reflective essay on guidance and counseling

Reflective Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy in a Diverse Society

• Jason D. Brown 0

Faculty of Education, Western University, London, Canada

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• Incorporates effective therapeutic practice, reflective and culturally sensitive practice, and self-care
• Includes guidance for self-reflections and plans for continued development
• Utilizes personal reflections and case examples to illuminate the concepts in the book

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Table of contents (10 chapters)

Front matter, reflective practice framework.

Jason D. Brown

Theories of Learning

Ideologies, worldviews, and personalities, cultural self 1: class, race, and ethnicity, cultural self 2: gender and sex, disability, and age, intersections and power, emotions and countertransference, woundedness and boundaries, caring and coping, change outside of the therapeutic encounter, back matter.

This book is a guide to critical reflective practice that highlights cultural differences and their impact on the therapeutic relationship. It is designed for therapists in training as well as more experienced practitioners. The book addresses important topics such as power and privilege in relation to class and race, gender and sex, (dis)ability and age. Readers are encouraged to respond to questions about their values and beliefs, worldviews and ideologies, and assumptions about theories of change, as well as their own heath and healing process. 

• Reflective Practice
• Developmental Insight
• Deliberate Reflection
• Effective Therapy
• Interpersonal Relationships
• Psychology Professionals
• Therapy Personality
• Ethical Decision-making

Jason D. Brown, PhD, is a licensed psychologist and professor at the University of Western Ontario in London, Canada. He teaches in the Counseling Psychology program located in the Faculty of Education. Jason has written books on cultural diversity in counseling and anti-oppressive practice of psychotherapy.  

Book Title : Reflective Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy in a Diverse Society

Authors : Jason D. Brown

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24505-4

Publisher : Palgrave Macmillan Cham

eBook Packages : Behavioral Science and Psychology , Behavioral Science and Psychology (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-030-24504-7 Published: 11 November 2019

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-24507-8 Published: 11 November 2020

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-24505-4 Published: 29 October 2019

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XV, 179

Number of Illustrations : 3 b/w illustrations

Topics : Psychotherapy and Counseling , Psychotherapy , Self and Identity , Personality and Social Psychology

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Reflective practice in the art and science of counselling: a scoping review

Taylor, Donnalee (2020) Reflective practice in the art and science of counselling: a scoping review. Psychotherapy and Counselling Journal of Australia, 8 (1).

In the counselling profession, reflective practice is often touted as an essential characteristic of professional development, growth, and professionalism. Yet there remain countless characterisations of what reflective practice is and how best to do it. The aim of this scoping review was to evaluate over two decades of key reflective practice thinking, exploring its benefits, uses, and research findings in the 21st century. The scoping review process identified 47 peer-reviewed publications, seminal publications, and counselling guidelines, which included both quantitative (often seen as more “scientific”) and qualitative (seen as more “artistic”) research findings. The major themes identified in the reflective practice literature were: reflective purpose, reflective practice, reflective writing, quantitative versus qualitative rationale, therapeutic alliance and research results, reflecting practice in counselling, personal and professional development, counsellor self-care, and ethical guidelines.

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Social, Legal & Ethical Issues in Counselling - A Reflection

The most important function of counselling is to provide a service to the client that promotes the client’s autonomy and development which must take priority in the relationship within an ethical framework. Having good intentions is not good enough as the counsellor’s awareness of the relationship into which the client and counsellor enter together and awareness of the impacts between the two people on each other is what facilitates the effectiveness and outcome (Bond, 2010). The counsellor themselves is an instrument and their willingness to be a real person in the relationship (Corey, 2001).

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288 Counseling Essay Topics & Sample Papers on Counseling Topics

Welcome to our list of best counseling research topics and essay ideas! Here, we’ve collected plenty of current issues to write about. It doesn’t matter if you’re a college student or a psychology professional: you will definitely find suitable counseling topics for your project here!

🔝 Top 10 Counseling Research Topics for 2024

🏆 best counseling topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good counseling topics for essays, 🥇 most interesting counseling topics to write about, 📌 simple & easy counseling essay topics, 🔎 school counseling research topics, 💡 research topics for counseling students, ❓ research questions about counseling.

• Cultural Competence in Counseling
• Importance of Empathy in Counseling
• CBT Techniques and Their Effectiveness
• Use of Social Media in Counseling
• How Counselors Support LGBTQ+ Clients
• Best Practices for Effective Group Therapy
• Mindfulness and Meditation in Counseling
• Confidentiality and Boundaries in Counseling
• Solution-Focused Brief Therapy in Counseling
• Strategies for Working with Clients with Trauma
• Transcription of Counseling Session The purpose of this paper is to present the analysis of the verbatim transcription of a session with the client along with discussing the theoretical framework and providing reflection.
• Psychological Science: Counseling Essay (Theory of Counseling) Another important aspect is the counseling process; this depends on the individual counselor and client and the urgency of the issue in question.
• Importance of Counseling Skills Essay As earlier mentioned, counseling is a vocational process that requires a lot of passion and application of certain skills by a counselor, in order to achieve success. Therefore, I foresee struggle to master the skill […]
• The Significance of Lifespan Development in the Practice of Counseling Psychology The physical aspect of lifespan development is one of the important ones: it is related to the growth and development of the body and changes in the body and the brain.
• Comparison of Codes of Ethics: The American Counseling Association and the American Psychological Association Both the Psychologist and the counselor abide to the same codes of conduct with regard to terminating their services to a client.
• Mental Health Counseling Admission Essay The decision to apply for the clinical counseling in mental health program was mainly influenced by an internship that I had at the Carter Center of Mental Health.
• Counseling Session Transcription: Kenry Lambert Case The investigation of the given cases presupposes the creation of the specific theoretical framework that can be applied to the case to help the student to eliminate undesired behaviors and achieve success in socialization.
• What Theory or Theories of Counseling are Observed in the Film Good Will Hunting? It is crucial to state that there are too many therapists who refused to work with Will Hunting because of a number of reasons, the main of which was the character’s contempt to them.
• Accountability and Outcome in the Counseling Profession A client involvement in the therapy process will determine the therapy outcome in addition to quality of the treatment choice. For a counselor, it is crucial to approach this process with honesty and responsibility in […]
• Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test II in Counseling The reliability of the given test refers to the fact that graphic movements are marked by the highest degree of regulation, and the violations of the mechanisms of spatial analysis and synthesis are primarily reflected […]
• Counseling Assessment Reliability and Validity In order to determine the level of content validity, one has to examine whether the scale is developed appropriately in that he/she has to examine items such as the level of reading necessary to understand […]
• Ethics in Group Counseling According to Crespi, it is important for the counselor and learners to learn the legal principles that guide the process of counseling by governing the standards to be observed by the counselor and the client.
• Psychoanalytic Therapy Approach in Group Counseling This system of interpretation and therapeutic treatment of psychological disorders is also known as the “talk therapy” as it is based on the intercourse of the Analysand and the Analyst who listens to the patient’s […]
• Therapy and Mental Health Counseling: Speech The scholars emphasize that, unlike medications, therapy is a journey that requires awareness and acceptance of the change to heal from stress and trauma.
• Theory of Counseling: Solution Focused Therapy It is usually designed to aid the client to picture him/herself in a realistic future that is different to the present and past and when the problem the client is experiencing is non-existent.
• Counseling: Strengths and Weaknesses Directive counseling presupposes a counselor’s choice of topic, the interpretation of a client’s responses, and recommendations that aim to impact a client’s decision-making.
• Mental Health Counseling Licensure and Certification in Florida The purpose of this paper is to analyze and compare the requirements and provisions for mental health counseling licensure and certification in Florida and discuss their impact on the public.
• Cultural Bias in Counseling Practices Among other factors, cultural biases result from the fact that most of the counseling practices were created in the context of the dominant Euro-American culture.
• Counseling Practice in Organization This presents itself as prime situation where a counselor is needed in order to get to the heart of the matter, identify what the employee truly wants to do and create some form of action […]
• Mentoring and Counseling The counselor together with the client use the experiences of the client that took place in the past and taking place in the present to address challenges that are present and those that might happen […]
• Features of Assessment During the Counseling Process Also, it interprets the primary presenting concern, which is the change in the behavior of the client and the consequences of this change, and personal details of the client.
• Mental Health Counseling Settings One advantage of a private practice is that decision-making is free from the influence of government agencies, charities, and other groups. However, a government agency setting is likely to have countless bureaucracies that would hinder […]
• A Critical Review of the Counseling Modalities The advantage of this therapy is that the relationship between the clients and the counseling is friendly and intimate and that it is more eclectic than other approaches of therapy.
• Career Guidance and Counseling Additionally, significant contributions in career guidance and counseling have helped develop career guidance and counseling. Davis introduced guidance and counseling in public schools in 1907.
• The Essential Qualities and Knowledge for Effective Counseling During the conversations the counselor should look at the client in the eyes because this will build a sense of trust in the client.
• Strength-Based Approach to Counseling: Pros and Cons These people cannot rely on their strengths, as they need other people to care for them, which is against the central principles of the strength-based approach. Additionally, I will use the strength-based approach to those […]
• The Problems of Adolescents: The Importance of Counseling The result is that, many young people are involving themselves in activities that are meant to send a statement of independence and freedom to their parents and the society as a whole.
• Counseling and Social Work Challenges Also, it may be important to try to work with different people and assess the impact that individual differences have on the work results.
• Counseling Session With a Seventh-Grade Student The counselor is trying to analyze the student’s behavior without scolding and criticizing her. The professional is aware of the fact that her family environment is stressful and makes an effort to change it.
• Professional School Counseling: Interview Reflection This means that the school counselors utilize the statistics to illustrate the effect of the school counseling program on the overall enhancements and student success.
• Spiritual Discernment and Vocational Counseling Spiritual discernment is the ultimate secret weapon that can be used by Christians who are interested in drawing closer to the Lord as they progress in life as it guides them to make the most […]
• The American Counseling Association: Code of Ethics The relations between the consultant and the client are based on trust, the foundation of which is the preservation of confidential information and privacy – they are discussed in the second section.
• Eye Contact, Active Listening, and Nonverbal Empathy in Counseling Process The reason for it is that it helps to understand people better and be able to establish strong and meaningful connections.
• Case Conceptualization: Counseling Adolescents There is a possibility that other psychological problems may be the cause of her behavioral changes, but based on her age, it is more likely that teenage problems are setting in.
• Group Counseling: Change in Relationships The specified analysis is possible due to the use of the Thinking, Feeling, and Behaving Model, which allows one to explore the affective and emotional domain of the participants.
• Counseling: Poor Attention and Communication Skills First of all, the issue of low concentration can be addressed through games connected to the use of one’s memory and attentiveness.
• Multicultural Career Counseling Method These steps are to establish a rapport of the cultural relationship, identify the career issues, assess the impact of the cultural variables, develop the goals of the counseling, make the appropriate interventions, make a decision, […]
• The Practice of Counseling in the US and Indian Culture Owing the varied nature of the constituents of this culture, there is a large and continually expanding evolution of the Indian culture especially as regards religion, beliefs and societal values that is quite influential to […]
• Managing Resistance in Correctional Counseling In the setting of corrective counseling, the client’s resistance to treatment may look different and manifest itself in a range of resistance, from passivity and ignorance to open confrontation with the counselor.
• Personal Values and Counseling Sessions However, non-verbal clues may reveal the personal values of the counselor to the patient. Counselors should pay special attention to trying to avoid the impact of their personal values on the counseling process and advice […]
• Group Counseling Session in Personal Reflection The opening was consistent with the group’s purpose, and my use of tone and volume was appropriate for the setting; however, I think that I showed little evidence of self-reflection or self-correction.
• Crisis and Trauma Counseling In the event that death occurs, the bereaved find it difficult to accept the loss at first, but when it dawns on them that it is true they have lost a loved one, anger takes […]
• Life After Sexual Abuse. Counseling Intervention The latter implies the analysis of the problem from the perspective of a sexual abuse survivor who has experienced the lack of attachment in infancy and, therefore, is incapable of handling the issue of their […]
• Psychology, Theology, and Spirituality in Christian Counseling The author adds that the counselor needs spiritual maturity in a bid to get the client to the same level of maturity.
• Group Counseling in the Schools According to the article, the practice is extremely beneficial for the learners since in the course of group interaction they help each other to cope with some personal traumas and learn from each others’ mistakes.
• The Importance of Premarital Counseling Before Marriage It is thus essential for couples contemplating to enter into a binding contract to go through premarital counseling program in order to get skills and knowledge on how to maintain their marriage.
• Jay E. Adams: A Theology of Christian Counseling Due to the fact that man is dependent on his creator, it can, therefore, be concluded that there is significant need for the use of theology in counseling.
• Marfan Syndrome in Genetic Counseling The two generation hierarchies above and one generation hierarchy below the Anne’s generation was pooled and presented in the chart as below: Firstly, the typical clinical symptoms attributed to MFS were sorted from the description […]
• Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling It is important to underline the issue that the Bible is the background for Christian counseling, while the counseling itself is an integral part of Word ministry.
• Counseling Interview in Family and Relationship Therapy My choice of questions for the interviewees on matters related to life, relationship and family will be designed as linear and systematic questions to aid in formulating an assessment.
• Sexually Abused Child’s Treatment and Counseling I developed a lot of interest in the case and, therefore, decided to explore it by seeking a deeper understanding of the problems being experienced by the boy.
• Counseling Ethics in 5-Step Decision-Making Model The failure to meet various needs of clients and the inability to perform according to the level of professional expertise interferes with the course of assessment and treatment.
• Cultural Diversity in Counseling: Multiculturalism as an Important Part of Our Lives This limits the counselor’s ability to learn religious and spiritual beliefs of other cultures in regards to religious beliefs and values.
• Drawing a Care-Seeker Through Phase One in Pastoral Counseling My traits will help me inspire a guy to independently search for the meaning and value that he lost with his mother and sister.
• About Counseling Cross-Culturally To reflect the relevance and objectivity of the author, it is possible to provide one of the examples from the study.
• Work-Based Counseling in Companies The employees need to be frequently monitored and their issues solved for the organization to be productive. The employer should be in a position to understand that the employees are not machines that need to […]
• Burnout and Staff Turnover: Substance Abuse Counseling The counselor explains the rules and procedures to the patient, monitors the patient’s performance, and participates in the use of sanctions to obtain patient compliance.
• ‘Psychology, Theology and Spirituality in Christian Counseling’ by Mark McMinn Psychologists’ work is to guide people into unraveling the reality of life by pushing them to discover the self in a bid to get to the bottom of their own troubles.
• Marci: Analysis of a Counseling Situation Therefore, it will be reasonable to assume that the case in point is the exact representation of what is defined in the DSM-V as a dual diagnosis, with the elements of a “substance-related diagnosis” and […]
• A Major Challenge to Counseling the Culturally Diverse McCoy argues that this might be caused by unfamiliarity on how to express their emotions and how to reveal their problems to a person they are not sure of the reaction; in this case, the […]
• Personal Theory of Counseling Many scholars have come up with various theories that try to explain the nature of human behavior and the factors that cause the differences in the same.
• Christian Counseling for Children Nevertheless, the parent and the institutional counselors should stay close to the children in order to take the required action in case a child is going through an acute problem.
• Modern Psychological Counseling Application of the latest psychological research to the development of psychosocial assistance, notably service-recipient-facing treatments and methods of implementation, is a feature of modern psychotherapy.
• Intercultural Counseling: Cultural Competence in Therapy With African Americans As a result, the researchers came to the conclusion that cultural competency is an effective tool counselors can apply as it correlates with positive well-being outcomes and overall satisfaction with the assistance.
• Power and Privilege in Intercultural Counseling The book looks at the concept of power and its role in change and considers the politics of change, analyzing the different forces that can block or promote it.
• Challenges and Approaches to Family Counseling The main aim is to address issues affecting the health and functioning of the family, such as communication. However, a counselor should assess the danger posed to other family members and address it immediately.
• Counseling and Teaching: Comparative Discussion Hence, in this scenario, an individual can become dissatisfied with the results of the working relationship and cooperation due to the inconsistencies and a lack of proper comprehension of differentiating roles of teachers from counsellors.
• Theoretical Approaches to Counseling Children Notably, several organizations provide treatment for children and can be listed as follows: Autistic Society of Trinidad and Tobago, Caribbean Kids and Families Therapy Organisation, and The Children’s Authority of Trinidad and Tobago.
• Social Justice in Counseling Psychology The other barrier which is likely to arise in the process of integrating social justice in the workplace is legal and ethical issues.
• Clinical and Counseling Psychology It is essential to evaluate the many cultural-clinical psychology distinctions that might result in cultural change since psychology encompasses a variety of topics, including psychological diseases, cognitive growth, and psychological maturity.
• Addressing Single Parents’ Needs in Professional Counseling In conclusion, after reading the article, I understood the need to reinforce the positive aspects of being a single parent while adequately addressing the adverse impact such a state has on one’s psyche.
• Self-Care Strategies or Interventions for Counseling Professionals The purpose of the project is not only to describe counseling obligations and challenges but identify the strategies and prove the possibility of their implementation today.
• Psychological Counseling and Psychotherapy First of all, counselors need to be trained to develop an awareness of the existence and characteristics of cultural differences in understanding, communication, values, and lifestyles of people of different groups.
• Counseling Program Reducing Cognitive Distortions The focus of this project will be on the use of group counseling based on the utilization of the positive psychology approach. As a result, this population is prone to the development of anxiety and […]
• Counseling for Family Conflicts Resolution Family conflicts are considered in the project, and it is expected that the intervention will lead to a decreased incidence of the given phenomenon.
• Cultural Diversity in Counseling Counseling is a challenging profession that requires one to be able to relate and appeal to people from different backgrounds. This approach would help evoke an understanding of how belonging to a specific culture changes […]
• Code of Ethics in Clinical Mental Health Counseling For instance, the ACA’s ethical values involve upholding human development by using the multicultural method to support the potential, worth, and dignity of people in their cultural and social settings.
• Cultural Differences in Counseling Therefore, I think that being sensitive and responsive to cultural differences in people requires a little interest in the topic and a willingness to examine their personality on the subject of cultural assumptions.
• Sexual Orientation in Counseling As a result, LGB individuals should receive treatment that takes into account their co-occurring mental health needs and provides continuity of care within drug and alcohol rehab.
• Cooper Mental Health Counseling Advertising The goal of the campaign will be to attract the maximum number of clients to the psychological counseling clinic. The call to action in the case of this advertising campaign will be a call to […]
• Premarital Counseling Discussion One of the critical aspects of preventing a crisis that can lead to a divorce is ensuring good communication between a couple.
• Genetic Counseling, Its Role, and Candidates In such cases, the benefits of such testing can be better explained to enable other family members to be tested and determine any other possible genetic problems.
• Parenting Counseling in the New York City Community Overall, Cap4Kids has developed a wide range of resources and opportunities for children and their parents, thus, addressing the parenting issues that New York City community members are likely to experience presently.
• Counseling Clients With HIV-AIDS Thus, the central recommendation for human service professionals counseling clients with HIV/AIDS is to allow time for the shock of the news to sink.
• Researching of Rape Counseling On the other hand, the male victim assaulted by a stranger in the washroom will not have a fear of pregnancy, and there will be no need to take contraceptives.
• The Reasons for Genetic Counseling According to Abacan, “genetic counseling is the process of helping people understand and adapt to the medical, psychological and familial implications of genetic contributions to disease”.
• Pastoral Counseling in the Military In turn, the standards of the Christian Church will help me to remain patient and understanding of the needs of soldiers so that they could progress in their spiritual development.
• Counseling Intervention Ethical Concerns In order not to bring more harm to the issue, counseling specialists should properly weigh possible outcomes and the consequences of the intervention.
• Humanistic Approach to Career Counseling A professional counselor can be helpful in choosing the right path to a job and when it is frustrating and disappointing. Faith: Well, it is a good day, and I decided to visit you.
• Counseling Suffering Clients Therapists should pay attention to the characteristics of the restructuring of the spiritual worldview: a person can either discard his religious beliefs and plunge into a crisis, get hung up on it, or assert his […]
• Counseling of a Client With Heroin Addiction Although he has a son, he does not maintain any relationship with him, and his son does not try to communicate with Dante. First, the client did not address this aspect and was unwilling to […]
• Mental Health Counseling and Ethical Standards Relevant codes contribute to following the necessary rules to communicate and interact with clients and meeting the standards of professional collaboration.
• A Loss of a Family Member and Counseling He was disturbed by his friends’ lack of empathy and was bitter and angry about the loss of his mother. The patient demonstrates normal cognition in view of the fact that he is oriented in […]
• Guiding and Counseling Practices in England and Nigeria Guidance and counseling based on a cognitive approach are brief in structure and nature and center on solving the root problems of the young people.
• Group Counseling With Adolescents The study emphasizes that the response of the leader and group members to individual change talk plays a special role in such sessions.
• A Career in Counseling Psychology Therefore, the work of a counselor in psychology seems to be one of the most appealing options from the perspective of professional growth.
• Chapter 24 of “Affirmative Counseling With LGBTQI+ People” by Ginicola et al. The overarching purposes of behavior therapy implemented in a trauma-informed approach is to rebuild a sense of control and empowerment in trauma survivors.
• Psychodynamic Theoretical Approach to Counseling and Psychotherapy The basis of all assumptions of the psychodynamic theory is rooted in the notion of all behavioral issues originating from the unconscious part of the mind.
• Career Counseling for People With Disabilities To sufficiently research, the issue of career counseling for individuals with disabilities in the academic press, a list of journals that offer such information was developed.
• Stages and Skills of Counseling Counseling is a collaboration between the client and the counselor to discuss and solve the existing mental problems. I believe that parts of counseling in which I am adept are establishing relationships and defining the […]
• The Use of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in Rehabilitation Counseling In this regard, cognitive-behavioral programs provide for clarification of the characteristics of the patient’s psychological state and assistance in their awareness, a brief appeal to the origins of the formation of the patient’s psychological problems, […]
• Theories and Applications of Counseling and Psychotherapy Counseling is a kind of psychological assistance aimed to overcome the problems of a mental and emotional nature.
• Counseling on Mental Health & Disorders in Children Victims of bullying are helpless to an assortment of negative results. Tormented teenagers are bound to encounter long-haul harm to confidence and feeling of depression.
• Counseling on Euthanasia and End-of-Life Decision The immediate dynamic killing is a clinical demonstration coordinated to the hardship of life, while a doctor helped self-destruction is a demonstration of the doctor where he gives the patient a medicament for taking life.
• Counseling on Bone Marrow Transplantation History and Process The National Marrow Donor Program is a not-for-profit association that works the Be The Match Registry of volunteer hematopoietic cell donors and umbilical rope blood units in the United States.
• Adolescent’s Counseling About Health Amy is the representative of late adolescence, and she understands that her everyday choices and habits affect her health and are necessary to be managed consciously.
• An Orientation to Group Counseling Counseling groups help address psychological issues without causing massive changes to one’s personality. Psychotherapy groups allow focusing on a certain psychological concern.
• The Importance of School Counseling Program The counseling program will help to relate educational success with career success, development, and more positive environment will be created.
• Genetic Counseling – Tay Sachs Disease In this case, there is a 25% likelihood of passing the gene to their children. This would be effective in preventing further passing down of the disease to their offspring.
• Genetic Counseling Analysis To take a detailed family history, I would start with gathering the information about the consumers. Finally, I would ask about the members of the family who have already passed away and clarify the cause […]
• Counseling and Education Session in Type II Diabetes Patients will be educated about the glycemic index and its effect on their blood sugar Patients will learn to count their carbohydrates. Patients will set up their goal and the timeframe to achieve it.
• Developing Multicultural Counseling Competencies They then have to know the available tools for this evaluation, to create and more importantly, to be certain about the constancy and validity of the grading of these tools.
• HIV Counseling and Testing: Lifetime Treatment Program Some of the possible intervention that can be adopted by the clinicians in order to improve adherence include the encouragement of the patients to be in contact with people of their age who will encourage […]
• Notion of Counseling: Personality Assessment Techniques Projective tests, on the contrary, are conducted by specialists in order to guide the examinees through the process with questions that help identify the features of one’s personality that are invisible to the patient.
• The Counseling Dynamics Between a White Client and a Counselor of Color Another barrier is in perceiving the counselor of color as a super minority therapist, which means that a White client might think that the professional is specialized in working for a specific group.
• Counseling Process: Trustworthiness and Expertness Multicultural interactions in the given field can be observed through a wide range of dimensions, where both counselor’s and client’s ethnic background can shape the dynamics of the overall interaction.
• Systemic Oppression & Traditional Counseling Ethics My response in the past would be in favor of the law because I was not fully aware of the cultural aspects of counseling.
• School Counseling: A Challenge, an Opportunity That’s why I chose to pursue this career I feel it is a great opportunity to aid the young, and being a part of this process is equally challenging and rewarding.
• School Counseling Specialization It calls for the specialist to analyze all of the aspects of the client’s life and develop interventions based on the issues identified in each of them.
• Ethics in the Counseling Profession: Personal Case Empathetic- this is one of the strengths when it comes to counseling skills Genuine- I realized that I am in a position to tell the affected person the truth even if it is not that […]
• Counseling Theories in the Management of Alcoholics The amount of alcohol he needs to get drunk has been increasing over the years and he spends much of his income on alcohol.
• The American Counseling Association and the American Psychological Association Websites The intention of this research is to diffuse the result of Information Communication Technologies and the internet mostly for the coming age’s competitiveness of the two counseling websites. This adds to the links that are […]
• Counseling Principles and Paradigms in Practice It is the inability of Angela to adopt to her new situation of joblessness, not having a boyfriend of her choice and the fear of facing her parents and siblings that makes her experience what […]
• Methods Used by Psychoeducational Groups for Counseling Therapy The main group objectives include the following points: Applying results of the literature review to the design of counseling sessions. Integrate different theories and methods into the structure of counseling sessions.
• Clinical Counseling Psychology: Research and Statistics This paper will examine on clinical counseling psychology and the roles of research and statistics in clinical counseling psychology. Research in clinical counseling psychology helps the health care providers in investigating the efficiency of their […]
• Concept Problem of School Counseling What is the role of the professional school counselor in your school? The role of school’s professional counselors is to indulge in sophistically sounding but utterly meaningless rhetoric, in regards to the sheer importance of […]
• Developmental School Counseling and Pupil Services The Data collected from the instruments will be used to develop a system for determining patterns and the trends within the school environment.
• Client Experiences of Counseling and Treatment Interventions To illustrate the use of qualitative research designs and methods of analysis, a study of family members’ views of family therapy is briefly described. A small fee was paid to the families in recognition of […]
• Intentional Interviewing and Counseling The reason for her being in counseling is that her life has deteriorated to the point of being in a state of crisis.
• International Students’ Attitude and Counseling Service For instance the students from Vietnam students are reluctant to seek counseling help due to the stigma associated with mental problems.
• Book Critique “Substance Abuse Counseling” As it can be judged by the title of the book, the individualized approach to the client should stand in the center of the system of substance abuse counseling.
• Self Disclosure in the Counseling Process The component parts of the organization are in many ways subordinate to the primary goals, even though on a day-to-day basis there may be enormous competition among individual organizational members and among structural subunits of […]
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• v.18(2); Spring 2014

Introducing Healing Circles and Talking Circles into Primary Care

We report on the incorporation of a North American aboriginal procedure called “the talking circle” into primary care in areas serving this population. Communication is regulated through the passing of a talking piece (an object of special meaning or symbolism to the circle facilitator, who is usually called the circle keeper). Twelve hundred people participated in talking circles in which 415 attended 4 sessions and completed pre- and postquestionnaires. Outcome measures included baseline and end Measure Your Medical Outcome Profile version 2 forms. Participation in at least 4 talking circles resulted in a statistically significant improvement in reported symptoms and overall quality of life (p < 0.001 and effect sizes ranging from 0.75 to 1.19). The talking circle is a useful tool to use with Native Americans. It may be useful as a means to reduce health care costs by providing other alternative settings to deal with stress-related and other life problems.

Introduction

Talking circles, peacemaking circles, or healing circles, as they are variously called, are deeply rooted in the traditional practices of indigenous people. 1 In North America, they are widely used among the First Nations people of Canada and among the many tribes of Native Americans in the US. Healing circles take a variety of forms, 2 , 3 but most basically, members sit in a circle to consider a problem or a question. The circle starts with a prayer, usually by the person convening the circle, or by an elder, when an elder is involved. A talking stick is held by the person who speaks (other sacred objects may also be used, including eagle feathers and fans). When that person is finished speaking, the talking stick is passed to the left (clockwise around the circle). Only the person holding the stick may speak. All others remain quiet. The circle is complete when the stick passes around the circle one complete time without anyone speaking out of turn. The talking circle prevents reactive communication and directly responsive communication, and it fosters deeper listening and reflection in conversation. It also provides a means for people who are prohibited from speaking directly to each other because of various social taboos to speak and be heard. Healing circles are often called hocokah in the Lakota language, which means a sacred circle and is also the word for altar. The hocokah consists of people who sit together in a talking circle, in prayer, in ceremony, and are committed to helping one another and to each other’s healing. Hocokahs may participate together in purification and other ceremonies and usually camp together when traveling to larger gatherings, such as the sun dance. Healing circles have been used for recovery from alcoholism in aboriginal communities, 4 especially when the traditional spirituality of those communities are perceived to conflict with the assumptions of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA).

The talking circle process is a unique instructional approach that can be used to stimulate multicultural awareness while fostering respect for individual differences and facilitating group cohesion. 5 The creation of the talking circle is often credited to the Woodland tribes in the Midwest North America, who used it as a form of parliamentary procedure. “The symbol of the circle holds a place of special importance in Native beliefs. For the North American Indian, whose culture is traditional rather than literate, the significance of the circle has always been expressed in ritual practice and in art. The lives of men and women, as individual expressions of the Power of the World move in and are nourished by an uninterrupted circular/spiral motion. This circle is often referred to as the Medicine Wheel. Human beings live, breathe and move, giving additional impetus to the circular movement, provided they live harmoniously, according to the circle’s vibratory movement. Every seeker has a chance to eventually discover a harmonious way of living with their environment according to these precepts.” 6 Traditionally, many Native American communities have used the talking circle as a way of bringing people of all ages together for the purposes of teaching, listening, and learning. 6 Talking circles were a traditional form of education from early childhood through adulthood and provided a way to pass on knowledge, values, and culture. This method of education instilled respect for another’s viewpoint and encouraged members to be open to other viewpoints by listening with their hearts while another individual speaks. 7 Today, talking circles are used throughout the country in tribal inpatient and outpatient drug and alcohol centers, group homes, adolescent prevention and intervention programs, prayer circles, tribal and public schools, and college-based English as a Second Language programs. They effectively foster respect, model good listening skills, settle disputes, resolve conflicts, and build self-esteem. 8 Talking circles as a psychological technique provide a cathartic impact of publicly sharing problems or concerns. 9 This group intervention/activity provides participants with a structure that promotes self-exploration in an empathic and supportive atmosphere. In addition, talking circles have been compared in relevance to Network Therapy, which mobilizes members of the family and extended family into maximizing their resources and coping mechanisms. 10

The object used to designate the speaker is considered sacred. 5 In many Native American cultures, this object is often viewed as having a symbolic meaning to its owner. It is suggested that the group facilitator or instructor (for the first talking circle) bring an object that is symbolic to him or her. Members of the group can bring personally significant objects to use in subsequent talking circles. The convener sets the framework for the activity by clarifying the use of the talking circle as an educational group activity versus a therapeutic group format (which would require an agreement for participant confidentiality). The facilitator clarifies and models appropriate use of self-disclosure, such as staying within the topic, especially in educational settings. Furthermore, the facilitator/instructor identifies, models, and monitors the emotional content level in personal disclosures.

The circle process establishes a very different style of communication. Rather than aggressively debating and challenging each other, which often involves only a few of the more assertive individuals, the circle process establishes a safe nonhierarchical place in which all present have the opportunity to speak without interruptions. Rather than active verbal facilitation, communication is regulated through the passing of the object. The talking stick or other object fosters respectful listening and reflection. It prevents one-to-one debating or attacking. After brief opening comments by the circle keeper about the purpose of the talking circle, a listing of ground rules, and a request for additional contributions to the ground rules, the circle keeper says a few things about the talking object and then passes it to the person on the left, clockwise. Only the person with the talking piece can speak. If others jump in with comments, the circle keeper reminds them of the ground rules and refocuses on the person with the talking object. 5

Healing circles have also been used for reconciliation justice within the criminal justice system and are then often called peacemaking circles:

“Peacemaking circles use traditional circle ritual and structure to create a respectful space in which the crime victim, victim supporters, offender, offender supporters, judge, prosecutor, defense counsel, police, court workers, and all interested community members can speak in a shared search for understanding the event at issue; participants also identify the steps necessary to address the harm caused by the offense and to prevent future occurrences. The peacemaking circle process typically involves several steps that lead to the sentencing. An application by the offender to the circle process is followed by the creation of a support system for the offender and a support system for the victim. Other steps are a healing circle for the victim and healing circle for the offender. These steps are then followed by the sentencing circle. After the sentencing circle, there may be follow-up circles at appropriate intervals to review progress on the sentencing agreement. The circle process is not simply a process for finding more appropriate justice; it is an exercise in building community, because it brings community members together in a forum that allows exploration of the underlying causes of crime and encourages each community member to offer gifts or capacities to the process of finding solutions and implementing them. The circle process allows full expression of emotions and channels the energy of those emotions toward positive solutions. In the circles, decisions are based on consensus, and everyone involved must agree that the decision is one with which they can live. Circles draw on the life experiences of all the participants to understand the problem at hand and to devise workable solutions.” 11

Healing Circles Are Elements of Native American Spirituality

The healing circle/talking circle is an element of North American aboriginal spirituality, which has historically been an underlying concept that permeates every aspect of Native American life. This spirituality is closely connected to the natural world, with land and community having the highest possible meaning and being places for honoring and communicating with spirits. 12

Native American spirituality is circular in nature, 4 encompassing the 7 sacred directions of West, North, East, South, Sky, Earth, and Center. 13 “West, North, East, and South are viewed as the sacred quadrants of the universe. Each quadrant contains special meanings, elements of power, spirits, and sacred teachings. The spiritual essence of all life forms—plant, animal, and human—resides in these four directions.” 14 The fifth direction, Sky, is the upward direction that represents (in Lakota) Wakantankan, the sky spirits, many or one. Earth, the sixth direction, represents the Mother, the source of all life. The seventh direction, Center, is responsible for the connection and unification of all the sacred directions. Center is the spiritual essence of self, so that every living entity is also a Center. All of these directions in unison represent the Sacred Hoop, or Medicine Wheel. 13 When the 7 sacred directions are in harmony and balance, the Sacred Hoop is whole. 15 Similarities exist between talking circles and support groups and 12-step groups.

This article reports a “case study” of implementing this culturally appropriate healing tool within conventional primary care to learn whether outcomes could be improved. A total of 1211 people participated in talking circles in which 415 people attended 4 sessions and completed baseline and end Measure Yourself Medical Outcome Profile version 2 (MYMOP2) forms. These talking circles focused on drugs, alcohol, and mental health in the respective communities and how community members could work together to solve these problems.

LMM provided consultations to several Canadian aboriginal reserves and to urban Indian centers and facilities in the province of Saskatchewan. LMM implemented talking circles within and around 10 primary care health clinics, usually in the waiting room after hours. Posters and flyers were widely circulated to announce talking circles at the primary care clinic to explore solutions to problems of drugs, alcohol, and mental health in the community. No one was excluded. A total of 1211 people attended at least 1 meeting. Participants completed the MYMOP2 initial rating form on the first day of participation and the follow-up form on their fourth time of participation. A total of 415 participants submitted both an initial rating and at least 1 follow-up form. There were 234 people available for telephone interview at the completion of their eighth week of participation. This project had institutional review board approval as part of a larger research project on spirituality and health. No identifying data were provided on the MYMOP2 forms. Respondents picked their own code names so that their first and second MYMOP2 forms could be correlated. The study lasted for 3 years and finished when LMM left Saskatchewan, so the study size was determined by factors external to the participants.

The MYMOP2 is a patient-centered, problem-specific outcome measure. Evidence suggests that it is a useful and sensitive measure of change in perceived symptoms and quality of life. 16 – 18 In the current study, participants used the MYMOP2 to choose the 1 or 2 symptoms of most concern to them, along with 1 activity of daily living that was restricted or prevented by these symptoms. The respondent scored these items according to their severity in the previous week using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (as good as it can be) to 6 (as bad as it can be). They also rated their general feelings of well-being. Measures were taken before the first treatment (baseline) and at follow-up 3 months later. Additional details collected included gender, age, occupation, and marital status.

The MYMOP2 has been used in clinical audits in the United Kingdom (UK) to improve patient care, 19 to show that acupuncture benefited people with chronic illness, 18 and to assess overall outcomes in a complementary care clinic. 20 In all these contexts, the MYMOP2 provided an opportunity to assess overall improvement in symptom severity, the degree to which symptoms restrict participation in desired activities, and overall quality of life in cases in which the symptoms themselves may be radically different. The use of symptom-specific scales in these cases would result in insufficient numbers of participants for comparison purposes and also prevent across-illness comparisons. Paterson and Britten, 18 Rees, 19 and Harris et al 20 have argued that the MYMOP2 is more useful than other tools for the “real-world” situation in which clinicians apply the same treatment methods (group therapy, talking circle, acupuncture) to a variety of different patients and conditions, all with the same goal of reducing their suffering and improving their quality of life.

LMM typically participated in the first talking circle and encouraged participants to continue to meet on their own. LMM or an associate appeared regularly to distribute MYMOP2 follow-up forms and to provide support to the continuation of the talking circles. The talking circles consisted of a kind of “leaderless leadership” in which the person who had originally convened the talking circle welcomed new members (whom anyone could invite), led the opening prayer, and oriented members to the task or question for which the talking circle had been convened. No fees were charged and no professionals were intentionally involved in leadership roles. The opening invitation usually related to exploring how alcohol, drugs, and mental health issues affected participants and their families in their home communities. No attempt was made to personalize the invitation to those people who came. The MYMOP2 was introduced as a tool to assess how participation might have an impact on participants’ own health and sense of well-being. The rationale for this lay in their participation in problem solving for the community in a uniquely Native American (First Nations) manner. Support groups and 12-step groups were also available in the communities involved in this study.

We wondered whether having the opportunity to meet in this culturally appropriate manner with others would reduce the primary complaints that people had (as reported on the MYMOP2). Even with the best resources, mental health services cannot meet the need for mental health care in the community. 21 We wondered whether culturally syntonic practices could help fill that gap. This could be important in health care systems such as the UK’s in which primary care has considerable power to fashion the development of services locally, through both service provision and commissioning. In the UK, primary care trusts are able to provide locally any form of service they choose, including mental health care. 21

Statistical Analyses

Descriptive statistics were compiled in the standard method provided by Statistical Product and Service Solutions (SPSS) version 17 (IBM, Armonk, NY). Paired t tests were used to compare pre- and postbaseline and end data on the MYMOP2 scale for the 2 most prominent symptoms, their effect on activities of daily life, and the person’s overall well-being. Participants who provided only one MYMOP2 were not included in the analysis.

Sources of Bias

The results of this study are biased toward people who came at least four times. We do not know the reasons why people came fewer than four times. We picked four attendances as a minimum number expected to produce change in participants. Psychotherapy outcome studies tend to require a minimum of six visits. We cannot provide an intent-to-treat analysis because all circles had open enrollment, and no one was referred specifically to the circle. All who came were welcome. Follow-up data was collected only on the fourth time that a person attended the circle, and a person could attend without providing any data.

The mean age of the participants was 40.5 years. Of the participants, 65.5% were women (mean [standard deviation (SD)] age, 42.1 [15.9] years), and 66% of those were married. For men, 35.1% were married.

Of the respondents, 21.6% reported taking prescription medication for their main symptom; the majority of which included analgesic and anti-inflammatory drugs for musculoskeletal complaints, headaches, and migraines. Other medications commonly reported by participants included antidepressants, antihistamines, anti-anxiety agents, sleep-promoting agents, and narcotic pain medications. Of participants taking medication, 72% had experienced their main symptom for more than a year. All participants were asked if cutting down or avoiding medication was important to them; 29.8% reported this was “very important,” whereas 29.8% indicated it was “not important.”

Table 1 shows that most people were suffering from experiencing what could be called the problems of ordinary life.

The number of patients reporting the most common symptoms upon arrival at the talking circle (N = 415)

Histograms were used to confirm that the results followed an approximate normal distribution, which they did. The paired-samples t -test procedure of SPSS, version 18 (IBM) was used to test the hypothesis that statistically significant improvement occurred in symptoms, activities of daily living, and overall well-being during the time that participants attended the talking circles.

The reporting of specific medications taken was spotty and not judged reliable, so it was not analyzed. Although the majority of patients served were aboriginal, nonaboriginal people also attended the talking circle. As we did not ask about ethnicity, no analysis was possible on that variable.

Table 2 presents the results of paired t -test analyses. Both the participant’s primary symptom and his or her secondary symptom showed a statistically significant decrease in severity from the beginning of participation in the talking circle to the end of the fourth visit. The extent to which symptoms interfered with daily life was also statistically significant, decreasing from baseline through the fourth visit. Ratings of overall well-being also statistically significantly improved (lower ratings equal better well-being). Effect sizes ranged from 0.75 to 1.19, indicating that participating in the talking circle had a robust effect.

Comparison of baseline and end data

CI = confidence interval; SD = standard deviation.

The statistical power to detect an effect was 100%.

Culturally derived practices may work well in the primary care setting. One-third of the people came for 4 or more sessions, which is remarkable in this population. Historically, community mental health centers have reported that more than 40% of their clients attend only one or two outpatient visits 22 – 25 when referred. Less than one-fourth of outpatients attend even brief psychotherapy’s minimum criterion of 10 visits for effective treatment. 22 This has only gotten worse over time. 26

For patients who engaged in primary care counseling services, the average “declared” rate of unplanned endings was calculated at 32%, with a high rate determined as 40% and a low rate as 21%. 23 The average “estimated” rate of unplanned endings was calculated at 50%, with a high rate determined as 58% and a low rate as 38%. 24 Declared therapy endings are where the practitioner has provided data; estimated therapy endings take into account missing data where clients are more likely to have had an unplanned rather than a planned ending to therapy. Table 3 summarizes other studies’ findings for primary care referral rates to counseling services.

Comparative primary care referral rates for counseling services

GP = general practitioner.

The Native American concept of the talking circle and its use is similar in some ways to 12-step programs, including AA. Morgan-Lopez et al 27 found greater reductions in alcohol use over time for women who followed-up with a 12-step group compared with women who didn’t after the completion of an intervention program (Seeking Safety). They found no effect of follow-up with a 12-step group on reducing cocaine use.

A Consumer Reports Study 28 found that people with mental health and substance abuse problems who went to AA did especially well, with an average improvement score of 251 (range = 0 to 300), significantly bettering mental health professionals. People who went to non-AA groups had less severe problems and did not do as well as those who went to AA (average score = 215). Thus, peer-led group programs may have an important role in primary care settings.

Targ and Levine 29 examined outcomes for 181 women with breast cancer randomized to either a 12-week standard group support or a 12-week complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) support intervention. Participants in the CAM group were taught the use of meditation, affirmation, imagery, and ritual. The standard group combined cognitive-behavioral approaches with group sharing and support. Both interventions were statistically significantly associated with improved quality of life, decreased depression, decreased anxiety, and increased “spiritual well-being.” Only the CAM group showed statistically significant increases in measures of spiritual integration. The standard group was associated with decreased confusion and decreased helplessness/hopelessness, whereas the CAM group was associated with decreased avoidance. At the end of the intervention, the CAM group showed higher satisfaction and fewer dropouts compared with the standard group. The CAM group had an 8% dropout rate, whereas the standard group had a 19% dropout rate, although this was a population who had already agreed to participate. Whiting et al 30 found a 40% dropout rate from cognitive-behavioral therapy and a 32% dropout rate from support groups for people with chronic fatigue syndrome.

Limitations of this current study must be acknowledged. Perhaps anything that enabled people to sit together for four or more times would show high levels of effectiveness, although this would potentially be one of our points: that people sitting together and talking about the ordinary problems of life may be as beneficial or more beneficial than actually consulting the general practitioner. Certainly we cannot say that the talking circle format is the cause of the changes observed since there was no control group, but we can suggest a beneficial effect of bringing people together with a structure that allows them to speak and be heard. Preliminary data from another study underway suggest that the effect size for change for clients receiving conventional psychiatric care in the US is small (Mehl-Madrona, manuscript under editorial review, 2014). The clients in our study experienced large effect sizes. We should, therefore, walk through the door of exploring peer-to-peer support and mutual help in primary care and, of course, aim to make primary care even more culturally appropriate to the population it serves.

The talking circles were peer-led after the first introductory circle. Peer leaders were not paid and participants were not charged. Thus, the cost-benefit ratio is potentially favorable. Professionals were not involved except to initiate the circle. The initiator’s attendance was not required for these circles to continue. After the first session, the only costs were that of heating and lighting the building. Effect sizes equaled or exceeded what is seen for other common interventions in primary care and/or mental health care.

Talking circles or similar peer-counseling interventions may have an important role in these days of escalating health care costs. They provide an opportunity for people to help each other without reliance on professional expertise. Talking/healing circles or other forms of peer support and/or peer counseling could become a useful adjunct to conventional health care. For Native Americans, talking circles may be a particularly culturally syntonic way to receive help from other people.

Among 57 patients who attended a complementary medicine clinic in the UK, significant changes were found in MYMOP2 scores for symptoms 1 and 2 and for effect on daily activity scores, but not for overall well-being scores. 20 They would have needed 43 more subjects to have had adequate power to detect an effect on well-being. Their effect size for changes in symptoms was also 1.0, similar to what was found in this study.

Talking circles have been used successfully in other contexts, including Native American communities, to successfully increase the rate of screening for cervical cancer, 26 and to improve receptive and expressive language functions in English as a Second Language classrooms. 31 Talking circles were successfully used as culturally sensitive mitigation strategies for Alaskan Native people negatively affected by the 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill, taking advantage of this traditional social activity of Alaskan Natives. 32 The talking circles in this last example were organized and implemented by members of the Village of Eyak in Prince William Sound, AK. The 2-day event resulted in many testimonies about personal experiences with the oil spill. Activities by Eyak village members after the talking circle event indicated increased cultural awareness and political mobilization. The use of talking circles appeared to promote cultural consciousness among victims experiencing chronic disaster impacts and resulted in a “transforming activity” for the Village of Eyak. Talking circles have been used to foster positive psychology and cultural appropriateness for Native Americans with alcohol problems. 33 Talking circles have been used to foster awareness of healthy eating and to improve eating practices among Native Americans. 34

Talking circles or other peer activities may fill gaps in meeting the need for mental health services. According to a report in 1992 by Howard et al, 35 in the US, people in need of mental health services had available no more than an average of three treatment sessions from a mental health professional in any given year. 35 A small proportion of such individuals actually sought service, and each individual who consulted the specialty mental health sector had available no more than an average of ten treatment sessions. The most needy, particularly those lacking in education, are the least likely to receive treatment in the psychotherapeutic service delivery system. 36

Further research is warranted to determine the acceptability of talking circles or more generic peer counseling groups to broader population groups. Talking circles could potentially reduce health care costs by providing a low-cost forum for people to manage and to resolve stress-related and other life problems.

Our remarks are limited to people who came to at least four sessions and were willing to complete two questionnaires. Although our retention rate was higher than that of people receiving psychotherapy and people being treated for depression in primary care, we still lost more people than we retained. This is a common problem in human services delivery. Future research could examine the effects of attending two or three sessions and could also explore the reasons why people came once and did not come back. We also do not know whether these results would generalize to nonindigenous populations, which could be a topic of future research.

Acknowledgments

Mary Corrado, ELS, provided editorial assistance.

Disclosure Statement

The author(s) have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

The role of mental health counseling in college students' academic success: An interrupted time series analysis

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Psychological and Quantitative Foundations, University of Iowa.
• 2 University Counseling Services, University of Iowa.
• 3 University of North Carolina - Charlotte, Counseling and Psychological Services.
• PMID: 33090870
• DOI: 10.1037/cou0000534

Retention remains a problem for postsecondary institutions and college students. To address these issues, researchers have sought to identify factors of college success and retention. Findings have consistently shown the importance of psychosocial factors and mental health on college students' academic success. As such, university and college counseling centers are well positioned to enhance students' academic success by addressing psychosocial distress. However, existing literature on the effect of counseling on college students' academic success is mixed, and limitations exist. To address previous limitations of the literature, this study utilized an interrupted time series design to examine differences in students' postcounseling academic success compared to their precounseling academic success. Additionally, we examined the association between changes in students' psychological distress and academic distress for students who endorsed clinical distress at the onset of counseling and changes in their grade point average (GPA) over time. Data for this study consisted of 1,231 clients seen by 49 therapists at a university counseling center. As hypothesized, students' GPAs increased at a greater rate postcounseling compared to precounseling. Additionally, for students who were clinically distressed at the onset of counseling, reductions in their psychological distress were associated with positive changes in their GPA over time, but the relationship between changes in their academic distress and changes in their GPA was not significant. This study suggests that counseling can be beneficial for college students' academic success, in part due to changes in students' psychological distress, but not their academic distress, specifically for clinically distressed students. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

• Academic Success*
• Interrupted Time Series Analysis
• Mental Health
• Universities

Seligman’s PERMA+ Model Explained: A Theory of Wellbeing

Yet the concept of “happiness” is often hard to accurately define.

Living the good life, flourishing, self-actualization, joy, and purpose are words that come to mind with happiness. Is it possible to experience any of these in the middle of a chaotic world and negative circumstances? Can we learn to grow or find skills that lead to this “good life?”

Positive psychology takes you through the countryside of pleasure and gratification, up into the high country of strength and virtue, and finally to the peaks of lasting fulfillment, meaning and purpose.

Seligman, 2002

This article will outline the PERMA+ model and the theory of wellbeing, and provide practical ways to apply its components in your private practice or personal life.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Happiness & Subjective Wellbeing Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help you or your clients identify sources of authentic happiness and strategies to boost wellbeing.

This Article Contains:

What is seligman’s perma+ model, p – positive emotion, e – engagement, r – positive relationships, m – meaning, a – accomplishments/achievements, the plus (+) in perma, training in perma+: 3 options, 3 perma+ activities & interventions, 4 helpful questionnaires and questions to ask, positivepsychology.com’s relevant resources, a take-home message.

Abraham Maslow (1962) was one of the first in the field of psychology to describe “wellbeing,” with his characteristics of a self-actualized person. The description of self-actualization is a foreshadowing of the PERMA model, which outlines the characteristics of a flourishing individual and Wellbeing Theory (WBT).

In 1998, Dr. Martin Seligman used his inaugural address as the incoming president of the American Psychological Association to shift the focus from mental illness and pathology to studying what is good and positive in life. From this point in time, theories and research examined positive psychology interventions that help make life worth living and how to define, quantify, and create wellbeing (Rusk & Waters, 2015).

In developing a theory to address this, Seligman (2012) selected five components that people pursue because they are intrinsically motivating and they contribute to wellbeing. These elements are pursued for their own sake and are defined and measured independently of each other (Seligman, 2012).

Additionally, the five components include both eudaimonic  and hedonic components, setting WBT apart from other theories of wellbeing.

These five elements or components (PERMA; Seligman, 2012) are

• Positive emotion
• Relationships
• Accomplishments

The PERMA model makes up WBT, where each dimension works in concert to give rise to a higher order construct that predicts the flourishing of groups, communities, organizations, and nations (Forgeard, Jayawickreme, Kern, & Seligman, 2011).

Research has shown significant positive associations between each of the PERMA components and physical health, vitality, job satisfaction , life satisfaction, and commitment within organizations (Kern, Waters, Alder, & White, 2014).

PERMA is also a better predictor of psychological distress than previous reports of distress (Forgeard et al., 2011). This means that proactively working on the components of PERMA not only increases aspects of wellbeing, but also decreases psychological distress.

Watch this video where Seligman discusses the PERMA model.

Positive emotions include hope, interest, joy, love, compassion, pride, amusement, and gratitude.

Positive emotions are a prime indicator of flourishing, and they can be cultivated or learned to improve wellbeing (Fredrickson, 2001).

When individuals can explore, savor, and integrate positive emotions into daily life (and visualizations of future life), it improves habitual thinking and acting. Positive emotions can undo the harmful effects of negative emotions and promote resilience (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004).

Increasing positive emotions helps individuals build physical, intellectual, psychological, and social resources that lead to this resilience and overall wellbeing.

Ways to build positive emotion may include:

• Spend time with people you care about (Kok et al., 2013).
• Do hobbies and creative activities that you enjoy (Conner et al., 2018).
• Listen to uplifting or inspirational music (Juslin & Sakka, 2019).
• Reflect on things you are grateful for and what is going well in your life (Emmons & McCullough, 2003).

Download 3 Free Happiness Exercises (PDF)

These detailed, science-based exercises will equip you or your clients with tools to discover authentic happiness and cultivate subjective well-being.

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According to Seligman (2012), engagement is “being one with the music.” It is in line with Csikszentmihalyi’s (1989) concept of “flow.” Flow includes the loss of self-consciousness and complete absorption in an activity. In other words, it is living in the present moment and focusing entirely on the task at hand.

Flow, or this concept of engagement, occurs when the perfect combination of challenge and skill/strength is found (Csikszentmihalyi & LeFevre, 1989).

People are more likely to experience flow when they use their top character strengths . Research on engagement has found that individuals who try to use their strengths in new ways each day for a week were happier and less depressed after six months (Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005).

The concept of engagement is something much more powerful than simply “being happy,” but happiness is one of the many byproducts of engagement.

Ways to increase engagement:

• Participate in activities that you really love, where you lose track of time when you do them (Bonaiuto et al., 2016).
• Practice living in the moment, even during daily activities or mundane tasks (Belitz & Lundstrom, 1998).
• Spend time in nature , watching, listening, and observing what happens around you (Petersen et al., 2021).
• Identify and learn about your character strengths, and do things that you excel at (Lai et al., 2018).

Relationships in the PERMA model refer to feeling supported, loved, and valued by others. Relationships are included in the model based on the idea that humans are inherently social creatures (Seligman, 2012). There is evidence of this everywhere, but social connections become particularly important as we age.

The social environment has been found to play a critical role in preventing cognitive decline , and strong social networks contribute to better physical health among older adults (Siedlecki et al., 2014).

Many people have a goal of improving relationships with those they are closest to. Research has demonstrated that sharing good news or celebrating success fosters strong bonds and better relationships (Siedlecki et al., 2014). Additionally, responding enthusiastically to others, particularly in close or intimate relationships, increases intimacy, wellbeing, and satisfaction.

How to build relationships:

• Join a class or group that interests you.
• Ask questions of the people you don’t know well to find out more about them.
• Create friendships with people you are acquainted with.
• Get in touch with people you have not spoken to or connected with in a while.

Another intrinsic human quality is the search for meaning and the need to have a sense of value and worth. Seligman (2012) discussed meaning as belonging and/or serving something greater than ourselves. Having a purpose in life helps individuals focus on what is really important in the face of significant challenge or adversity.

Having meaning or purpose in life is different for everyone. Meaning may be pursued through a profession, a social or political cause, a creative endeavor, or a religious/spiritual belief. It may be found in a career or through extracurricular, volunteer, or community activities.

A sense of meaning is guided by personal values, and people who report having purpose in life live longer and have greater life satisfaction and fewer health problems (Kashdan et al., 2009).

Ways to build meaning:

• Get involved in a cause or organization that matters to you (Tang et al., 2022).
• Try new, creative activities to find things you connect with.
• Think about how you can use your passions to help others.
• Spend quality time with people you care about.

A sense of accomplishment is a result of working toward and reaching goals, mastering an endeavor, and having self-motivation to finish what you set out to do. This contributes to wellbeing because individuals can look at their lives with a sense of pride (Seligman, 2012).

Accomplishment includes the concepts of perseverance and having a passion to attain goals. But flourishing and wellbeing come when accomplishment is tied to striving toward things with an internal motivation or working toward something just for the sake of the pursuit and improvement (Quinn, 2018).

Achieving intrinsic goals  (such as growth and connection) leads to larger gains in wellbeing than external goals such as money or fame (Seligman, 2013).

Ways to build accomplishment:

• Set goals that are SMART – specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time bound (Falecki et al., 2018).
• Reflect on past successes.
• Look for creative ways to celebrate your achievements.

Yet happiness goes beyond just these five elements, and the + can include other important areas we well, such as optimism, nutrition, physical activity and sleep. These are areas equally important to mental wellbeing.

Optimism is a positive emotion critical to building resilience and wellbeing. Optimism is the belief that life will have more good outcomes than bad. People who are optimistic are more likely to be resilient to stressful life events (Carver, Scheier, & Segerstrom, 2010).

Optimistic people tend to live longer, have better postoperative outcomes and lower levels of depression, and adjust better to college life (Carver et al., 2010).

Encouraging youth to become more resilient would build help in establishing a more optimistic outlook on life. Our article, How to Build Resilience in Children , as well as Teaching Resilience in Schools, are great starting points to have youth who are optimistic, resilient, and can handle life’s stressful events better.

Physical activity

Physical activity has been linked to wellbeing in numerous ways. Negative emotions are associated with an increased risk of physical disease and poor health habits, and people with mental illness are more likely to be physically inactive (Hyde, Maher, & Elavsky, 2013).

There are obvious physical benefits to being active, but increasing movement or activity also decreases symptoms of depression, anxiety, and loneliness and improves mental focus and clarity (Hyde et al., 2013).

Read our article on Cognitive Health , to understand the connection between exercise and mental wellbeing.

Poor nutrition leads to physical health problems such as obesity, diabetes, heart disease, and even cancer, but there is significant research demonstrating a relationship between diet and mental health (Stranges, Samaraweera, Taggart, Kandala, & Stewart-Brown, 2014).

Eating a balanced diet rich in vegetables and nutrients (and limiting processed or sugary foods) has been associated with wellbeing. High levels of wellbeing were reported by individuals who ate more fruits and vegetables (Stranges et al., 2014). A review of research on children and adolescents found that a poor diet (high levels of saturated fat, refined carbohydrates, and processed foods) was linked to poorer mental health (O’Neil et al., 2014).

So what should we eat? There are many “super foods” found in nature, such as berries, cruciferous vegetables, avocados, nuts, and seeds. A Mediterranean diet that is high in vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, beans, cereals, grains, fish, and unsaturated fats has been shown to reduce depression symptoms and provides an array of physical health benefits (Parletta et al., 2017).

Neuroimaging and neurochemistry research suggests that good sleep hygiene fosters mental and emotional resilience, and sleep deprivation leads to negative thinking and emotional vulnerability (Harvard Medical School, 2019). Further, sleep problems are more likely to affect people with psychiatric disorders and may increase the risk of developing mental illness.

Particularly, insomnia increases the risk of developing depression.

Getting seven to nine hours of quality sleep during the same hours every night is recommended (Harvard Medical School, 2019). Lifestyle changes such as avoiding caffeine, nicotine, and alcohol; getting physical activity; decreasing screen time; and using the bedroom only for sleep and sex can improve sleep quality.

Relaxation techniques and cognitive behavioral techniques to reduce stress and anxiety can also be effective ways to improve sleep and overall wellbeing.

Training in PERMA can be helpful for improving performance, building resilience, and increasing success and life satisfaction. Here are three options for obtaining training in PERMA.

The Penn Resilience Program and PERMA workshops

The Penn Resilience Program and PERMA workshops are evidence-based training options that strive to build resilience, wellbeing, and optimism. The workshops are designed to offer practical skills for individuals, teams, and organizations that reduce mental health issues and improve quality of life.

The SAHMRI Wellbeing and Resilience Centre

The Wellbeing and Resilience Centre aims to decrease mental illness by improving mental health and wellbeing. With the understanding that wellbeing is multi-dimensional, PERMA+ is the foundation used to train leaders how to deliver skills and interventions to the community.

The Science of Happiness Course

Offered through UC Berkeley, the Science of Happiness Course , with an optional certificate, focuses on all aspects of PERMA without actually focusing on the acronym.

The course discusses research on happiness (positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievements) and provides practical activities to improve and measure individual happiness and wellbeing.

Martin Seligman designed the PERMA model to conceptualize the main factors contributing to wellbeing (Seligman, 2012). Research has found positive associations between the PERMA components and improved health and life satisfaction (Kern et al., 2014).

The PERMA model includes five elements:

P – Positive Emotions

Positive Emotion is much more than happiness. Positive emotions include hope, joy, love, compassion, amusement, and gratitude. Positive emotions are a prime indicator of flourishing (Fredrickson, 2001) and can be cultivated. However, this does not mean we need to repress negative emotions. Instead, we can accept all emotional experiences but expose ourselves to situations where positive emotions arise naturally.

E – Engagement

According to Seligman, engagement is being one with the music (2012). Engagement is similar to the concept of flow. It refers to a loss of self-consciousness and complete absorption in an activity. It is mindfully focusing on the task at hand.

R – Relationships

Relationships encompass all the interactions individuals have with partners, friends, family members, and their community at large. This part of the model refers to feeling supported, loved, and valued by others.

M – Meaning

Meaning is defined as belonging and serving something greater than ourselves. Having a purpose helps individuals focus on what is important in the face of significant challenges or adversity (Seligman, 2012).

A – Accomplishments

A sense of accomplishment results from mastering an endeavor and working towards goals. Achievements contribute to wellbeing because individuals can look at their lives with a sense of pride.

PERMA activities and interventions are applicable to individuals suffering from mental health disorders as well as those who simply want to improve levels of flourishing. The following interventions can be implemented during any point in a treatment program or as standalone activities to increase wellbeing.

1. Your character strengths

Find your character strengths using the VIA Survey . Much of the research on PERMA uses the assessment of these 24 character strengths.

Learning your unique character strengths can help guide you into meaningful activities (engagement) and work (accomplishment).

2. Track and measure success

This worksheet helps clients set goals and track progress. Often, we take the first step in setting goals but do not take the time to reflect on the emotions elicited when we have achieved them.

3. Gratitude journal

One of the most common activities mentioned throughout research on flourishing and wellbeing is the impact of gratitude. This article about creating a Gratitude Journal  provides comprehensive background information and specific details and activities to implement a gratitude journal or routine into daily life.

Not only do they provide a way to measure wellbeing, but they are another way to track the effectiveness of interventions and therapeutic techniques.

The following assessments can also offer ideas for specific or individual questions that help clients gain insight and self-awareness.

1. PERMA Profiler

The PERMA Profiler is an extensive questionnaire from the University of Pennsylvania that assesses each of Seligman’s (2012) components of wellbeing or flourishing.

This can be an excellent resource to assess clients as they progress through therapy, coaching, or interventions in positive psychology or counseling.

2. The Workplace PERMA Profile

The Workplace PERMA Profile is created by the same authors as the individual PERMA Profiler, but it is designed to assess groups and organizations.

Leaders can use this to assess workers or teams and improve wellbeing in the environment, which will lead to better performance.

3. PURPOSE+ PERMA Profiler

This PURPOSE+ PERMA Profiler is a quick online assessment that asks relevant questions related to each component of PERMA.

It is a fast and efficient way to assess and compare levels of wellbeing. It will email the results directly to you and compares your PERMA scores with other people in the same demographic. The questions asked in the short survey also provide a great starting point for therapy, coaching, or consulting.

4. The Flourishing Scale

The Flourishing Scale asks participants to rate themselves on specific areas of wellbeing. Flourishing is one of the most important components of resilience and wellbeing.

This scale can be used as a tool for motivational interviewing to inspire ideas for self-improvement, or it can be used as an assessment to track progress. The full description of the scale, with scoring, can be accessed in the Positive Psychology Toolkit© .

17 Exercises To Increase Happiness and Wellbeing

Add these 17 Happiness & Subjective Well-Being Exercises [PDF] to your toolkit and help others experience greater purpose, meaning, and positive emotions.

Created by Experts. 100% Science-based.

Our Positive Psychology Toolkit©  provides a wealth of resources that cover the full range of components from Wellbeing Theory and PERMA. The assessments, exercises, and activities can be implemented and integrated into any stage of therapy or as standalone activities.

1. Strengths for Altruism

The Strengths for Altruism worksheet, available in the Toolkit, is helpful once an individual has identified their strengths. We all have strengths and have a choice of what we do with them. Using strengths in an altruistic way can promote engagement, relationship, and meaning.

2. Gratitude Letter

Creating a Gratitude Letter is one of the most effective exercises used in the PERMA model. Just like the gratitude journal mentioned earlier, fostering gratitude can significantly improve all aspects of PERMA (positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment). To make the letter specific to Wellbeing Theory, gratitude can be targeted to each of the five areas.

3. Build an Emotions Portfolio

This free Emotions Portfolio tool is a great resource to help clients build a database or toolbox of positive emotions. Hope , gratitude, awe, joy, and inspiration are positive emotions that have been linked to wellbeing and are explored here.

4. 17 Happiness Exercises

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others develop strategies to boost their wellbeing, this collection contains 17 validated happiness and wellbeing exercises . Use them to help others pursue authentic happiness and work toward a  life filled with purpose and meaning.

We all want to experience a higher level of wellbeing and “flourish” in life. The PERMA+ model is an evidence-based approach to improve “happiness” and decrease anxiety, depression, and stress.

Many activities can be used to systematically increase positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and achievement (PERMA). The good thing is that the areas of PERMA can be mutually exclusive, but in most ways, they are not. For example, by using mindfulness exercises to increase engagement, one will probably also experience more positive emotion and meaning in life.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Happiness Exercises for free .

[Reviewer’s update:

Citations of new research have been added where appropriate.]

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• Tugade, M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce back from negative emotional experiences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 86 (2), 320–333.

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Home » Term Paper – Format, Examples and Writing Guide

Term Paper – Format, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Definition:

Term paper is a type of academic writing assignment that is typically assigned to students at the end of a semester or term. It is usually a research-based paper that is meant to demonstrate the student’s understanding of a particular topic, as well as their ability to analyze and synthesize information from various sources.

Term papers are usually longer than other types of academic writing assignments and can range anywhere from 5 to 20 pages or more, depending on the level of study and the specific requirements of the assignment. They often require extensive research and the use of a variety of sources, including books, articles, and other academic publications.

Term Paper Format

The format of a term paper may vary depending on the specific requirements of your professor or institution. However, a typical term paper usually consists of the following sections:

• Title page: This should include the title of your paper, your name, the course name and number, your instructor’s name, and the date.
• Abstract : This is a brief summary of your paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should provide an overview of your topic, the research question or hypothesis, your methodology, and your main findings or conclusions.
• Introduction : This section should introduce your topic and provide background information on the subject. You should also state your research question or hypothesis and explain the importance of your research.
• Literature review : This section should review the existing literature on your topic. You should summarize the key findings and arguments made by other scholars and identify any gaps in the literature that your research aims to address.
• Methodology: This section should describe the methods you used to collect and analyze your data. You should explain your research design, sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
• Results : This section should present your findings. You can use tables, graphs, and charts to illustrate your data.
• Discussion : This section should interpret your findings and explain what they mean in relation to your research question or hypothesis. You should also discuss any limitations of your study and suggest areas for future research.
• Conclusion : This section should summarize your main findings and conclusions. You should also restate the importance of your research and its implications for the field.
• References : This section should list all the sources you cited in your paper using a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
• Appendices : This section should include any additional materials that are relevant to your study but not essential to your main argument (e.g., survey questions, interview transcripts).

Structure of Term Paper

Here’s an example structure for a term paper:

I. Introduction

A. Background information on the topic

B. Thesis statement

II. Literature Review

A. Overview of current literature on the topic

B. Discussion of key themes and findings from literature

C. Identification of gaps in current literature

III. Methodology

A. Description of research design

B. Discussion of data collection methods

C. Explanation of data analysis techniques

IV. Results

A. Presentation of findings

B. Analysis and interpretation of results

C. Comparison of results with previous studies

V. Discussion

A. Summary of key findings

B. Explanation of how results address the research questions

C. Implications of results for the field

VI. Conclusion

A. Recap of key points

B. Significance of findings

C. Future directions for research

VII. References

A. List of sources cited in the paper

How to Write Term Paper

Here are some steps to help you write a term paper:

• Choose a topic: Choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to your course. If your professor has assigned a topic, make sure you understand it and clarify any doubts before you start.
• Research : Conduct research on your topic by gathering information from various sources such as books, academic journals, and online resources. Take notes and organize your information systematically.
• Create an outline : Create an outline of your term paper by arranging your ideas and information in a logical sequence. Your outline should include an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
• Write a thesis statement: Write a clear and concise thesis statement that states the main idea of your paper. Your thesis statement should be included in your introduction.
• Write the introduction: The introduction should grab the reader’s attention, provide background information on your topic, and introduce your thesis statement.
• Write the body : The body of your paper should provide supporting evidence for your thesis statement. Use your research to provide details and examples to support your argument. Make sure to organize your ideas logically and use transition words to connect paragraphs.
• Write the conclusion : The conclusion should summarize your main points and restate your thesis statement. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion.
• Edit and proofread: Edit and proofread your term paper carefully to ensure that it is free of errors and flows smoothly. Check for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.
• Format and cite your sources: Follow the formatting guidelines provided by your professor and cite your sources properly using the appropriate citation style.
• Submit your paper : Submit your paper on time and according to the instructions provided by your professor.

Term Paper Example

Here’s an example of a term paper:

Title : The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Cybersecurity

As the world becomes more digitally interconnected, cybersecurity threats are increasing in frequency and sophistication. Traditional security measures are no longer enough to protect against these threats. This paper explores the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in cybersecurity, including how AI can be used to detect and respond to threats in real-time, the challenges of implementing AI in cybersecurity, and the potential ethical implications of AI-powered security systems. The paper concludes with recommendations for organizations looking to integrate AI into their cybersecurity strategies.

Introduction :

The increasing number of cybersecurity threats in recent years has led to a growing interest in the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) to improve cybersecurity. AI has the ability to analyze vast amounts of data and identify patterns and anomalies that may indicate a security breach. Additionally, AI can automate responses to threats, allowing for faster and more effective mitigation of security incidents. However, there are also challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, such as the need for large amounts of high-quality data, the potential for AI systems to make mistakes, and the ethical considerations surrounding the use of AI in security.

Literature Review:

This section of the paper reviews existing research on the use of AI in cybersecurity. It begins by discussing the types of AI techniques used in cybersecurity, including machine learning, natural language processing, and neural networks. The literature review then explores the advantages of using AI in cybersecurity, such as its ability to detect previously unknown threats and its potential to reduce the workload of security analysts. However, the review also highlights some of the challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, such as the need for high-quality training data and the potential for AI systems to be fooled by sophisticated attacks.

Methodology :

To better understand the challenges and opportunities associated with using AI in cybersecurity, this paper conducted a survey of cybersecurity professionals working in a variety of industries. The survey included questions about the types of AI techniques used in their organizations, the challenges they faced when implementing AI in cybersecurity, and their perceptions of the ethical implications of using AI in security.

The results of the survey showed that while many organizations are interested in using AI in cybersecurity, they face several challenges when implementing these systems. These challenges include the need for high-quality training data, the potential for AI systems to be fooled by sophisticated attacks, and the difficulty of integrating AI with existing security systems. Additionally, many respondents expressed concerns about the ethical implications of using AI in security, such as the potential for AI to be biased or to make decisions that are harmful to individuals or society as a whole.

Discussion :

Based on the results of the survey and the existing literature, this paper discusses the potential benefits and risks of using AI in cybersecurity. It also provides recommendations for organizations looking to integrate AI into their security strategies, such as the need to prioritize data quality and to ensure that AI systems are transparent and accountable.

Conclusion :

While there are challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, the potential benefits of using these systems are significant. AI can help organizations detect and respond to threats more quickly and effectively, reducing the risk of security breaches. However, it is important for organizations to be aware of the potential ethical implications of using AI in security and to take steps to ensure that these systems are transparent and accountable.

References:

• Alkhaldi, S., Al-Daraiseh, A., & Lutfiyya, H. (2019). A Survey on Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Cyber Security. Journal of Information Security, 10(03), 191-207.
• Gartner. (2019). Gartner Top 10 Strategic Technology Trends for 2020. Retrieved from https://www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/gartner-top-10-strategic-technology-trends-for-2020/
• Kshetri, N. (2018). Blockchain’s roles in meeting key supply chain management objectives. International Journal of Information Management, 39, 80-89.
• Lipton, Z. C. (2018). The mythos of model interpretability. arXiv preprint arXiv:1606.03490.
• Schneier, B. (2019). Click Here to Kill Everybody: Security and Survival in a Hyper-Connected World. WW Norton & Company.
• Wahab, M. A., Rahman, M. S., & Islam, M. R. (2020). A Survey on AI Techniques in Cybersecurity. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 11(2), 22-27.

When to Write Term Paper

A term paper is usually a lengthy research paper that is assigned to students at the end of a term or semester. There are several situations when writing a term paper may be required, including:

• As a course requirement: In most cases, a term paper is required as part of the coursework for a particular course. It may be assigned by the instructor as a way of assessing the student’s understanding of the course material.
• To explore a specific topic : A term paper can be an excellent opportunity for students to explore a specific topic of interest in-depth. It allows them to conduct extensive research on the topic and develop their understanding of it.
• To develop critical thinking skills : Writing a term paper requires students to engage in critical thinking and analysis. It helps them to develop their ability to evaluate and interpret information, as well as to present their ideas in a clear and coherent manner.
• To prepare for future academic or professional pursuits: Writing a term paper can be an excellent way for students to prepare for future academic or professional pursuits. It can help them to develop the research and writing skills necessary for success in higher education or in a professional career.

Purpose of Term Paper

The main purposes of a term paper are:

• Demonstrate mastery of a subject: A term paper provides an opportunity for students to showcase their knowledge and understanding of a particular subject. It requires students to research and analyze the topic, and then present their findings in a clear and organized manner.
• Develop critical thinking skills: Writing a term paper requires students to think critically about their subject matter, analyzing various sources and viewpoints, and evaluating evidence to support their arguments.
• Improve writing skills : Writing a term paper helps students improve their writing skills, including organization, clarity, and coherence. It also requires them to follow specific formatting and citation guidelines, which can be valuable skills for future academic and professional endeavors.
• Contribute to academic discourse : A well-written term paper can contribute to academic discourse by presenting new insights, ideas, and arguments that add to the existing body of knowledge on a particular topic.
• Prepare for future research : Writing a term paper can help prepare students for future research, by teaching them how to conduct a literature review, evaluate sources, and formulate research questions and hypotheses. It can also help them develop research skills that they can apply in future academic or professional endeavors.

Advantages of Term Paper

There are several advantages of writing a term paper, including:

• In-depth exploration: Writing a term paper allows you to delve deeper into a specific topic, allowing you to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.
• Improved writing skills: Writing a term paper involves extensive research, critical thinking, and the organization of ideas into a cohesive written document. As a result, writing a term paper can improve your writing skills significantly.
• Demonstration of knowledge: A well-written term paper demonstrates your knowledge and understanding of the subject matter, which can be beneficial for academic or professional purposes.
• Development of research skills : Writing a term paper requires conducting thorough research, analyzing data, and synthesizing information from various sources. This process can help you develop essential research skills that can be applied in many other areas.
• Enhancement of critical thinking : Writing a term paper encourages you to think critically, evaluate information, and develop well-supported arguments. These skills can be useful in many areas of life, including personal and professional decision-making.
• Preparation for further academic work : Writing a term paper is excellent preparation for more extensive academic projects, such as a thesis or dissertation.

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