

Nevertheless, the aforementioned studies used a survey-based approach in which rather pre-determined information is collected from a large group of participants [ 32 , 36 , 48 , 53 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 55 ]. This study aimed to build on this work by employing an inductive, qualitative approach, allowing for the opportunity to acquire participants’ opinions without any influence of preset questions and to explore these answers to gain more detailed information on a broad range of topics [ 22 , 58 ]. Therefore, it is possible to gain a more accurate insight into the wide diversity of current ideas on education on imaging technology that are continuously changing. Limitations of qualitative research, on the other hand, concern the labor-intensive nature of such studies, which explains why in most fields, qualitative data are lacking. Also, qualitative data are more subjective than quantitative data as the interviewee has more control over the content of the data. Therefore, unnecessary quantification of qualitative data should be avoided as it falsely suggests objective, statistically proven results [ 10 , 38 ].

Consequently, there is a recognized need for enhanced radiology education in medical schools among teachers, students, and curriculum designers. This study aimed to 1) Identify key topics that should be included in a radiology curriculum, 2) Determine effective teaching methods for radiology education and 3) Propose strategies for integrating radiology education into existing medical school curricula. Therefore, we qualitatively investigated the perspectives of clinicians (both radiologists and non-radiologists) on radiology education in medical curricula.

An exploratory inductive qualitative study focusing on the role of radiology education in medical curricula was performed. A pragmatic qualitative approach was used with the aim to identify topics in radiology education that clinicians considered important to embed in the medical curriculum. A sample of clinicians involved in medical education in the Netherlands was asked to provide their insights using in-depth semi-structured interviews. Interviews were performed following an inductive iterative process using the constant comparative method [ 31 ]. This implies that if new topics arose during interviews, it was possible to explore these topics and thereby allowing new topics to be added to the interview guide during the experiment. The interview guide is provided in Table 1 . After interviewing, a thematic approach was used to analyze the data.

Relevant scientific literature was reviewed on learning objectives and teaching methods in radiology education in medical school. After reviewing the available literature, two researchers (F.H. en D.H.) constructed a topic list. An inductive iterative interviewing process was carried out using the constant comparative method [ 51 ]. Therefore, new topics could be added to the topic list during the interviews.

Participants

A list of eligible clinicians was constructed by reviewing hospitals and general practitioners within the training region of the university medical center in the east of The Netherlands (OpleidingsRegio Oost-Nederland). The contact person of each practice or department that provided a mandatory internship within the medical curriculum or an elective internship in radiology was contacted by e-mail in order to recruit eligible clinicians. Only clinical specialties embedding radiological imaging in their daily clinical practice were deemed eligible. Therefore, clinicians of the department of psychiatry, dermatology and ophthalmology were excluded from this study. The remaining clinicians were eligible if they participated in any medical curriculum in the Netherlands, regardless of being involved in the Bachelor’s or Master’s phase. Additionally, clinicians needed to be board-certified and actively working medical specialists, general practitioners or residents in radiology. Moreover, board-certified radiologists of the same training region who were involved in (any) medical curriculum in the Netherlands were included to provide more insight into what these “imaging experts” considered important to teach. Eligible clinicians were contacted by use of e-mail. After no initial response, the eligible clinicians were contacted again two weeks later. A third reminder was sent after a longer period of time, which varied from two weeks to three months. If no response was received, the participant was excluded from further inclusion.

Ethical statement

This study was approved by the ethics committee of the Netherlands Association of Medical Education (NVMO, case number 2023.2.9). Before being interviewed, clinicians confirmed to participate in the study. Informed consent was obtained from all clinicians prior to the interview in which the clinicians consented to have the interview audio-recorded for further analyses. Moreover, all methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. All recorded data was stored on a secured disc, to which only one researcher (F.H.) had access. Transcribed data was stored and analyzed anonymously.

Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted by one of the researchers (F.H.). Clinicians decided in which way the interviews were held: in person, via electronic telecommunication software (i.e. Skype version 8.65.0.78; Skype Technologies, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg Palo Alto, CA, United States) or by telephone. In addition, four clinicians provided extensive answers to interview questions via e-mail. These data were also used in the data analysis. The interviews started with a short introduction of the research content followed by an open question on the participant’s thoughts on this matter. During the interviews, the interviewer used open-ended questions and encouraged the clinicians to speak openly and express their opinions, thoughts and considerations. The interviewer explained that there were no relations with the board of examiners, the university medical center educational board or the educational management team. In order to ensure reliable data, all interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim afterwards. Each transcript was thereafter analyzed using direct content analysis [ 30 ]. Starting after the first interview had taken place; transcriptions were coded line-by-line, through which a code list was created. Coding was continued after each interview. Inclusion of new participants was halted when no new topics and codes arose from this process, indicating that data saturation occurred. To confirm data saturation, two additional interviews were held. When confirmed, inclusion of new participants was stopped.

Data analysis

The interview transcripts were analyzed qualitatively. The first four transcripts were independently analyzed by two researchers (F.H. and B.v.W.). Coding results were compared and discrepancies were resolved by discussion. If necessary, a third more experienced investigator (D.H.) could be asked to help resolve issues. Since there were no major discrepancies, further coding and analysis were carried out independently by one of the researchers (F.H.), who met periodically with one of the other researchers (D.H.) to discuss codes and themes until consensus was reached. The coding process was performed using Atlas.ti software, version 8.2.29.0 (ATLAS.ti Scientific Software Development GmbH, Berlin, Germany). The constructed codebook was organized into categories and themes which arose after discussion of all the different codes between two of the researchers (F.H. and D.H.). Categories were used to group codes, which were then grouped into several themes. The categories and themes were shared with the other researchers in order to assess their validity.

A total of 97 eligible clinicians (radiologists; 10.3% and non-radiologists; 89.7%) were contacted by one of the researchers (F.H.) via e-mail between July and October 2020 (Table 2 ). Non-responders were excluded after a period of six months after the first e-mail was sent ( n = 44). Clinicians were also excluded if they expressed to have no active involvement in medical curricula ( n = 3) (Fig. 1 ). Of the included clinicians, four reactions were received via e-mail, while the other forty respondents provided their input by participating in an interview. The interviews lasted between 17 and 59 min. Participant characteristics are displayed in Table 2 .

Selection of the clinicians. 1 Six clinicians were not available due to lack of time . 2 Three contacted clinicians were excluded since they no longer worked for the specific training region

Ten categories of items were distilled from the transcribed codes, which were arranged in the following three themes (Fig. 2 ).

An overview of the subcategorized themes. Three themes accompanied by ten categories were derived from the interviews during the analysis after qualitative exploration of the opinions of clinicians and general practicioners on imaging technologies in medical school curricula

Theme 1: Expectations with regard to educational topics in radiology education

Anatomical knowledge.

Interviewees advocated that students need to be able to identify important anatomical landmarks and gross anatomical structures on the different radiologic imaging techniques. Knowledge of anatomy was believed to be the foundation of understanding a radiologic image by both radiologists and non-radiologists.

“It starts with that [knowledge of the human anatomy], as this forms the foundation of radiology. Then, you can also start interpreting medical images” – General Practitioner

“… but I sense that there is little attention for forming an idea on the anatomical relations. And in the end, that is the essence…” – Surgeon

Conversely, Computed Tomography scans (CT-scans) and Ultrasound (US) were suggested as ideal tools to teach anatomy in medical school. This was believed to benefit both anatomy education and radiology education. This combination provides clinical significance to anatomical structures as well as a three-dimensional insight into the anatomy. Furthermore, it would lead to early exposure to medical imaging in the curriculum. Magnetic Resonance Imaging scans (MRI-scans) were both suggested and dissuaded as a teaching tool because of their complexity.

Skills in interpretation

Interviews with both radiologists and non-radiologists revealed that the ability to interpret a wide range of radiological studies should not be included as a learning objective in medical school. Learning to interpret specific radiological studies (e.g., CT study of the thorax, brain MRI) should be incorporated in post-academic education for residents in training, as there is a greater exposure to these specific radiological studies during this period. Nevertheless, interviewees stated four things a medical student should be able to do concerning radiographs: (1) distinguish abnormal from normal (recognizing gross abnormalities), (2) identify some very common pathologies (e.g., pulmonary infiltrates, common bone fractures, joint luxation, pulmonary edema, hemorrhage, ischemia and malignancies), (3) identify acute diagnoses (e.g., vertebral fractures and pneumothorax on radiographs) and (4) acquire a systematic approach when reading radiographs (both chest radiographies and musculoskeletal radiographies). The extent to which these skills should be mastered under supervision was scarcely discussed and varied greatly.

Basic technological knowledge

Knowledge on the techniques of the four major different imaging modalities (radiography, CT, MRI and ultrasound) was regarded important as this provides knowledge on (contra-)indications and strengths and weaknesses of each imaging modality. It can also help a student interpret medical images as it helps to understand which structures are visible and why they are displayed in the way they are (e.g., the differences in size while comparing an AP- and PA-radiograph). It could also help students to understand the content of a radiological report (e.g., helping to understand why radiologists discuss patient positioning in their reports).

“You have to know the basics. You can order radiographs, a CT-scan, or an ultrasound or an MRI-scan. And the reason why you would choose one option or another is always different, but you always visualize something with it. I consider it important to know what a specific imaging technique shows you.” – Emergency doctor.

More specifically, it was considered important to have knowledge on the basics of ionization radiation, including its hazardous effects. For MR imaging, knowledge of the basic differences between T1-weighted-, T2-weighted-, and fluid-attenuation inversion recovery (FLAIR) sequences were disclosed as important subjects to master for medical students.

In addition, the impact that a radiological examination has on a patient (both mentally as well as physically) should also be embedded in the medical curriculum. This would also help future healthcare professionals to inform their patients properly in order to achieve well-informed consent.

“...I think that it is good to know because we receive a lot of questions from patients about radiologic studies” – General Practitioner

Comprehension of the role, indications and limitations of diagnostic imaging techniques

The most common (contra-)indications and limitations of the most frequently used modalities are seen as imperative knowledge which a student should acquire in medical school. This includes insights in accuracy rates of different radiological imaging methods and how these rates are influenced by other factors, as well as the costs of the different modalities. It should be noted that some clinicians mentioned that keeping up with the quickly changing indications could be a challenge and another participant did not find knowledge in indication important. All believed that you should always consult a radiologist when in doubt.

The benefits and drawbacks of the use of contrast agents, especially in CT imaging, and its (contra-)indications are worth emphasizing, for it has been mentioned multiple times in the interviews and is apart from one explicit modality.

“I believe that it is very important that you know which radiological examinations are available and what you can use each one of them for. I also believe that it is very important that students are aware of the costs of the different imaging modalities and that they also take this into account when making a decision. And that they realize which study is useful for a specific question” – General Practitioner.

Implications of radiology use in clinical practice

As each medical specialty has some level of experience with certain radiological imaging methods, it is important that students learn which techniques are used in various settings.. This was reported as a learning goal which should be achieved through experience-based learning (i.e., during internships). Also, clinicians expressed that it was paramount that students learn to write a concise though complete request for radiological imaging. In addition, students need to learn to look critically and should learn how to implement the radiologist's conclusion in the clinical setting for further medical management and/or follow-up.

Finally, students should also learn to consult the radiologist when questions arise regarding the most optimal imaging method or the radiological conclusion and how to interpret it.

“Radiological findings are subjected to interpretation: someone sees an abnormality and expects it to be something. And those expectations are supported or undermined by the clinical presentation and you have to either provide this knowledge to the radiologist or have to take this into account yourself”—ENT-specialist.

“I noticed that they [students and junior doctors] have no comprehension of contrast agents and therefore just follow guidelines which state to ‘Check renal function’. They have no idea why and whether they have to order for contrast agents” – Radiologist.

Theme 2: Teaching strategies with regard to radiology education

Timing and emphasizing responsibilities.

Most interviewees were convinced that during the Bachelor’s phase (i.e., the first three years of the university curriculum), imaging technology education needs to focus on the differences between modalities from a technical point of view. During those three years, radiological images should be used to help students understand the technical basis of imaging and recognize anatomical structures. This should gradually evolve into using radiological images to recognize simple pathology at the end of the Bachelor’s phase (e.g., bone fractures, pneumonia, pneumothorax). During the Master’s phase (last three years of university curriculum), the interviewees considered applied radiology as an important learning goal. This education could then be combined with recapitulating the anatomy.

“I think that it should definitely be addressed in the Bachelor’s phase, but that the subjects in radiology that are embedded in an internship should be addressed in more detailed and specific way before that internship. I am actually getting thrilled by that idea”—General practitioner.

It was believed that students will get more familiar with radiology when learning about imaging technologies is combined with anatomy and repeated over the years. Doing this while emphasizing different aspects of radiology during different learning phases of students, was also believed to result in a greater feeling of competence for medical students, especially with regard to chest radiographs and musculoskeletal radiographs. Therefore, radiology education during the Master’s phase of medicine should also focus on basic, structured interpretation of chest radiographs.

Assessment during internships of other disciplines

Interviewees suggested incorporating Entrusted Professional Abilities (EPAs) for radiology in the internships, so that radiology knowledge can be reviewed and improved continuously. Therefore, the knowledge of radiology can be monitored during the internships in the same way the discipline of radiology is integrated through all the different specialisms in medicine.

Theme 3: Promising educational strategies in radiology education

Longitudinal subject planning.

The idea of Longitudinal Learning Communities (LLCs) in radiology was discussed during all interviews. LLCs were defined as a community-based approach to learning during a time period of more than 1 year, encouraging meaningful student interaction and small-group learning as well as peer-group evaluation. LLCs were believed to help students to develop a collaborative approach to clinical practice, particularly in radiology. Clinicians believed that a timely repetition of anatomical and radiological knowledge before an internship would result in an improved learning experience.

Three clinicians, all non-radiologists, did not support more radiology education in already overcrowded medical curricula. One participant explicitly expressed that an LLC in radiology would take up too much time. Other interviewees (both radiologists and non-radiologists), however, considered radiology to be important enough to devote attention to, for example by use of LLCs. One participant also suggested saving time by combining the LLC with anatomy and physiology education throughout the medical curriculum. The learning materials used in such LLCs on radiology education were discussed as well. Suggested teaching methods included e-learnings and interactive workgroups. Additionally, the use of clinical cases during education as a form of applied radiology was expressed by many. Nevertheless, discrepancies remained with regard to the different teaching forms. Proposed forms were interactive teaching forms, clinical cases, lectures, computer orientated education, e-learnings, workshops, self-study, seminars, learning during the internships themselves (via specific educational moments, multidisciplinary meetings, during consulting hours at the outpatient department, radiology meetings, before surgery or via assignments). Clinicians expressed that they found it difficult to decide which educational methods would create the best learning environment for students.

Some additions to the described LLC were mentioned during the interviews. Several clinicians, both radiologists and non-radiologists, suggested adding practical ultrasound education to the LLC’s. One participant highlighted the importance of recapitulation shortly before practical education, also called in-time learning. This person believed that students would benefit more from good references, so they would know where to look when they need it and have clear learning objectives for radiology during their internships.

‘…I strongly believe that just in time learning would be a valuable option. If you simply teach students in-time where to find specific knowledge on radiology, they will use it when they need it the most. Then, all they need to do is practice their knowledge” – Geriatrician.

‘If you learn about radiological examinations relevant in the clinical practice that you are about to embark in, you will learn the basics just prior to your internship and the clinical context will help you to complete the picture. Together, I would consider this a rich learning experience for students” – Radiologist.

Internship in radiology

Due to a lack of time in the medical curriculum, most of the interviewees would not opt for the incorporation of a mandatory internship in radiology. Nevertheless, it was considered an important elective internship. Only one participant believed it was important to create time for a mandatory internship.

On the other hand, interviewees expressed that some practical experience in radiology for all medical students would be beneficial to: (1) gain insight into the tasks of a radiologist, (2) become aware of one’s own strengths and limitations regarding reading radiological examinations and (3) learn how to establish an optimal collaboration between radiologist and clinician. It was mentioned that such “intern days” could be integrated into the proposed LLCs in radiology or in various internships such as emergency and internal medicine or surgery.

“I consider it a good idea to offer it as an internship for choice, apart from the LLC”- Internal medicine doctor

Intracurricular primary radiologic skills

There was some discussion with regard to learning the skill of interpretation of a chest radiograph and the skill to perform a point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS). Chest radiography in itself takes a prominent place in radiology education and was believed to deserve a specific view on learning goals. There is an emerging use of POCUS in health care and the opinions on what should be taught on this subject diverse widely. Some interviewees thought that integrating POCUS as an intra-curricular learning goal would take up too much time to really let students master this skill. On the other hand, others were eager to implement teaching POCUS in the medical curriculum as it could serve as an extension on the physical examination with immediate results, low costs and high mobility with hand-held devices. It was mentioned that since so little is taught on ultrasound, there is so much to gain out of a bit more education.

“If you ask me, we will all throw out our stethoscope and let everyone have an ultrasound machine and I do believe that time will come. I just do not know how soon” – Emergency doctor

This study elucidated the views of both radiologists and non-radiologists and grouped these views in three themes: 1) Expectations with regard to educational topics in radiology education; 2) Teaching strategies with regard to radiology education; and 3) Promising educational strategies in radiology education.

These findings are largely corroborated by others. For example, Subramaniam et al. [ 53 , 55 , 55 ] also showed that radiology education should include the teaching of (contra-)indications for different imaging techniques, skills to systematically review chest and musculoskeletal radiographs, skills to identify gross abnormalities on radiographs and teaching students how to fit important findings in the clinical setting. However, contradictory to the studies of Subramaniam et al., interviewees did not express the reading of abdominal radiographs as an educational topic, which can be explained by the ongoing development of radiology in the clinical setting [ 2 , 57 ]. At the time of the publication of the papers of Subramaniam et al., abdominal radiographs had a more prominent clinical role than today.

Integration of radiology and anatomy education

Interviewees in this study stated that basic anatomical knowledge is needed to fully comprehend imaging studies. However, as less time is being assigned to anatomy education in medical curricula [ 18 , 35 , 4 ], learning about radiological examinations could become more complicated for students. Also, as Kourdioukova et al. [ 33 ] mention in their paper, Problem Based Curricula create a building block approach in which radiology and radiologic anatomy is relatively underrepresented in examinations. Integration of applied anatomy and applied radiology has been commonly suggested to optimize quality of anatomy and radiology education in modern medical curricula, [ 4 , 14 , 28 , 36 ]. This was also objectified as radiology small group teaching significantly improved anatomy scores [ 8 , 9 ] and radiology skills [ 40 ]. Additionally, combining radiology and anatomy education has been described to be easily implementable in existing preclinical curricula, because it requires few additional resources [ 62 ]. Integration of radiology education with other disciplines has also been suggested [ 42 ]. Interestingly, in the current study, MRI sequence which were considered basic knowledge comprised T1-weighted images, T2-weighted images and FLAIR images, whereas other sequences were not mentioned. Fat suppression techniques were not discussed, although several advantages are well-known in for example neuroradiology [ 56 ] and imaging of the musculoskeletal system [ 16 ]. Also, the use of diffusion-weighted imaging was not mentioned as part of the basic knowledge that a medical student must obtain. Possibly, clinicians omitted these sequence as the physical concepts are somewhat more complex to explain to students during rotations. However, the exact motives remain elusive. Together with the positive feedback to the LLC in the interviews of this study, a balanced integration of radiology education in various subjects of teaching could be a promising next step for radiology educators.

Other innovative teaching methods which might play a role in the future of anatomy and radiology education, such as augmented reality, virtual reality and combined use of these techniques with radiological data were not mentioned during the interviews. Nevertheless, several publications point out the possible advantages of each individual technique [ 6 , 3 , 12 , 13 , 41 ].

Radiology education topics: reading chest radiographs and practical teaching of ultrasound skills

Although in this study chest radiographs were considered an important educational topic in medical school, there was a wide diversity in opinion to what extent a student should master this subcategory of imaging technologies. Even though this study was not able to provide results to what extent of supervision level or entrusted professional activity a medical student should master this skill, this study was the first that objectified this wide diversity in opinions. We believe this should be investigated more profoundly to be able to create a properly adjusted learning objective on this topic. Especially since Eisen and colleagues found that only 15% of their study population, consisting of medical students, interns, residents and fellows, felt capable to interpret chest radiographs independently in an academic medical center setting [ 19 ]. This lack of confidence has been found by others as well [ 7 , 11 ].

Lastly, teaching ultrasound was a topic of debate in our study, which was widely discussed among the interviewees. This observed discrepancy is in line with literature on this topic [ 36 , 50 ]. Although ultrasound has been described as an educational tool to improve anatomy knowledge, physical examination skills, increase diagnostic accuracy and advance patient safety, the evidence regarding the effects of ultrasound education on these outcomes is very limited [ 20 ]. Nevertheless, various studies reported that medical students consider ultrasound education as valuable [ 15 , 17 , 46 , 49 , 59 ]. Despite this increased demand of ultrasound education in medical school, studies showed that hands-on education of ultrasound is taught at a minority of universities in Europe and the United States [ 43 , 45 ]. More research is needed to either create insight into the learning objectives of ultrasound in medical curricula or to chart the potential benefits of teaching ultrasound in medical school. Additionally, the effects of using ultrasound for educational goals on learning outcomes should be studied as well.

Strengths and limitations

The major strength of this study was the qualitative study design as a recent review highlighted that quality research is needed to investigate when and how radiology should be included in medical education [ 8 , 9 ]. A second strength concerns the exploration of the thoughts and opinions of a wide variety of clinicians included in this study. The sparse availability of recent scientific literature on the teaching of a dynamic subject like medical imaging illustrates that this is a relatively understudied domain and, simultaneously, shows the importance of the present work. This work, however, is not without its limitations. One limitation of this study was formed by the strictly defined inclusion criteria which only allowed clinicians from one region within The Netherlands to participate. The ideas on this topic within this region can differ from others since every training region has its own personal and cultural view on certain subjects and specific spearheads. This limitation regarding generalizability of the reported themes might also exist for the clinicians’ views on radiology education in countries other than The Netherlands. Secondly, this study population cannot be considered as a generalizable population of clinicians which are involved in medical education. For example, the number of radiologists participating in this study was larger as compared to the number of general practitioners (Table 2 ). Therefore, radiologists were overrepresented in the study population. In addition, some medical disciplines, such as psychiatry, ophthalmology and dermatology were excluded from this interview study due to the fact that these clinicians do not frequently encounter radiology. However, the risk of potential bias is limited as the nature of this study and research question did not warrant the inclusion of these clinicians. Furthermore, a limitation of the qualitative study design concerns the relative subjectivity of the results as participants hold control over the content of the data. This prevents quantification of the results and warrants future studies to investigate the statistical significance of the here described findings [ 10 , 38 ]. Additionally, it must be noted that clinicians are no education experts. Future implementation of these results should be carried out in close collaboration with education experts.

This qualitative study provided more in-depth knowledge on well-known topics with regard to radiology education in medical curricula. More knowledge with regard to educational methods, timing of radiology education was distilled and several new topics arose. This includes thoughts on educating ultrasound skills to undergraduates and the views on a longitudinal learning community in radiology in order to integrate imaging technologies in a problem based medical curriculum. It was recommended that radiology education should be more embedded in the medical curriculum and various educational strategies and topics to achieve this were suggested. Nevertheless, to which extent these educational topics should be mastered, what resulting learning objectives will need to entail and how to evaluate them need further research.

Availability of data and materials

The dataset generated from the interviews and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available since individual privacy could potentially be compromised but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Longitudinal learning community/curriculum

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge Beau van Woudenberg, MSc, for his help with coding the interviews and with his valuable insights into qualitative research methods. No potential conflict of interest was reported.

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FH contributed to the design of the study, the acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data and drafted the work. SS and MB have substantively revised the work. LPB designed the study and substantively revised the work. DH supervised the whole project and consequently contributed to the design of the study and to revisions of the work. All authors approve the submitted version of this article and have agreed to both to be personally accountable for the author’s own contributions and to ensure that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated, resolved and the resolution is documented in the literature.

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Harthoorn, F.S., Scharenborg, S.W.J., Brink, M. et al. Radiology education for medical students: a qualitative exploration of educational topics, teaching methods and future strategies. BMC Med Educ 24 , 891 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05879-0

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