speech verbal expression

Join Pilot Waitlist

Home » Blog » General » Enhancing Verbal Expression: A Guide to Speech and Language Therapy Worksheets

Enhancing Verbal Expression: A Guide to Speech and Language Therapy Worksheets

Welcome to my blog! In today’s post, we will explore the world of speech and language therapy worksheets and how they can enhance verbal expression. Verbal expression plays a crucial role in social emotional development, and these worksheets are valuable tools in helping individuals improve their communication skills. So, let’s dive in and discover the benefits of using speech and language therapy worksheets!

Understanding Verbal Expression

Verbal expression refers to the ability to convey thoughts, ideas, and emotions through spoken words. It involves various components, such as vocabulary, grammar, articulation, and social interaction. However, many individuals face challenges in verbal expression, which can impact their overall communication skills and social interactions.

Common challenges in verbal expression include difficulties with articulation, limited vocabulary, poor grammar and syntax, and struggles in engaging in meaningful conversations. These challenges can hinder individuals from effectively expressing themselves and connecting with others.

Benefits of Speech and Language Therapy Worksheets

Speech and language therapy worksheets offer numerous benefits in promoting language development, enhancing communication skills, and improving social interaction. These worksheets provide structured exercises and activities that target specific areas of verbal expression, making the learning process more engaging and effective.

By using speech and language therapy worksheets, individuals can:

Promote Language Development

Language development is crucial for effective verbal expression. Speech and language therapy worksheets provide opportunities for individuals to expand their vocabulary, learn new words, and improve their understanding of language concepts. These worksheets often include exercises that focus on word associations, categorization, and semantic relationships, helping individuals develop a strong foundation in language skills.

Enhance Communication Skills

Effective communication involves more than just using words. It requires individuals to understand non-verbal cues, interpret social contexts, and engage in meaningful conversations. Speech and language therapy worksheets incorporate activities that target these skills, such as role-playing scenarios, practicing turn-taking, and understanding emotions. By engaging in these activities, individuals can enhance their communication skills and become more confident in expressing themselves.

Improve Social Interaction

Verbal expression is closely tied to social interaction. Individuals who struggle with verbal expression may find it challenging to connect with others and build meaningful relationships. Speech and language therapy worksheets include exercises that focus on social skills, such as initiating conversations, maintaining eye contact, and understanding social cues. These activities help individuals improve their social interaction skills, leading to more successful and fulfilling relationships.

Types of Speech and Language Therapy Worksheets

Speech and language therapy worksheets come in various types, each targeting specific areas of verbal expression. Here are some common types of worksheets:

Articulation Worksheets

Articulation worksheets focus on improving speech sound production. They include exercises that help individuals practice specific sounds and correct any articulation errors. These worksheets often include visual cues and prompts to assist individuals in producing sounds accurately.

Vocabulary-Building Worksheets

Vocabulary-building worksheets aim to expand an individual’s vocabulary. They include activities that introduce new words, reinforce word meanings, and encourage word usage in different contexts. These worksheets may involve matching words with their definitions, completing sentences with appropriate words, or categorizing words based on their meanings.

Grammar and Syntax Worksheets

Grammar and syntax worksheets focus on improving sentence structure and grammar skills. They include exercises that target various grammar rules, such as subject-verb agreement, verb tenses, and sentence formation. These worksheets often involve filling in the blanks, rearranging words to form grammatically correct sentences, and identifying errors in sentence structure.

Conversation and Social Skills Worksheets

Conversation and social skills worksheets aim to improve individuals’ ability to engage in meaningful conversations and understand social cues. These worksheets include activities that focus on turn-taking, topic initiation, active listening, and understanding non-verbal cues. They may involve role-playing scenarios, practicing social greetings, or identifying emotions based on facial expressions.

How to Use Speech and Language Therapy Worksheets

Using speech and language therapy worksheets effectively involves setting goals and objectives, incorporating the worksheets into therapy sessions, and monitoring progress to adjust strategies accordingly.

Setting Goals and Objectives

Before using speech and language therapy worksheets, it is essential to identify the specific areas of verbal expression that need improvement. Set clear goals and objectives that are measurable and achievable. For example, a goal could be to improve articulation by correctly producing specific sounds or to expand vocabulary by learning a certain number of new words.

Incorporating Worksheets into Therapy Sessions

Integrate speech and language therapy worksheets into therapy sessions to provide structured practice and reinforcement. Start with activities that match the individual’s current skill level and gradually increase the difficulty level as they progress. Use the worksheets as a guide to target specific skills and provide feedback and guidance during the sessions.

Monitoring Progress and Adjusting Strategies

Regularly monitor the individual’s progress by tracking their performance on the worksheets. Assess whether they are meeting the set goals and objectives and make adjustments to the strategies if needed. If certain areas are not improving as expected, consider modifying the approach or seeking guidance from a speech language pathologist.

Additional Strategies to Enhance Verbal Expression

While speech and language therapy worksheets are valuable tools, there are additional strategies that can further enhance verbal expression:

Encouraging Storytelling and Narrative Skills

Storytelling and narrative skills play a significant role in verbal expression. Encourage individuals to share their stories, whether real or imaginary, and guide them in organizing their thoughts and structuring their narratives. This practice helps improve their ability to express ideas coherently and engage listeners.

Engaging in Role-Play and Pretend Play Activities

Role-play and pretend play activities provide opportunities for individuals to practice different social scenarios and develop their communication skills. Encourage them to take on different roles, express themselves in various contexts, and engage in interactive play with others. These activities help individuals become more comfortable in expressing themselves and understanding social dynamics.

Using Visual Aids and Prompts

Visual aids and prompts can support individuals in verbal expression by providing visual cues and reminders. Use pictures, charts, or diagrams to help individuals understand and remember vocabulary words, grammar rules, or conversation strategies. Visual aids can enhance comprehension and facilitate the transfer of knowledge into practical communication skills.

Resources for Speech and Language Therapy Worksheets

There are various resources available for speech and language therapy worksheets:

Online Platforms and Websites

Explore online platforms and websites that offer a wide range of speech and language therapy worksheets. EverydaySpeech is an excellent resource that provides a comprehensive library of worksheets targeting different areas of verbal expression. They offer a free trial to get started, so you can experience the benefits firsthand.

Books and Publications

Books and publications by speech language pathologists are valuable resources for finding speech and language therapy worksheets. Look for books that focus on specific areas of verbal expression and offer practical exercises and activities. These resources can provide additional guidance and support in enhancing communication skills.

Collaborating with Speech Language Pathologists

Collaborating with speech language pathologists can be highly beneficial in accessing specialized speech and language therapy worksheets. They can provide personalized recommendations and create customized worksheets based on individual needs. Working with a speech language pathologist ensures that the worksheets align with specific goals and objectives.

Verbal expression plays a crucial role in social emotional development, and speech and language therapy worksheets are powerful tools in enhancing communication skills. By using these worksheets, individuals can promote language development, improve communication skills, and enhance social interaction. Additionally, incorporating additional strategies such as storytelling, role-play, and visual aids can further enhance verbal expression. Explore the resources available, including EverydaySpeech’s free trial, to embark on a journey towards enhanced communication skills and meaningful connections.

Start your EverydaySpeech Free trial here !

Preparing for Success: Enhancing Social Communication in Grade 12

Preparing for Success: Enhancing Social Communication in Grade 12 Key Takeaways Strong social communication skills are crucial for academic success and building meaningful relationships in Grade 12. Social communication includes verbal and non-verbal communication,...

Preparing for Success: Enhancing Social Communication in Grade 12 Preparing for Success: Enhancing Social Communication in Grade 12 As students enter Grade 12, they are on the cusp of adulthood and preparing for the next chapter of their lives. While academic success...

FREE MATERIALS

Better doesn’t have to be harder, social skills lessons students actually enjoy.

Be the best educator you can be with no extra prep time needed. Sign up to get access to free samples from the best Social Skills and Social-Emotional educational platform.

Get Started Instantly for Free

Complete guided therapy.

The subscription associated with this email has been cancelled and is no longer active. To reactivate your subscription, please log in.

If you would like to make changes to your account, please log in using the button below and navigate to the settings page. If you’ve forgotten your password, you can reset it using the button below.

Unfortunately it looks like we’re not able to create your subscription at this time. Please contact support to have the issue resolved. We apologize for the inconvenience. Error: Web signup - customer email already exists

Welcome back! The subscription associated with this email was previously cancelled, but don’t fret! We make it easy to reactivate your subscription and pick up right where you left off. Note that subscription reactivations aren't eligible for free trials, but your purchase is protected by a 30 day money back guarantee. Let us know anytime within 30 days if you aren’t satisfied and we'll send you a full refund, no questions asked. Please press ‘Continue’ to enter your payment details and reactivate your subscription

Notice About Our SEL Curriculum

Our SEL Curriculum is currently in a soft product launch stage and is only available by Site License. A Site License is currently defined as a school-building minimum or a minimum cost of $3,000 for the first year of use. Individual SEL Curriculum licenses are not currently available based on the current version of this product.

By clicking continue below, you understand that access to our SEL curriculum is currently limited to the terms above.

INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
Communication Skills
Verbal Communication

Search SkillsYouNeed:

The SkillsYouNeed Guide to Interpersonal Skills

Interpersonal Skills:

A - Z List of Interpersonal Skills
Interpersonal Skills Self-Assessment
What is Communication?
Interpersonal Communication Skills
Tips for Effective Interpersonal Communication
Principles of Communication
Barriers to Effective Communication
Avoiding Common Communication Mistakes
Social Skills
Getting Social Online
Giving and Receiving Feedback
Improving Communication
Interview Skills
Telephone Interviews
Interviewing Skills
Business Language Skills
The Ladder of Inference
Listening Skills
Top Tips for Effective Listening
The 10 Principles of Listening
Effective Listening Skills
Barriers to Effective Listening
Types of Listening
Active Listening
Mindful Listening
Empathic Listening
Listening Misconceptions
Non-Verbal Communication
Personal Appearance
Body Language
Non-Verbal Communication: Face and Voice
Effective Speaking
Conversational Skills
How to Keep a Conversation Flowing
Conversation Tips for Getting What You Want
Giving a Speech
Questioning Skills and Techniques
Types of Question
Clarification
Emotional Intelligence
Conflict Resolution and Mediation Skills
Customer Service Skills
Team-Working, Groups and Meetings
Decision-Making and Problem-Solving
Negotiation and Persuasion Skills
Personal and Romantic Relationship Skills

Subscribe to our FREE newsletter and start improving your life in just 5 minutes a day.

You'll get our 5 free 'One Minute Life Skills' and our weekly newsletter.

We'll never share your email address and you can unsubscribe at any time.

Verbal Communication Skills

Verbal communication is the use of words to share information with other people. It can therefore include both spoken and written communication. However, many people use the term to describe only spoken communication. The verbal element of communication is all about the words that you choose, and how they are heard and interpreted.

This page focuses on spoken communication. However, the choice of words can be equally—if not more—important in written communication, where there is little or no non-verbal communication to help with the interpretation of the message.

What is Verbal Communication?

Verbal communication is any communication that uses words to share information with others. These words may be both spoken and written.

Communication is a two-way process

Communication is about passing information from one person to another.

This means that both the sending and the receiving of the message are equally important.

Verbal communication therefore requires both a speaker (or writer) to transmit the message, and a listener (or reader) to make sense of the message. This page discusses both parts of the process.

There are a large number of different verbal communication skills. They range from the obvious (being able to speak clearly, or listening, for example), to the more subtle (such as reflecting and clarifying). This page provides a summary of these skills, and shows where you can find out more.

It is important to remember that effective verbal communication cannot be fully isolated from non-verbal communication : your body language, tone of voice, and facial expressions, for example.

Clarity of speech, remaining calm and focused, being polite and following some basic rules of etiquette will all aid the process of verbal communication.

Opening Communication

In many interpersonal encounters, the first few minutes are extremely important. First impressions have a significant impact on the success of further and future communication.

When you first meet someone, you form an instant impression of them, based on how they look, sound and behave, as well as anything you may have heard about them from other people.

This first impression guides your future communications, at least to some extent.

For example, when you meet someone and hear them speak, you form a judgement about their background, and likely level of ability and understanding. This might well change what you say. If you hear a foreign accent, for example, you might decide that you need to use simpler language. You might also realise that you will need to listen more carefully to ensure that you understand what they are saying to you.

Of course your first impression may be revised later. You should ensure that you consciously ‘update’ your thinking when you receive new information about your contact and as you get to know them better.

Basic Verbal Communication Skills: Effective Speaking and Listening

Effective speaking involves three main areas: the words you choose, how you say them, and how you reinforce them with other non-verbal communication.

All these affect the transmission of your message, and how it is received and understood by your audience.

It is worth considering your choice of words carefully. You will probably need to use different words in different situations, even when discussing the same subject. For example, what you say to a close colleague will be very different from how you present a subject at a major conference.

How you speak includes your tone of voice and pace. Like non-verbal communication more generally, these send important messages to your audience, for example, about your level of interest and commitment, or whether you are nervous about their reaction.

There is more about this in our page on Non-Verbal Communication: Face and Voice .

Active listening is an important skill. However, when we communicate, we tend to spend far more energy considering what we are going to say than listening to the other person.

Effective listening is vital for good verbal communication. There are a number of ways that you can ensure that you listen more effectively. These include:

Be prepared to listen . Concentrate on the speaker, and not on how you are going to reply.

Keep an open mind and avoid making judgements about the speaker.

Concentrate on the main direction of the speaker’s message . Try to understand broadly what they are trying to say overall, as well as the detail of the words that they are using.

Avoid distractions if at all possible. For example, if there is a lot of background noise, you might suggest that you go somewhere else to talk.

Be objective .

Do not be trying to think of your next question while the other person is giving information.

Do not dwell on one or two points at the expense of others . Try to use the overall picture and all the information that you have.

Do not stereotype the speaker . Try not to let prejudices associated with, for example, gender, ethnicity, accent, social class, appearance or dress interfere with what is being said (see Personal Appearance ).

There is more information in our pages on Listening Skills .

Improving Verbal Communication: More Advanced Techniques

There are a number of tools and techniques that you can use to improve the effectiveness of your verbal communication. These include reinforcement, reflection, clarification, and questioning.

Reinforcement

Reinforcement is the use of encouraging words alongside non-verbal gestures such as head nods, a warm facial expression and maintaining eye contact.

All these help to build rapport and are more likely to reinforce openness in others. The use of encouragement and positive reinforcement can:

Encourage others to participate in discussion (particularly in group work);
Show interest in what other people have to say;
Pave the way for development and/or maintenance of a relationship;
Allay fears and give reassurance;
Show warmth and openness; and
Reduce shyness or nervousness in ourselves and others.

Questioning

Questioning is broadly how we obtain information from others on specific topics.

Questioning is an essential way of clarifying areas that are unclear or test your understanding. It can also enable you to explicitly seek support from others.

On a more social level, questioning is also a useful technique to start conversations, draw someone into a conversation, or simply show interest. Effective questioning is therefore an essential element of verbal communication.

We use two main types of question:

Closed Questions

Closed questions tend to seek only a one or two word answer (often simply ‘yes’ or ‘no’). They therefore limit the scope of the response. Two examples of closed questions are:

“Did you travel by car today?” and “Did you see the football game yesterday?”

These types of question allow the questioner to remain in control of the communication. This is often not the desired outcome when trying to encourage verbal communication, so many people try to focus on using open questions more often. Nevertheless, closed questions can be useful for focusing discussion and obtaining clear, concise answers when needed.

Open Questions

Open questions demand further discussion and elaboration. They therefore broaden the scope for response. They include, for example,

“What was the traffic like this morning?” “What do you feel you would like to gain from this discussion?”

Open questions will take longer to answer, but they give the other person far more scope for self-expression and encourage involvement in the conversation.

For more on questioning see our pages: Questioning and Types of Question .

Reflecting and Clarifying

Reflecting is the process of feeding back to another person your understanding of what has been said.

Reflecting is a specialised skill often used within counselling, but it can also be applied to a wide range of communication contexts and is a useful skill to learn.

Reflecting often involves paraphrasing the message communicated to you by the speaker in your own words. You need to try to capture the essence of the facts and feelings expressed, and communicate your understanding back to the speaker. It is a useful skill because:

You can check that you have understood the message clearly.
The speaker gets feedback about how the message has been received and can then clarify or expand if they wish.
It shows interest in, and respect for, what the other person has to say.
You are demonstrating that you are considering the other person’s viewpoint.

See also our pages on Reflecting and Clarifying .

Summarising

A summary is an overview of the main points or issues raised.

Summarising can also serve the same purpose as ‘reflecting’. However, summarising allows both parties to review and agree the message, and ensure that communication has been effective. When used effectively, summaries may also serve as a guide to the next steps forward.

Closing Communication

The way a communication is closed or ended will, at least in part, determine the way a conversation is remembered.

People use both verbal and non-verbal signals to end a conversation.

Verbal signals may include phrases such as: “Well, I must be going,” and “Thank you so much, that’s really helpful.”

Non-verbal conclusions may include starting to avoid eye contact, standing up, turning away, or behaviours such as looking at a watch or closing notepads or books. These non-verbal actions indicate to the other person that the initiator wishes to end the communication.

People often use a mixture of these, but tend to start with the non-verbal signals, especially face-to-face. On the telephone, of course, verbal cues are essential.

Closing an interaction too abruptly may not allow the other person to 'round off' what he or she is saying so you should ensure there is time for winding-up. The closure of an interaction is a good time to make any future arrangements. Last, but not least, this time will no doubt be accompanied by a number of socially acceptable parting gestures.

Only part of the picture

It is vital to remember that any communication is made up of the sum of its parts.

Verbal communication is an important element, but only part of the overall message conveyed. Some research suggests that the verbal element is, in fact, a very small part of the overall message: just 20 to 30%. This is still, however, significant, and it is worth spending time to improve your verbal communication skills.

Continue to: Effective Speaking Conversational Skills How good are your interpersonal skills? Interpersonal Skills Self-Assessment

See also: Ladder of Inference How to be Polite Personal Development

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it's official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you're on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

Publications
Account settings
Browse Titles

NCBI Bookshelf. A service of the National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health.

StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

StatPearls [Internet].

Speech assessment.

Yasmin Naqvi ; Ryan Winters .

Affiliations

Last Update: May 1, 2023 .

Definition/Introduction

Speech is a communicative skill that enables us to understand each other and to interact. It becomes a means of communication, allowing us to share ideas, beliefs, and opinions. When this process is disrupted, and the normal flow of receptive and expressive aspects of speech is compromised, a speech assessment is carried out to assess a disturbance in any part of this process. Disturbances of speech can come in the form of content formation (i.e., the patient has difficulty expressing the desired ideas in the form of spoken words) or of articulation (i.e., the patient can express their ideas in spoken form but has one or more problems physically producing the sounds necessary for intelligible speech). A speech assessment, together with formal neurological evaluation, can identify specific speech problems or patterns of speech problems, as well as propose solutions. [1]

Speech assessment is a method to evaluate and diagnose problems in adults and children of speaking, swallowing, comprehension, and writing. Such evaluation may be warranted due to neurological diseases, stroke, trauma, injury, tumors, cerebral palsy, cleft palate, orofacial musculature, hearing impairment, stammering, articulation errors, motor speech disorders, and many other conditions. [2]

Formal speech assessment is performed by a trained speech and language pathologist, and begins with a consultation in the office with the patient and potentially with family members. Reviews of prior records and treatment will be conducted, and formal characterization of receptive and expressive speech will be conducted, including articulation, fluency, content, and clarity of speech, and potentially evaluate breathing and swallowing. Objective testing such as videostroboscopy, nasometry, or rhinomanometry may be obtained, depending on the specific disorder under investigation. [3]

Issues of Concern

Speech is the verbal expression of thoughts and ideas. In many cases, speech is used to communicate via a shared language. Language is an agreed-upon rule-based code we use to communicate. Parents may present with a range of concerns regarding their children when they choose to consult a speech-language pathologist (SLP). These may include but are not limited to, the child’s patterns of speech, cognitive, and social skills in contrast to their peer group. Some parents may be concerned that their child does not match up to other children their age and appears to be lagging in milestones. These may include behavioral and hearing issues also.

Multiple tests have been devised to assess oral motor disorders. One of them is the Fletcher time-by-count test of diadochokinetic syllable rate. The diadochokinetic (DDK) rate is an assessment tool used by SLPs to measure the repetitions of sounds within a set period of time. It measures how rapid one can correctly repeat a series of rapid, alternating sounds. These are called 'tokens.' Words with one, two, or three syllables are included in tokens. For e.g. 'puh', 'puh-tuh', or 'puh-tuh-kuh'. DDK rates vary between different age groups and patients with varying neurological conditions. [4]

Normal speech depends on the functional and structural integrity of the velopharynx. This is a complex and dynamic structure that uncouples the oral and nasal cavities during sound production. Dysfunction of the velopharyngeal valve leads to hypernasality, nasal air emission, and compensatory articulation errors, all of which may impair speech intelligibility. Functional voice disorders also come under speech pathology and therapy services, in both professional and casual voice-users.

When we speak or swallow, a thin sheet of musculo-mucosal tissue called velum disunites the oropharynx and nasopharynx during speaking and swallowing. Cleft palate is a congenital deformity commonly causing velopharyngeal insufficiency (VPI), though VPI can exist independent of cleft palate also. VPI compromises speech sounds, decreases the comprehension of speech and swallowing efficacy due to improper closure of soft palate that is closed during swallowing and speaking. If the velum is not closed fully against the posterior wall of the pharynx at Passavant's ridge, this poor closure will result in nasal regurgitation and resonance disorders (hypernasality and/or hyponasality). [5]

Speech pathologists continue to develop rehabilitative strategies under swallowing management programs also. As speech and swallowing rely on many of the same sensory and motor facilities, they are necessarily related. Oral medications may also need modification in texture so the patient can swallow them safely. Likewise, daily diet modifications may be required in patients suffering from dysphagia. As patients progress through such swallowing management programs, nasogastric tube feeding, a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy may also be suggested via speech assessment depending on the type and severity of swallowing difficulty. Swallowing difficulties are also very common in neonatal populations, and there is a distinct sub-specialty of speech pathology dedicated to neonatal feeding. Since speech assessment is a multifactorial process, it is inclusive of the individual, their family history, health, and socio-economic status enabling insight into the circumstances relevant to individual patients' needs. For example, a child who is not responsive to the parents' or the clinician’s verbal commands may be suffering from hearing impairment, or other auditory dysfunctions. Autism Spectrum Disorder and other disorders might also be underlying issues that have not been diagnosed prior, but can be elucidated through a thorough speech assessment. Clinical conditions and communication disorders are coexisting conditions in cases of cleft palate, hearing deficit, traumatic or congenital brain injury, and anomalies of the orofacial structure and difficulty in deglutition (dysphagia). [6] [7]

Milestones are the markers that represent a standard of normal development, and there are well-defined speech, swallowing, and language skills milestones. If a child’s speech, understanding, cognition is not age-appropriate or is not like their peer group, then further investigation is warranted. There are many potential culprits, and a formal assessment of the child's hearing ability, cognition, anatomy, and home/family environment will be investigated.

Clinical Significance

Speech assessment, through its multifactorial approach, includes the child or individual’s family history, health, and socioeconomic status. It gives an insight into the circumstances they stem from, including cultural and ethnic backgrounds, which is especially relevant in multi-lingual households. [8]

A child, for example, who is not responsive to the parents or the clinician’s verbal command, may be suffering from hearing impairment or other auditory dysfunctions. Autism Spectrum Disorder and other disorders might also be underlying issues that have not been diagnosed but can be done so through thorough speech assessment. Clinical conditions and communication disorders are coexisting conditions in cases of cleft palate, hearing deficit, traumatic or congenital brain injury, and anomalies of the orofacial structure and difficulty in deglutition (dysphagia). [9]

SLPs are trained in the management of swallowing disorders as well, and there is a significant overlap with speaking difficulties. In addition to the phonatory functions of the vocal folds, they serve a protective function during deglutition. Impaired oropharyngeal phase leads to aspiration of saliva or other pathogens, including liquids/food. Poor bolus control or weak oral musculature can affect the optimum intraoral pressure that is essential for food propulsion in the esophagus. Patients with neurologic deficits may have poor oral hygiene, which acts as a medium for bacterial and fungal growth. Oral thrush is a common finding in hospitalized patients that have suffered from cerebral vascular accidents or have other neurological conditions that have impaired their speaking and swallowing ability. SLPs are consulted before a patient is started on a solid or semi-solid diet. A proper bedside swallowing test can give a general risk of aspiration in the patient. [10]

Acquired swallowing disorders are prevalent among intensive care unit (ICU) patients. Such patients face potential malnutrition, as well as problems with the administration of medications. A speech-language pathologist assesses all stages of the swallowing mechanism. In the case of poor oral hygiene, there is an increased chance of vulnerability for developing dysphagia. Early detection of oropharyngeal dysfunction will improve the prognosis and outcome of patients as they say early intervention leads to an early cure in most cases.

In the ICU, when patients are extubated, the first oral intake trial for the assessment of intact swallowing efficacy is conducted by the speech-language pathologist, after which they give the go-ahead for the provision of safe and smooth oral feeding. If any physical symptoms of deglutition are found like coughing, throat clearing during or after the oral trial, or drop in saturation, other ways of feeding are then recommended to fulfill nutritional requirements and medication intake. Rehabilitative strategies are also guided to improve the strength of oral musculature. [11]

Silent aspiration is another important feature when dysphagia is addressed. Patients suffering from dysphagia do not exhibit noticeable symptoms of swallowing difficulties. The observers that include nursing staff, attendants, and even primary consultants are not unaware of the fact that food particles and liquids have entered in patient’s lungs. Specially trained speech pathologists can suggest videofluoroscopy, also known as a modified barium swallowing test. [12]

Stroboscopy is a method of examination of a fast-moving vibrating object, such as the vocal folds. A bright flashing light lasting a fraction of a second (10 microseconds) illuminates the vocal folds. It 'freezes' the movement of the vibrating vocal folds when synchronized with a known frequency of vibration of normal vocal folds. SLPs are trained in the management of swallowing disorders as well, and there is a significant overlap with speaking difficulties. The diagnostic practice of SLPs has been revolutionized by high-speed digital imaging. This method runs at 4000 frames per second. This rate is fast enough to easily visualize the complete movement and behavior of the vocal tract. Multiple procedures like nasometry, stroboscopy, videofluoroscopy, vital stimulation therapy aid in the assessment of speech and swallowing disorders, and improving patient outcome. [13] [14]

Nasometry is a method or term used to describe noninvasive techniques for measuring the size of the velopharyngeal opening. During the articulation of speech using vowel sounds, nasometry measures the nasalance of speech. The nasality of speech is usually determined by the size of the velopharyngeal opening. [15]

Nursing, Allied Health, and Interprofessional Team Interventions

Speech-language pathologists are essential components of the interprofessional team caring for patients with voice or swallowing complaints. This team will often include one or more physicians, nurses, occupational therapists, physical therapists, mid-level providers, and many others. [16] Working in collaboration and communication with each other will help in early identification of patients in need of SLP evaluation and therapy, and help improve patient outcomes. [Level 5]

Review Questions
Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.
Comment on this article.

Disclosure: Yasmin Naqvi declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Ryan Winters declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided that you credit the author and journal.

Cite this Page Naqvi Y, Winters R. Speech Assessment. [Updated 2023 May 1]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 Jan-.

In this Page

Bulk download.

Bulk download StatPearls data from FTP

Related information

PMC PubMed Central citations
PubMed Links to PubMed

Recent Activity

Speech Assessment - StatPearls Speech Assessment - StatPearls

Your browsing activity is empty.

Activity recording is turned off.

Turn recording back on

Connect with NLM

National Library of Medicine 8600 Rockville Pike Bethesda, MD 20894

Web Policies FOIA HHS Vulnerability Disclosure

Help Accessibility Careers

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Learning Objectives

Explain the role of facial expressions and eye contact in speech delivery.
Explain the role of posture, gestures, and movement in speech delivery.
Explain the connection between visual aids and speech delivery.

Many speakers are more nervous about physical delivery than vocal delivery. Putting our bodies on the line in front of an audience often makes us feel more vulnerable than putting our voice out there. Yet most audiences are not as fixated on our physical delivery as we think they are. Knowing this can help relieve some anxiety, but it doesn’t give us a free pass when it comes to physical delivery. We should still practice for physical delivery that enhances our verbal message. Physical delivery of a speech involves nonverbal communication through the face and eyes, gestures, and body movements.

Physical Delivery and the Face

We tend to look at a person’s face when we are listening to them. Again, this often makes people feel uncomfortable and contributes to their overall speaking anxiety. Many speakers don’t like the feeling of having “all eyes” on them, even though having a room full of people avoiding making eye contact with you would be much more awkward. Remember, it’s a good thing for audience members to look at you, because it means they’re paying attention and interested. Audiences look toward the face of the speaker for cues about the tone and content of the speech.

Facial Expressions

Facial expressions can help bring a speech to life when used by a speaker to communicate emotions and demonstrate enthusiasm for the speech. As with vocal variety, we tend to use facial expressions naturally and without conscious effort when engaging in day-to-day conversations. Yet I see many speakers’ expressive faces turn “deadpan” when they stand in front of an audience. Some people naturally have more expressive faces than others—think about the actor Jim Carey’s ability to contort his face as an example. But we can also consciously control and improve on our facial expressions to be more effective speakers. As with other components of speech delivery, becoming a higher self-monitor and increasing your awareness of your typical delivery habits can help you understand, control, and improve your delivery. Although you shouldn’t only practice your speech in front of a mirror, doing so can help you get an idea of how expressive or unexpressive your face is while delivering your speech. There is some more specific advice about assessing and improving your use of facial expressions in the “Getting Competent” box in this chapter.

Facial expressions are key for conveying emotions and enthusiasm in a speech.

Jeff Wasson – Immutable Law Of The Universe #2 – CC BY 2.0.

Facial expressions help set the emotional tone for a speech, and it is important that your facial expressions stay consistent with your message. In order to set a positive tone before you start speaking, briefly look at the audience and smile. A smile is a simple but powerful facial expression that can communicate friendliness, openness, and confidence. Facial expressions communicate a range of emotions and are also associated with various moods or personality traits. For example, combinations of facial expressions can communicate that a speaker is tired, excited, angry, confused, frustrated, sad, confident, smug, shy, or bored, among other things. Even if you aren’t bored, for example, a slack face with little animation may lead an audience to think that you are bored with your own speech, which isn’t likely to motivate them to be interested. So make sure your facial expressions are communicating an emotion, mood, or personality trait that you think your audience will view favorably. Also make sure your facial expressions match with the content of your speech. When delivering something lighthearted or humorous, a smile, bright eyes, and slightly raised eyebrows will nonverbally enhance your verbal message. When delivering something serious or somber, a furrowed brow, a tighter mouth, and even a slight head nod can enhance that message. If your facial expressions and speech content are not consistent, your audience could become confused by the conflicting messages, which could lead them to question your honesty and credibility.

“Getting Competent”

Improving Facial Expressions

My very first semester teaching, I was required by my supervisor to record myself teaching and evaluate what I saw. I was surprised by how serious I looked while teaching. My stern and expressionless face was due to my anxiety about being a beginning teacher and my determination to make sure I covered the content for the day. I didn’t realize that it was also making me miss opportunities to communicate how happy I was to be teaching and how passionate I was about the content. I just assumed those things would come through in my delivery. I was wrong. The best way to get an idea of the facial expressions you use while speaking is to record your speech using a computer’s webcam, much like you would look at and talk to the computer when using Skype or another video-chat program. The first time you try this, minimize the video window once you’ve started recording so you don’t get distracted by watching yourself. Once you’ve recorded the video, watch the playback and take notes on your facial expressions. Answer the following questions:

Did anything surprise you? Were you as expressive as you thought you were?
What facial expressions did you use throughout the speech?
Where did your facial expressions match with the content of your speech? Where did your facial expressions not match with the content of your speech?
Where could you include more facial expressions to enhance your content and/or delivery?

You can also have a friend watch the video and give you feedback on your facial expressions to see if your assessment matches with theirs. Once you’ve assessed your video, re-record your speech and try to improve your facial expressions and delivery. Revisit the previous questions to see if you improved.

Eye Contact

Eye contact is an important element of nonverbal communication in all communication settings. As a speaker, eye contact can also be used to establish credibility and hold your audience’s attention. We often interpret a lack of eye contact to mean that someone is not credible or not competent, and as a public speaker, you don’t want your audience thinking either of those things. Eye contact holds attention because an audience member who knows the speaker is making regular eye contact will want to reciprocate that eye contact to show that they are paying attention. This will also help your audience remember the content of your speech better, because acting like we’re paying attention actually leads us to pay attention and better retain information.

Eye contact is an aspect of delivery that beginning speakers can attend to and make noticeable progress on early in their speech training. Most speakers cannot do this when they first begin practicing with extemporaneous delivery, but continued practice and effort make this an achievable goal for most.

Norms for eye contact vary among cultures. Therefore it may be difficult for speakers from countries that have higher power distances or are more collectivistic to get used to the idea of making direct and sustained eye contact during a speech. In these cases, it is important for the speaker to challenge himself or herself to integrate some of the host culture’s expectations and for the audience to be accommodating and understanding of the cultural differences.

Tips for Having Effective Eye Contact

Once in front of the audience, establish eye contact before you speak.
Make slow and deliberate eye contact, sweeping through the whole audience from left to right.
Despite what high school speech teachers or others might have told you, do not look over the audience’s heads, at the back wall, or the clock. Unless you are in a huge auditorium, it will just look to the audience like you are looking over their heads.
Do not just make eye contact with one or a few people that you know or that look friendly. Also, do not just make eye contact with your instructor or boss. Even if it’s comforting for you as the speaker, it is usually awkward for the audience member.
Try to memorize your opening and closing lines so you can make full eye contact with the audience. This will strengthen the opening and closing of your speech and help you make a connection with the audience.

Physical Delivery and the Body

Have you ever gotten dizzy as an audience member because the speaker paced back and forth? I know I have. Anxiety can lead us to do some strange things with our bodies, like pacing, that we don’t normally do, so it’s important to consider the important role that your body plays during your speech. Extra movements caused by anxiety are called nonverbal adaptors , and most of them manifest as distracting movements or gestures. These nonverbal adaptors, like tapping a foot, wringing hands, playing with a paper clip, twirling hair, jingling change in a pocket, scratching, and many more, can definitely detract from a speaker’s message and credibility. Conversely, a confident posture and purposeful gestures and movement can enhance both.

Posture is the position we assume with our bodies, either intentionally or out of habit. Although people, especially young women, used to be trained in posture, often by having them walk around with books stacked on their heads, you should use a posture that is appropriate for the occasion while still positioning yourself in a way that feels natural. In a formal speaking situation, it’s important to have an erect posture that communicates professionalism and credibility. However, a military posture of standing at attention may feel and look unnatural in a typical school or business speech. In informal settings, it may be appropriate to lean on a table or lectern, or even sit among your audience members. Head position is also part of posture. In most speaking situations, it is best to keep your head up, facing your audience. A droopy head doesn’t communicate confidence. Consider the occasion important, as an inappropriate posture can hurt your credibility.

Government and military leaders use an erect posture to communicate confidence and professionalism during public appearances.

Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

Gestures include arm and hand movements. We all go through a process of internalizing our native culture from childhood. An obvious part of this process is becoming fluent in a language. Perhaps less obvious is the fact that we also become fluent in nonverbal communication, gestures in particular. We all use hand gestures while we speak, but we didn’t ever take a class in matching verbal communication with the appropriate gestures; we just internalized these norms over time based on observation and put them into practice. By this point in your life, you have a whole vocabulary of hand movements and gestures that spontaneously come out while you’re speaking. Some of these gestures are emphatic and some are descriptive (Koch, 2007).

Emphatic gestures are the most common hand gestures we use, and they function to emphasize our verbal communication and often relate to the emotions we verbally communicate. Pointing with one finger or all the fingers straight out is an emphatic gesture. We can even bounce that gesture up and down to provide more emphasis. Moving the hand in a circular motion in front of our chest with the fingers spread apart is a common emphatic gesture that shows excitement and often accompanies an increased rate of verbal speaking. We make this gesture more emphatic by using both hands. Descriptive gestures function to illustrate or refer to objects rather than emotions. We use descriptive gestures to indicate the number of something by counting with our fingers or the size, shape, or speed of something. Our hands and arms are often the most reliable and easy-to-use visual aids a speaker can have.

While it can be beneficial to plan a key gesture or two in advance, it is generally best to gesture spontaneously in a speech, just as you would during a regular conversation. While the best beginning strategy is to gesture naturally, you also want to remain a high self-monitor and take note of your typical patterns of gesturing. If you notice that you naturally gravitate toward one particular gesture, make an effort to vary your gestures more. You also want your gestures to be purposeful, not limp or lifeless.

Sometimes movement of the whole body, instead of just gesturing with hands, is appropriate in a speech. To make your movements appear more natural, time them to coincide with a key point you want to emphasize or a transition between key points. Minimize other movements from the waist down when you are not purposefully moving for emphasis. Speakers sometimes tap or shuffle their feet, rock, or shift their weight back and forth from one leg to the other. Keeping both feet flat on the floor, and still, will help avoid these distracting movements.

Credibility and Physical Delivery

Audience members primarily take in information through visual and auditory channels. Just as the information you present verbally in your speech can add to or subtract from your credibility, nonverbal communication that accompanies your verbal messages affects your credibility.

Visual Aids and Delivery

Visual aids play an important role in conveying supporting material to your audience. They also tie to delivery, since using visual aids during a speech usually requires some physical movements. It is important not to let your use of visual aids detract from your credibility. I’ve seen many good speeches derailed by posters that fall over, videos with no sound, and uncooperative PowerPoint presentations.

The following tips can help you ensure that your visual aids enhance, rather than detract, from your message and credibility:

Only have your visual aid displayed when it is relevant to what you are saying: insert black slides in PowerPoint, hide a model or object in a box, flip a poster board around, and so on.
Make sure to practice with your visual aids so there aren’t any surprises on speech day.
Don’t read from your visual aids. Put key information from your PowerPoint or Prezi on your speaking outline and only briefly glance at the screen to make sure you are on the right slide. You can also write information on the back of a poster or picture that you’re going to display so you can reference it while holding the visual aid up, since it’s difficult to hold a poster or picture and note cards at the same time.
Triple check your technology to make sure it’s working: electricity, Internet connection, wireless clicker, sound, and so on.
Proofread all your visual aids to find spelling/grammar errors and typos.
Bring all the materials you may need to make your visual aid work: tape/tacks for posters and pictures, computer cables/adaptors, and so on. Don’t assume these materials will be provided.
Have a backup plan in case your visual aid doesn’t work properly.

Key Takeaways

Facial expressions help communicate emotions and enthusiasm while speaking. Make sure that facial expressions are consistent with the content being presented. Record yourself practicing your speech in order to evaluate your use of facial expressions.
Eye contact helps establish credibility and keep your audience’s attention while you’re speaking.
Posture should be comfortable and appropriate for the speaking occasion.
Emphatic and descriptive gestures enhance the verbal content of our speech. Gestures should appear spontaneous but be purposeful.
Movements from the waist down should be purposefully used to emphasize a point or as a transition during a speech.
Visual aids can add to your speech but can also interfere with your delivery and negatively affect your credibility if not used effectively.
Identify three goals related to delivery that you would like to accomplish in this course. What strategies/tips can you use to help achieve these goals?
What nonverbal adaptors have you noticed that others use while speaking? Are you aware of any nonverbal adaptors that you have used? If so, what are they?
Getting integrated: How might expectations for dress and physical appearance vary from context to context (academic, professional, personal, and civic)?

Koch, A., Speaking with a Purpose , 7th ed. (Boston, MA: Pearson, 2007), 105.

7.2 Functions of Language

Learning Objectives

Identify and discuss the four main types of linguistic expressions.
Discuss the power of language to express our identities, affect our credibility, control others, and perform actions.
Explain how neologisms and slang contribute to the dynamic nature of language.
Identify the ways in which language can separate people and bring them together.

What utterances make up our daily verbal communication? Some of our words convey meaning, some convey emotions, and some actually produce actions. Language also provides endless opportunities for fun because of its limitless, sometimes nonsensical, and always changing nature. In this section, we will learn about the five functions of language, which show us that language is expressive, language is powerful, language is fun, language is dynamic, and language is relational.

Language Is Expressive

Verbal communication helps us meet various needs through our ability to express ourselves. In terms of instrumental needs, we use verbal communication to ask questions that provide us with specific information. We also use verbal communication to describe things, people, and ideas. Verbal communication helps us inform, persuade, and entertain others, which as we will learn later are the three general purposes of public speaking. It is also through our verbal expressions that our personal relationships are formed. At its essence, language is expressive. Verbal expressions help us communicate our observations, thoughts, feelings, and needs (McKay, Davis, & Fanning, 1995).

Expressing Observations

When we express observations, we report on the sensory information we are taking or have taken in. Eyewitness testimony is a good example of communicating observations. Witnesses are not supposed to make judgments or offer conclusions; they only communicate factual knowledge as they experienced it. For example, a witness could say, “I saw a white Mitsubishi Eclipse leaving my neighbor’s house at 10:30 pm.” As we learned in Chapter 2: “Communication and Perception” on perception, observation and description occur in the first step of the perception-checking process. When you are trying to make sense of an experience, expressing observations in a descriptive rather than evaluative way can lessen defensiveness, which facilitates competent communication.

Expressing Thoughts

When we express thoughts, we draw conclusions based on what we have experienced. In the perception process, this is similar to the interpretation step. We take various observations and evaluate and interpret them to assign them meaning (a conclusion). Whereas our observations are based on sensory information (what we saw, what we read, what we heard), thoughts are connected to our beliefs (what we think is true/false), attitudes (what we like and dislike), and values (what we think is right/wrong or good/bad). Jury members are expected to express thoughts based on reported observations to help reach a conclusion about someone’s guilt or innocence. A juror might express the following thought: “The neighbor who saw the car leaving the night of the crime seemed credible. And the defendant seemed to have a shady past—I think he’s trying to hide something.” Sometimes people intentionally or unintentionally express thoughts as if they were feelings. For example, when people say, “I feel like you’re too strict with your attendance policy,” they aren’t really expressing a feeling; they are expressing a judgment about the other person (a thought).

Expressing Feelings

When we express feelings, we communicate our emotions. Expressing feelings is a difficult part of verbal communication, because there are many social norms about how, why, when, where, and to whom we express our emotions. Norms for emotional expression also vary based on nationality and other cultural identities and characteristics such as age and gender. In terms of age, young children are typically freer to express positive and negative emotions in public. Gendered elements intersect with age as boys grow older and are socialized into a norm of emotional restraint. Although individual men vary in the degree to which they are emotionally expressive, there is still a prevailing social norm that encourages and even expects women to be more emotionally expressive than men.

Expressing feelings can be uncomfortable for those listening. Some people are generally not good at or comfortable with receiving and processing other people’s feelings. Even those with good empathetic listening skills can be positively or negatively affected by others’ emotions. Expressions of anger can be especially difficult to manage because they represent a threat to the face and self-esteem of others. Despite the fact that expressing feelings is more complicated than other forms of expression, emotion sharing is an important part of how we create social bonds and empathize with others, and it can be improved.

In a time when so much of our communication is electronically mediated, it is likely that we will communicate emotions through the written word in an e-mail, text, or instant message. Sometimes people respond immediately to a text or e-mail, but think about how frustrating it is when you text someone and they don’t get back to you right away. If you’re in need of emotional support or want validation of an emotional message you just sent, waiting for a response could end up negatively affecting your emotional state.

Expressing Needs

When we express needs, we are communicating in an instrumental way to help us get things done. Since we almost always know our needs more than others do, it’s important for us to be able to convey those needs to others. Expressing needs can help us get a project done at work or help us navigate the changes of a long-term romantic partnership. Not expressing needs can lead to feelings of abandonment, frustration, or resentment. For example, if one romantic partner expresses the following thought “I think we’re moving too quickly in our relationship” but doesn’t also express a need, the other person in the relationship doesn’t have a guide for what to do in response to the expressed thought. Stating, “I need to spend some time with my hometown friends this weekend. Would you mind if I went home by myself?” would likely make the expression more effective. Be cautious of letting evaluations or judgments sneak into your expressions of need. Saying “I need you to stop suffocating me!” really expresses a thought-feeling mixture more than a need.

Table 7.2.1 Four Types of Verbal Expressions

Language is powerful.

The contemporary American philosopher David Abram wrote, “Only if words are felt, bodily presences, like echoes or waterfalls, can we understand the power of spoken language to influence, alter, and transform the perceptual world” (Abram, 1997). This statement encapsulates many of the powerful features of language. Next, we will discuss how language expresses our identities, affects our credibility, serves as a means of control, and performs actions.

Language Expresses Our Identities

In the opening to this chapter, I recounted how an undergraduate class in semantics solidified my love of language. I could have continued on to say that I have come to think of myself as a “word nerd.” Words or phrases like that express who we are and contribute to the impressions that others make of us. We’ve already learned about identity needs and impression management and how we all use verbal communication strategically to create a desired impression. But how might the label word nerd affect me differently if someone else placed it on me?

Other examples of people reclaiming identity labels is the “black is beautiful” movement of the 1960s that repositioned black as a positive identity marker for African Americans and the “queer” movement of the 1980s and ’90s that reclaimed queer as a positive identity marker for some gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people. Even though some people embrace reclaimed words, they still carry their negative connotations and are not openly accepted by everyone.

Language Affects Our Credibility

One of the goals of this chapter is to help you be more competent with your verbal communication. People make assumptions about your credibility based on how you speak and what you say. Even though we’ve learned that meaning is in people rather than words and that the rules that govern verbal communication, like rules of grammar, are arbitrary, these norms still mean something. You don’t have to be a perfect grammarian to be perceived as credible. In fact, if you followed the grammar rules for written communication to the letter you would actually sound pretty strange, since our typical way of speaking isn’t as formal and structured as writing. But you still have to support your ideas and explain the conclusions you make to be seen as competent. You have to use language clearly and be accountable for what you say in order to be seen as trustworthy. Using informal language and breaking social norms we’ve discussed so far wouldn’t enhance your credibility during a professional job interview, but it might with your friends at a tailgate party. Politicians know that the way they speak affects their credibility, but they also know that using words that are too scientific or academic can lead people to perceive them as eggheads, which would hurt their credibility. Politicians and many others in leadership positions need to be able to use language to put people at ease, relate to others, and still appear confident and competent.

Language Is a Means of Control

Control is a word that has negative connotations, but our use of it here can be positive, neutral, or negative. Verbal communication can be used to reward and punish. We can offer verbal communication in the form of positive reinforcement to praise someone. We can withhold verbal communication or use it in a critical, aggressive, or hurtful way as a form of negative reinforcement.

Directives are utterances that try to get another person to do something. They can range from a rather polite ask or request to a more forceful command or insist . Context informs when and how we express directives and how people respond to them. Promises are often paired with directives in order to persuade people to comply, and those promises, whether implied or stated, should be kept in order to be an ethical communicator. Keep this in mind to avoid arousing false expectations on the part of the other person (Hayakawa & Hayakawa, 1990).

Rather than verbal communication being directed at one person as a means of control, the way we talk creates overall climates of communication that may control many. Verbal communication characterized by empathy, understanding, respect, and honesty creates open climates that lead to more collaboration and more information exchange. Verbal communication that is controlling, deceitful, and vague creates a closed climate in which people are less willing to communicate and less trusting (Brown, 2006).

Language Is performative

Some language is actually more like an action than a packet of information. Saying, “I promise,” “I guarantee,” or “I pledge,” does more than convey meaning; it communicates intent. Such utterances are called commissives , as they mean a speaker is committed to a certain course of action (Crystal, 2005). Of course, promises can be broken, and there can be consequences, but other verbal communication is granted official power that can guarantee action. The two simple words I do can mean that a person has agreed to an oath before taking a witness stand or assuming the presidency. It can also mean that two people are now bound in a relationship recognized by the government and/or a religious community. These two words, if said in the right context and in front of the right person, such as a judge or a reverend, bring with them obligations that cannot be undone without additional steps and potential negative repercussions. In that sense, language is much more than “mere words.”

The utterances of judges and juries set precedents for reasonable interpretations that will then help decide future cases. Imagine how powerful the words We the jury find the defendant… seem to the defendant awaiting his or her verdict. The sentences handed down by judges following a verdict are also performative because those words impose fines, penalties, or even death. Some language is deemed so powerful that it is regulated. Hate speech, which we will learn more about later, and slander, libel, and defamation are considered powerful enough to actually do damage to a person and have therefore been criminalized.

Language Is Dynamic

As we already learned, language is essentially limitless. We may create a one-of-a-kind sentence combining words in new ways and never know it. Aside from the endless structural possibilities, words change meaning, and new words are created daily. In this section, we’ll learn more about the dynamic nature of language by focusing on neologisms and slang.

Neologisms are newly coined or used words. Newly coined words are those that were just brought into linguistic existence. Newly used words make their way into languages in several ways, including borrowing and changing structure. Taking is actually a more fitting descriptor than borrowing , since we take words but don’t really give them back. English has been called the “vacuum cleaner of languages” (Crystal, 2005). Weekend is a popular English word based on the number of languages that have borrowed it. We have borrowed many words, like chic from French, karaoke from Japanese, and caravan from Arabic.

Structural changes also lead to new words. Compound words are neologisms that are created by joining two already known words. Keyboard , newspaper , and giftcard are all compound words that were formed when new things were created or conceived. We also create new words by adding something, subtracting something, or blending them together. For example, we can add affixes, meaning a prefix or a suffix, to a word. Affixing usually alters the original meaning but doesn’t completely change it. Ex-husband and kitchenette are relatively recent examples of such changes (Crystal, 2005). New words are also formed when clipping a word like examination , which creates a new word, exam , that retains the same meaning. And last, we can form new words by blending old ones together. Words like breakfast and lunch blend letters and meaning to form a new word— brunch .

Existing words also change in their use and meaning. The digital age has given rise to some interesting changes in word usage. Before Facebook, the word friend had many meanings, but it was mostly used as a noun referring to a companion. The sentence, I’ll friend you , wouldn’t have made sense to many people just a few years ago because friend wasn’t used as a verb. Google went from being a proper noun referring to the company to a more general verb that refers to searching for something on the Internet (perhaps not even using the Google search engine). Meanings can expand or contract without changing from a noun to a verb. Gay , an adjective for feeling happy, expanded to include gay as an adjective describing a person’s sexual orientation. Perhaps because of the confusion that this caused, the meaning of gay has contracted again, as the earlier meaning is now considered archaic, meaning it is no longer in common usage.

Slang is a great example of the dynamic nature of language. Slang refers to new or adapted words that are specific to a group, context, and/or time period; regarded as less formal; and representative of people’s creative play with language. Research has shown that only about 10 percent of the slang terms that emerge over a fifteen-year period survive. Many more take their place though, as new slang words are created using inversion, reduction, or old-fashioned creativity (Allan & Burridge, 2006). Inversion is a form of word play that produces slang words like sick , wicked , and bad that refer to the opposite of their typical meaning. Reduction creates slang words such as pic , sec , and later from picture , second , and see you later . New slang words often represent what is edgy, current, or simply relevant to the daily lives of a group of people. Many creative examples of slang refer to illegal or socially taboo topics like sex, drinking, and drugs. It makes sense that developing an alternative way to identify drugs or talk about taboo topics could make life easier for the people who partake in such activities. Slang allows people who are in “in the know” to break the code and presents a linguistic barrier for unwanted outsiders.

It’s difficult for my students to identify the slang they use at any given moment because it is worked into our everyday language patterns and becomes very natural. Just as we learned here, new words can create a lot of buzz and become a part of common usage very quickly. The same can happen with new slang terms. Most slang words also disappear quickly, and their alternative meaning fades into obscurity. For example, you don’t hear anyone using the word macaroni to refer to something cool or fashionable. But that’s exactly what the common slang meaning of the word was at the time the song “Yankee Doodle” was written. Yankee Doodle isn’t saying the feather he sticks in his cap is a small, curved pasta shell; he is saying it’s cool or stylish.

Language Is Relational

We use verbal communication to initiate, maintain, and terminate our interpersonal relationships. The first few exchanges with a potential romantic partner or friend help us size the other person up and figure out if we want to pursue a relationship or not. We then use verbal communication to remind others how we feel about them and to check in with them—engaging in relationship maintenance through language use. When negative feelings arrive and persist, or for many other reasons, we often use verbal communication to end a relationship.

Language Can Bring Us Together

Interpersonally, verbal communication is key to bringing people together and maintaining relationships. Whether intentionally or unintentionally, our use of words like I , you , we , our , and us affect our relationships. “We language” includes the words we , our , and us and can be used to promote a feeling of inclusiveness. “I language” can be useful when expressing thoughts, needs, and feelings because it leads us to “own” our expressions and avoid the tendency to mistakenly attribute the cause of our thoughts, needs, and feelings to others. Communicating emotions using “I language” may also facilitate emotion sharing by not making our conversational partner feel at fault or defensive. For example, instead of saying, “You’re making me crazy!” you could say, “I’m starting to feel really anxious because we can’t make a decision about this.” Conversely, “you language” can lead people to become defensive and feel attacked, which could be divisive and result in feelings of interpersonal separation.

Aside from the specific words that we use, the frequency of communication impacts relationships. Of course, the content of what is said is important, but research shows that romantic partners who communicate frequently with each other and with mutual friends and family members experience less stress and uncertainty in their relationship and are more likely to stay together (McCornack, 2007). When frequent communication combines with supportive messages , which are messages communicated in an open, honest, and nonconfrontational way, people are sure to come together.

Moving from the interpersonal to the sociocultural level, we can see that speaking the same language can bring people together. When a person is surrounded by people who do not speak his or her native language, it can be very comforting to run into another person who speaks the same language. Even if the two people are strangers, the ease of linguistic compatibility is comforting and can quickly facilitate a social bond. We’ve already learned that language helps shape our social reality, so a common language leads to some similar perspectives. Of course, there are individual differences within a language community, but the power of shared language to unite people has led to universal language movements that advocate for one global language.

Serious attempts to create a common language, sometimes referred to as a lingua franca or auxiliary language, began in the 1600s as world exploration brought increased trade and Latin was no longer effective as the language of international business. Since then, hundreds of auxiliary languages have been recorded but none have achieved widespread international usage or been officially recognized as an international language (Crystal, 2005). While some such movements were primarily motivated by business and profit, others hoped to promote mutual understanding, more effective diplomacy, and peaceful coexistence. Esperanto , which means “hopeful,” is the most well-known and widely used auxiliary language that was intended to serve as a common international language. Esperanto was invented by a Polish eye doctor at the end of the 1800s and today has between one and two million fluent speakers worldwide. Many works of literature and important manuscripts like the Bible and the Qur’an have been translated into Esperanto, and many original works of literature and academic articles have been written in the language. Some countries also broadcast radio programs in Esperanto. Several barriers will have to be overcome in order for an auxiliary language like Esperanto to gain international acceptance. First, there would have to be a massive effort put into a period of simultaneous learning—otherwise it is difficult to motivate people to learn a language that is not necessary for their daily lives and that no one else speaks. Second, as we have learned, people take pride in their linguistic identity and find pleasure in playing with the rules of language, creatively inventing new words and meanings that constantly change a language. Such changes may be impossible to accommodate in an auxiliary language.

Language Can Separate Us

Whether it’s criticism, teasing, or language differences, verbal communication can also lead to feelings of separation. Language differences alone do not present insurmountable barriers. We can learn other languages with time and effort, there are other people who can translate and serve as bridges across languages, and we can also communicate quite a lot nonverbally in the absence of linguistic compatibility. People who speak the same language can intentionally use language to separate. The words us and them can be a powerful start to separation. Think of how language played a role in segregation in the United States as the notion of “separate but equal” was upheld by the Supreme Court and how apartheid affected South Africa as limits, based on finances and education, were placed on the black majority’s rights to vote. Symbols, both words and images, were a very important part of Hitler’s rise to power in the 1930s and ’40s in Europe. Various combinations of colored stars, triangles, letters, and other symbols were sewn onto the clothing or uniforms of people persecuted by the Nazis in order to classify them. People were labeled and reduced to certain characteristics rather than seen as complete humans, which facilitated the Nazis’ oppression, violence, and killing (Holocaust and Human Rights Education Center, 2012).

At the interpersonal level, unsupportive messages can make others respond defensively, which can lead to feelings of separation and actual separation or dissolution of a relationship. It’s impossible to be supportive in our communication all the time, but consistently unsupportive messages can hurt others’ self-esteem, escalate conflict, and lead to defensiveness. People who regularly use unsupportive messages may create a toxic win/lose climate in a relationship. Six verbal tactics that can lead to feelings of defensiveness and separation are global labels, sarcasm, dragging up the past, negative comparisons, judgmental “you” messages, and threats (McKay, Davis & Fanning, 1995).

Common Types of Unsupportive Messages

Global labels . “You’re a liar.” Labeling someone irresponsible, untrustworthy, selfish, or lazy calls his or her whole identity as a person into question. Such sweeping judgments and generalizations are sure to only escalate a negative situation.
Sarcasm . “No, you didn’t miss anything in class on Wednesday. We just sat here and looked at each other.” Even though sarcasm is often disguised as humor, it usually represents passive-aggressive behavior through which a person indirectly communicates negative feelings.
Dragging up the past . “I should have known not to trust you when you never paid me back that $100 I let you borrow.” Bringing up negative past experiences is a tactic used by people when they don’t want to discuss a current situation. Sometimes people have built up negative feelings that are suddenly let out by a seemingly small thing in the moment.
Negative comparisons . “Jade graduated from college without any credit card debt. I guess you’re just not as responsible as her.” Holding a person up to the supposed standards or characteristics of another person can lead to feelings of inferiority and resentment. Parents and teachers may unfairly compare children to their siblings.
Judgmental “you” messages . “You’re never going to be able to hold down a job.” Accusatory messages are usually generalized overstatements about another person that go beyond labeling but still do not describe specific behavior in a productive way.
Threats . “If you don’t stop texting back and forth with your ex, both of you are going to regret it.” Threatening someone with violence or some other negative consequence usually signals the end of productive communication. Aside from the potential legal consequences, threats usually overcompensate for a person’s insecurity.

Key Takeaways

Language helps us express observations (reports on sensory information), thoughts (conclusions and judgments based on observations or ideas), feelings, and needs.
Language is powerful in that it expresses our identities through labels used by and on us, affects our credibility based on how we support our ideas, serves as a means of control, and performs actions when spoken by certain people in certain contexts.
The productivity and limitlessness of language creates the possibility for countless word games and humorous uses of language.
Language is dynamic, meaning it is always changing through the addition of neologisms, new words or old words with new meaning, and the creation of slang.
Language is relational and can be used to bring people together through a shared reality but can separate people through unsupportive and divisive messages.
Based on what you are doing and how you are feeling at this moment, write one of each of the four types of expressions—an observation, a thought, a feeling, and a need.
Getting integrated: A key function of verbal communication is expressing our identities. Identify labels or other words that are important for your identity in each of the following contexts: academic, professional, personal, and civic. (Examples include honors student for academic, trainee for professional, girlfriend for personal, and independent for civic.)
Review the types of unsupportive messages discussed earlier. Which of them do you think has the potential to separate people the most? Why? Which one do you have the most difficulty avoiding (directing toward others)? Why?

Abram, D., Spell of the Sensuous (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1997), 89.

Allan, K. and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words: Taboo and the Censoring of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 69–71.

Brown, G., “Explaining,” in The Handbook of Communication Skills , ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006), 220.

Crystal, D., How Language Works: How Babies Babble, Words Change Meaning, and Languages Live or Die (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 2005), 277.

Dorian, N. C., “Abrupt Transmission Failure in Obsolescing Languages: How Sudden the ‘Tip’ to the Dominant Language in Communities and Families?” Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society (1986): 72.

Foot, H. and May McCreaddie, “Humour and Laughter,” in The Handbook of Communication Skills , ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006), 295.

Hargie, O. Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011), 166.

Hayakawa, S. I. and Alan R. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action , 5th ed. (San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace, 1990), 67.

Holocaust and Human Rights Education Center, “Lesson 4: 1939–1942, Persecution and Segregation,” accessed June 9, 2012, http://www.holocausteducationctr.org/index.php?submenu=testimony&src=gendocs&ref=DownloadCurriculum&category =testimony .

Huang, L., “Technology: Textese May Be the Death of English,” Newsweek , August 2011, 8.

Humphrys, J., “I h8 txt msgs: How Texting Is Wrecking Our Language,” Daily Mail , September 24, 2007, accessed June 7, 2012, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-483511/I-h8-txt-msgs-How-texting-wrecking-language.html?printingPage=true .

Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts , 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010), 251–52.

McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford/St Martin’s, 2007), 237.

McKay, M., Martha Davis, and Patrick Fanning, Messages: Communication Skills Book , 2nd ed. (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 1995), 34–36.

Language that helps us communicate our observations, thoughts, feelings, and needs

Utterances that try to get another person to do something

Utterances that convey a speaker’s commitment to a certain course of action; for example, “I guarantee” or “I pledge.”

Newly coined or used words just brought into linguistic existence

New or adapted words that are specific to a group, content, and/or time period; regarded as less formal; represent people’s creative play with language

Messages communicated in an open, honest, and nonconfrontational way

Auxiliary language that was intended to serve as a common international language; means “hopeful”; developed to promote mutual understanding, more effective diplomacy and peaceful coexistence

Messages that make others respond defensively; lead to feelings of separation and actual separation or dissolution of a relationship

An unsupportive message that is judgmental or a sweeping generalization

An unsupportive message that represents passive-aggressive behavior through which a person indirectly communicates negative feelings

An unsupportive message that occurs when people use negative past experiences as a tactic for not discussing a current situation

An unsupportive message that holds a person up to a supposed standard or characteristics of another person that can lead to feelings of inferiority or resentment

Unsupportive accusatory messages that are usually generalized overstatements about another person that go beyond labeling, but still do not describe specific behavior in a productive way; for example, “You’re never going to be able to hold down a job.”

An unsupportive message that threatens someone with violence or some other negative consequence; for example, “if you don’t stop that, you’re going to regret it.”

Interpersonal & Small Group Communication Copyright © 2023 by Weber State University is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

school Campus Bookshelves
menu_book Bookshelves
perm_media Learning Objects
login Login
how_to_reg Request Instructor Account
hub Instructor Commons
Download Page (PDF)
Download Full Book (PDF)
Periodic Table
Physics Constants
Scientific Calculator
Reference & Cite
Tools expand_more
Readability

selected template will load here

This action is not available.

3.2: Functions of Language

Last updated
Save as PDF
Page ID 18450

Learning Objectives

Identify and discuss the four main types of linguistic expressions.
Discuss the power of language to express our identities, affect our credibility, control others, and perform actions.
Discuss some of the sources of fun within language.
Explain how neologisms and slang contribute to the dynamic nature of language.
Identify the ways in which language can separate people and bring them together.

Language Is Expressive

Expressing Observations

When we express observations, we report on the sensory information we are taking or have taken in. Eyewitness testimony is a good example of communicating observations. Witnesses are not supposed to make judgments or offer conclusions; they only communicate factual knowledge as they experienced it. For example, a witness could say, “I saw a white Mitsubishi Eclipse leaving my neighbor’s house at 10:30 pm.” As we learned in the chapter titled “Communication and Perception” on perception, observation and description occur in the first step of the perception-checking process. When you are trying to make sense of an experience, expressing observations in a descriptive rather than evaluative way can lessen defensiveness, which facilitates competent communication.

Expressing Thoughts

Expressing Feelings

Cartoon image expressing different feelings.

In order to verbally express our emotions, it is important that we develop an emotional vocabulary. The more specific we can be when we are verbally communicating our emotions, the less ambiguous our emotions will be for the person decoding our message. As we expand our emotional vocabulary, we are able to convey the intensity of the emotion we’re feeling whether it is mild, moderate, or intense. For example, happy is mild, delighted is moderate, and ecstatic is intense; ignored is mild, rejected is moderate, and abandoned is intense (Hargie, 2011).

In a time when so much of our communication is electronically mediated, it is likely that we will communicate emotions through the written word in an e-mail, text, or instant message. We may also still use pen and paper when sending someone a thank-you note, a birthday card, or a sympathy card. Communicating emotions through the written (or typed) word can have advantages such as time to compose your thoughts and convey the details of what you’re feeling. There are also disadvantages in that important context and nonverbal communication can’t be included. Things like facial expressions and tone of voice offer much insight into emotions that may not be expressed verbally. There is also a lack of immediate feedback. Sometimes people respond immediately to a text or e-mail, but think about how frustrating it is when you text someone and they don’t get back to you right away. If you’re in need of emotional support or want validation of an emotional message you just sent, waiting for a response could end up negatively affecting your emotional state.

Expressing Needs

Source: Adapted from Matthew McKay, Martha Davis, and Patrick Fanning, Messages: Communication Skills Book , 2nd ed. (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 1995), 34–36.

Language Is Powerful

Language Expresses Our Identities

The power of language to express our identities varies depending on the origin of the label (self-chosen or other imposed) and the context. People are usually comfortable with the language they use to describe their own identities but may have issues with the labels others place on them. In terms of context, many people express their “Irish” identity on St. Patrick’s Day, but they may not think much about it over the rest of the year. There are many examples of people who have taken a label that was imposed on them, one that usually has negative connotations, and intentionally used it in ways that counter previous meanings. Some country music singers and comedians have reclaimed the label redneck , using it as an identity marker they are proud of rather than a pejorative term. Other examples of people reclaiming identity labels is the “black is beautiful” movement of the 1960s that repositioned black as a positive identity marker for African Americans and the “queer” movement of the 1980s and ’90s that reclaimed queer as a positive identity marker for some gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people. Even though some people embrace reclaimed words, they still carry their negative connotations and are not openly accepted by everyone.

Language Affects Our Credibility

Language Is a Means of Control

Language Is Performative

Some language is actually more like an action than a packet of information. Saying, “I promise,” “I guarantee,” or “I pledge,” does more than convey meaning; it communicates intent. Such utterances are called commissives, as they mean a speaker is committed to a certain course of action (Crystal, 2005). Of course, promises can be broken, and there can be consequences, but other verbal communication is granted official power that can guarantee action. The two simple words I do can mean that a person has agreed to an oath before taking a witness stand or assuming the presidency. It can also mean that two people are now bound in a relationship recognized by the government and/or a religious community. These two words, if said in the right context and in front of the right person, such as a judge or a reverend, bring with them obligations that cannot be undone without additional steps and potential negative repercussions. In that sense, language is much more than “mere words.”

Performative language can also be a means of control, especially in legal contexts. In some cases, the language that makes our laws is intentionally vague. In courts all over the nation, the written language intersects with spoken language as lawyers advocate for particular interpretations of the written law. The utterances of judges and juries set precedents for reasonable interpretations that will then help decide future cases. Imagine how powerful the words We the jury find the defendant… seem to the defendant awaiting his or her verdict. The sentences handed down by judges following a verdict are also performative because those words impose fines, penalties, or even death. Some language is deemed so powerful that it is regulated. Hate speech, which we will learn more about later, and slander, libel, and defamation are considered powerful enough to actually do damage to a person and have therefore been criminalized.

Language Is Fun

Word games have long been popular. Before Words with Friends there was Apples to Apples, Boggle, Scrabble, and crossword puzzles. Writers, poets, and comedians have built careers on their ability to have fun with language and in turn share that fun with others. The fun and frivolity of language becomes clear as teachers get half-hearted laughs from students when they make puns, Jay Leno has a whole bit where he shows the hilarious mistakes people unintentionally make when they employ language, and people vie to construct the longest palindromic sentence (a sentence that as the same letters backward and forward).

The productivity and limitlessness of language we discussed earlier leads some people to spend an inordinate amount of time discovering things about words. Two examples that I have found fascinating are palindromes and contranyms. Palindromes, as noted, are words that read the same from left to right and from right to left. Racecar is a commonly cited example, but a little time spent looking through Google results for palindromes exposes many more, ranging from “Live not on evil” to “Doc, note I dissent. A fast never prevents a fatness. I diet on cod.” [1] Contranyms are words that have multiple meanings, two of which are opposites. For example, sanction can mean “to allow” and “to prevent,” and dust can mean “to remove particles” when used in reference to furniture or “to add particles” when used in reference to a cake. These are just two examples of humorous and contradictory features of the English language—the book Crazy English by Richard Lederer explores dozens more. A fun aspect of language enjoyed by more people than a small community of word enthusiasts is humor.

There are more than one hundred theories of humor, but none of them quite captures the complex and often contradictory nature of what we find funny (Foot & McCreaddie, 2006). Humor is a complicated social phenomenon that is largely based on the relationship between language and meaning. Humor functions to liven up conversations, break the ice, and increase group cohesion. We also use humor to test our compatibility with others when a deep conversation about certain topics like politics or religion would be awkward. Bringing up these topics in a lighthearted way can give us indirect information about another person’s beliefs, attitudes, and values. Based on their response to the humorous message, we can either probe further or change the subject and write it off as a poor attempt at humor (Foot & McCreaddie, 2006). Using humor also draws attention to us, and the reactions that we get from others feeds into our self-concept. We also use humor to disclose information about ourselves that we might not feel comfortable revealing in a more straightforward way. Humor can also be used to express sexual interest or to cope with bad news or bad situations.

We first start to develop an understanding of humor as children when we realize that the words we use for objects are really arbitrary and can be manipulated. This manipulation creates a distortion or incongruous moment in the reality that we had previously known. Some humor scholars believe that this early word play—for example, calling a horse a turtle and a turtle a horse—leads us to appreciate language-based humor like puns and riddles (Foot & McCreaddie, 2006). It is in the process of encoding and decoding that humor emerges. People use encoding to decide how and when to use humor, and people use decoding to make sense of humorous communication. Things can go wrong in both of those processes. I’m sure we can all relate to the experience of witnessing a poorly timed or executed joke (a problem with encoding) and of not getting a joke (a problem with decoding).

Language Is Dynamic

Neologisms are newly coined or used words. Newly coined words are those that were just brought into linguistic existence. Newly used words make their way into languages in several ways, including borrowing and changing structure. Taking is actually a more fitting descriptor than borrowing , since we take words but don’t really give them back. In any case, borrowing is the primary means through which languages expand. English is a good case in point, as most of its vocabulary is borrowed and doesn’t reflect the language’s Germanic origins. English has been called the “vacuum cleaner of languages” (Crystal, 2005). Weekend is a popular English word based on the number of languages that have borrowed it. We have borrowed many words, like chic from French, karaoke from Japanese, and caravan from Arabic.

The American Dialect Society names an overall “Word of the Year” each year and selects winners in several more specific categories. The winning words are usually new words or words that recently took on new meaning. [2] In 2011, the overall winner was occupy as a result of the Occupy Wall Street movement. The word named the “most likely to succeed” was cloud as a result of Apple unveiling its new online space for file storage and retrieval. Although languages are dying out at an alarming rate, many languages are growing in terms of new words and expanded meanings, thanks largely to advances in technology, as can be seen in the example of cloud .

When I first started teaching this course in the early 2000s, Cal Poly Pomona had been compiling a list of the top twenty college slang words of the year for a few years. The top slang word for 1997 was da bomb , which means “great, awesome, or extremely cool,” and the top word for 2001 and 2002 was tight , which is used as a generic positive meaning “attractive, nice, or cool.” Unfortunately, the project didn’t continue, but I still enjoy seeing how the top slang words change and sometimes recycle and come back. I always end up learning some new words from my students. When I asked a class what the top college slang word should be for 2011, they suggested deuces , which is used when leaving as an alternative to good-bye and stems from another verbal/nonverbal leaving symbol—holding up two fingers for “peace” as if to say, “peace out.”

“Getting Plugged In”: Is “Textese” Hurting Our Verbal Communication?

Textese, also called text-message-ese and txt talk, among other things, has been called a “new dialect” of English that mixes letters and numbers, abbreviates words, and drops vowels and punctuation to create concise words and statements. Although this “dialect” has primarily been relegated to the screens of smartphones and other text-capable devices, it has slowly been creeping into our spoken language (Huang, 2011). Some critics say textese is “destroying” language by “pillaging punctuation” and “savaging our sentences” (Humphrys, 2007). A relatively straightforward tks for “thanks” or u for “you” has now given way to textese sentences like IMHO U R GR8 . If you translated that into “In my humble opinion, you are great,” then you are fluent in textese. Although teachers and parents seem convinced that this type of communicating will eventually turn our language into emoticons and abbreviations, some scholars aren’t. David Crystal, a well-known language expert, says that such changes to the English language aren’t new and that texting can actually have positive effects. He points out that Shakespeare also abbreviated many words, played with the rules of language, and made up several thousand words, and he is not considered an abuser of language. He also cites research that found, using experimental data, that children who texted more scored higher on reading and vocabulary tests. Crystal points out that in order to play with language, you must first have some understanding of the rules of language (Huang, 2011).

What effects, if any, do you think textese has had on your non-text-message communication?
Overall do you think textese and other forms of computer-mediated communication have affected our communication? Try to identify one potential positive and negative influence that textese has had on our verbal communication.

Language Is Relational

Language Can Bring Us Together

Two people sitting and talking while one is drinking a beverage.

Aside from the specific words that we use, the frequency of communication impacts relationships. Of course, the content of what is said is important, but research shows that romantic partners who communicate frequently with each other and with mutual friends and family members experience less stress and uncertainty in their relationship and are more likely to stay together (McCornack, 2007). When frequent communication combines with supportive messages, which are messages communicated in an open, honest, and nonconfrontational way, people are sure to come together.

Serious attempts to create a common language, sometimes referred to as a lingua franca or auxiliary language, began in the 1600s as world exploration brought increased trade and Latin was no longer effective as the language of international business. Since then, hundreds of auxiliary languages have been recorded but none have achieved widespread international usage or been officially recognized as an international language (Crystal, 2005). While some such movements were primarily motivated by business and profit, others hoped to promote mutual understanding, more effective diplomacy, and peaceful coexistence. Esperanto, which means “hopeful,” is the most well-known and widely used auxiliary language that was intended to serve as a common international language. Esperanto was invented by a Polish eye doctor at the end of the 1800s and today has between one and two million fluent speakers worldwide. Many works of literature and important manuscripts like the Bible and the Qur’an have been translated into Esperanto, and many original works of literature and academic articles have been written in the language. Some countries also broadcast radio programs in Esperanto. Several barriers will have to be overcome in order for an auxiliary language like Esperanto to gain international acceptance. First, there would have to be a massive effort put into a period of simultaneous learning—otherwise it is difficult to motivate people to learn a language that is not necessary for their daily lives and that no one else speaks. Second, as we have learned, people take pride in their linguistic identity and find pleasure in playing with the rules of language, creatively inventing new words and meanings that constantly change a language. Such changes may be impossible to accommodate in an auxiliary language. Lastly, the optimism of an internationally shared language eventually gives way to realism. If a shared language really brings peaceful coexistence, how do we explain all the civil wars and other conflicts that have been fought between people who speak the same language?

As new languages are invented, many more languages are dying. Linguists and native speakers of endangered languages have also rallied around so-called dying languages to preserve them. In the United States, Cajun French in Louisiana, French Canadian in Maine, and Pennsylvania Dutch are examples of language communities that are in danger of losing the language that has united them, in some cases for hundreds of years (Dorian, 1986). Although American English is in no danger of dying soon, there have been multiple attempts to make English the official language of the United States. Sometimes the argument supporting this proposition seems to be based on the notion that a shared language will lead to more solidarity and in-group identification among the speakers. However, many of these movements are politically and ideologically motivated and actually seek to marginalize and/or expel immigrants—typically immigrants who are also people of color. The United States isn’t the only country that has debated the merits of officially recognizing only certain languages. Similar debates have been going on for many years regarding whether French, English, or both should be the official language in Quebec, Canada, and which language(s)—French, Dutch, or Flemish—should be used in what contexts in Belgium (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). In such cases, we can see that verbal communication can also divide people.

Language Can Separate Us

Common Types of Unsupportive Messages

Global labels. “You’re a liar.” Labeling someone irresponsible, untrustworthy, selfish, or lazy calls his or her whole identity as a person into question. Such sweeping judgments and generalizations are sure to only escalate a negative situation.
Sarcasm. “No, you didn’t miss anything in class on Wednesday. We just sat here and looked at each other.” Even though sarcasm is often disguised as humor, it usually represents passive-aggressive behavior through which a person indirectly communicates negative feelings.
Dragging up the past. “I should have known not to trust you when you never paid me back that $100 I let you borrow.” Bringing up negative past experiences is a tactic used by people when they don’t want to discuss a current situation. Sometimes people have built up negative feelings that are suddenly let out by a seemingly small thing in the moment.
Negative comparisons. “Jade graduated from college without any credit card debt. I guess you’re just not as responsible as her.” Holding a person up to the supposed standards or characteristics of another person can lead to feelings of inferiority and resentment. Parents and teachers may unfairly compare children to their siblings.
Judgmental “you” messages. “You’re never going to be able to hold down a job.” Accusatory messages are usually generalized overstatements about another person that go beyond labeling but still do not describe specific behavior in a productive way.
Threats. “If you don’t stop texting back and forth with your ex, both of you are going to regret it.” Threatening someone with violence or some other negative consequence usually signals the end of productive communication. Aside from the potential legal consequences, threats usually overcompensate for a person’s insecurity.

Key Takeaways

Language helps us express observations (reports on sensory information), thoughts (conclusions and judgments based on observations or ideas), feelings, and needs.
Language is powerful in that it expresses our identities through labels used by and on us, affects our credibility based on how we support our ideas, serves as a means of control, and performs actions when spoken by certain people in certain contexts.
The productivity and limitlessness of language creates the possibility for countless word games and humorous uses of language.
Language is dynamic, meaning it is always changing through the addition of neologisms, new words or old words with new meaning, and the creation of slang.
Language is relational and can be used to bring people together through a shared reality but can separate people through unsupportive and divisive messages.
Based on what you are doing and how you are feeling at this moment, write one of each of the four types of expressions—an observation, a thought, a feeling, and a need.
Getting integrated: A key function of verbal communication is expressing our identities. Identify labels or other words that are important for your identity in each of the following contexts: academic, professional, personal, and civic. (Examples include honors student for academic, trainee for professional, girlfriend for personal, and independent for civic.)
Review the types of unsupportive messages discussed earlier. Which of them do you think has the potential to separate people the most? Why? Which one do you have the most difficulty avoiding (directing toward others)? Why?

Abram, D., Spell of the Sensuous (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1997), 89.

Allan, K. and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words: Taboo and the Censoring of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 69–71.

Brown, G., “Explaining,” in The Handbook of Communication Skills , ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006), 220.

Crystal, D., How Language Works: How Babies Babble, Words Change Meaning, and Languages Live or Die (Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press, 2005), 277.

Foot, H. and May McCreaddie, “Humour and Laughter,” in The Handbook of Communication Skills , ed. Owen Hargie (New York, NY: Routledge, 2006), 295.

Hargie, O. Skilled Interpersonal Interaction: Research, Theory, and Practice (London: Routledge, 2011), 166.

Hayakawa, S. I. and Alan R. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action , 5th ed. (San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace, 1990), 67.

Holocaust and Human Rights Education Center, “Lesson 4: 1939–1942, Persecution and Segregation,” accessed June 9, 2012, www.holocausteducationctr.org.culum&category =testimony.

Huang, L., “Technology: Textese May Be the Death of English,” Newsweek , August 2011, 8.

Martin, J. N. and Thomas K. Nakayama, Intercultural Communication in Contexts , 5th ed. (Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill, 2010), 251–52.

McCornack, S., Reflect and Relate: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication (Boston, MA: Bedford/St Martin’s, 2007), 237.

McKay, M., Martha Davis, and Patrick Fanning, Messages: Communication Skills Book , 2nd ed. (Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, 1995), 34–36.

“Neil/Fred’s Gigantic List of Palindromes,” accessed June 7, 2012, http://www.derf.net/palindromes/old.palindrome.html . ↵
“All of the Words of the Year 1990 to Present,” American Dialect Society, accessed June 7, 2012, http://www.americandialect.org/woty/all-of-the-words-of-the- year-1990-to-present. ↵

Using Speech Therapy Apps to Treat Talking: Verbal Expression in Adults with Aphasia

7 min read

What could be more frustrating that not being able to talk? Knowing what you want to say, but not being able to get it out – this is what millions of stroke survivors with aphasia experience every day. Speech therapy can help, and apps can be an important part of speech recovery.

There are a lot of apps that just give you multiple choices questions and don’t ever require you to actually talk. The best practice for talking is talking, so while our apps don’t always score you right or wrong, they do get you talking – and that’s what makes them so effective!

So for those of you trying to help yourself, a client, or a loved one to regain their speech, here’s the progression we recommend when using our apps.

Easiest –> Hardest

Apraxia therapy, naming therapy, conversation therapy, advanced naming therapy, bonus apps for talking, comprehension therapy.

AlphaTopics

Speech FlipBook

Category therapy, number therapy, download this guide on using apps to treat talking..

This free PDF handout contains extra information about which activities to do in each of the recommended apps. Perfect to print & give to families or use to help your loved one with aphasia.

In addition to receiving your free download, you will also be added to our mailing list. You can unsubscribe at any time. Please make sure you read our Privacy Policy and Terms & Conditions .

1) Apraxia Therapy

An injured brain may struggle to think of the words to express an idea, but fortunately, we are social creatures who innately copy what we see. Apraxia Therapy takes advantage of our mirror neurons that kick in when we see another person’s mouth moving as we try to speak in unison. It uses repetition, rhythm, and motor activation along with a fading cueing hierarchy to promote independent speech – even for those with severe aphasia and apraxia.

The Sequences activity draws on our automatic speech – counting, days of the week, and nursery rhymes. These can be practiced all together, or just as individual words at your own pace. Phrases takes everyday, functional sentences and lets you practice over and over.

(For those who have a milder apraxia, it’s common to struggle on longer words in conversation. This is when you’ll use the Long Words activity to practice different stress patterns and connecting the syllables together more smoothly for 2-5 syllable words.)

Speak more easily and build independence with video-assisted speech therapy to help people with apraxia after a stroke.

Buy Now Try for Free Learn More

2) Naming Therapy

Now the pressure to think of the word begins as we see a picture and ask, “what is this?” But unlike regular flashcards or quiz games, this app has a built-in cueing hierarchy to help the person with aphasia get to the word on their own using the hints they want to use, when they want to use them.

Use Naming Practice to work on finding and saying words, and then move up to Describe to delve deeper into what a thing does, looks like, and feels like, as well as thinking more about what the word sounds like. Naming Therapy can be used for several evidence-based treatment techniques. Read our How To series of articles to learn more about using RET, SFA, PCA, cueing hierarchies, word-finding strategies, and more with this app. Naming Therapy is available alone or as part of Language Therapy 4-in-1.

Say the right word more easily when you learn the strategies that help you communicate with this popular word-finding app.

3) Conversation Therapy

We talk for two reasons: transaction and interaction. While we need language to request, command, and respond (transaction), we enjoy using language to converse, share stories, tell jokes, express feelings, and connect (interaction). Conversation Therapy is an app that gets people talking on the interaction level.

Through a structured series of 10 questions that cannot be answered with a simple yes or no, Conversation Therapy prompts two or more people to start a conversation about a topic of interest. There are no right or wrong answers, but there are many chances to use strategies, gestures, writing, talking, and expanded vocabulary to share memories and opinions along with making inferences and predictions. The goal is to keep the conversation going beyond the questions, and keep the focus of therapy on expressing oneself through any means possible.

Engage in real-life discussions with pictures & questions that get people talking to practice communication strategies.

4) Advanced Naming Therapy

For those ready to stretch their verbal skills, Advanced Naming Therapy offers four unique and challenging activities. The Create activity is based on a well-researched therapy technique called VNeST, focusing on a verb and creating 3 sentences around it. The app offers multiple-choice supports and the ability to use the voice dictation feature on the keyboard to speak instead of type if needed. For a fun challenge, use the Generate activity to think of words that are related by category or sound. Time yourself or set a target to practice what are known as verbal fluency skills. Those who are more analytical or academic-minded may enjoy comparing and contrasting pictures or concepts in the Compare activity. It’s harder than it sounds, and it requires a good understanding and vocabulary to do it well. For lots of laughs, dive into the funny and interesting pictures in the Describe activity. Laughter is good medicine!

Express yourself better with challenging word-finding exercises for aphasia and cognitive-communication problems.

Want more apps for talking?

Most of our apps can be used for more than one skill. While these apps aren’t designed with talking as the primary goal, they can be used by people looking to improve their talking.

Bonus App 1) Comprehension Therapy

“Wait, what? I thought this was a list of apps for talking, not understanding!” It is! But often people with severe aphasia are helped most by stimulating their listening and cognitive skills first. So many people with aphasia spontaneously start to repeat the words they hear in the Listen activity while searching for the correct picture. They read the word aloud in the Read activity without even thinking. Encouraging these verbalizations, but not requiring them, is a low-pressure way to start talking again.

Stimulating all 4 language modalities can reap benefits for each system, which is why we package Comprehension Therapy in our best-selling Language Therapy 4-in-1 app. You may think you don’t need to work on understanding when talking is the main problem, but you might be missing a big opportunity to improve through alternate approaches. The brain is a network, and we want to maximize the stimulation of language through all possible pathways.

Understand what you hear and read with word-level exercises you can customize for severe aphasia, autism, or brain injury.

Bonus App 2) AlphaTopics

For those who have trouble speaking, an augmentative app can help. AlphaTopics AAC helps people communicate in 3 unique ways. 1) Point to the letters to start to spell a word, 2) establish the topic before asking yes/no questions, 3) draw or write with your finger.

This affordable tool should be on every person’s tablet or phone who needs to communicate with anyone who struggles to speak so they can quickly write out choices, verify the topic, or provide spelling support in communication breakdowns.

AlphaTopics AAC

Enhance & clarify natural speech with this simple yet powerful augmentative communication app for dysarthria & aphasia.

Buy Now Learn More

Bonus App 3) Speech FlipBook

Working on saying words containing specific sounds is good therapy for people with apraxia. Often the speech therapist will pick out words that have only a single consonant and a vowel (“ma”), or they’ll challenge their clients with with more complicated groups of sounds (“strength”). Speech FlipBook is an app that lets you pick which sounds you want in each position of the word. You can listen to and repeat each sound or the whole word. Record yourself and compare to the app

Flip your way to clearer speech as you generate interactive word lists based on sounds for articulation and apraxia therapy.

Bonus App 4) Category Therapy

Category Therapy is another app that does not require you to say a word, but you certainly can use it to do a lot of talking! Set the app to use Pictures Only to practice naming each item on the screen. Try the Add One activity, and instead of simply selecting the object that goes with the others, create a sentence. For example, “pizza goes with sausage, sandwich, and salad because they are all foods.”

This app exercises the semantic system – the part of language that focuses on the meaning of words and the connections between words. Don’t underestimate what good practice this can be for word finding skills and talking! Strengthening these connections can lead to faster word retrieval and deeper understanding of words.

Strengthen connections between words with flexible exercises to improve language and reasoning skills.

Bonus App 5) Number Therapy

The Speak activity in Number Therapy focuses on saying the names of numbers. Numbers can be especially challenging for people with aphasia, and they’re everywhere! Focus on time, money, dates, fractions, big numbers, or small numbers – the choice is yours. Number Therapy offers a cueing hierarchy to help with saying the names of these important symbols in our lives.

Communicate numerical concepts with speaking, listening, reading, and writing exercises.

Found this article useful? Download the guide now.

This handout contains extra information about which activities to do in each of the recommended apps.

If you liked this article, Share It !

Megan S. Sutton , MS, CCC-SLP is a speech-language pathologist and co-founder of Tactus Therapy. She is an international speaker, writer, and educator on the use of technology in adult medical speech therapy. Megan believes that technology plays a critical role in improving aphasia outcomes and humanizing clinical services.

More in ‘ Using Apps ’

Using Speech Therapy Apps to Treat Mild Aphasia

For those with mild aphasia after a stroke or brain injury, use these apps in this way to improve communication by making them as challenging as possible.

10 min read

Using Speech Therapy Apps to Treat Severe Aphasia

For those with severe aphasia, including global aphasia, use these apps in this way to help restore the basic building blocks of language and communication.

9 min read

Using Speech Therapy Apps to Treat Dysarthria: Slurred Speech in Adults

From AAC to speaking in unison to discussing hot topics, we've got you covered with 4 core and 2 bonus speech therapy apps to improve dysarthria.

6 min read

Using Speech Therapy Apps to Treat Writing

From spelling words to typing text messages to composing emails, we've got you covered with 4 core and 2 bonus speech therapy apps to improve written expression.

4 min read

Using Speech Therapy Apps to Treat Reading

From identifying words to following written directions to reading paragraphs, we've got you covered with 4 core and 4 bonus speech therapy apps to improve reading comprehension.

Using Speech Therapy Apps to Treat Listening

From listening to words to following directions to understanding stories, we've got you covered with 4 core and 2 bonus speech therapy apps to improve auditory comprehension.

5 min read

Using Speech Therapy Apps to Treat Thinking: Cognitive-Communication Disorders in Adults

Cognition plays a vital role in communication. Learn how to integrate 5 of the best apps for cognitive-communication rehab into your therapy.

Your cart is currently empty.

Total: $0.00

Expressive Language Goal Bank

(client) will independently label age-appropriate objects with 80% accuracy for 3 data collections.
(client) will name a described object with 80% accuracy for 3 data collections.
(client) will name 5 items from a category with 80% accuracy for 3 data collections.
(client) will imitate 1-2 word utterances 10x times per session for 3 sessions.
(client) will imitate 10 different two word phrases to request, protest, comment, or get attention over 3 consecutive sessions.
(client) will use a carrier phrase to form a simple sentence given picture cues in 80% of opportunities for 5 data collections.
(client) will use 2-3 word phrases in 80% opportunities to participate in play and shared book reading for 3 data collections.
(client) will produce 3-4 word phrases to request, protest, and/or comment 10x per session for 3 consecutive sessions.
(client) will produce a complete, relevant sentence about a given stimuli in 80% of opportunities for 3 data collections.
(client) will produce complete, grammatical sentences of 4+ words within structured activities in 80% pf opportunities for 5 data collections.
(client) will increase sentence length using modifier words or phrases (adjectives, prepositions, etc.) when prompted in 80% of opportunities for 3 data collections.
(client) will use descriptive concept words (color, size, shape, etc) with 80% accuracy for 5 data collections.
(client) will use spatial concept words (in, on, next to, etc) with 80% accuracy for 5 data collections.
(client) will use temporal concept words (now, yesterday, next week, etc) with 80% accuracy for 5 data collections.
(client) will use quantitative concept words (all, some, rest, etc) with 80% accuracy for 5 data collections.
(client) will produce modified noun phrases using color, shape, and/or size (e.g. blue ball) with 80% accuracy for 5 data collections.
(client) will tell how two things are the same giving attributes ie. category, color, shape, or function with 80% accuracy for 3 data collections.
(client) will answer what/where/when/who/why questions about pictures or play with 80% accuracy for 3 data collections.
(client) will answer what/where/when/who/why questions during conversations with 80% accuracy for 3 data collections.
(client) will answer questions in concise manner without using circumlocution in 80% of opportunities across 3 data collections.
(client) will answer how questions accurately to include multiple steps (e.g. how do you brush your teeth? how do you make your bed?) with 80% accuracy for 3 data collections.
(client) will retell stories to include 80% of relevant details across 3 data collections.

Made with love in Austin, Texas

Product Added To Your Cart

There are 0 Items In Your Cart

Total Price: $0.00

Compare Product

Career Opportunities

Transforming Lives Through Communication

At Verbal Expressions, Inc., we are dedicated to providing exceptional speech and language therapy services across Georgia. Our mission is to help our clients develop effective communication skills necessary for normal development through our compassionate and comprehensive therapy sessions. We understand the importance of communication in everyday life and strive to empower our clients with the skills they need to succeed.

Our Expertise

We specialize in a wide range of speech and language therapy services, including:

Pediatric Speech and Language Therapy
Speech and Language Evaluations
Rehabilitation Services

Our team of highly skilled and dedicated therapists provides personalized care to each of our clients, ensuring that we address their unique needs and challenges. With our expertise in pediatrics, we are well-equipped to help children overcome speech and language difficulties and reach their full potential.

The Benefits of Choosing Verbal Expressions, Inc.

When you choose Verbal Expressions, Inc. for your speech-language therapy needs, you can expect:

Personalized Care

We take the time to understand each client's unique needs and create a customized therapy plan tailored to their individual goals.

Compassionate and Skilled Therapists

Our team of therapists is passionate about helping clients reach their communication goals and is committed to providing the highest level of care.

Proven Results

We are dedicated to ensuring optimal gains for our clients through our comprehensive therapy sessions and ongoing support.

Serving Communities Across Georgia

As a leading provider of speech-language therapy services in Georgia, we are proud to serve clients in communities throughout the state. Our commitment to providing quality care with compassion and integrity has made us a trusted choice for families seeking speech and language support.

Get Started on the Path to Improved Communication

If you or a loved one is in need of speech and language therapy, we invite you to take the first step towards improved communication by contacting Verbal Expressions, Inc. Our team is ready to help you develop the skills necessary for success in everyday life.

Experience the difference that compassionate, skilled therapy can make in your life. Reach out to Verbal Expressions, Inc. today and embark on the journey towards better communication.

singer230_View PicturesPeter CookUniversal Images Group via Getty Images_cambridge

Will Cambridge Support Free Speech?

The university is investigating Nathan Cofnas, a research fellow who published a blog post advocating “race realism.” Were Cofnas to be dismissed, it would sound a warning to students and academics everywhere: even the world’s most renowned universities may no longer stand by their commitment to freedom of thought and discussion.

MELBOURNE – Nathan Cofnas is a research fellow in the Faculty of Philosophy at the University of Cambridge. His research is supported by a grant from the Leverhulme Trust. He is also a college research associate at Emmanuel College. Working at the intersection of science and philosophy, he has published several papers in leading peer-reviewed journals. He also writes popular articles and posts on Substack .

In January, Cofnas published a post called “ Why We Need to Talk about the Right’s Stupidity Problem .” No one at Cambridge seems to have been bothered by his argument that people on the political right have, on average, lower intelligence than those on the left.

Some people at Cambridge were, however, very much bothered by Cofnas’s February post, “ A Guide for the Hereditarian Revolution .” To follow Cofnas’s “guide,” one must accept “race realism”: the view that heredity plays a role in the existing social and economic differences between different demographic groups. Only by challenging the taboo against race realism, Cofnas believes, can conservatives overcome “wokism,” which he sees as a barrier to understanding the causes of inequality and to allowing people to succeed on the basis of merit.

If Harvard University admitted students “under a colorblind system that judged applicants only by academic qualifications,” Cofnas asserted, Black people “would make up 0.7% of Harvard students.” He also wrote that in a meritocracy, the number of black professors at Harvard “would approach 0%.”

That post gave rise to a petition from Cambridge students demanding that the university dismiss Cofnas. The petition currently has about 1,200 signatures .

On February 16, the Master of Emmanuel College, Doug Chalmers, responded to the protests by saying that the college is committed to “providing an environment that is free from all discrimination.” The relevance of this comment is unclear; although there are many statements in Cofnas’s post that one can reasonably object to, it does not advocate racial discrimination. Importantly, though – or so it seemed at the time – Chalmers added that the college is also committed to “freedom of thought and expression,” and he acknowledged Cofnas’s “academic right, as enshrined by law, to write about his views.”

Subscribe to PS Digital

Access every new PS commentary, our entire On Point suite of subscriber-exclusive content – including Longer Reads, Insider Interviews, Big Picture/Big Question, and Say More – and the full PS archive.

Subscribe Now

On the same day, Professor Bhaskar Vira, Pro-Vice-Chancellor for Education at Cambridge, issued a brief statement that began: “Freedom of speech within the law is a right that sits at the heart of the University of Cambridge. We encourage our community to challenge ideas they disagree with and engage in rigorous debate.” He then made the obvious point that “the voice of one academic does not reflect the views of the whole university community,” adding that many staff and students “challenge the academic validity of the arguments presented.” His statement concluded by seeking to reassure students who were “understandably hurt and upset” by Cofnas’s views that “everyone at Cambridge has earned their place on merit and no one at this University should be made to feel like this.”

There was no suggestion, in the statements made by Chalmers or Vira, that either Emmanuel College or the University of Cambridge was considering dismissing Cofnas. Yet, in the face of continuing protests, both the college and the university bowed to the pressure and began their own inquiries, as did the Leverhulme Trust. The university’s inquiry and that of the Trust are, at the time of writing, ongoing, but on April 5 Cofnas received a letter notifying him that Emmanuel College had decided to terminate its association with him.

In justifying that decision, the letter informed Cofnas of the views of a committee that had been asked to consider his blog:

“The Committee first considered the meaning of the blog and concluded that it amounted to, or could reasonably be construed as amounting to, a rejection of Diversity, Equality, and Inclusion (DEI and EDI) policies ... The Committee concluded that the core mission of the College was to achieve educational excellence and that diversity and inclusion were inseparable from that. The ideas promoted by the blog therefore represented a challenge to the College’s core values and mission.”

These sentences imply that at Emmanuel College, freedom of expression does not include the freedom to challenge its DEI policies, and that challenging them may be grounds for dismissal. That is an extraordinary statement for a tertiary institution to make. It is even more surprising given that the adoption of DEI policies is a relatively recent phenomenon.

Emmanuel College’s decision does not prevent Cofnas from continuing to hold his research fellowship in the Faculty of Philosophy. But that would cease to be the case if the university inquiry were to reach the same conclusion as the college.

The academic world will be watching what happens. Were the University of Cambridge to dismiss Cofnas, it would sound a warning to students and academics everywhere: when it comes to controversial topics, even the world’s most renowned universities can no longer be relied upon to stand by their commitment to defend freedom of thought and discussion.

The Threat Posed by Cambodia’s New Strongman

Apr 10, 2024 Mu Sochua

Beating Back Populists at the Grassroots

Apr 11, 2024 Sławomir Sierakowski

Ending Congo’s Forever War

Apr 10, 2024 Adekeye Adebajo

Are We Ready for AI Creative Destruction?

Apr 9, 2024 Daron Acemoglu

The Hidden Costs of “Slowbalization”

Apr 9, 2024 Daniel Gros

New Comment

It appears that you have not yet updated your first and last name. If you would like to update your name, please do so here .

After posting your comment, you’ll have a ten-minute window to make any edits. Please note that we moderate comments to ensure the conversation remains topically relevant. We appreciate well-informed comments and welcome your criticism and insight. Please be civil and avoid name-calling and ad hominem remarks.

Email this piece to a friend

Friend's name

Friend's email

Feedback/general inquiries
Advertise with us
Corporate Subscriptions
Education Subscriptions
Secure publication rights
Submit a commentary for publication
Website help

Please provide more details about your request

We hope you're enjoying our PS content

To have unlimited access to our content including in-depth commentaries, book reviews, exclusive interviews, PS OnPoint and PS The Big Picture, please subscribe

prasad24_Michael M. SantiagoGetty Images_nyse

A Weak, Uneven Global Recovery

Can China Get Out of Its Rut?

China’s authorities have powerful economic-policy levers at their disposal to achieve their 5% growth target this year and to put the economy on a more sustainable long-term growth path. But several trends – from the shift toward state capitalism to population aging to the loss of goodwill between Chinese and Americans – could thwart China’s ambition to join the ranks of high-income countries by mid-century.

roach164_PEDRO PARDOPEDRO PARDOPOOLAFP via Getty Images_china development forum

China Stifles Its Own Debate

For more than two decades, the China Development Forum was a meeting where foreign business, political, and academic leaders could debate the state of the Chinese economy with the country’s highest leaders. But this year’s gathering eschewed open and honest dialogue, in favor of telling only “good stories” about China.

pdoyle1_ISSOUF SANOGOAFP via Getty Images_cfa franc

Leaving Africa’s Colonial-Era Currency Will Be Hard, But May Be Wise

benami212_Elyxandro CegarraNurPhoto via Getty Images_eumilitary

Europe’s War Jitters

Governments Must Shape AI’s Future

As with social media, the incentives around AI are aligned for rent extraction, where large companies, acting as intermediaries, amass profits at others’ expense. Governments urgently need to step in to ensure that the technology is being designed and brought to market in ways that will serve the common good.

duquemarquez2_ArterraMarica van der MeerUniversal Images Group via Getty Images_guyana

How Guyana Became Latin America’s Leading Development Lab

sierakowski107_Beata ZawrzelNurPhoto via Getty Images_poland

✕ Log in/Register

Please log in or register to continue. Registration is free and requires only your email address.

Email required

Password required Remember me?

Please enter your email address and click on the reset-password button. If your email exists in our system, we'll send you an email with a link to reset your password. Please note that the link will expire twenty-four hours after the email is sent. If you can't find this email, please check your spam folder.

Reset Password Cancel

She Writes newsletter
PS Economics Newsletter
Promotional emails

By proceeding, you are agreeing to our Terms and Conditions .

Your Institution

Edit Newsletter Preferences

Set up notification.

To receive email updates regarding this {entity_type}, please enter your email below.

If you are not already registered, this will create a PS account for you. You should receive an activation email shortly.

Newsletter Sign Up

Email Address

Your browser is outdated, it may not render this page properly, please upgrade .

Telo de Abreu v. Portugal

Closed Expands Expression

Key details

Key Details

Mode of Expression Electronic / Internet-based Communication, Non-verbal Expression
Date of Decision June 7, 2022
Outcome Violation of a Rule of International Law, ECtHR, Article 10 Violation
Case Number 42713/15
Region & Country Portugal, Europe and Central Asia
Judicial Body European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)
Type of Law International/Regional Human Rights Law
Themes Artistic Expression, Defamation / Reputation, Political Expression
Tags Satire/Parody, gender-based violence

Content Attribution Policy

Global Freedom of Expression is an academic initiative and therefore, we encourage you to share and republish excerpts of our content so long as they are not used for commercial purposes and you respect the following policy:

Attribute Columbia Global Freedom of Expression as the source.
Link to the original URL of the specific case analysis, publication, update, blog or landing page of the down loadable content you are referencing.

Attribution, copyright, and license information for media used by Global Freedom of Expression is available on our Credits page.

Case Analysis

Case summary and outcome.

The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) found that Portugal violated Patricio Monteiro Telo de Abreu’s freedom of expression, as enshrined in Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, by convicting Telo de Abreu for reposting online three political cartoons. Telo de Abreu was convicted of defamation, by national Portuguese courts, for reposting caricatures on his personal blog that depicted a municipal councilor as a pig wearing sexually suggestive clothing. The ECtHR reversed the decision, reasoning that the Portuguese courts did not strike the right balance between freedom of expression and the right to honor and reputation. The Court concluded that political satire constitutes important democratic speech and that it should be permitted unless the government can show that the restriction or interference with freedom of expression is necessary in a democratic society.

Patricio Monteiro Telo de Abreu, is a Portuguese national and former Elvas municipal assembly representative. In 2008, Telo de Abreu reposted three political cartoons on his personal blog that depicted the mayor of Elvas as a donkey, the municipal councilor as a pig wearing sexually suggestive clothing, and the rest of the mayor’s political party as pigs. Next to each post, Telo de Abreu commended the artist’s cleverness. Telo de Abreu’s removed the posts from his blog upon learning about the criminal lawsuit brought against him by Mrs. E.G., the mayor’s municipal councilor and close political advisor who was also depicted in the impugned caricatures.

Mrs. E.G. filed a complaint for aggravated defamation against Telo de Abreu and several other defendants before the Elvas Tribunal. She argued that Telo de Abreu disseminated political cartoons of a defamatory nature, attacking her reputation. In particular, Mrs. E.G. alleged that the cartoons depicted her as a promiscuous woman and suggested that she was engaged in an intimate relationship with the mayor.

Telo de Abreu was charged with aggravated defamation. Article 180 §1 of Portugal’s penal code criminalizes disseminating information that attacks an individual’s honor or reputation. This infraction is punishable by imprisonment or a fine. Moreover, Articles 183 and 184 of the same penal code provide for the possibility of increased damages if, among other things, an individual posts information in a medium that facilitates transmission.

On May 16, 2009, the Elvas Tribunal convicted Telo de Abreu on aggravated defamation charges and ordered him to pay a €1,800 fine and €2,500 in damages jointly with the other defendants. The court found that the political cartoon attacked Mrs. E.G.’s reputation and that Telo de Abreu, as a member of the opposing political party, disseminated the litigious speech to injure her. On February 26, 2015, the Evora Court of Appeals upheld the lower court’s decision. The Court of Appeals noted that neither the right to freedom of expression nor personal privacy are absolute. The court found that a cartoon depicting Mrs. E.G. in a sexual manner—and suggesting she had an intimate relationship with the mayor—surpassed the limits of free speech. Telo de Abreu filed an application with the ECtHR on August 24, 2015.

Decision Overview

Judge Grozev delivered the judgment for the European Court of Human Rights. The main issue before the Court was whether Portugal infringed on Telo de Abreu’s freedom of expression by convicting him of aggravated defamation for circulating a political cartoon in which a political advisor to a politician was depicted as a pig wearing sexually suggestive clothing. In particular, the ECtHR examined whether the Portuguese courts struck the proper balance between Telo de Abreu’s right to freedom of expression and Mrs. E.G.’s right to honor, reputation, and private life.

Telo de Abreu argued that the ECtHR should reverse the Portuguese courts’ decisions because the political cartoon jokingly satirized the government for being expensive and corrupt. Given this interpretation, the Portuguese government unduly restricted Telo de Abreu’s freedom of expression by preventing him from lawfully criticizing the municipal government. Telo de Abreu was adamant that the cartoon he reposted on his blog had no sexual connotation and that his desire to spread the satire was motivated by an opinion article criticizing the mayor that was published in 2006. Telo de Abreu further alleged that his criticism of the municipal political regime was the result of the views he held as a private citizen as much as a political opponent.

Portugal argued that the ECtHR should affirm its courts’ decisions. The government asserted that it was in the public interest to convict Telo de Abreu because the political cartoon depicted Mrs. E.G. as a prostitute and attacked her personal life. In this way, the political cartoon crossed a line from political satire to invasive personal attacks. The government also argued that the cartoon disseminated harmful stereotypes about women and therefore escaped the scope of protected speech under Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR).

Relying on its own case law, the ECtHR explained that for a restriction to be deemed necessary in a democratic society, the government must show an a pressing social need (Bédat v Switzerland) . Moreover, the Court opined that the government must prove that its restriction on expression is proportionate to a legitimate public aim. ECtHR case law recognizes that freedom of expression is extremely important in politics and that politicians must have a high tolerance for criticism because of their notoriety (Magyar Jeti Zrt v Hongrie). The Court added that any exceptions to freedom of expression regarding political questions must receive a narrow interpretation.

It further pointed out that while the right to one’s reputation is protected by Article 8 of the Convention, for this provision to intervene in an attack against personal reputation, it must reach a certain level of severity and be meant to harm one’s personal exercise of their right to private life. These conditions apply to both social and professional reputation, and benefit from a particular emphasis in the professional field. The Court added that since satire—an art form communicating a social commentary through exaggeration and deformation of reality—contributes to public debate, courts must examine any interference with an artist’s right to use satire with particular care (Vereinigung Bildender Künstler v Austria, Leroy v France, Alves da Silva v Portugal, Tuşalp v Turkey, Grebneva and Alisimchik v Russia, and Kaboğlu and Oran v Turkey) .

The ECtHR adopted a narrower view on a politician’s right to the respect of their private life when balancing this right with another’s freedom of expression, interpreting freedom of expression in the context of public figures availing themselves to public scrutiny. The Court, following Magyar Jeti Zrt v Hungary , argued that “[t]he limits of permissible criticism are wider for a political party or a public figure than for a private individual [since] unlike the latter, the former inevitably and consciously expose themselves to close scrutiny of their actions by both journalists and the general public and must consequently show greater tolerance.” [para. 36]

The ECtHR highlighted that Article 8 and Article 10 rights a priori should be interpreted with equal respect, adding that the relevant criteria to be taken into consideration, when weighing these rights, are whether the contested expression contributes “to a debate of general interest, the notoriety of the person whose right to reputation is at stake […] the previous behavior of the person alleging a violation, the content, form and repercussions of the publication, as well as, if applicable, the circumstances of the publication as well as the circumstances in which any litigious photographs were taken.” [para. 37]

As a result, the Court said that satirical comments on a politician’s personal life must reach a high level of gravity and cause actual professional harm to justify restricting freedom of expression. The ECtHR found that Portugal did not demonstrate that this threshold was met. In its reading of the cartoon, the ECtHR did not think the artists suggested that Mrs. E.G. was engaged in an intimate relationship with the mayor. Moreover, the entire piece, taken together, clearly criticizes the Elvas government and the mayor’s political party, not Mrs. E.G. This reading of the cartoon, compounded with the fact that Telo de Abreu merely reposted the art and then deleted it from his blog after the criminal proceedings commenced, led the ECtHR to believe Telo de Abreu’s punishment was manifestly disproportionate in comparison to his acts, especially since Portuguese national law provides a specific remedy for damages to honor and reputation (Amorim Giestas and Jesus Costa Bordalo v Portugal) . The ECtHR also added that harsh punishments, like the one in this case, could deter expression that uses satire to comment on politics or society (Alves da Silva v Portugal) .

Thus, the ECtHR reversed the Portuguese courts’ decisions and granted Telo de Abreu €3,466 in material damages and €1,806 in legal fees. Telo de Abreu also asked the Court for emotional damages, but the court denied this request because the applicant did not specify the amount of moral damages he sought.

Concurring opinions

Judges Motoc, Kucsko-Stadlmayer, and Schukking authored concurring opinions. Each judge agreed with the Court that Portugal unlawfully restricted Telo de Abreu’s freedom of expression. However, concerned with the stereotypes portrayed in the cartoons, especially with respect to Mrs. E.G., these judges wrote separately to highlight the increasing violence against women in politics.

In her opinion, Judge Motoc started by defining violence against women in politics as any type of sexist action or threat causing physical, sexual, psychological, economic, or symbolic prejudice or suffering to women—preventing them from fully taking part in public life or exercising any rights relating to politics. Judge Motoc then went on to discuss the implications of violence against women in politics, concluding that this phenomenon, as a whole, represents a violation of women’s fundamental and political rights and that the Telo de Abreu case was an example of violence against women in politics. Judge Motoc concluded her analysis by stating that the Court must be ready to strive for the right balance when considering cases involving violence against women in politics.

As for Judges Kucsko-Stadlmayer and Schukking, their standalone opinion concurred with the majority opinion, emphasizing the Court’s finding that decontextualizing speech that takes place in a political context is contrary to the notion of proportionality discussed by the majority. Courts must therefore take into account the political context in which speech takes place when assessing the free speech implications of recognizing and enforcing competing rights. These Judges concluded that even though national courts had erred in granting and upholding Telo de Abreu’s criminal conviction, they were right to underline sexist representations of women in politics in their appreciation of proportionality. Kucsko-Stadlmayer and Schukking concluded their analysis by stating that “even satire must comply with certain limitations,” while highlighting that the present case’s positive aspect is that national jurisdictions recognized that Mrs. E.G.’s reputation as a woman in politics required particular protection under Article 8.

Decision Direction

Decision Direction indicates whether the decision expands or contracts expression based on an analysis of the case.

Expands Expression

This decision expands freedom of expression. Relying on the fundamental relationship between democracy and political criticism, the ECtHR held that political satire must reach a high bar before it can be found to defame a politician. The ECtHR noted that the importance of the expression of dissident points of view in a democratic society justifies a broader interpretation of freedom of speech as it applies to speech of a political nature. The ECtHR was liberal in its assessment of the permissibility of political satire and insisted that the infringement of Telo de Abreu’s freedom of expression was not “necessary in a democratic society.” The ECtHR’s analysis was framed by its opinion that “Article 10, Paragraph 2 does not leave any space for restrictions on freedom of expression in the context of political speeches and debates –a domain in which freedom of expression is of the utmost importance—or in the context of public interest questions.” [para 36]

Global Perspective

Global Perspective demonstrates how the court’s decision was influenced by standards from one or many regions.

Table of Authorities

Related international and/or regional laws.

ECHR, art. 10
ECHR, art. 8
ECtHR, Bédat v. Switzerland, App. No. 56925/08 (2016)
ECtHR, Lindon, Otchakovsky-Laurens and July v. France [GC], App. Nos. 21279/02 and 36448/02 (2007)
ECtHR, Magyar Jeti Zrt v. Hungary, App. No. 11257/16 (2018)
ECtHR, Stern Taulats and Roura Capellera v. Spain, app. no. 51168/2015 (2018)
ECtHR, Medžlis Islamske Zajednice Brčko and Others v. Bosnia and Herzegovina, App. No. 17224/11 (2017)
ECtHR, Couderc and Hachette Filipacchi Associés v. France, App. No. 40454/07 (2014)
ECtHR, Palomo Sánchez and Others v. Spain [GC], App. Nos. 28955/06, 28957/06, 28959/06 and 28964/06 (2011)
ECtHR, Delfi v. Estonia [GC], App. No. 64569/09 (2015)
ECtHR, Savva Terentyev v Russia, App. No. 10692/09 (28 August 2018)
ECtHR, M. L. v. Germany (2018), Nos. 60798/10 and 65599/10
ECtHR, Vereinigung Bildender Künstler v. Austria, App. No. 68354/01 (2007)
ECtHR, Leroy v. France, No. 36109/03 (2008)
ECtHR, Alves da Silva v. Portugal, App. No. 41665/07 (2009)
ECtHR, Tuşalp v. Turkey, App. No. 32131/08 & 41617/08 (2012)
ECtHR, Grebneva and Alisimchik v. Russia, App. No. 8918/05 (2016)
ECtHR., Kaboğlu v. Turkey (2018), Nos. 1759/08, 50766/10 and 50782/10
ECtHR, Banaszczyk v. Poland, App no 66299/10 (2021)
ECtHR, Cumpǎnǎ and Mazǎre v. Romania, App. No. 33348/96 (2004)
ECtHR, Amorim Giestas and Jesus Costa Bordalo v. Portugal, App. No. 37840/10 (2014)

National standards, law or jurisprudence

Port., Penal Code of Portugal

Case Significance

Case significance refers to how influential the case is and how its significance changes over time.

The decision establishes a binding or persuasive precedent within its jurisdiction.

Official case documents, official case documents:.

Decision (in French) https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-217556%22]}

Attachments:

Have comments.

Let us know if you notice errors or if the case analysis needs revision.

Send Feedback

Artistic expression, defamation / reputation, hate speech, political expression.

February 15, 2018

Case of Jose Miguel Arenas (Valtonyc)

Incitement, Rap, Terrorism

Content Regulation / Censorship, Defamation / Reputation, National Security, Political Expression, Press Freedom

April 4, 2012

Le Ministère Public v. Uwimana Nkusi

Criminal Defamation, Public Officials

Related News

National security, defamation / reputation, political expression.

February 11, 2016

Bahrain: An Analysis of the Legitimacy of Charges Against Sheikh Maytham Al Salman

Artistic expression, political expression.

September 28, 2021

Job Posting: Postdoc Humor and Free Speech Regulation

cartoons, satire

Misinformation & Disinformation

What to Know About Elon Musk’s Battle With a Brazilian Judge Over Speech on Social Media

A Supreme Court judge in Brazil is taking on disinformation—and going toe-to-toe with X’s Elon Musk.

W hen billionaire Elon Musk acquired Twitter—now X—in 2022, some feared that the self-avowed free-speech “absolutist” would turn the platform into a free-for-all for disinformation . Now, as a Brazilian judge seeks to crack down on fake news on social media, he and Musk have found each other at odds in a growing spat that could have significant consequences for Musk, Brazil, and X.

On Saturday, X’s Global Government Affairs team posted that it had been forced to block “certain popular accounts in Brazil” without, in its view, sufficient explanation. It was prohibited, it said, from publicizing what accounts were impacted as well as what court or judge issued the orders.

“We believe that such orders are not in accordance with the Marco Civil da Internet or the Brazilian Federal Constitution, and we challenge the orders legally where possible,” the post said. “The people of Brazil, regardless of their political beliefs, are entitled to freedom of speech, due process, and transparency from their own authorities.”

X Corp. has been forced by court decisions to block certain popular accounts in Brazil. We have informed those accounts that we have taken this action. We do not know the reasons these blocking orders have been issued. We do not know which posts are alleged to violate the… — Global Government Affairs (@GlobalAffairs) April 6, 2024

Tensions escalated when Musk, in a series of posts, called out the judge, Brazil’s Federal Supreme Court Justice Alexandre de Moraes, by name and said X would not abide by his orders no matter the consequences. Musk later said de Moraes ordered the suspension of accounts belonging to “sitting members of the parliament and major journalists.”

Elon Musk in Krakow, Poland on Jan. 22, 2024

“These are the most draconian demands of any country on Earth!” Musk said in one post .

“We will probably lose all revenue in Brazil and have to shut down our office there,” he said in another. “But principles matter more than profit.”

“This judge has brazenly and repeatedly betrayed the constitution and people of Brazil,” he said in another. “He should resign or be impeached.”

In turn, de Moraes issued a decision Sunday saying he would include Musk in his larger investigation as well as initiate a new inquiry specifically into the X owner, whom he accused of obstruction of justice and incitement to crime—actions, in the judge’s description, that “disrespect Brazil’s sovereignty.”

X has not responded to TIME’s request for comment. Here’s what to know about the situation.

Who is Alexander de Moraes?

De Moraes was appointed to Brazil’s Supreme Federal Court in 2017 after previously serving as Minister of Justice and Public Security. He has also served as president of the country’s electoral tribunal since 2022 and is known as a crusader against anti-democratic forces in Brazil.

As a justice, de Moraes has ordered investigations into former President Jair Bolsonaro and his involvement with the post-election capitol riots in Brasilia last year . He has also jailed some of Bolsonaro’s supporters for what he claims to be attacks on Brazil’s democratic institutions .

Brazilian Supreme Court judge Alexandre de Moraes attends a trial at the Supreme Court plenary that resumed hearings in the closely watched case on whether to restrict native peoples' rights to claim their ancestral lands, in Brasilia on Sept. 20, 2023.

Since 2019 , De Moraes has led an investigation into Brazil’s so-called “digital militias” —purveyors of fake news for political or ideological groups—that have been verbally attacking court members.

In March 2022, de Moraes ordered the nationwide suspension of Telegram , a platform used heavily by Bolsonaro and his supporters, for its alleged failure to shut down disinformation networks. Just ahead of the October 2022 presidential election runoff between Lula da Silva and Bolsonaro, the electoral tribunal gave de Moraes unilateral power to order tech companies to remove online posts and videos under the threat of suspension in Brazil .

Right-wing politicians, including Bolsonaro, have accused de Moraes of overstepping his authority and abusing his power , though many of de Moraes’ defenders argue that the judge’s approach is sound, given the fragility of democracy in the country.

How has Brazil’s government responded to Elon Musk?

On Sunday, de Moraes warned against Musk’s decision to defy the order on blocking certain accounts, saying that each reactivated account would entail a fine of 100,000 reais ($20,000) per day.

Brazil’s attorney general Jorge Messias also reacted on X, saying that it is “urgent” that Brazil regulate social media networks operating in the country.

“We cannot live in a society in which billionaires domiciled abroad have control of social networks and put themselves in a position to violate the rule of law, failing to comply with court orders and threatening our authorities,” Messias said . “Social peace is non-negotiable.”

In a separate post , Brazilian lawmaker Orlando Silva said Musk has disrespected the country’s judiciary, adding that he would propose legislation on a “responsibilities regime for these digital platforms.”

“We have reached a limit,” Silva said. “It is a response in defense of Brazil.”

And Brazil’s Secretary of Social Communication Paulo Pimenta posted on X in response to de Moraes’ opening of an investigation into Musk: “We will not be intimidated. Our Country is sovereign and no one is going to impose their authoritarian will and enforce the logic that money makes their ‘business model’ above the Federal Constitution.”

More Must-Reads From TIME

Exclusive: Google Workers Revolt Over $1.2 Billion Contract With Israel
Jane Fonda Champions Climate Action for Every Generation
Stop Looking for Your Forever Home
The Sympathizer Counters 50 Years of Hollywood Vietnam War Narratives
The Bliss of Seeing the Eclipse From Cleveland
Hormonal Birth Control Doesn’t Deserve Its Bad Reputation
The Best TV Shows to Watch on Peacock
Want Weekly Recs on What to Watch, Read, and More? Sign Up for Worth Your Time

IMAGES

10 Verbal Communication Skills Worth Mastering
A Guide to the Prompting Hierarchy in Speech Therapy
Translating Verbal Expressions How And Why
English Expressions with Speak and Speech
Verbal Expressions Notes
Verbal Expression

VIDEO

Common English Expressions
which verbal expression does not represent a-8 ?
Decoding the Conversation: Unveiling the Secrets of Speech vs. Language Therapy! 🗣️🧠
Mind And Heart #motivation #overcomingchallenges #resilience
Verbal Aptitude 02
10 ADVANCED English Expressions and Phrases to Sound SMART

COMMENTS

Enhancing Verbal Expression: A Guide to Speech and Language Therapy
Verbal expression plays a crucial role in social emotional development, and speech and language therapy worksheets are powerful tools in enhancing communication skills. By using these worksheets, individuals can promote language development, improve communication skills, and enhance social interaction. Additionally, incorporating additional ...
Adult Speech Therapy
By Miwa & Chung / December 2, 2020. In this post, you'll find 23 ready-to-use activities to treat expressive aphasia, including language expression and writing impairments. Free free to copy and print them. Or bookmark this post to use during treatment. For hundreds of evidence-based handouts and worksheets, check out our best-selling Adult ...
14.3: Speech Delivery- Body Language and Voice
Facial expressions can help bring a speech to life when used by a speaker to communicate emotions and demonstrate enthusiasm for the speech. We tend to use facial expressions naturally and without conscious effort when engaging in day-to-day conversations. ... Interruptions to the fluency of a speech, including fluency hiccups and verbal ...
Functional Communication: Goals and Speech Therapy Ideas
Our most basic communication skills that we work on with children with autism or other speech delays... What is Functional Communication? Functional communication refers to the most basic of communication skills. This type of communication gets one's basic wants and needs known, such as "I want that", "I am hurt", or "I need to use the bathroom".
55 Aphasia Treatment Activities
This is an intensive approach for patients who want to improve verbal speech. Be aware that it discourages any other communication compensations, so it may not be the right fit for some patients. The 3 Principles of Constraint-Induced Language Therapy: Forced Use. Only speaking is allowed. Constraint. No compensations, including no gestures ...
Aphasia
Aphasia is an acquired neurogenic language disorder resulting from an injury to the brain, typically the left hemisphere, that affects the functioning of core elements of the language network. Aphasia involves varying degrees of impairment in four primary areas: spoken language expression. written expression. spoken language comprehension.
Verbal Communication Skills
It is important to remember that effective verbal communication cannot be fully isolated from non-verbal communication: your body language, tone of voice, and facial expressions, for example. Clarity of speech, remaining calm and focused, being polite and following some basic rules of etiquette will all aid the process of verbal communication.
14.7: Appropriate Verbal Expression
The actual object is the referent, and the image of a rose that comes to mind is the thought. In Figure 14.7.1 14.7. 1 above, the symbol and the referent are connected by a dotted line, indicating that the symbol and its referent are not directly connected. Rather. they are connected only by the thought in the minds of speakers and recipients.
Aphasia Therapy: Free List of Evidence-Based Speech Treatments for SLP
We all win when we used evidence-based aphasia therapy to help stroke survivors recover essential communication skills to regain their confidence, relationships, and identity. Learn how Tactus Therapy can help you provide evidence-based aphasia therapy for your clients in our How-To series. Share It ! Aphasia Therapy - Download this free PDF ...
Goal Bank For Adult Speech Therapy (150 SLP Goals!)
The patient will add new vocabulary to speech generating device at 80% accuracy given frequent moderate verbal and moderate visual cues in order to communicate wants and needs. The patient will initiate 3 or more times during a simple 5-minute conversation with a familiar communication partner given frequent moderate verbal and moderate visual ...
Chapter 3: Verbal Communication
Verbal expressions help us communicate our observations, thoughts, feelings, and needs (McKay et al., 1995). ... When people say something is a "figure of speech," they are referring to a word or phrase that deviates from expectations in some way in meaning or usage (Yaguello, 1998). Figurative language is the result of breaking semantic ...
Speech Assessment
Speech is the verbal expression of thoughts and ideas. In many cases, speech is used to communicate via a shared language. Language is an agreed-upon rule-based code we use to communicate. Parents may present with a range of concerns regarding their children when they choose to consult a speech-language pathologist (SLP). These may include but ...
5.4 Physical Delivery
Record yourself practicing your speech in order to evaluate your use of facial expressions. Eye contact helps establish credibility and keep your audience's attention while you're speaking. Posture should be comfortable and appropriate for the speaking occasion. Emphatic and descriptive gestures enhance the verbal content of our speech.
The Best Speech Therapy Exercises for Stroke Patients
Through neuroplasticity, healthy areas of the brain can take over the function of verbal expression. Repetitively practicing speech therapy exercises on a regular basis is the best way to promote neuroplasticity and recover the ability to produce speech. 10 of the Best Speech Therapy Exercises
7.2 Functions of Language
Table 7.2.1 Four Types of Verbal Expressions. Source: Adapted from Matthew McKay, Martha Davis, ... Some language is deemed so powerful that it is regulated. Hate speech, which we will learn more about later, and slander, libel, and defamation are considered powerful enough to actually do damage to a person and have therefore been criminalized.
3.2: Functions of Language
Verbal expressions help us communicate our observations, thoughts, feelings, and needs (McKay, Davis, & Fanning, 1995). ... Some language is deemed so powerful that it is regulated. Hate speech, which we will learn more about later, and slander, libel, and defamation are considered powerful enough to actually do damage to a person and have ...
Speech Therapy Apps to Improve Talking after a Stroke
Using Speech Therapy Apps to Treat Talking: Verbal Expression in Adults with Aphasia 7 min read. ... Speech therapy can help, and apps can be an important part of speech recovery. There are a lot of apps that just give you multiple choices questions and don't ever require you to actually talk. The best practice for talking is talking, so ...
Speech Therapy Goal Bank Expressive Language
Expressive Language Goal Bank. (client) will independently label age-appropriate objects with 80% accuracy for 3 data collections. (client) will name a described object with 80% accuracy for 3 data collections. (client) will name 5 items from a category with 80% accuracy for 3 data collections. (client) will imitate 1-2 word utterances 10x ...
Speech & Language Therapy Services in Georgia
At Verbal Expressions, Inc., we specialize in helping children with articulation and phonological disorders to learn the proper production of speech sounds. Our highly qualified therapists use evidence-based methods to ensure your child's progress in speech and language development.
Verbal Expressions, Inc.
When you choose Verbal Expressions, Inc. for your speech-language therapy needs, you can expect: ... Reach out to Verbal Expressions, Inc. today and embark on the journey towards better communication. 5300 Memorial Dr., Suite 126 Stone Mountain, Georgia 30083 (404) 297-5888 (404) 297-5889 [email protected]
Formulaic language
Formulaic language (previously known as automatic speech or embolalia) is a linguistic term for verbal expressions that are fixed in form, often non-literal in meaning with attitudinal nuances, and closely related to communicative-pragmatic context. Along with idioms, expletives and proverbs, formulaic language includes pause fillers (e.g., "Like", "Er" or "Uhm") and conversational speech ...
Verbal expression
verbal expression: 1 n the communication (in speech or writing) of your beliefs or opinions Synonyms: expression , verbalism Types: articulation , voice expressing in coherent verbal form cold turkey a blunt expression of views congratulation , felicitation (usually plural) an expression of pleasure at the success or good fortune of another ...
Will Cambridge Support Free Speech?
Apr 12, 2024 Peter Singer. The university is investigating Nathan Cofnas, a research fellow who published a blog post advocating "race realism.". Were Cofnas to be dismissed, it would sound a warning to students and academics everywhere: even the world's most renowned universities may no longer stand by their commitment to freedom of ...
Telo de Abreu v. Portugal
On May 16, 2009, the Elvas Tribunal convicted Telo de Abreu on aggravated defamation charges and ordered him to pay a €1,800 fine and €2,500 in damages jointly with the other defendants. The court found that the political cartoon attacked Mrs. E.G.'s reputation and that Telo de Abreu, as a member of the opposing political party ...
Elon Musk Battles a Brazilian Judge: Everything to Know
A Supreme Court justice in Brazil is taking on disinformation—and facing off with X owner Elon Musk, who claims to champion free speech. W hen billionaire Elon Musk acquired Twitter—now X—in ...
Jordan: Stop cracking down on pro-Gaza protests and release those
Jordan: Stop cracking down on pro-Gaza protests and release those charged for exercising their freedoms of assembly and expression. The Jordanian authorities must immediately cease their crackdown on pro-Gaza protests and immediately release dozens of activists who have been illegally detained solely because of their peaceful criticism of the government's policies towards Israel, Amnesty ...
Free Speech Watchdog Defends Berkeley Dean Who Silenced ...
NEW YORK - The Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression, an American free speech watchdog, issued a statement on Thursday in support of the dean of Berkeley Law School who silenced a pro-Palestinian activist trying to make a speech at his private home. The Palestinian activist, a third-year ...

Enhancing Verbal Expression: A Guide to Speech and Language Therapy Worksheets

Understanding Verbal Expression

Benefits of Speech and Language Therapy Worksheets

Promote Language Development

Enhance Communication Skills

Improve Social Interaction

Types of Speech and Language Therapy Worksheets

Articulation Worksheets

Vocabulary-Building Worksheets

Grammar and Syntax Worksheets

Conversation and Social Skills Worksheets

How to Use Speech and Language Therapy Worksheets

Setting Goals and Objectives

Incorporating Worksheets into Therapy Sessions

Monitoring Progress and Adjusting Strategies

Additional Strategies to Enhance Verbal Expression

Encouraging Storytelling and Narrative Skills

Engaging in Role-Play and Pretend Play Activities

Using Visual Aids and Prompts

Resources for Speech and Language Therapy Worksheets

Online Platforms and Websites

Books and Publications

Collaborating with Speech Language Pathologists

Related Blog Posts:

Preparing for Success: Enhancing Social Communication in Grade 12

FREE MATERIALS

Get Started Instantly for Free

Notice About Our SEL Curriculum

Verbal Communication Skills

What is Verbal Communication?

Opening Communication

Basic Verbal Communication Skills: Effective Speaking and Listening

Improving Verbal Communication: More Advanced Techniques

Reinforcement

Questioning

Reflecting and Clarifying

Summarising

Closing Communication

Only part of the picture

StatPearls [Internet].

Affiliations

In this Page

Related information

Similar articles in PubMed

Recent Activity

Learning Objectives

Physical Delivery and the Face

Facial Expressions

“Getting Competent”

Eye Contact

Physical Delivery and the Body

Credibility and Physical Delivery

Visual Aids and Delivery

Key Takeaways

7.2 Functions of Language

Language Is Expressive

Expressing Observations

Expressing Thoughts

Expressing Feelings

Expressing Needs

Table 7.2.1 Four Types of Verbal Expressions

Language Expresses Our Identities

Language Affects Our Credibility

Language Is a Means of Control

Language Is performative

Language Is Dynamic

Language Is Relational

Language Can Bring Us Together

Language Can Separate Us

Key Takeaways

3.2: Functions of Language

Learning Objectives

Language Is Expressive

Expressing Observations

Expressing Thoughts

Expressing Feelings

Expressing Needs

Language Is Powerful

Language Expresses Our Identities

Language Affects Our Credibility