what is irony in essay

Irony Definition

What is irony? Here’s a quick and simple definition:

Irony is a literary device or event in which how things seem to be is in fact very different from how they actually are. If this seems like a loose definition, don't worry—it is. Irony is a broad term that encompasses three different types of irony, each with their own specific definition:  verbal irony ,  dramatic irony , and  situational irony . Most of the time when people use the word irony, they're actually referring to one of these specific types of irony.

Some additional key details about irony:

• The term "irony" comes from the ancient Greek comic character called the "eiron," who pretends ignorance in order to deceive an opponent. 
• Irony overlaps with, but is not identical to, sarcasm and satire . 
• In the last twenty years or so, the term "ironic" has become popular to describe an attitude of detachment or subversive humor, like that of someone who wears a Christmas sweater as a joke. This more recent meaning of ironic is not entirely consistent with the original meaning of irony (a fact which itself might be described as being somewhat ironic). 

Irony Pronunciation

Here's how to pronounce irony: eye -run-ee

Irony in Depth

The term "irony" usually refers to three particular types of irony:

• Verbal irony is a figure of speech in which the literal meaning of what someone says is different from—and often opposite to—what they actually mean. For example, if someone has a painful visit to the dentist and when it's over says, "Well, that was pleasant," they are using verbal irony because the intended meaning of their words (that it  wasn't at all  pleasant) is the opposite of the literal meaning of the words. Verbal irony is the most common form of irony. In fact it is so common that when people mention "irony," they often are actually referring to verbal irony. 
• Dramatic irony  Is a plot device that highlights the difference between a character's understanding of a given situation, and that of the audience. When the audience watching a movie know what's behind that door, but the character in the movie has no idea... that's dramatic irony. 
• Situational irony  refers to an unexpected, paradoxical, or perverse turn of events. It is an example of situational irony when, in the O. Henry story " The Gift of the Magi ," a young wife cuts off her hair in order to buy her husband a chain for his prized watch, but the husband sells his watch to buy his wife a comb for her beautiful hair. 

Although these three kinds of irony may seem very different at first glance, they all share one important quality: a tension between how things appear and how they really are. For a more in-depth look at each of these devices, please visit their individual pages.

Also, it's worth knowing that sometimes instances of irony don't quite fit into any of these categories, and instead align with the more general definition of irony as something that seems to be one way, but is in fact another way. Put more broadly: sometimes irony is verbal irony, sometimes it's dramatic irony, sometimes it's situational irony, and sometimes it's just irony. 

Irony, Sarcasm, and Satire

Besides the three main types of irony described above, two other literary devices—sarcasm and satire—share a lot in common with irony:

• Sarcasm is a bitter, cutting, or mocking taunt used to denigrate a particular person, place, or thing. It can sometimes take the form of verbal irony. For instance, if you were to say to someone who had just cut you in line, "What a polite, civilized person you are!" that would be sarcasm in the form of irony, since your meaning is the opposite of the literal meaning of your words. Sarcasm very often involves irony. However, it doesn't always have to use irony. For instance, when Groucho Marx says "i never forget a face, but in your case I'll be glad to make an exception," he is being sarcastic, but his words, however witty they are, mean exactly what they say. 
• Satire is a form of social or political critique. Like sarcasm, it often makes use of irony, but it isn't always ironic.

You can get more details on both sarcasm and satire at their specific pages.

Irony Examples

All three forms of irony are used very frequently in literature, theater, and film. In addition, sometimes the irony found in any of these mediums is broader and doesn't fit into any of the specific categories, and is instead just general irony. 

Irony in "The Sell Out"

" The Sell Out " by Simon Rich is a short story recently published in the New Yorker that is full of irony. The story is narrated by a Polish Jew named Herschel, who lives in Brooklyn in the early twentieth century. Herschel accidentally preserves himself in brine for one hundred years, and when he is finally discovered, still alive, in 2017, he is introduced to his great-great-grandson, a young man who lives in present-day Brooklyn. On Herschel's first day, the great-great-grandson Simon tells Herschel about computers. Herschel describes the scene (note that Hershel's English isn't all that great):

It takes him long time, but eventually Simon is able to explain. A computer is a magical box that provides endless pleasure for free. Simon is used to constant access to this box—a never-ending flow of pleasures. When the box stops working—or even just briefly slows down—he becomes so enraged that he curses our God, the one who gave us life and brought us forth from Egypt.

This description is a great example of irony in the most general sense. The humor stems from the disparity between what seems to be true to Herschel (that computers are magic pleasure boxes) and what is actually true (that computers are, well, computers, and that people are kind of stupidly addicted to them). The use of irony is effective here because Hershel's description, as outlandish as it is, actually points to something that is  true about the way people use computers. Therefore, the disparity between "what is" and "what appears to be" to Herschel isn't merely a comical error; rather, it's ironic because it actually points to a greater truth about its subject.

Verbal Irony in Don Quixote

One famously ironic work is Miguel de Cervantes's Don Quixote .   At one point, the book's narrator states: 

… historians should and must be precise, truthful and unprejudiced, without allowing self-interest or fear, hostility or affection, to turn them away from the path of truth, whose mother is history.

We can identify the above quotation as an example of verbal irony if we consider that the book's hero, Don Quixote, is fundamentally incapable of distinguishing truth from fiction, and any historian of his life would have to follow a double track of reality and fantasy which continuously overlaps, tangles, and flips. One of the most basic premises of the book is that truth is more difficult to identify than it may seem. Therefore, when the narrator vows to follow the single path of truth, he is being ironic; in reality, he believes this to be impossible. 

Dramatic Irony in Othello

The device of dramatic irony is especially well-suited to the theater, which displays constantly shifting sets, scenes, and characters to a stationary audience that, therefore, often has a more complete or "omniscient" perspective compared to any of the characters. One excellent example of dramatic irony can be found in Shakespeare's  Othello . 

Through the play, the audience watches as Iago plots against his commander Othello, and seeks to make Othello believe that his wife Desdemona has been unfaithful to him. The audience watches as Iago plots to himself and with others. Sometimes Iago even directly reveals his plans to the audience. Meanwhile, Othello continues to trust Iago, and the audience watches as the the plan they know that Iago is pursuing slowly plays out just as he intended, and Othello eventually murders the entirely innocent Desdemona. The way that the play makes the audience aware of Iago's plot, even as Othello is not, means that the play is full of dramatic irony almost for its entire length. 

Situational Irony in The Producers

In this classic film, two friends come up with a complicated money-making scheme in which they put on a play that they think is absolutely certain to fail. Their plan backfires when the play, entitled "Springtime for Hitler," is so shockingly bad that people think it's a comedy and come to see it in droves. This is an example of situational irony because the outcome is the exact opposite of what the play's producers expected.

Why Do Writers Use Irony?

Irony is a tool that can be used for many different purposes. Though sarcasm and satire are two ways of using irony that are primarily negative and critical, ironic statements can also underscore the fragility, complexity, and beauty of human experience.

• Situational irony often demonstrates how human beings are always at the mercy of an unpredictable universe—and that life can always take an unexpected turn.
• Dramatic irony emphasizes that human knowledge is always partial and often incorrect, while giving the reader or viewer the satisfaction of a more complete understanding than that of the characters.
• In dialogue, verbal irony can display one character's sparkling wit, and another character's thickheadedness. Verbal irony can also create a connection between people who  get  the irony, excluding those who don't.

Ultimately, irony is used to create meaning—whether it's humorous or profound—out of the gap between the way things appear and how they actually are.

Other Helpful Irony Resources

• The Wikipedia page on irony : A helpful overview.
• The dictionary definition of irony : A basic definition, with a bit on the etymology.
• The comedian George Carlin explaining the difference  between situational irony and mere coincidence.
• A site with a helpful index of examples of different types of irony in television, film, video games, and other media.

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Definition of Irony

Irony is a literary device in which contradictory statements or situations reveal a reality that is different from what appears to be true. There are many forms of irony featured in literature. The effectiveness of irony as a literary device depends on the reader’s expectations and understanding of the disparity between what “should” happen and what “actually” happens in a literary work. This can be in the form of an unforeseen outcome of an event, a character ’s unanticipated behavior, or something incongruous that is said.

One of the most famous examples of irony in literature comes from The Gift of the Magi by O. Henry. In this story , a newly married couple decides independently to sacrifice and sell what means most to themselves in order to purchase a Christmas gift for the other. Unfortunately, the gifts they receive from each other are intended for the very prized possessions they both sold. As a result, though their sacrifices symbolize the love they have for each other, the actual gifts they receive are all but useless.

Common Examples of Irony

Many common phrases and situations reflect irony. Irony often stems from an unanticipated response ( verbal irony ) or an unexpected outcome ( situational irony ). Here are some common examples of verbal and situational irony:

• Verbal Irony
• Telling a quiet group, “don’t speak all at once”
• Coming home to a big mess and saying, “it’s great to be back”
• Telling a rude customer to “have a nice day”
• Walking into an empty theater and asking, “it’s too crowded”
• Stating during a thunderstorm, “beautiful weather we’re having”
• An authority figure stepping into the room saying, “don’t bother to stand or anything”
• A comedian telling an unresponsive audience , “you all are a great crowd”
• Describing someone who says foolish things as a “genius”
• Delivering bad news by saying, “the good news is”
• Entering a child’s messy room and saying “nice place you have here”
• Situational Irony
• A fire station that burns down
• Winner of a spelling bee failing a spelling test
• A t-shirt with a “Buy American” logo that is made in China
• Marriage counselor divorcing the third wife
• Sending a Christmas card to someone who is Jewish
• Leaving a car wash at the beginning of a downpour
• A dentist needing a root canal
• Going on a blind date with someone who is visually impaired
• A police station being burglarized
• Purchasing a roll of stamps a day before the price to send a letter increases

Examples of Irony in Plot

Irony is extremely useful as a plot device. Readers or viewers of a plot that includes irony often call this effect a “twist.” Here are some examples of irony in well-known plots:

• The Wizard of Oz (L. Frank Baum): the characters already have what they are asking for from the wizard
• Time Enough at Last (episode of “The Twilight Zone”): the main character, who yearns to be left alone to read, survives an apocalyptic explosion but breaks his reading glasses
• Oedipus Rex (Sophocles): Oedipus is searching for a murderer who, it turns out, is himself
• The Cask of Amontillado ( Edgar Allan Poe ): the character “Fortunato” meets with a very unfortunate fate
• Hansel and Gretel (Grimm fairy tale ): the witch, who intended to eat Hansel ad Gretel, is trapped by the children in her own oven

Real Life Examples of Irony

Think you haven’t heard of any examples of irony in real life? Here are some instances of irony that have taken place:

• It is reported that Lady Nancy Astor once said to Winston Churchill that if he were her husband, she would poison his tea. In response, Churchill allegedly said, “Madam, if I were your husband, I’d drink it.”
• Sweden’s Icehotel, built of snow and ice, contains fire alarms.
• Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia is the official name for fear of long words
• Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury is considered an anti-censorship novel , and it is one of the most consistently banned books in the United States.
• A retired CEO of the Crayola company suffered from colorblindness.
• Many people claimed and/or believed that the Titanic was an “unsinkable” ship.
• There is a hangover remedy entitled “hair of the dog that bit you” that involves consuming more alcohol.
• George H.W. Bush reportedly stated, “I have opinions of my own, strong opinions, but I don’t always agree with them.”

Difference Between Verbal Irony, Dramatic Irony, and Situational Irony

Though there are many forms of irony as a literary device, its three main forms are verbal, dramatic, and situational. Verbal irony sets forth a contrast between what is literally said and what is actually meant. In dramatic irony , the state of the action or what is happening as far as what the reader or viewer knows is the reverse of what the players or characters suppose it to be. Situational irony refers to circumstances that turn out to be the reverse of what is expected or considered appropriate.

Essentially, verbal and situational irony are each a violation of a reader’s expectations and conventional knowledge. When it comes to verbal irony, the reader may be expecting a character’s statement or response to be one thing though it turns out to be the opposite. For situational irony, the reader may anticipate an event’s outcome in one way though it turns out to happen in a completely different way.

Dramatic Irony is more of a vicarious violation of expectations or knowledge. In other words, the reader/audience is aware of pertinent information or circumstances of which the actual characters are not. Therefore, the reader is left in suspense or conflict until the situation or information is revealed to the characters involved. For example, a reader may be aware of a superhero’s true identity whereas other characters may not know that information. Dramatic irony allows a reader the advantage of knowing or understanding something that a particular character or group of characters does not.

Writing Irony

Overall, as a literary device, irony functions as a means of portraying a contrast or discrepancy between appearance and reality. This is effective for readers in that irony can create humor and suspense, as well as showcase character flaws or highlight central themes in a literary work.

It’s essential that writers bear in mind that their audience must have an understanding of the discrepancy between appearance and reality in their work. Otherwise, the sense of irony is lost and ineffective. Therefore, it’s best to be aware of the reader or viewer’s expectations of reality in order to create an entirely different and unexpected outcome.

Here are some ways that writers benefit from incorporating irony into their work:

Plot Device

Irony in various forms is a powerful plot device. Unexpected events or character behaviors can create suspense for readers, heighten the humor in a literary work, or leave a larger impression on an audience. As a plot device, irony allows readers to re-evaluate their knowledge, expectations, and understanding. Therefore, writers can call attention to themes in their work while simultaneously catching their readers off-guard.

Method of Reveal

As a literary device, irony does not only reveals unexpected events or plot twists . It serves to showcase disparity in the behavior of characters, making them far more complex and realistic. Irony can also reveal preconceptions on the part of an audience by challenging their assumptions and expectations. In this sense, it is an effective device for writers.

Difference Between Irony and Sarcasm

Although irony encapsulates several things including situations, expressions, and actions, sarcasm only involves the use of language that is in the shape of comments. Whereas irony could be non-insulting for people, sarcasm essentially means ridiculing somebody or even insulting somebody. Therefore, it is fair to state that although sarcasm could be a part of an element of irony, the irony is a broad term, encompassing several items or ingredients of other devices in it.

Use of Irony in Sentences

• A traffic cop gets suspended for not paying his parking tickets.
• “Father of Traffic Safety” William Eno invented the stop sign, crosswalk, traffic circle, one-way street, and taxi stand—but never learned how to drive.
• Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone but refused to keep one in his study. He feared it would distract him from his work.
• Alan has been a marriage counselor for 10 years and he’s just filing for divorce.
• Oh, fantastic! Now I cannot attend the party I had been waiting for 3 months.

Examples of Irony in Literature

Irony is a very effective literary device as it adds to the significance of well-known literary works. Here are some examples of irony:

Example 1:  The Necklace (Guy de Maupassant)

“You say that you bought a necklace of diamonds to replace mine?” “Yes. You never noticed it, then! They were very like.” And she smiled with a joy which was proud and naïve at once. Mme. Forestier, strongly moved, took her two hands. “Oh, my poor Mathilde! Why, my necklace was paste. It was worth at most five hundred francs!”

In his short story , de Maupassant utilizes situational irony to reveal an unexpected outcome for the main character Mathilde who borrowed what she believed to be a diamond necklace from her friend Mme. Forestier to wear to a ball. Due to vanity and carelessness, Mathilde loses the necklace. Rather than confess this loss to her friend, Mathilde and her husband replace the necklace with another and thereby incur a debt that takes them ten years of labor to repay.

In a chance meeting, Mathilde learns from her friend that the original necklace was fake. This outcome is ironic in the sense that Mathilde has become the opposite of the woman she wished to be and Mme. Forestier is in possession of a real diamond necklace rather than a false one. This ending may cause the reader to reflect on the story’s central themes, including pride, authenticity, and the price of vanity.

Example 2:  Not Waving but Drowning  (Stevie Smith)

Nobody heard him, the dead man, But still he lay moaning: I was much further out than you thought And not waving but drowning .

Example 3:  A Modest Proposal (Jonathan Swift)

A child will make two dishes at an entertainment for friends; and when the family dines alone, the fore or hind quarter will make a reasonable dish, and seasoned with a little pepper or salt will be very good boiled on the fourth day, especially in winter .

Swift makes use of verbal irony in his essay in which he advocates eating children as a means of solving the issue of famine and poverty . Of course, Swift does not literally mean what he is saying. Instead, his verbal irony is used to showcase the dire situation faced by those who are impoverished and their limited resources or solutions. In addition, this irony is meant as a call to action among those who are not suffering from hunger and poverty to act in a charitable way towards those less fortunate.

Example 4: 1984 by George Orwell

War is Peace ; Freedom is Slavery and Ignorance is Strength .

There are several types of irony involved in the novel, 1984 , by George Orwell . The very first example is the slogan given at the beginning of the novel. This slogan is “ War is Peace ; Freedom is Slavery and Ignorance is Strength.” Almost every abstract idea is given beside or parallels to the idea that is contrary to it. These oxymoronic statements show the irony latent in them that although Oceania is at war, yet it is stressing the need for peace and the same is the case with others that although all are slaves of the state, they are calling it freedom. This is verbal irony.

Another example is that of situational irony. It is in the relationship of Winston and Julia that he secretly cherishes to have sexual advances toward her but outwardly hates her. When Julia finds that the place where it must be shunned, Junior Anti-Sex League, is the best place for such actions to do in hiding, it becomes a situational irony.

Synonyms of Irony

Some of the most known synonyms of irony are sarcasm, sardonicism, bitterness, cynicism, mockery, ridicule, derision, scorn, sneering, wryness, or backhandedness.

Related posts:

• Dramatic Irony
• 10 Examples of Irony in Shakespeare
• 15 Irony Examples in Disney Movies
• 11 Examples of Irony in Children’s Literature
• 12 Thought Provoking Examples of Irony in History
• Top 12 Examples of Irony in Poetry
• 10 Irony Examples in Shakespeare
• Romeo and Juliet Dramatic Irony
• Brevity is the Soul of Wit
• To Thine Own Self Be True
• Frailty, Thy Name is Woman
• My Kingdom for a Horse
• Lady Doth Protest too Much
• The Quality of Mercy is Not Strain’d
• Ignorance is Strength

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Last updated on Nov 03, 2022

3 Types of Irony: Tell Them Apart With Confidence (+ Examples)

Irony is when the opposite of what is expected happens. In writing, there are three types of irony — verbal, situational, and dramatic.

• Verbal irony is when a person says one thing but means the opposite;
• Situational irony is when the opposite of what is expected happens; and
• Dramatic irony is when the audience knows something that characters do not.

The term “irony” comes from the Greek word eironeia , meaning "feigned ignorance," and storytellers of all stripes like to use the different forms of irony as a rhetorical or literary device to create suspense, humor, or as the central conceit in a plot.

To help you make heads or tails of this technique, this article will dig into the three common types of irony.

1. Verbal irony

Verbal irony is where the intended meaning of a statement is the opposite of what is actually said. People and literary characters alike use it to express amusement, emphasize a point, or to voice frustration or anger. In literature, verbal irony can create suspense, tension, or a comic effect. 

Verbal irony is actually the type of irony most used in everyday conversation, and can take the form of sarcasm — which is almost always used to denigrate someone or something. Regardless, the two are not the same thing, though many people conflate the concepts. 

To illustrate, here are a few common phrases that perfectly exemplify how verbal irony works — many of them similes comparing two entirely unlike things:

• "Clear as mud."
• "Friendly as a rattlesnake."
• "About as much fun as a root canal."

Understating and overstating

Broadly speaking, verbal irony works by either understating or overstating the gravity of the situation. 

An ironic understatement creates contrast by undermining the impact of something, though the thing itself will be rather substantial or severe. For example, in The Catcher in the Rye , Holden Caulfield casually says, "I have to have this operation. It isn't very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain." Of course, Holden is lying here, which is why he can be so cavalier — and the nonchalant way he downplays something as serious as a brain tumor is ironic.

On the other hand, an ironic overstatement makes something minor sound like a much bigger deal to emphasize a quality it lacks. For example, say you win $5 in a lottery where the grand prize is $100 million. A friend asks you if you won anything, and you say, "Yeah, total jackpot" — that's an ironic overstatement.

💡 Note: Don’t confuse ironic overstatements with hyperbole , the rhetorical device of exaggeration. If a character says "I'm so tired, I could sleep for a million years,” and they are genuinely tired, that isn’t ironic — just exaggerated.

Highlighting a fallacy

Verbal irony is often used for satirical purposes, exaggerating or underplaying descriptions to reveal a deeper truth. Viewed through a lens of overstatement or understatement, the reader can see how flawed the original concept might be.

Verbal irony can be found in the very first lines of Romeo and Juliet (a play riddled with irony).

Two households, both alike in dignity, In fair Verona, where we lay our scene, From ancient grudge break to new mutiny, Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean.

Though the first line may sound respectful, we can see by the end of this verse that Shakespeare doesn’t actually mean to say that both households are alike in their great dignity. Instead, these lines imply the total opposite — that both households are equally un dignified. This irony also serves another purpose: notifying first-time readers that not all that glitters is gold. While both families might technically be considered nobility, their shared inability to act nobly toward one another ultimately leads to a bitter end for our tragic heroes .

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Providing insight into characters

Dialogue is an incredible tool for revealing what a character is like as how they choose to say something can speak volumes about who they are. Very often, people who use verbal irony tend to be highly self-aware.

For example, in Casablanca, the corrupt (yet charming) police captain Louis Renault follows instructions from German officials to order a raid on Rick's nightclub under the pretext of closing an illegal gambling den. "I'm shocked — shocked! — to find that gambling is going on in here!" Renault exclaims while thanking Rick’s croupier for bringing him his winnings. This knowing overstatement of 'shocked' reveals a lot about his cheerfully cynical worldview.

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Creating a comic effect

Of course, verbal irony can also be used for a simple comic result. Whether it's to highlight a witty character, lighten tension during a dark or difficult scene, or just to make people laugh, verbal irony can provide a much-needed moment of humorous relief. As you might expect, verbal irony is a common joke component.

For example, in Notting Hill , when love interests Anna and Will first meet at his bookshop , he confronts a man who’s trying to steal a book, and very politely threatens to call the police. When he returns to the till to help Anna, she hands over the book she’d like to buy and says “I was gonna steal one, but now I’ve changed my mind.” Obviously, the statement isn’t true — she’s using verbal irony to make light of the situation, diffusing awkwardness and showing her friendly inclination.

2. Situational irony

In literature, situational irony is a literary or plot device occurring when there is a discrepancy between what is expected to happen and what actually happens. You can use it to create suspense, humor, and surprise in your writing.

You can think of it as “the irony of events” to distinguish from the other types of irony, but it is not the same as coincidence or bad luck (apologies to Alanis Morrisette ). If you buy a new car and then accidentally drive it into a tree, that is coincidental and unlucky, but not ironic. However, if a professional stunt driver crashes into a tree on their way home from receiving a "best driver" award, that is situationally ironic. 

Within the context of a story, why might a writer use situational irony?

Creating a good ol’ fashioned twist

Authors can draw strong reactions from their readers by presenting them with carefully executed twists and turns. A  plot twist is all the more delicious when it's the polar opposite of what you'd typically expect. Storylines based on or containing situational irony inherently possess an element of surprise, so they're common in the comedy, thriller , crime, and mystery genres.

In Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest , for example, Jack proposes to Gwendolen under his fake name of Ernest, hoping to share the truth about his name once he’s been accepted. His plan is quickly thwarted when she accepts him because of his name, telling him that her “ideal has always been to love some one of the name of Ernest.” When he asks her what he thinks of “Jack” as a name, she declares that “The only really safe name is Ernest” — so his plan to reveal the truth is suddenly turned on its head, and he resolves to get christened as soon as possible. 

Emphasizing a theme or moral lesson

Steering readers to an unexpected destination in a story can also emphasize a theme or moral lesson — often reminding readers that an expected outcome is not always guaranteed. And because situational irony can urge readers to think twice about their own assumptions, authors often deploy it in fables or morality tales.

In Aesop's 'The Tortoise and the Hare,' for example, the unexpected outcome teaches us that slow and steady wins the race . Or perhaps the real moral is that you shouldn't be complacent and take naps during races.

Situational irony creates a contrast between appearances and underlying truths. When done properly, this can significantly alter a reader's interaction with, expectations of, and insight into a story. But irony must be used with care: without the help of intonation and body language, it requires people to read between the lines to understand its intentions; a reader who doesn’t see the irony will take these words at face value.

3. Dramatic irony

Dramatic irony occurs when the reader or viewer knows something that the characters in the story do not. This can create a sense of unease or anticipation as the audience waits to see how the characters will react to the situation they are in. 

So, to what effect can dramatic irony be used in a story?

Building fear and suspense

When readers or viewers know more than the characters do, they’re often left on pins and needles, waiting for the other shoe to drop or for an inevitable plot point to appear. Will the character discover the secret we already know? What will happen when they find out the truth? What if they find out the truth too late? Subconsciously, all of these questions run through their minds as the story unfolds, contributing to page-turning suspense.

The Hobbit contains a perfect example of dramatic irony — when Bilbo happens upon the ring while lost on a mountain, he puts it in his pocket and soon afterward encounters Gollum.

At this point, readers understand the significance of the ring and its importance to Gollum. However, Gollum does not yet realize he has lost the ring, and Bilbo doesn’t yet know who the ring belongs to. For this reason, the scene where Bilbo and Gollum engage in a game of riddles becomes more stressful for the audience who understands what’s at stake. 

📚 For some truly impressive suspense-building, check out this list of the 50 best suspense books of all time .

Eliciting sympathy for a character

If a character is happy but we know that tragedy lies ahead, we can’t help but sympathize with them. If the reader or audience is already "rooting for" the characters, they will hold on to the hope that things will turn out okay for them. And whatever the end result is — pain or relief —  the reader is likely to feel it twofold.

The audience knew all along! (image: Touchstone Pictures)

In the modern-day Shakespeare adaptation Ten Things I Hate About You , for example, bad-boy transfer student Patrick is paid by his classmate to woo the cold and aloof Kat. The audience knows that Kat will eventually discover the truth. The deception will wound her, and Patrick will (justifiably) lose her trust. This dramatic irony gives the scenes where they fall in love a bittersweet edge, making us sympathize with both characters. 

In fact, many romance tropes rely on dramatic irony, like the hate-to-love trope — just on account of the characters existing in a romance novel, readers know they're going to end up together. This results in that “slow burn” anticipation where readers are dying to see the characters confess their feelings, but have to live with their impatience as the romance slowly runs its course.

Setting up comical misunderstandings

A lot of comedy comes out of misunderstandings — where a character believes something that the audience knows not to be true, or doesn’t yet know something important. The dramatic irony turns into comedic tension as the character obliviously digs themselves (or other characters) into a deeper hole.

To give you an example of how this works: in a season one episode of Friends , Joey tried to win back his ex-girlfriend Angela by arranging a double date. Hebrings Monica but tells her that Angela’s new boyfriend, Bob, is actually her brother — making it seem as though Bob is Monica’s date. This misunderstanding turns to hilarious confusion as Monica is creeped out by how 'close' Bob and Angela seem to be.

Want more examples and in-depth explanation of any of these types of irony? We’ve spent some time breaking them down even further in the next posts in this guide — starting with verbal irony .

3 responses

Katharine Trauger says:

08/08/2017 – 05:39

I once received a birthday card telling me that irony is the opposite of wrinkly. But I do have a question: I believe, as you related to Hitchcock and I think about his works, that he used irony extensively, even more than one instance in a piece. It's a lot to remember and I've certainly not examined his works to verify that. However, I wonder if, although his works were beyond successful and loved by many, just how much irony is acceptable in today's writing. I agree it is a great device, but can it be overdone? Also, I am writing a piece which has what I believe an ironic ending. Is that a bad place to put a huge departure from the expected? I think O'Henry did that a lot, like when the man sells his watch to buy combs for his wife, and she sells her hair to buy a chain for his watch... But today, how much is too much and will readers come back for more?

↪️ Jim Morrison replied:

20/06/2018 – 21:42

While irony can be overused, it is not a bad thing to use irony - even to end a book. "Story" by Robert McKee discusses irony as an ending and explains how to use it and when to use it. As to your question about how much irony is accepted in today's society, I would say that it is more acceptable than before. With today's writing - particularly in theater - irony is a heavily used element. Thor: Ragnarok, for example, is dripping with ironic situations. Satire, the personal wheelhouse of Vonnegut and Heller, is not only a highbrow version of sarcasm, it is also heavy on the irony. So I say, personally, be as ironic as you want, just, as mentioned in the blog, be careful you don't overuse it to the point that the use of irony becomes ironic (i.e. you lose the audience). Cheers and happy writing.

Naughty Autie says:

30/05/2019 – 15:37

There is a blog which does not allow comments, yet it's called 'The Conversation'. Funny, I always thought that a conversation always took place between multiple people.

Comments are currently closed.

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What Is Irony? Definition and 5 Different Types of Irony to Engage Readers

by Fija Callaghan

Most of us are familiar with irony in our day to day lives—for instance, if you buy a brand new car only to have it break down on its very first ride (situational irony). Or if someone tells you they love your new dress, when what they actually mean is that it flatters absolutely no one and wasn’t even fashionable in their grandparent’s time (verbal irony).

Ironic understatement and ironic overstatement make their way into our conversations all the time, but how do you take those rascally twists of fate and use them to create a powerful story?

There are countless examples of irony in almost all storytelling, from short stories and novels to stage plays, film, poetry, and even sales marketing. Its distinctive subversion of expectation keeps readers excited and engaged, hanging on to your story until the very last page.

What is irony?

Irony is a literary and rhetorical device in which a reader’s expectation is sharply contrasted against what’s really happening. This might be when someone says the opposite of what they mean, or when a situation concludes the opposite of how one would expect. There are five types of irony: Tragic, Comic, Situational, Verbal, and Socratic.

The word irony comes from the Latin ironia , which means “feigned ignorance.” This can be a contradiction between what someone says and what they mean, between what a character expects and what they go on to experience, or what the reader expects and what actually happens in the plot. In all cases there’s a twist that keeps your story fresh and unpredictable.

By using different kinds of irony—and we’ll look at the five types of irony in literature down below—you can manage the reader’s expectations to create suspense and surprise in your story.

What’s not irony?

The words irony and ironic get thrown around a fair bit, when sometimes what someone’s really referring to is coincidence or plain bad luck. So what constitutes irony? It’s not rain on your wedding day, or or a free ride when you’ve already paid. Irony occurs when an action or event is the opposite of its literal meaning or expected outcome.

For example, if the wedding was between a woman who wrote a book called Why You Don’t Need No Man and a man who held a TEDtalk called “Marriage As the Antithesis of Evolution,” their wedding (rainy or not) would be ironic—because it’s the opposite of what we would expect.

Another perfect example of irony would be if you listened a song called “Ironic,” and discovered it wasn’t about irony after all.

Why does irony matter in writing?

Irony is something we all experience, sometimes without even recognizing it. Using irony as a literary technique in your writing can encourage readers to look at your story in a brand new way, making them question what they thought they knew about the characters, theme, and message that your story is trying to communicate.

Subverting the expectations of both your readers and the characters who populate your story world is one of the best ways to convey a bold new idea.

Aesop used this idea very effectively in his moralistic children’s tales, like “The Tortoise and the Hare.” The two title characters are set up to race each other to the finish line, and it seems inevitable that the hare will beat the tortoise easily. By subverting our expectations, and leading the story to an unexpected outcome, the author encourages the reader to think about what the story means and why it took the turn that it did.

The 5 types of irony

While all irony functions on the basis of undermining expectations, this can be done in different ways. Let’s look at the different types of irony in literature and how you can make them work in your own writing.

1. Tragic irony

Tragic irony is the first of two types of dramatic irony—both types always show the reader more than it shows its characters. In tragic dramatic irony, the author lets the reader in on the downfall waiting for the protagonist before the character knows it themselves.

This is a very common and effective literary device in many classic tragedies; Shakespeare was a big fan of using tragic irony in many of his plays. One famous example comes at the end of Romeo and Juliet , when poor Romeo believes that his girlfriend is dead. The audience understands that Juliet, having taken a sleeping potion, is only faking.

Carrying this knowledge with them as they watch the lovers hurtle towards their inevitable, heartbreaking conclusion makes this story even more powerful.

Another example of tragic irony is in the famous fairy tale “Red Riding Hood,” when our red-capped heroine goes to meet her grandmother, oblivious of any danger. The reader knows that the “grandmother” is actually a vicious, hungry wolf waiting to devour the girl, red hood and all. Much like curling up with a classic horror movie, the reader can only watch as the protagonist comes closer and closer to her doom.

This type of irony makes the story powerful, heartbreaking, and deliciously cathartic.

2. Comic irony

Comic irony uses the same structure as dramatic irony, only in this case it’s used to make readers laugh. Just like with tragic irony, this type of irony depends on allowing the reader to know more than the protagonist.

For example, a newly single man might spend hours getting ready for a blind date only to discover that he’s been set up with his former girlfriend. If the reader knows that both parties are unaware of what’s waiting for them, it makes for an even more satisfying conclusion when the two unwitting former lovers finally meet.

TV sitcoms love to use comedic irony. In this medium, the audience will often watch as the show’s characters stumble through the plot making the wrong choices. For example, in the TV series Friends , one pivotal episode shows a main character accepting a sudden marriage proposal from another—even though the audience knows the proposal was made unintentionally.

By letting the audience in on the secret, it gives the show an endearing slapstick quality and makes the viewer feel like they’re a part of the story.

3. Situational irony

Situational irony is when a story shows us the opposite of what we expect. This might be something like an American character ordering “shop local” buttons from a factory in China, or someone loudly championing the ethics of a vegan diet while wearing a leather jacket.

When most people think about ironic situations in real life, they’re probably thinking of situational irony—sometimes called cosmic irony. It’s also one of the building blocks of the twist ending, which we’ll look at in more detail below.

The author O. Henry was a master of using situational irony. In his short story “ The Ransom of Red Chief ,” two desperate men decide to get rich quick by kidnapping a child and holding him for ransom. However, the child in question turns out to be a horrendous burden and, after some negotiating, the men end up paying the parents to take him off their hands. This ironic twist is a complete reversal from the expectation that was set up at the beginning.

When we can look back on situational irony from the past, it’s sometimes called historical irony; we can retrospectively understand that an effort to accomplish one thing actually accomplished its opposite.

4. Verbal irony

Verbal irony is what we recognize most in our lives as sarcasm. It means saying the opposite of your intended meaning or what you intend the reader to understand, usually by either understatement or overstatement. This can be used for both tragic and comic effect.

For example, in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar , Mark Anthony performs a funeral speech honoring the character Brutus. He repeatedly calls him “noble” and “an honorable man,” even though Brutus was actually involved in the death of the man for which the funeral is being held. Mark Anthony’s ironic overstatement makes the audience aware that he actually holds the opposite regard for the villain, though he is sharing his inflammatory opinion in a tactful, politically safe way.

Verbal irony is particularly common in older and historical fiction in which societal constraints limited what people were able to say to each other. For example, a woman might say that it was dangerous for her to walk home all alone in the twilight, when what she really meant is that she was open to having some company.

In Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice , the two younger girls wail that they’ve hurt their ankles, hoping to elicit some sympathy from the strong arms of the men. You can use this kind of rhetorical device to enhance your character development.

5. Socratic irony

Socratic irony is actually a little bit like dramatic irony, except that it happens between two characters rather than between the characters and the reader. This type of irony happens when one character knows something that the other characters don’t.

It’s a manipulative technique that a character uses in order to achieve a goal—to get information, to gain a confession, or to catch someone in a lie. For example, police officers and lawyers will often use this technique to trip someone up: They’ll pretend they don’t know something and ask questions in order to trick someone into saying something they didn’t intend.

Usually Socratic irony is used in a sly and manipulative way, but not always; a teacher might use the Socratic irony technique to make a child realize they know more about a subject than they thought they did, by asking them leading questions or to clarify certain points. Like verbal irony, Socratic irony involves a character saying something they don’t really mean in order to gain something from another character.

Is irony the same as a plot twist?

The “plot twist” is a stylistic way of using situational irony. In the O. Henry example we looked at above, the author sets up a simple expectation at the start of the story: the men will trade in the child for hard cash and walk away happy. Alas, life so rarely goes according to plan. By the time we reach the story’s conclusion, our expectation of the story has been completely twisted around in a fun, satisfying way.

Not all situational irony is a plot twist, though. A plot twist usually comes either at the end or at the midpoint of your story. Situational irony can happen at any time as major plot points, or as small, surprising moments that help us learn something about our characters or the world we live in.

You’ll often see plot twists being compared to dramatic irony, because they have a lot in common. Both rely on hidden information and the gradual unfurling of secrets. The difference is that with a plot twist, the reader is taken by surprise and given the new information right along with the characters. With dramatic irony, the reader is in on the trick and they get to watch the characters being taken off guard.

Both dramatic irony and plot twists can be used quite effectively in writing. It’s up to you as the writer to decide how close you want your readers and your characters to be, and how much you want them to experience together.

How to use irony in your own writing

One of the great advantages of irony is that it forces us to look at things in a new way. This is essential when it comes to communicating theme to your reader.

In literature, theme is the underlying story that’s being told—a true story, a very real message or idea about the world we live in, the way we behave within it, or how we can make it a better place. In order to get that message across to our readers, we need to give them a new way to engage with that story. The innate subversion of expectations in irony is a wonderful way to do this.

For example, the classic fairy tale “Beauty and the Beast” uses irony very effectively to communicate its theme: don’t judge a person by their appearance.

Based on our preconceptions of this classic type of fairy tale, we would go in expecting the handsome young soldier to be the hero and the beastly monster to be the adversary. We might also expect the beautiful girl to be helpless and weak-spirited, waiting for her father to come in and save her. In this story, however, it’s the girl who saves her foolish father, the handsome soldier who shows himself to be the true monster, and the beast who becomes a hero to fight for those he cares about.

Not only do these subversions make for a powerful and engaging story, they do something very important for our readers: they make them ask themselves why they had these preconceptions in the first place. Why do we expect the handsome soldier to be noble and kind? Why do we expect the worst from the man with the beastly face before even giving him the chance to speak?

It’s these honest, sometimes uncomfortable questions, more than anything else, that make the theme real for your reader.

When looking for ways to weave theme throughout your story, consider what preconceived ideas your reader might be coming into the story with that might stand in the way of what you’re trying to say. Then see if you can find ways to make those ideas stand on their head. This will make the theme of your story more convincing, resonant, and powerful.

The one mistake to never make when using irony in your story

I’m going to tell you one of life’s great truths, which might be a bit difficult for some people to wrap their heads around. Embrace it, and you’ll leave your readers feeling a lot happier and more satisfied at the end of your story. Here it is:

You don’t need to be the smartest person in the room.

Have you ever been faced with a plot twist in a story and thought, “but that doesn’t make any sense”? Or realized that a surprising new piece of information rendered the events of the plot , or the effective slow build of characterization, absolutely meaningless?

These moments happen because the author became so enamored with the idea of pulling a fast one on the reader, revealing their cleverly assembled sleight-of-hand with the flourish of a theater curtain, that they forget the most important thing: the story .

When using irony in your work, the biggest mistake you can make is to look at it like a shiny, isolated hat trick. Nothing in your story is isolated; every moment fits together as a thread in a cohesive tapestry.

Remember that even if an ironic turn is unexpected, it needs to make sense within the world of your story. This means within the time and place you’ve created—for instance, you wouldn’t create an ironic twist in a medieval fantasy by suddenly having a character whip out a cellphone—but also within the world of your characters.

For example, if it turns out your frail damsel in distress is actually a powerful sorceress intent on destroying the hero, that’s not something you can just drop into your story unannounced like a grenade (no matter how tempting it might be). You need to begin laying down story seeds for that moment right from the beginning. You want your reader to be able to go back and say “ ohhh , I see what they did there. It all makes sense now.”

Irony—in particular the “twist ending”—can be fun, surprising, and unexpected, but it also needs to be a natural progression of the world you’ve created.

Irony is a literary device that reveals new dimension

To understand irony, we need to understand expectation in our audience or readers. When you’re able to manipulate these expectations, you engage your audience in surprising ways and maybe even teach them something new.

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What Is Irony? Definition, Usage, and Literary Examples

Irony definition.

Irony  (EYE-run-ee) is a literary device in which a word or event means something different—and often contradictory—to its actual meaning. At its most fundamental, irony is a difference between reality and something’s appearance or expectation, creating a natural tension when presented in the  context  of a story. In recent years, irony has taken on an additional meaning, referring to a situation or joke that is subversive in nature; the fact that the term has come to mean something different than what it actually does is, in itself, ironic.

The history of the word points to its somewhat deceptive nature. It comes from the Ancient Greek  eiron , meaning a stock character in early theatrical productions who feigns ignorance to fool someone else.

Types of Irony

When someone uses irony, it is typically in one of the three ways: verbal, situational, or dramatic.

Verbal Irony

In this form of irony, the speaker says something that differs from—and is usually in opposition with—the real meaning of the word(s) they’ve used. Take, for example, Edgar Allan Poe’s short story  “The Cask of Amontillado.”  As Montresor encloses Fortunato into the catacombs’ walls, he mocks Fortunato’s plea—”For the love of God, Montresor!”—by replying, “Yes, for the love of God!” Poe uses this to underscore how Montresor’s actions are anything but loving or humane—thus, far from God.

Situational Irony

This occurs when there is a difference between the intention of a specific situation and its result. The result is often unexpected or contrary to a person’s goal. The entire  plot  of L. Frank Baum’s  The Wonderful Wizard of Oz  hinges on situational irony. Dorothy and her friends spend the story trying to reach the Wizard so Dorothy can find a way back home, but in the end, the Wizard informs her that she had the power and knowledge to return home all along.

Dramatic Irony

Here, there is a disparity in how a character understands a situation and how the audience understands it. In Henrik Ibsen’s play  A Doll’s House , the married Nora excitedly anticipates the day when she’ll be able to repay Krogstad, who illegally lent her money. She imagines a future “free from care,” but the audience understands that, because Nora must continue to lie to her husband about the loan, she will never be free.

Not all irony adheres perfectly to one of these definitions. In some cases, irony is simply irony, where something’s appearance on the surface is substantially different from the truth.

Irony vs. Coincidence

Irony is often confused with coincidence. Though there is some overlap between the two terms, they are not the same thing. Coincidence describes two or more unlikely activities that share unexplainable similarities. It is often confused with situational irony. For example, finding out a friend you made in adulthood went to your high school is a coincidence, not an ironic event. Additionally, coincidence isn’t classifiable by type.

Irony, on the other hand, has a much starker and more substantial disparity between intention and result, with the result often the direct opposite of the intention. For example, the fact that the word  lisp  is ironic, considering it refers to an inability to properly pronounce  s  sounds but itself contains an  s .

The Functions of Irony

How an author uses irony depends on their intentions and the story or scene’s larger  context . In much of literature, irony highlights a larger point the author is making—often a commentary on the inherent difficulties and messiness of human existence.

With verbal irony, a writer can demonstrate a character’s intelligence, wit, or snark—or, as in the case of “ The Cask of Amontillado ,” a character’s unmitigated evil. It is primarily used in dialogue and rarely offers up any insight into the plot or meaning of a story.

With dramatic irony, a writer illustrates that knowledge is always a work in progress. It reiterates that people rarely have all the answers in life and can easily be wrong when they don’t have the right information. By giving readers knowledge the characters do not have, dramatic irony keeps readers engaged in the story; they want to see if and when the characters learn this information.

Finally, situational irony is a statement on how random and unpredictable life can be. It showcases how things can change in the blink of an eye and in bigger ways than one ever anticipated. It also points out how humans are at the mercy of unexplained forces, be they spiritual, rational, or matters of pure chance.

Irony as a Function of Sarcasm and Satire

Satire and  sarcasm  often utilize irony to amplify the point made by the speaker.

Sarcasm is a rancorous or stinging expression that disparages or taunts its subject. Thus, it usually possesses a certain amount of irony. Because inflection conveys sarcasm more clearly, saying a sarcastic remark out loud helps make the true meaning known. If someone says “Boy, the weather sure is beautiful today” when it is dark and storming, they’re making a sarcastic remark. This statement is also an example of verbal irony because the speaker is saying something in direct opposition to reality. But an expression doesn’t necessarily need to be verbal to communicate its sarcastic nature. If the previous example appeared in a written work, the application of italics would emphasize to the reader that the speaker’s use of the word  beautiful  is suspect. To further clarify, the remark would closely precede or follow a description of the day’s unappealing weather.

Satire is an entire work that critiques the behavior of specific individuals, institutions, or societies through outsized humor. Satire normally possesses both irony and sarcasm to further underscore the illogicality or ridiculousness of the targeted subject. Satire has a long history in literature and popular culture. The first known satirical work, “The Satire of the Trades,” dates back to the second millennium BCE. It discusses a variety of trades in an exaggerated, negative light, while presenting the trade of writer as one of great honor and nobility.  Shakespeare  famously satirized the cultural and societal norms of his time in many of his plays. In 21st-century pop culture,  The Colbert Report  was a political satire show, in which host Stephen Colbert played an over-the-top conservative political commentator. By embodying the characteristics—including vocal qualities—and beliefs of a stereotypical pundit, Colbert skewered political norms through abundant use of verbal irony. This is also an example of situational irony, as the audience knew Colbert, in reality, disagreed with the kind of ideas he was espousing.

Uses of Irony in Popular Culture

Popular culture has countless examples of irony.

One of the most predominant, contemporary references, Alanis Morissette’s hit song “Ironic” generated much controversy and debate around what, exactly, constitutes irony. In the song, Morissette sings about a variety of unfortunate situations, like rainy weather on the day of a wedding, finding a fly floating in a class of wine, and a death row inmate being pardoned minutes after they were killed. Morissette follows these lines with the question, “Isn’t it ironic?” In reality, none of these situations is ironic, at least not according to the traditional meaning of the word. These situations are coincidental, frustrating, or plain bad luck, but they aren’t ironic. The intended meaning of these examples is not disparate from their actual meanings. For instance, another line claims that having “ten thousand spoons when all you need is a knife” is ironic. This would only be ironic, if, say, the person being addressed made knives for a living. Morissette herself has acknowledged the debate and asserted that the song itself is ironic because none of the things she sings about are ironic at all.

Pixar/Disney’s movie  Monsters, Inc.  is an example of situational irony. In the world of this movie, monsters go into the human realm to scare children and harvest their screams. But, when a little girl enters the monster world, it’s revealed that the monsters are actually terrified of children. There are also moments of dramatic irony. As protagonist Sully and Mike try to hide the girl’s presence, she instigates many mishaps that amuse the audience because they know she’s there but other characters have no idea.

In the iconic television show  Breaking Bad , DEA agent Hank Schrader hunts for the elusive drug kingpin known as Heisenberg. But what Hank doesn’t know is that Heisenberg is really Walter White, Hank’s brother-in-law. This is a perfect example of dramatic irony because the viewers are aware of Walter’s secret identity from the moment he adopts it.

Examples of Irony in Literature

1. Jonathan Swift,  “A Modest Proposal”

Swift’s 1729 essay is a satire rich in verbal ironies. Under the guise of a serious adviser, Swift suggests a way that poor Irish communities can improve their lot in life: selling their children to rich people. He even goes a step further with his advice:

I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee or a ragout.

Obviously, Swift does not intend for anyone to sell or eat children. He uses verbal ironies to illuminate class divisions, specifically many Britons’ attitudes toward the Irish and the way the wealthy disregard the needs of the poor.

2. William Shakespeare,  Titus Andronicus

This epic Shakespeare tragedy is brutal, bloody, farcical, and dramatically ironic. It concerns the savage revenge exacted by General Titus on those who wronged him. His plans for revenge involve Tamora, Queen of the Goths, who is exacting her own vengeance for the wrongs she feels her sons have suffered. The audience knows from the outset what these characters previously endured and thus understand the true motivations of Titus and Tamora.

In perhaps the most famous scene, and likely one of literature’s most wicked dramatic ironies, Titus slays Tamora’s two cherished sons, grinds them up, and bakes them into a pie. He then serves the pie to Tamora and all the guests attending a feast at his house. After revealing the truth, Titus kills Tamora—then the emperor’s son, Saturninus, kills Titus, then Titus’s son Lucius kills Saturninus and so on.

3. O. Henry,  “The Gift of the Magi”

In this short story, a young married couple is strapped for money and tries to come up with acceptable Christmas gifts to exchange. Della, the wife, sells her hair to get the money to buy her husband Jim a watchband. Jim, however, sells his watch to buy Della a set of combs. This is a poignant instance of situational irony, the meaning of which O. Henry accentuates by writing that, although “[e]ach sold the most valuable thing he owned in order to buy a gift for the other,” they were truly “the wise ones.” That final phrase compares the couple to the biblical Magi who brought gifts to baby Jesus, whose birthday anecdotally falls on Christmas Day.

4. Margaret Atwood,  The Handmaid’s Tale

Atwood’s dystopian novel takes place in a not-too-distant America. Now known as Gilead, it is an isolated and insular country run by a theocratic government. Since an epidemic left many women infertile, the government enslaves those still able to conceive and assigns them as handmaids to carry children for rich and powerful men. If a handmaid and a Commander conceive, the handmaid must give the child over to the care of the Commander and his wife. Then, the handmaid is reassigned to another “post.”

A primary character in the story is Serena Joy, a Commander’s wife. In one of the book’s many ironic instances, it is revealed that Serena, in her pre-Gilead days, was a fierce advocate for a more conservative society. Though she now has the society she fought for, women—even Commanders’ wives—have few rights. Thus, she ironically suffers from the very reforms she spearheaded.

Further Resources on Irony

The Writer  has  an article  about writing and understanding irony in fiction.

Penlighten ‘s detailed  list of irony examples  includes works mainly from classic literature.

Publishing Crawl  offers  five ways to incorporate dramatic irony into your writing .

Harvard Library has an in-depth breakdown of  the evolution of irony in postmodern literature .

TV Tropes  is  a comprehensive resource for irony  in everything from literature and anime to television and movies.

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Irony: definition, types, and examples

Holly Stanley

“That’s so ironic!” We’ve all probably uttered these words at some point. In fact, you probably hear “isn’t it ironic?” all the time. Irony is one of the English language’s most misused and abused words. 

Irony has become synonymous with coincidence, bad luck, and pleasant surprises. But most things in life aren’t ironic . 

So if coincidences, bad luck, and unusual situations aren’t, what is ironic ? Let’s track down the misused word and uncover what situations it pertains to. 

Irony definition

The use of irony shows the contrast or incongruity between how things appear and how they are in reality. The remark “how ironic” indicates a meaning that’s the opposite of its precise meaning. 

In an ironic phrase, one thing is said, while another thing is meant. For example, if it were a cold, rainy gray day, you might say, “What a beautiful day!” Or, alternatively, if you were suffering from a bad bout of food poisoning, you might say, “Wow, I feel great today.”

These are both examples of irony –– verbal irony, to be precise –– the most frequently used type of irony (more on that later.)

Where does the word irony come from? 

Looking at irony’s origins can help with understanding how to best use the word. The word irony comes from the Latin ironia , meaning “feigned ignorance,” and previously from the Greek eironeia . Eiron, a Greek comic, was an intelligent underdog who used his wit to triumph over the egotistical character Alazon.

Since irony describes an outcome that contrasts with the originally expected results, you’ll see that writers generally use irony to build tension, create humor, or as a plot twist. 

When is something not ironic? 

When pinpointing the definition of irony , it can be helpful to look at when situations are incorrectly labeled as ironic . Irony is often used as a synonym for a caustic remark, something that’s interesting, or sarcastic.

What about the song Ironic ? 

Even singer Alanis Morissette got the definition wrong in her hit 1995 single “Ironic.” In fact, the criticism of her song was so strong, she had to clarify that she wasn’t technically trying to say that every line of the song was ironic.

Let’s take a closer look at Morissette’s timeless song lyrics:

It’s like rain on your wedding day,

It’s a free ride when you’ve already paid,

It’s the good advice that you just didn’t take.

While it could be considered bad luck, rain on a wedding day isn’t ironic , since it’s not as though it’s a given that every wedding day will have perfect sunny weather.

In a similar vein, a free ride when you’ve already paid or not taking good advice isn’t ironic either. The former is unusual and the latter is something that’s interesting.

Types of irony

To help you better understand irony and how to use it in your writing, we’ll dive into five different types.

Verbal irony 

Verbal irony is when the intended meaning of a phrase is the opposite of what is meant. It’s a figure of speech used to emphasize the contrast in meanings. It’s often used as a way of injecting witty humor into someone’s speech or writing. 

There are many English expressions that epitomize verbal irony. Here are a few:

•  “Fat chance!”

•  “Clear as mud”

•  “As soft as concrete”

Verbal irony works best as a literary technique when the reader already knows the initial concepts. For instance, it’s common knowledge that concrete is hard, and mud is opaque.

As you might imagine, an ironic understatement creates contrast by undermining the impact of something, despite the subject itself being quite severe. 

In J.D. Salinger’s novel, The Catcher in the Rye , the character Holden Caulfield says, “I have to have this operation. It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain.”

Of course, having a brain tumor is a serious health issue, which Holden downplays in this excerpt. 

Alternatively, an ironic overstatement makes something insignificant sound like a bigger deal than it is to highlight how minor it is. Statements like these are figurative language and are the opposite of their literal meaning.

Say you go for a job interview, but it’s a trainwreck because you spill coffee on your brand-new suit, are 20 minutes late, and forget the interviewer’s name. Your partner asks you how it went and you say, “Aced it, best interview of my life” –– that’s an ironic overstatement.

If verbal irony sounds like it’s pretty familiar, it’s because sarcasm is actually a form of verbal irony (more on that later.) 

Dramatic irony 

A favorite in many famous movies and books, dramatic irony is a literary device where the reader or spectator knows critical information but the characters don’t. 

One of the most famous examples of literary dramatic irony is in O. Henry’s short story, “The Gift of the Magi.” A recently married couple chooses independently to sacrifice and sell what means most to them to buy a Christmas gift for the other. 

But in a twist of fate, the gifts they receive from each other are meant for the prized possessions they just sold. Although their sacrifices show the love they have for one another, the gifts they receive are actually useless.

Dramatic irony is a staple in horror movies. For example, the main character hides under the bed where the killer is hiding (the audience knows the killer is there but the protagonist doesn’t.) This form of irony is a great way of keeping the audience on the edge of their seats and building tension. 

Tragic irony 

In tragic irony, a subset of dramatic irony, the words, and actions of the characters contradict reality, often in a tragic or devastating way, which the readers or spectators realize.

Tragic irony came to define many ancient Greek tragedies. For instance, in Sophocles’ “Oedipus Rex,” the audience can see what Oedipus is blind to: he’s actually killing his own father. 

William Shakespeare was also a fan of using tragic irony to keep the audience gripped to a compelling, often sorrowful plotline. In Romeo and Juliet , when Romeo is alerted of Juliet’s death, he assumes the tragic news to be true. 

But the audience knows that Juliet has, in fact, just faked her death with the help of a potion. Romeo, on the other hand, thinks Juliet is dead and, as a result, commits suicide.

Socratic irony  

Socratic irony gets its name from the moral philosopher Socrates, who would often fake ignorance to reveal someone’s misconstrued assumptions. It’s one of the more manipulative types of irony and is one way of getting information out of someone that can then be used against them later. 

You might recognize socratic irony in courtroom scenes from legal dramas like Suits . Lawyers often use rhetorical tricks, like socratic irony , to get someone to confess or admit something. 

Socratic irony is also perfect for comedies, too. In a classic scene from the American comedy T he Office , Michael knows that Dwight lied about going to the dentist. When Dwight returns, Michael goes for some rather ineffective rhetorical questioning to try and catch Dwight out. 

Situational irony 

Situational irony or the “irony of events” is when the reality contradicts an expected outcome. 

In movies and literature, situational irony ensures things are unpredictable and interesting. After all, it’d be dull if the plot turned out exactly how we expected every time. It’s not how life or fictional storytelling works. 

With situational irony, we learn at the same time as the characters that our expectations are different from reality.

For example in American Psycho , Patrick Bateman confesses to committing a string of murders but is laughed off. We anticipate that he’ll be punished for his crimes, but he isn’t, making it a perfect example of situational irony.

The Wonderful Wizard of Oz is another story full of examples of situational irony. Dorothy longs to go home and fulfills the wizard’s demanding list of tasks only to find out she had the ability to return home all along. The lion who appears to be a coward is actually courageous and the scarecrow who wants to be intelligent is actually a genius.

Situational irony is linked to the concept of cosmic irony –– when the universe or gods seemingly conspire for an event for its own amusement. 

Cosmic irony is a subcategory of situational irony but is defined by the inclusion of a supernatural element. There’s still a situation where the reality and expectation are different but there is another element involved –– a higher power if you will. This could be god, the universe, or fate. 

Remember that the “irony of events” isn’t the same as a coincidence or plain bad luck. 

What’s the difference between irony and sarcasm?

Ah, “sarcasm the lowest form of wit” as the writer, Oscar Wilde, once said. While Wilde wasn’t a fan, a sarcastic jibe here and there isn’t always bad news.

People often mix up irony and sarcasm. As we touched on briefly above, sarcasm is actually a type of irony. 

So the difference between sarcasm and irony is pretty small and nuanced. Once you’re clear on how sarcasm fits into irony, you won’t find yourself identifying sarcasm as irony again.

In its simplest form, irony refers to situations where the outcome is the opposite of what you or the reader expect. 

If a prediction is black, then the outcome would be white. Not off-white or gray, it would have to be totally the opposite of black. 

Sarcasm, on the other hand, is a form of expression that’s generally pointed at a person with the objective of criticizing or denigrating someone. Sarcasm is usually insincere speech and can have a condescending tone to it, with the purpose of insulting or embarrassing someone. 

Let’s take a look at both verbal irony and sarcasm side by side:

Verbal irony — Wife saying, “What a beautiful stormy day for a swim.”

Sarcasm —  Husband saying to the same wife, “The middle of the hurricane season was a great time for a vacation out here.” 

See how with verbal irony, it’s ironic because the weather isn’t beautiful for swimming. Instead, the opposite is true –– it’s unpleasant and sometimes dangerous to swim during a storm. 

But sarcasm is making a sneering comment about choosing to go on vacation in the middle of hurricane season. When you see the two statements together, it’s easier to see how they differ from one another. 

Let’s look at some more sarcasm examples:

•  After someone tells a boring or never-ending story: “That’s so fascinating.”

•  After failing your driving test: “Well, that went well.” 

•  Self-deprecating: “ Dinner is burned, I’m such a great chef. ”

To easily differentiate between sarcasm and irony, remember that irony applies to situations while sarcasm is a form of expression. In a way, sarcasm is like irony dressed up with a sassy attitude.

Key takeaways: irony

So, that’s a wrap. Irony isn’t all that difficult to wrap your head around when you know what to look for. Ultimately, irony is just the use of words to express something that’s the opposite of the literal meaning.

When used correctly, irony helps you inject humor and wit into your writing while keeping things interesting and unexpected for the reader. 

Looking to make your writing more engaging? Try a free trial with Writer today. 

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Definition and Examples of Irony (Figure of Speech)

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• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

Irony is the use of words to convey the opposite of their literal meaning. Similarly, irony may be a statement or situation where the meaning is contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the idea.

Adjective: ironic or ironical . Also known as  eironeia , illusio , and the dry mock .

The Three Kinds of Irony

Three kinds of irony are commonly recognized:

• Verbal irony is a trope in which the intended meaning of a statement differs from the meaning that the words appear to express.
• Situational irony involves an incongruity between what is expected or intended and what actually occurs.
• Dramatic irony is an effect produced by a narrative in which the audience knows more about the present or future circumstances than a character in the story.

In light of these different varieties of irony, Jonathan Tittler has concluded that irony

"has meant and means so many different things to different people that rarely is there a meeting of minds as to its particular sense on a given occasion."

(Quoted by Frank Stringfellow in The Meaning of Irony , 1994.)

From the Greek, "feigned ignorance"

Pronunciation:

Irony in academics.

Academicians and others have explained irony in its various forms, including how to use it and how others have used it, as these quotes show.

D.C. Muecke

"Irony may be used as a rhetorical device to enforce one's meaning. It may be used . . . as a satiric device to attack a point of view or to expose folly, hypocrisy, or vanity. It may be used as a heuristic device to lead one's readers to see that things are not so simple or certain as they seem, or perhaps not so complex or doubtful as they seem. It is probable that most irony is rhetorical, satirical, or heuristic. ... "In the first place irony is a double-layered or two-story phenomenon. ... In the second place, there is always some kind of opposition that may take the form of contradiction, incongruity, or incompatibility. ... In the third place, there is in irony an element of 'innocence.'" — The Compass of Irony . Methuen, 1969

R. Kent Rasmussen

"David Wilson, the title character of Pudd'nhead Wilson , is a master of irony. In fact, his use of irony permanently marks him. When he first arrives in Dawson's Landing in 1830, he makes an ironic remark that the villagers cannot understand. Distracted by the annoying yelping of an unseen dog, he says, 'I wished I owned half of that dog.' When asked why, he replies, 'Because I would kill my half.' He does not really want to own half the dog, and he probably does not really want to kill it; he merely wants to silence it and knows killing half the dog would kill the whole animal and achieve the desired effect. His remark is a simple example of irony, and the failure of the villagers to understand it causes them immediately to brand Wilson a fool and nickname him 'pudd'nhead.' The very title of the novel is, therefore, based on irony, and that irony is compounded by the fact that Wilson is anything but a fool." — Bloom's How to Write About Mark Twain . Infobase, 2008

Bryan Garner

"A classic example of irony is Mark Antony's speech in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar . Although Antony declares, 'I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him,' and declares that the assassins are 'honorable men,' he means just the opposite." — Garner's Modern American Usage . Oxford University Press, 2009

Barry Brummett

"It is sometimes said that we live in an age of irony. Irony in this sense may be found, for example, all throughout The Daily Show with Jon Stewart . Suppose you hear a political candidate give a terribly long speech, one that rambles on and on without end. Afterward, you might turn to a friend sitting next to you, roll your eyes, and say, 'Well, that was short and to the point, wasn't it?' You are being ironic. You are counting on your friend to turn the literal meaning of your expression, to read it as exactly the opposite of what your words actually mean. ... "When irony works, it helps to cement social bonds and mutual understanding because the speaker and hearer of irony both know to turn the utterance, and they know that the other one knows they will turn the utterance. ... "Irony is a kind of winking at each other, as we all understand the game of meaning reversal that is being played." — Techniques of Close Reading . Sage, 2010

"Irony has always been a primary tool the under-powered use to tear at the over-powered in our culture. But now irony has become the bait that media corporations use to appeal to educated consumers. ... It's almost an ultimate irony that those who say they don't like TV will sit and watch TV as long as the hosts of their favorite shows act like they don't like TV, either. Somewhere in this swirl of droll poses and pseudo-insights, irony itself becomes a kind of mass therapy for a politically confused culture. It offers a comfortable space where complicity doesn't feel like complicity. It makes you feel like you are counter-cultural while never requiring you to leave the mainstream culture it has so much fun teasing. We are happy enough with this therapy that we feel no need to enact social change." — Review of The Daily Show , 2001

Jon Winokur

"Alanis Morissette's 'Ironic,' in which situations purporting to be ironic are merely sad, random, or annoying (a traffic jam when you're late, a no-smoking sign on your cigarette break) perpetuates widespread misuse of the word and outrages irony prescriptivists . It is, of course, ironic that 'Ironic' is an unironic song about irony. Bonus irony: 'Ironic' is widely cited as an example of how Americans don't get irony, despite the fact that Alanis Morissette is Canadian." — The Big Book of Irony . St. Martin's, 2007

R. Jay Magill, Jr.

"Direct expression, with no tricks, gimmickry, or irony, has come to be interpreted ironically because the default interpretive apparatus says, 'He can't really mean THAT!' When a culture becomes ironic about itself en masse , simple statements of brutal fact, simple judgments of hate or dislike become humorous because they unveil the absurdity, 'friendliness,' and caution of normal public expression. It's funny because it's true. Honestly. We're all upside down now." — Chic Ironic Bitterness . University of Michigan Press, 2007

Irony in Popular Cultue

Irony also has a large presence in popular culture—books, movies, and television shows. These quotes show the concept in use in a variety of formats.

John Hall Wheelock

"A planet doesn't explode of itself," said drily The Martian astronomer, gazing off into the air— "That they were able to do it is proof that highly Intelligent beings must have been living there." — "Earth"

Raymond Huntley and Eliot Makeham

Kampenfeldt: This is a grave matter, a very grave matter. It has just been reported to me that you've been expressing sentiments hostile to the Fatherland. Schwab: What, me sir? Kampenfeldt: I warn you, Schwab, such treasonable conduct will lead you to a concentration camp. Schwab: But sir, what did I say? Kampenfeldt: You were distinctly heard to remark, "This is a fine country to live in." Schwab: Oh, no, sir. There's some mistake. No, what I said was, "This is a fine country to live in." Kampenfeldt: Huh? You sure? Schwab: Yes sir. Kampenfeldt: I see. Well, in future don't make remarks that can be taken two ways. — Night Train to Munich , 1940

Peter Sellers

"Gentlemen, you can't fight in here! This is the War Room." — As President Merkin Muffley in Dr. Strangelove, 1964

William Zinsser

"It is a fitting irony that under Richard Nixon, launder became a dirty word."

Alan Bennett

"We're conceived in irony. We float in it from the womb. It's the amniotic fluid. It's the silver sea. It's the waters at their priest-like task, washing away guilt and purpose and responsibility. Joking but not joking. Caring but not caring. Serious but not serious." — Hilary in The Old Country , 1977

Thomas Carlyle

"An ironic man, with his sly stillness, and ambuscading ways, more especially an ironic young man, from whom it is least expected, may be viewed as a pest to society." Sartor Resartus: The Life and Opinions of Herr Teufelsdrockh , 1833-34

"Glee"

Rachel Berry: Mr. Schuester, do you have any idea how ridiculous it is to give the lead solo in "Sit Down, You're Rocking the Boat" to a boy in a wheelchair? Artie Abrams: I think Mr. Schue is using irony to enhance the performance. Rachel Berry: There's nothing ironic about show choir! — Pilot episode, 2009

"Seinfeld"

​ Woman: I started riding these trains in the '40s. Those days a man would give up his seat for a woman. Now we're liberated and we have to stand. Elaine: It's ironic. Woman: What's ironic? Elaine: This, that we've come all this way, we have made all this progress, but you know we've lost the little things, the niceties. Woman: No, I mean what does ironic mean? Elaine: Oh.​ — "The Subway," Jan. 8 1992

Sideshow Bob

"I'm aware of the irony of appearing on TV in order to decry it." — The Simpsons

Calvin Trillin

"Math was my worst subject because I could never persuade the teacher that my answers were meant ironically."

The Men Who Stare at Goats,

Lyn Cassady: It's okay, you can "attack" me. Bob Wilton: What's with the quotation fingers? It's like saying I'm only capable of ironic attacking or something.​ — 2009

Irony Deficiency

Irony deficiency  is an informal term for the inability to recognize, comprehend, and/or utilize irony—that is, a tendency to interpret  figurative language  in a literal way.

Jonah Goldberg

"Mobsters are reputedly huge fans of  The Godfather . They don’t see it as a tale of individual moral corruption. They see it as a nostalgia trip to better days for the mob." — "The Irony of Irony."  National Review , April 28, 1999

"Irony deficiency is directly proportional to the strength of the political commitment or religious fervor. True believers of all persuasions are irony deficient. ... "Brutal dictators are irony deficient—take Hitler, Stalin, Kim Jong-il, and Saddam Hussein, a world-class vulgarian whose art collection consisted of kitsch paintings displayed unironically." — The Big Book of Irony . Macmillan, 2007

Swami Beyondananda

"Here is something ironic: We live at a time when our diets are richer in irony than ever before in human history, yet millions of us suffer from that silent crippler, irony deficiency ... not so much a deficiency in irony itself, but an inability to utilize the abundance of irony all around us." — Duck Soup for the Soul . Hysteria, 1999

Roy Blount, Jr.

"Will people who detect a lack of irony in other cultures never stop to consider that this may be a sign of their own irony deficiency? Maybe it's defensible when the apes detect a lack of irony in Charlton Heston in  Planet of the Apes , but not when, say, Brits detect it in, say, Americans as a race . ... The point of irony, after all, is to say things behind people's backs to their faces. If you look around the poker table and can't tell who the pigeon is, it's you." — "How to Talk Southern."  The New York Times , Nov. 21, 2004

• What Is Rhetorical Irony?
• 100 Awfully Good Examples of Oxymorons
• Definition and Examples of Situational Irony
• What Is the Figure of Speech Antiphrasis?
• Verbal Irony - Definition and Examples
• The Top 20 Figures of Speech
• Figurative Meaning
• Brief Introductions to Common Figures of Speech
• Figure of Speech: Definition and Examples
• Understanding Subtext
• Paralepsis (Rhetoric)
• Definition and Examples of Sarcasm
• Figure of Thought in Rhetoric
• Definition and Examples of Dramatic Irony
• Definition and Examples of Litotes in English Grammar
• The Four Master Tropes in Rhetoric

Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, understanding the 3 types of irony.

General Education

Irony is one of the great forces of language and literature. Irony calls on us to use our wit and instinctual understanding of right and wrong, and often requires that we see humor where there is none. Some say that irony is as old as literature itself, and they may be right— in the human condition, we have always sought to find meaning in paradoxes. Since irony is so ubiquitous, it’s important to understand the different types of irony, and how or when they’re used. You'll be able to identify the different types, and call out the right and wrong ways to use them.

What Is Irony?

In short, irony is a literary or rhetorical device that states or shows the opposite of what is actually true for humorous or emphatic effect. Irony states to contrary to what is meant, but in a way that still makes the actual meaning understood.

Many people use sarcasm in their everyday interactions, which is one form of verbal irony. For example, when discussing an upcoming dentist appointment, you might say in an overly excited voice, “I can’t wait!” This is one type of irony (we’ll get to the types soon!) and shows that irony is deeply ingrained into the way we communicate.

If you’re not a naturally ironic person, you may be wondering why writers use irony in novels. Wouldn’t it just make more sense to say what they mean? While you’re not wrong, using all types of irony can help create suspense, invoke particular emotions, or inform our opinion of a character and their motivations . When we discuss the types of irony, we’ll go more in depth as to how and why a writer might use irony, and what they hope to achieve.

The 3 Types of Irony

Situational irony.

Situational irony is when the outcome of a situation is different than our expectations. Situational irony can be used to create drama, to drive home to realities of a tragedy, or to create humor. You'll find situational irony often in books and plays, as well as movies and TV. This type of irony helps us and the character make sense of their reality, and weaves together humor and tragedy.

Here are some examples of situational irony

General: A friend posts on social media about how social media is killing society and we all need to interact in person

Humor: A thief on the run gets into a getaway car but it's out of gas

Tragic: In Guy de Maupassant's short story The Necklace , Mathilda borrows a necklace from a wealthy friend and loses it. She and her husband go into crippling debt and wind up in poverty to replace the necklace, only to find out years later that the original necklace was a fake to begin with.

Dramatic Irony

Dramatic irony is a device employed by storytellers wherein the audience is aware of what’s going on, but the characters are not . Dramatic irony includes three phases: Installation , when the audience is informed of something the character does not know. Exploitation , using the information to develop curiosity and an emotional response from the audience. Resolution , what happens after the character finds out the information.

Romeo and Juliet's death scene is a great example of dramatic irony. We the audience/reader know that Juliet is drugged to fake her own death, but Romeo does not. So, we watch Romeo commit suicide, knowing that Juliet is alive, and that he too would know the truth if he'd waited. In this example, the installation is earlier in the play, when we learn of Juliet's plan, aware that Romeo does not know. Exploitation is when we watch their death scenes unfold. And the resolution is the end of the play, when the families find out what happened and finally end their feud. 

Another well-known example is the story of Oedipus Rex. Dramatic irony was first invented for us in Greek dramas. So while most of us modern readers know the story mainly through the play, ancient Greek play-goers would have been well-informed on the story of Oedipus before going into the play. The Greek audience was able to watch the story unfold with this knowledge already in mind, even though the main character, Oedipus, is unaware. This creates dramatic tension throughout the story and adds a new emotional layer to this classic myth.

Verbal Irony

As we discussed, verbal irony is an important tool in speech. Verbal irony is also an important tool in writing. Verbal irony occurs when a person of character says one thing but means another .

I mentioned above that sarcasm is one form of verbal irony. But remember, the definitions of sarcasm and verbal irony are not interchangeable, and sarcasm is only one form of verbal irony. Sarcasm is generally a little harsher than overall verbal irony, and verbal irony can also include double entendre, over- or under-exaggeration, and rhetorical questions .

Writers may use verbal irony to prove a point, or to help us better understand a situation or character. If a character uses verbal irony, that irony may be in reference to the plot, but also may be in reference to the character's own emotions . Verbal irony, can give us insight into a character’s true state, and challenge us to look deeper into that character’s motivations.

Verbal irony can also be used in a more general sense to bring humor to the novel, play, movie, etc. Verbal irony also helps us develop analytical skills, since it requires us as readers to pay attention to the nuances of dialogue and language .

Satire is one example of verbal irony that carries throughout an entire text.

There are actually quite a few instances of verbal irony in the Harry Potter series. In The Order of the Phoenix , Aunt Petunia asks Harry why he keeps watching the news. He replies, “Well, it changes every day, you see.” Though Harry is offering a truthful response on the surface, as readers we can tell that his answer is contemptuous, and his meaning (to point out how silly Aunt Petunia’s inquiry is) contradicts with the actual words he speaks. If read in the right tone, this conversation definitely will at least get a giggle.

As we discussed, over exaggeration is one form of verbal irony we also use commonly. If someone laughs at a joke and says “I laughed so hard I almost exploded!” This is over exaggeration and one form of verbal irony, since clearly, the person didn’t almost explode from laughter, and the statement contradicts with reality.

How to Tell the Different Types of Irony Apart

Remember, writers use irony to make a point about the distinction between appearance and reality. Usually, use of irony is also meant to drive home a point about the theme or symbolism. To gain a full understanding of the text and the purpose of using irony, you have to know the type of irony being used.

Identifying Situational Irony

Situational irony can be a little harder to identify. Chances are, you've read or witnessed situational irony and had a reaction without thinking to yourself, "hey, this is situational irony." Situational irony can be funny, sad, or everything in between. Here are some important questions to ask yourself:

Does the outcome of the situation differ from your expectations?

Are both you and characters aware that the outcome is different than the expectations?

Does the difference in expectations versus reality elicit a funny, tragic, or otherwise emotional response?

The famous car sing-along song, Ironic by Alanis Morissette, is filled with situational irony; we know it's situational because each lyric explains an event, and an outcome that differs from our expectations. It is not verbal because no one is speaking, and not dramatic because the audience i.e. the listener, knows the same amount of information as the "characters" in the song. The lyric "He won the lottery and died the next day," for example clearly is a case of situational irony.

Identifying Dramatic Irony

The most important element of dramatic irony is that the audience knows something that the characters do not. Because we're usually aware as an audience what the characters do or do not know, dramatic irony should be relatively easy to identify.

When identifying dramatic irony, we have to ask ourselves: does it follow the trajectory of dramatic irony: Installation, exploitation, and resolution? Does the gap in knowledge between the audience and the characters increase or create tension? If the answer is yes, you're probably looking at dramatic irony.

Identifying Verbal Irony

One key part of verbal irony is that it is spoken out loud by a character. Since we use verbal irony so often in our speech, this type of irony may be immediately clear to you. However, nuances of speech are much harder to get across on paper, so you can ask yourself a few questions to help figure out the context, and confirm whether or not verbal irony is being used.

Read the scene carefully. Remember that verbal irony can have many tones! It can be playful, contemptuous, snarky, etc. So if you think characters are using verbal irony, you can ask yourself the following:

What else is going on in the scene? Is there a reason a character would be utilizing verbal irony? Do they have a point to prove?

What is the relationship between the character speaking and the character(s) being spoken to? Would the speaking character need to use verbal irony to get a point across?

Now that you've mastered irony in all its forms, take care not to overuse it. Ironically, irony can often be overused and overwrought. But definitely do use these tips to identify all three types of irony to better understand your test questions or reading materials. Authors employ all types of irony in their work, and it's an important part of finding meaning in books as well as in everyday life.

What's Next?

Irony isn't the only thing you need to know. Check out the 31 Literary Devices You Must Know and expand your knowledge of the Most Useful Rhetorical Devices while you're at it.

Getting ready for your AP tests? Make sure to check out our Expert Guides to the AP Literature and the AP Language and Composition tests.

Carrie holds a Bachelors in Writing, Literature, and Publishing from Emerson College, and is currently pursuing an MFA. She worked in book publishing for several years, and believes that books can open up new worlds. She loves reading, the outdoors, and learning about new things.

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What Is Irony? Types, Examples and Meanings

What Is Irony?

Irony is a multifaceted, complicated linguistic concept that’s often distilled to a basic definition for the purposes of getting kids to pass standardized tests: “irony is the opposite of what is expected.” For that purpose, it’s a useful bit of rote recitation; the kind of information that helps you answer a multiple choice question or quick trivia bite.

But, despite being so broad a definition that it’s nearly formless, it doesn’t provide much coverage of what ironic devices are and how we can recognize and use them. The result is that even most native English speakers have more of a gut feeling about what is and isn’t irony, but might struggle to define irony without saying “irony is . . . like . . . when something’s ironic, you know?”

The New American Oxford Dictionary fortunately goes into a bit more detail than your average English-speaker caught unawares by a vocabulary question, presenting three definitions:

1) “The expression of one’s meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect.”

2) “A state of affairs or an event that seems deliberately contrary to what one expects and is often amusing as a result.”

3) “A literary technique, originally used in Greek tragedy, by which the full significance of a character’s words or actions are clear to the audience or reader although unknown to the character.”

Merriam-Webster adds another definition, which also shows Classical Greek influence:

4) “A pretense of ignorance and of willingness to learn from another assumed in order to make the other’s false conceptions conspicuous by adroit questioning—also called Socratic irony.”

Each of these definitions corresponds to one of these four types of irony:

• Situational

What Is Verbal Irony?

Since this is an article about writing, let’s start with verbal irony—the type of irony that you do with wordplay. Since repetition is the mother of memory, here’s the definition again (courtesy of the New Oxford American Dictionary):

-“The expression of one’s meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect.”

Think of verbal irony as sarcasm’s deeper, less malignant cousin.

While sarcasm is often intended to criticize a target, verbal irony isn’t so aggressive. It’s like the difference between laughing at and laughing with someone. With verbal irony, the audience is in on the joke, rather than the butt of the joke. Let’s look at some examples of verbal irony vs. sarcasm in the context of two people standing outside in a torrential downpour.

Verbal irony: -”Hey, nice weather we’re having.” -”Yeah, I might hit the beach later.”

See? In this exchange, both parties are in on the joke. They both understand that the weather sucks, which is such an obvious fact that it’d be redundant to say “Wow, pretty rainy, huh?” Instead, each party remarks on the obviously inclement weather using verbal irony. It adds just enough complexity and humor to the comment so as not to be a totally boring claim, and to avoid directly complaining. Note that verbal irony isn’t necessarily ha-ha funny (kind of like improv).

Sarcasm: -”Man, I’m soaked through my tee-shirt.” -”Yeah, way to wear a raincoat, genius.”

See how the second person in this exchange is attacking the first person? Don’t be misled by the term “genius” here—it is not sincere. If you read the subtext and understand sarcasm, you’ll understand that what person number two is actually saying here is “Wear a raincoat when it’s raining, moron.”

So, to reiterate: there is common ground between verbal irony and sarcasm, in that they both express meaning by using language that would signify the opposite of the speaker’s intent for emphasis, humor, or both. Sarcasm just tends to be meaner, and more clearly targets the person being addressed.

Do note that sarcasm, like verbal irony, can also be playful and not particularly malignant. Many English-speakers show affection via feigned aggression, and that can include sarcasm. Still, playful sarcasm remains sarcasm, as opposed to verbal irony, because the addressee is the target. Whether the goal is playful ribbing or total social-emotional devastation, sarcasm is a device with a target.

Verbal irony is more about creating contradictory subtext to convey meaning in unconventional ways than it is about hurting anyone’s feelings.

What Is Situational Irony?

Once again, situational irony is defined as:

“A state of affairs or an event that seems deliberately contrary to what one expects and is often amusing as a result.”

This is the meaning that most closely resembles the basic “irony is the opposite of what is expected” definition. Situational irony subverts expectations , contradicting an audience’s predictions—predictions that a reader makes based on their experience with more typical, formulaic prose that adheres to genre tropes and cliches.

Part of the trick with subverting audience expectations is to first establish a familiar pattern that leads the audience to predict the sort of conclusion they’re used to seeing. Situational irony suggests a typical scenario, then pulls a twist that surprises the reader (or viewer). It’s an important storytelling device that needs to follow some fundamental structural rules in order to be considered comprehensible and appealing to most readers.

Some of these rules are harder to bend or break than others. For example, the beginning, middle, and end narrative structure , which features a climax and conclusion, is a well-worn but also well-proven way to craft a story that people can intuitively understand. You can subvert these basics, and you might have to if you plan on writing mind-bending time-travel sci-fi, but the further you stray from the formula, the more likely you are to alienate some of your audience. Consider Christopher Nolan’s Inception . Most will agree that the movie was a mind-trip, but beyond that, opinion seems split between people who thought it was compelling, and those that found it convoluted and difficult to follow. Making your writing logical and easy to follow can be difficult, but ProWritingAid's Transition Report is here to help make the process a little easier.

However, if you play things too safe and stay entirely within the ruts of writers who came before you, you risk boring your audience. Situational irony allows for the best of both worlds: a grounded narrative structure that speaks to the way we understand stories and does not attempt to reinvent the wheel, but that includes twists and subversions that may surprise the reader—a marriage of the familiar with the unfamiliar.

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Let’s look to pop fiction for some examples of situational irony (spoiler warning, since we’re going to be dealing with some plot twists here):

The Sixth Sense

The first and most blatant example of situational irony in film that comes to mind is The Sixth Sense . A child psychologist is working with a troubled boy who can communicate with the dead. Plenty of movies had covered the “adult tries to figure out spooky kid” story before the movie came out in 1999. Still, the story was unique, and not because director M. Night Shyamalan totally reinvented the wheel. Instead, he took advantage of the audience’s familiarity with the formula to throw them off the scent of the big twist—that the child psychologist was just another dead person that the boy could talk to. This bit of situational irony made the movie unique, despite the fact that it otherwise followed convention.

Ridley Scott’s Alien is another great example. Given the benefit of several decades’ worth of hindsight, it’s obvious that Sigourney Weaver’s character, Ripley, is the protagonist of Alien and its sequels. But for the first act of the 1979 space horror flick, it’s unclear who among the Nostromo’s crew is actually the protagonist. Captain Dallas probably seemed the most obvious candidate: he’s in charge, he hatches the plan for fighting the alien, and he looks the part of the late 1970s masculine hero (bearded and everything). But then he’s killed by the alien, and we realize Sigourney Weaver was the one who would end up the hero. Oh, and one of the crew was a secret android the whole time. What originally seemed to be a relatively masculine sci-fi monster movie evolves seamlessly into a female-driven film and series that deals heavily in themes of fertility and motherhood. This is what makes the story unique and seminal, and often superior to its copycat films that forget to subvert expectations in a fresh way.

Or, while we’re in the endless void of space, how about Darth Vader telling Luke Skywalker that he’s his father? That was not what audiences in 1980 expected would happen after Vader cuts off Luke’s hand (which was also unexpected). Not only did this revelation subvert audience expectations and make Darth Vader far more interesting, it built energy for the plot to move forward and find its true themes: family, legacy, fear, and self-reflection. That’s situational irony, and it can elevate a boring story about “good guy vs. evil guy” into something profound, like “good guy (who kissed his own sister) vs. his corrupted father.”

Lamb to the Slaughter

If you’re looking for a slightly more literary example, see the Roald Dahl short story, Lamb to the Slaughter . Spoilers, of course: in the story, a wife murders her husband by bludgeoning him with a frozen leg of lamb. When the investigating detectives come around, the wife cooks the lamb and feeds it to them for dinner. The situational irony here: the murderer has disposed of the murder weapon by feeding it to the homicide detectives. (This short story was published in 1953, well before Hannibal Lecter taught us all to never go to a murder suspect’s house for dinner.)

What Is Dramatic Irony?

“A literary technique, originally used in Greek tragedy, by which the full significance of a character’s words or actions are clear to the audience or reader although unknown to the character.”

Or, in fewer words: dramatic irony is when the audience knows something that a character doesn’t.

An early and prominent example of dramatic irony is Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex . Here, Oedipus learns of a prophecy that he would kill his father and sleep with his mother. Learning his fate, Oedipus tries as hard as he can to avoid it, which is complicated by the fact that he thought he never knew his real parents. As the play goes on, the audience learns first what Oedipus cannot see for himself: that he has already fulfilled this prophecy, having unknowingly killed his father in a road rage incident, and having already fathered two sister-daughters with the woman who abandoned him to exposure as an infant. Only at the end does Oedipus realize what we (and Jocasta, his mother-wife) have already learned. That’s when he gouges out his own eyes, thereby matching physical blindness to the metaphorical blindness that prevented him from seeing the truth in his own prophecy (and the futility of trying to avoid it in the first place).

Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet is another: during the final scene, they employ dramatic irony as the audience knows that Juliet has only taken a sleeping potion that makes her appear dead. Romeo, believing her to be dead (and unaware of how to check for a pulse, presumably), swallows some real poison, killing himself.

More generally, the first act of any horror film or fiction where the characters do not yet realize they’re in a horror movie. Perhaps a family has just signed papers purchasing an old mansion, and the title of the film is Chateau de Killhouse . While they cheerfully unpack boxes, we, the audience, are fully aware that at least 90 minutes of horror await them. Dramatic irony separates us from the characters we’re observing, highlighting the difference between their limited awareness and our relative omnipotence. That we cannot tell the characters what we already know creates tension , and tension is good.

What Is Socratic Irony

Last and, honestly, least (unless you’re a professor of philosophy) is Socratic irony. Once again:

“[Socratic irony is a] pretense of ignorance and of willingness to learn from another assumed in order to make the other’s false conceptions conspicuous by adroit questioning—also called Socratic irony.”

Socratic irony is a big part of the Socratic method (go figure). In the Socratic method, a teacher plies a student with rhetorical questioning that’s designed to stimulate new lines of thought and eliminate potential hypotheses. Part of that method basically involves tricking your debate opponent into thinking they’re much smarter than you are. The hopeful result is that your opponent begins to underestimate you and overestimate themselves. By the time they realize you were feigning idiocy the whole time , you’ve sprung your logical trap. It’s the same idea that’s behind pool sharking.

Why is this “irony”? Because the person practicing Socratic irony is not saying what they mean, albeit to a constructive end (separating it from pure dishonesty or sarcasm).

Closing Thoughts

Hopefully this post has clarified irony for you. If it's only made you more confused, that would probably be ironic. When in doubt, try connecting your situation to one of the four dictionary definitions listed above.

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When and How to Use Irony

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• When & How to Use Irony

How to Use Irony

Irony can be tough to write because first you have to notice something ironic to write about a situation, which is a kind of insight . That’s also why it’s a fairly impressive writing technique. So the trick is not to practice writing irony but to practice noticing it. Look around you every day, and you will see plenty of ways in which ordinary expectations are contradicted by what happens in the real, unpredictable world.

As you look around for irony, take care to avoid the pitfall of confusing irony with coincidence . Often coincidences are ironic, and often they are not. Think of it this way: a coincidence would be if firemen, on the way home from putting out a fire, suddenly got called back out to fight another one. Irony would be if their fire truck caught on fire. The latter violates our expectations about fire trucks, whereas the former is just an unfortunate (but not necessarily unexpected) turn of events.

Another way of putting it is this: coincidence is a relationship between  facts (e.g. Fire 1 and Fire 2), whereas irony is a relationship between a fact and an expectation and how they contradict each other.

When to use irony

Irony belongs more in  creative writing than in formal essays . It’s a great way of getting a reader engaged in a story, since it sets up expectations and then provokes an emotional response. It also makes a story feel more lifelike, since having our expectations violated is a universal experience. And, of course, humor is always valuable in creative writing.

Verbal irony is also useful in creative writing, especially in crafting characters or showing us their mind and feelings. Take this passage as an example:

Eleanor turned on her flashlight and stepped carefully into the basement. She kept repeating to herself that she was not afraid. She was not afraid. She was not afraid.

Even though the author keeps repeating “she was not afraid,” we all know that Eleanor was afraid. But we also know that she was trying to convince herself otherwise, and this verbal irony gives us additional psychological insight into the character. Rather than just saying “Eleanor was afraid of the basement,” the author is giving us information about how Eleanor deals with fear, and the emotions she is feeling as she enters the basement.

In formal essays , you should almost never  use irony, but you might very well point it out . Irony is striking in any context, and a good technique for getting the reader’s attention. For example, a paper about the history of gunpowder could capture readers’ interest by pointing out that this substance, which has caused so much death over the years, was discovered by Chinese alchemists seeking an elixir of immortality.

It goes without saying that you shouldn’t express your own thoughts by using verbal irony in a formal essay – a formal essay should always present exactly what you mean without tricks or disguises.

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What is Irony? | Definition & Examples

"what is irony": a guide for english students and teachers.

View the Full Series: The Oregon State Guide to Literary Terms

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What is Irony? - Transcription (English and Spanish Subtitles Available in the Video. Click HERE for the Spanish transcript)

By Raymond Malewitz , Oregon State University Associate Professor of American Literature

5 November 2019

As we transition from childhood into adulthood, we begin to realize that things, people, and events are often not what they appear to be.  At times, this realization can be funny, but it can also be disturbing or confusing.  Children often recoil at this murky confusion, preferring a simple world in which what you see is what you get.  Adults, on the other hand, often LOVE this confusion-- so much so that we often tell ourselves stories just to conjure up this state.  Whether we run from it or savor it, make no mistake: “irony” is a dominant feature of our lives.

In simplest terms, irony occurs in literature AND in life whenever a person says something or does something that departs from what they (or we) expect them to say or do. Just as there are countless ways of misunderstanding the world [sorry kids], there are many different kinds of irony.  The three most common kinds you’ll find in literature classrooms are verbal irony, dramatic irony, and situational irony .

Verbal irony occurs whenever a speaker or narrator tells us something that differs from what they mean, what they intend, or what the situation requires.  Many popular internet memes capitalize upon this difference, as in this example.

maxresdefault.jpg

Edgar Allan Poe’s short story “The Cask of Amontillado” offers a more complex example of verbal irony.  In the story, a man named Montresor lures another man named Fortunato into the catacombs beneath his house by appearing to ask him for advice on a recent wine purchase.  In reality, he means to murder him.  Brutally.  By walling him up in those catacombs [spoiler alert]!

As the two men travel deeper underground, Fortunato has a coughing fit.  Montresor appears to comfort him in the following richly ironic exchange:

“Come,” I said with decision, “we will go back; your health is precious.  You are rich, respected, admired, beloved; you are happy, as I once was.  You are a man to be missed.  For me it is no matter.  We will go back; you will be ill, and I cannot be responsible…”

            “Enough,” [Fortunato] said, “the cough is a mere nothing; it will not kill me.  I shall not die of a cough.”

            “True—true,” I replied.”

from_poes_cask_of_amontillado.jpg

If we only paid attention to the appearance of Montresor’s words, we would think he was genuinely concerned with poor Fortunato’s health as he hacks up a lung.  We would also think that Montresor was trying to be nice to Fortunato by agreeing with him that he won’t die of a cough.  But knowing Montresor’s true intentions, which he reveals at the start of the story, we are able to understand the verbal irony that colors these assurances.  Fortunato won’t die of a cough, Montresor knows, but he will definitely die.

This scene is also a great example of dramatic irony .  Dramatic irony occurs whenever a character in a story is deprived of an important piece of information that governs the plot that surrounds them.  Fortunato, in this case, believes that Montresor is a friendly schlub with a terrible wine palette and a curious habit of storing his wine near the dead bodies of his ancestors. The pleasure of reading the story stems in part from knowing what he doesn’t—that he’s walking into Montresor’s trap.  We delight, in other words, in the ironic difference between our complex way of understanding of the world and Fortunato’s simple worldview.

Finally, the story also includes, arguably, a great example of situational irony .  As its name suggests, situational irony occurs when characters’ intentions are foiled, when people do certain things to bring about an intended result, but in fact produce the opposite result.  At the start of the story, Montresor tells his readers that his project will succeed only if he “makes himself felt as such to him who has done the wrong.” 

from_poes_cask_of_amontillado_ii.jpg

In other words, Fortunato must not only know that he has been tricked but also why he was tricked and why he must die.  If this is Montresor’s intention, however, he goes about it in a rather strange way, offering Fortunato countless sips of wine on their trip into the catacombs that gets his antagonist pretty drunk.  By the end of the story, Montresor has certainly got away with the crime, but it’s far from certain that Fortunato (or even Montresor) knows why he is given such a terrible death.

So why does Montresor insist on telling us that his story is a success?  One reason might be that he is anxious about the situational irony that envelopes his story and wants to cover the reality of that irony with a simple appearance of triumph.  He’s gotten away with it, and Fortunato knows why he must die.  If readers push back against this desired outcome, testing it against Fortunato’s confusion at being chained to a wall and bricked into place, they travel further than even Montresor is willing to go into the murky catacombs of irony.

Want to cite this?

MLA Citation: Malewitz, Raymond. "What is Irony?" Oregon State Guide to English Literary Terms, 5 Nov. 2019, Oregon State University, https://liberalarts.oregonstate.edu/wlf/what-irony. Accessed [insert date].

Further Resources for Teachers:

Check out the following "What is Irony?" lesson, which models three kinds of irony using Bill Watterson's Calvin and Hobbes comic strip. We've also included a quiz beneath it.

irony_exercise_with_calvin_and_hobbes.pptx

irony_quiz.docx

Kate Chopin's story "The Story of an Hour" offers students many opportunities to discuss different kinds of irony. These ideas are indirectly discussed in our "What is Imagery?" video.  Many other literary terms can be used for ironic effect, including Understatement , Free Indirect Discourse , Dramatic Monologue , and Unreliable Narrator . Yiyun Li's short story "A Thousand Years of Good Prayers" is another story suitable for this kind of analysis.

Writing Prompt: Identify examples of verbal irony, dramatic irony, and situational irony in Chopin's or Li's story. When you have made these determinations, explain how they operate together to convey meaning.

Writing Prompt #2: See the prompt in our " What is a Sonnet? " video.

Interested in more video lessons? View the full series:

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With Arms Wide Open

How did creed, the most hated band of the 1990s, become so beloved—and even cool i sailed the seas with thousands of fellow lunatics to find out..

It’s high noon on a blazing April day, which is the ideal time to be sitting in an Irish pub aboard a cruise ship the size of a small asteroid. The bar is called O’Sheehan’s—yes, pronounced “oceans”—and it’s located deep within the belly of the boat, just above the teppanyaki joint, the sake bar, and the lustrous duty-free shops. This consciousness-altering diorama of infinite seas and cloying Guinness-themed paraphernalia is where I meet Colleen Sullivan, a 46-year-old woman with a beehive of curly red hair and arms encased by plastic wristbands. She wants to tell me how Creed changed her life.

A few moments earlier, Sullivan dropped one of those wristbands on my table—an invitation to talk. It’s lime-green and emblazoned with pink lettering that reads “Rock the Boat With Creed.” I slip it past my hand and sidle up to her booth. Sullivan uses one nuclear-yellow-painted fingernail to hook back the wristbands on her right arm. Underneath is the pinched autograph of Scott Stapp, the band’s mercurial lead singer, enshrined in tattoo ink. This, it seems, is not her first rodeo.

We are both here for “Summer of ’99,” a weekendlong cruise and concert festival for which Creed—as in the Christian-lite rock band that sold more than 28 million albums in the U.S. alone and yet may be the most widely disdained group in modern times—is reuniting for the first time in 12 years. Roughly 2,400 other Creed fans are along for the round-trip ride from Miami to the Bahamas, and the rest of the bill is occupied by the dregs of turn-of-the-millennium alt-rock stardom. Buckcherry is here. So are Vertical Horizon, Fuel, and 3 Doors Down, the latter of whom hasn’t released an album since 2016.

To celebrate, Sixthman, the booking agency responsible for this and many other cruises, has thoroughly Creed-ified every element of the ship. The band’s logo is printed on the napkins and scripted across the blackjack felt. The TV screens at the bar are tuned to a near-constant loop of Creed’s performance at Woodstock ’99. The onboard library has been converted to a merch store selling Creed hoodies and shot glasses. The stock music piped into the corridors has been swapped out for Hinder’s “Lips of an Angel,” Lit’s “My Own Worst Enemy,” and 3 Doors Down’s “Kryptonite.” When I turn on the closed-circuit television in my cabin, a channel called New Movies plays Scream 3 and Can’t Hardly Wait . And four elevator doors in the boat’s central plaza are plastered with the words “Can You Take Me Higher or Lower?” Sixthman pulled similar stunts with 311’s “ Caribbean Cruise ,” Train’s “ Sail Across the Sun ” cruise, and Kid Rock’s notoriously debauched “ Chillin’ the Most ” cruise—the Kid Rock cruise also took place on the vessel I’m on, the Norwegian Pearl . The idea is to teleport a captive audience back into the dirtbags they once embodied and to a simpler time, when Scott Stapp controlled the universe.

Sullivan tells me that her relationship with Creed overlaps with her sobriety story. She first became a fan of the band in the late 1990s, when “Higher” and “With Arms Wide Open” were soaring up the Billboard charts. Then, Sullivan started using, and her appreciation for the divine proportions of those songs faded in service of more corporeal needs. Years later, after Creed broke up and Sullivan got clean, she returned to the music and discovered a dogma of her own: Maybe she had been put on earth to love Stapp—and Creed—harder, and with more urgency, than anyone else in the world.

“He helped me grow with those old Creed songs,” she tells me. “When I saw Scott for the first time live, he had just gotten clean too. I’d go to the shows and there would be tears streaming down my face.” Her left arm contains another Stapp tattoo, with the words “His Love Was Thunder in the Sky” scrawled up to her elbow, surrounded by a constellation of quarter notes. It’s a lyric taken from a 2013 Stapp solo song called “Jesus Was a Rockstar.” The singer Sharpie’d it onto her body himself.

“Summer of ’99” is Creed’s second attempt to reunite, after it disbanded in both 2004 and 2012 amid clashing egos and substance issues. The band couldn’t have picked a better time to get back together. If you haven’t noticed, we’re in the midst of an extremely unlikely Creed renaissance, redeeming the most reviled—and, perhaps more damningly, most uncool —band in the world. For much of the past 20 years, hating Creed has been a natural extension of being a music fan: In 2013 Rolling Stone readers voted the group “the worst band of the 1990s,” beating out a murderers’ row of Hootie and the Blowfish, Nickelback, and Hanson. Entertainment Weekly, reviewing Human Clay , the band’s bestselling album and one of the highest-selling albums of all time, bemoaned the record’s “lunkheaded kegger rock” and “quasi-spiritual lyrics that have all the resonance of a self-help manual.” Meanwhile, Robert Christgau, the self-appointed dean of American rock critics, wrote Creed off as “God-fearing grunge babies,” comparing the group unfavorably with Limp Bizkit.

The disrespect was reflected more sharply by Stapp’s own contemporaries. In the early 2000s, Dexter Holland, the frontman of the Offspring, played shows wearing a T-shirt that read “Even Jesus Hates Creed.” After leaked images of a sex tape filmed in 1999 featuring Stapp and Kid Rock and a room full of groupies made it onto the internet, Kid Rock retorted by saying that his fans didn’t care about the pornography but were appalled that he was hanging out with someone like Stapp. The comedian David Cross, who embodies the archetype of the exact sort of coastal hipsters who became the band’s loudest hecklers, dedicated swaths of his stand-up material to bird-dogging the singer. (One choice punchline: “That guy hangs out outside a junior high school girls locker room and writes down poetry he overhears.”) Then, in 2002, after a disastrous show in Chicago at which a belligerently drunk Stapp forgot the words to his songs and stumbled off the stage for 10 minutes, four attendees unsuccessfully sued the band for $2 million. Holland’s shirt didn’t go far enough—at the group’s lowest, even Creed fans hated Creed.

All this acrimony plunged Stapp into several episodes of psychic distress. His dependence on alcohol and painkillers was well documented during the band’s initial brush with success, but after Creed’s short-lived reconciliation, Stapp spiraled into a truly cavernous nadir. In 2014 the singer started posting unsettling videos to Facebook, asserting that he had been victimized by a cascading financial scam and was living in a Holiday Inn. That same year, TMZ released 911 calls made by Stapp’s wife Jaclyn claiming that he had printed out reams of CIA documents and was threatening to kill Barack Obama. But these days, Stapp—who announced a bipolar diagnosis in 2015—appears to be on much firmer ground, and the band has reportedly patched up some of those long-gestating interpersonal wounds.

But with time comes wisdom, and in 2024 neither the critical slander nor the troubling reports about Stapp’s mental state are anywhere to be found. It is a truth universally acknowledged that Creed is good, a shift that, as Stapp told Esquire , “just started happening” around 2021. The new paradigm likely solidified the next year, when Creed’s mythically patriotic post-9/11 halftime show, played on Thanksgiving in 2001, began to accrue latter-day meme status. The set was ridiculous and immaculately lip-synced by Stapp and company. Yoked, shirtless angels spin through the air, and cheerleaders pump out pompom routines synchronized with “My Sacrifice,” all while the live broadcast is interspersed with grim footage from ground zero. It’s garishly, unapologetically American, issued just before the unsavory decline of the Bush administration clicked into place. Today both of those relics—Creed and the unified national optimism—are worth getting wistful about. “This is where we peaked as a nation,” wrote football commentator Mike Golic Jr., linking to the video.

Creed nostalgia has only proliferated further since the resurrection of that halftime show. The band’s guitarist, Mark Tremonti, told the hard-rock site Blabbermouth that he’d recently noticed athletes bumping Creed as their “ go-to battle music ,” and in November, an entire stadium of Texas Rangers fans belted out “Higher” to commemorate their team’s World Series victory . Earlier this year, a viral remix of “ One Last Breath ” even began pulsing through some of the hottest parties in New York. The band has clearly crossed some sort of inscrutable cultural Rubicon and thrown reality into flux—up is down, black is white, and, due to a sublime confluence of biting irony and prostrating sincerity, Creed fucking rocks .

All this means that the inaugural edition of the “Summer of ’99” cruise is buoyed by very high stakes. It has been 12 long years since Creed last played a show, and the cruise is intended to be the dry run for a mammoth comeback tour that is scheduled for 60 dates, through summer and autumn, in basketball arenas and hockey stadiums across North America. The only remaining question is whether the band can keep it together. I’m there in a commemorative Creed Super Bowl halftime T-shirt to find out.

Several flights of stairs above O’Sheehan’s, the day before I meet Sullivan, I find Sean Patrick, a giddily beer-buzzed 34-year-old from Nashville who is standing in awe of a Coachella-sized stage that looks downright sinister on the pool deck. Creed is playing two shows this weekend, and the first is set for the very minute the boat leaves port and escapes Miami for the horizon. This means that everyone who purchased a ticket to “Summer of ’99”—which ranges from $895 for a windowless hovel to $6,381 for a stateroom with a balcony—has ascended to the top of the ship, preparing for Creed’s rebirth in a wash of Coors Light tallboys.

As of two days ago, Patrick was unaware he would be attending this cruise. Everything changed when a friend, who was on the waitlist, received a call from Norwegian Cruise Line informing him that a cabin with his name on it had miraculously become available. Patrick was suddenly presented with the opportunity to spend a tremendous amount of cash, on very short notice, to witness this reunion amid the die-hards.

Unlike Sullivan, Patrick doesn’t possess one of those highly intimate histories with the band, flecked with tales of trauma and perseverance. Still, he fell in love with Creed—even if it was only by accident.

“I think it started as a joke. The songs were good, but there was definitely a feeling of, like, Yeah, Creed! ” he tells me. “But then, next thing you know, you find yourself in your car, alone, deciding to put on Creed.”

The majority of the passengers on the Pearl have never been burdened with Patrick’s hesitance. Their relationship with Creed is genuine and free—cleansed of even the faintest whiff of irony—and, unlike Patrick, they tend to be in their late 40s and early 50s. The woman standing ankle-deep in the wading pool with a Stewie Griffin tattoo on her shin unambiguously loves Creed, and the same is probably true of whoever was lounging on a deck chair with a book, written by Fox News pundit Jesse Watters, titled Get It Together: Troubling Tales From the Liberal Fringe . Two brothers from Kentucky who work in steel mills, but not the same steel mill, tell me that loving Creed is practically a family tradition: Their eldest brother, not present on the boat, initially showed them the band’s records. Tina Smith, a 48-year-old home-care aide from Texas, crowned with a black tennis visor adorned with golden letters spelling out the name of her favorite band, loves Creed so much that she embarked on this trip all by herself. “This is my first cruise and my first vacation,” she says, proudly. (Smith is already planning her next vacation. It will coincide with another Creed show.)

Passengers I encounter that are a generation younger are clearly acquainted more with Creed the meme than Creed the band. These are the people who vibe with statements like “Born too late to own property, born just in time to be a crusader in the ‘Creed Isn’t Bad’ fight”—especially when they’re arranged as deep-fried blocks of text superimposed over the face of Keanu Reeves as Neo. If the establishment brokers of culture once settled on the position that Creed sucks, then it has been met with a youth-led insurgency that seems dead-set on shifting the consensus—if for no other reason than to savor the nectar of pure, uncut taboo.

Many members of this insurgency are aboard the Pearl , and they’re caked in emblems of internet miscellany that scream out to anyone in the know. Consider the young man, traveling with his father, who is draped in a T-shirt bearing the Creed logo below a beatific image of Nicolas Cage circa Con Air , or the many fans who wander around the innards of the Pearl in matching Scott Stapp–branded Dallas Cowboys jerseys, a reference to that halftime show. In fact, the best representatives of sardonic Creed-fandom colonists might be the youngest collection of friends that I’ve met on board. They are all in their 20s, most of them work in Boston’s medicine and science sectors, and each is dressed in a custom-ordered tropical button-down dotted with the angelic face of Scott Stapp in places where you’d expect to find coconuts and banana bunches. A week before “Summer of ’99” was announced, the four of them made a pact, via group text, that if Creed were ever to reunite, they would make it out to see the band play, no matter the cost. Their fate was sealed.

“I hated Creed. I thought they were terrible,” says Mike Hobey, who, at 28, is the oldest of the posse and therefore the one who possesses the clearest recollection of Creed’s long, strange journey toward absolution. “But then I started listening to them ironically. And I was like, Oh, shit, I like them now .”

His point is indicative of a strange tension in this new age of Creed: If “the worst band of the 1990s” is suddenly good, does that mean all music is good now? Is nothing tacky? Have the digitized music discovery apparatuses—the melting-pot TikTok algorithm, the self-replicating profusion of Spotify playlists—blurred the boundaries of good and bad taste? Am I, like Hobey, incapable of being a hater anymore?

This is what I found myself thinking about when Creed took the stage, right as the Miami skies began to mellow into a late-afternoon smolder, and put on what was, without a doubt, one of the best rock shows I’ve ever seen. The scalloped penthouses of Miami’s gleaming hotel district passed overhead as the Pearl ’s rudder kicked into gear, and Scott Stapp—looking jacked and gorgeous, chain on neck and chain on belt, flexing toward God in a tight black shirt—launched into “Are You Ready?,” the first song of the afternoon, his baritone sounding, somehow, exactly like it did in 1999. “Who would’ve thought, after our last show in 2012, our next show would be 12 years later, on a boat?” Stapp said. He is risen, indeed.

I later hear from Creed’s PR agent that Tremonti, the guitarist, was more anxious than he was excited to get this first show in the books. I also gather, from Stapp’s representative, that photographers are mandated to shoot the lead singer during only the first two songs of the set, before he begins to “glisten” (her word) with sweat. But if nerves were fraying, Creed conquered them with ease. The members of the band were enveloped by an audience that had paid a lot of money to see them, and in that atmosphere, they could do no wrong. They blitzed through a variety of album cuts before arriving at the brawny triptych of “Higher,” “One Last Breath,” and “With Arms Wide Open,” pausing briefly to wish Tremonti, who was turning 50, a happy birthday. (Stapp wiped away tears afterward, a genuinely touching moment, considering that during their first breakup, Tremonti had compared his years collaborating with Stapp—who was then in the throes of addiction— with surviving Vietnam .) Given Creed’s historic proximity to the Kid Rock brand of red-state overindulgence, I half expected the concert to detonate with violent pits and acrobatic beer stunts, but nothing remotely close to mayhem occurred. This crowd was downright polite—chaste, even—as if it had been stunned by the grandeur of Creed.

“He tried to dance pogo ,” says a disappointed German woman, basking in the pool after the show, gesturing toward her husband. Both of them explain to me that pogoing is the German word for “moshing” and that, even more astonishingly, Creed is huge in their native hamlet, just outside Düsseldorf.

“It’s a reunion after 12 years!” says her husband. “Everyone should be dancing pogo .”

Nothing about Creed’s music has changed in the past decade, which is to say that many of the quirks that people like Hobey once used to mock the band for were on brilliant display during its first show back. But the truth is that little of the smug hatred for the group has ever had much to do with the music itself. Creed’s first record, 1997’s My Own Prison , was nearly identical to the down-tuned angst of Soundgarden or Alice in Chains, drawn well inside the lines of alt-rock radio. (It earned a tasteful 4/5 rating from the longtime consumer guide AllMusic.)

The problems arose only after the band started writing the celestial hooks of Human Clay , solidifying its superstar association with other groups chasing the same crunchy highs with machine-learning efficiency: Nickelback, Staind, Shinedown, and so on. Post-grunge was the term music journalists eventually bestowed on this generation, and in retrospect, that was the kiss of death. Creed was suddenly positioned as the inheritor of the legacy of Kurt Cobain, the godfather of grunge, who bristled at all associations with the mainstream music industry and hired the notoriously bellicose Steve Albini to make Nirvana’s third album as sour and uncommercial as possible. Stapp, meanwhile, has long called Bono—he of the flowing locks, billionaire best friends , and residencies in extravagant Las Vegas monoliths —his “ rock god .” Creed’s sole aspiration was to become the biggest rock band in the world, and for a few years there, the group actually pulled it off. Cobain’s grave got a little colder.

Post-grunge steamrolled the rock business, reducing its sonic palette to an all-consuming minor-chord dirge. Nickelback’s “How You Remind Me” went quadruple platinum in 2001, eventually sparking a furious period of retaliation from the underground. (You could make the argument that the rise of the Strokes or the White Stripes or the indie-rock boom writ large is directly tied to the vise grip Creed once held on the genre.) Before long, music aesthetes adopted a new term, rather than post-grunge , to refer to the Creed phenotype: butt rock . In fact, by the late-2000s, the hatred of Creed had been so canonized that when Slate published a rebuttal —in which critic Jonah Weiner asserted that the band was “seriously underrated”—the essay was considered so “ridiculous” and contrarian as to single-handedly inspire the viral and enduring #slatepitches hashtag, instantly prompting parodies such as “ Star Wars I, II, & III, better than Star Wars IV, V, & VI .”

But, frankly, when I revisit Weiner’s piece, many of his arguments sound remarkably cogent to modern orthodoxies. “Creed seemed to irritate people precisely because its music was so unabashedly calibrated towards pleasure: Every surging riff, skyscraping chorus, and cathartic chord progression telegraphed the band’s intention to rock us, wow us, move us,” he writes. Yes, these easy gratifications might have been unpardonable sins in the summer of 1999, capping off a decade obsessively preoccupied with anxiety about all things commercial and phony. But now even LCD Soundsystem—once the standard-bearer of a certain kind of countercultural fashionability—is booking residencies sponsored by American Express. We have all become hedonists and proud sellouts, and with Creed back in vogue, it seems as if the band’s monumental intemperance has become a feature rather than a bug.

That does not mean Stapp no longer takes himself, or his art, seriously. The singer’s earnestness—some might say humorlessness—has always been a cornerstone of Creed’s brand, and there are millions of fans who will continue to meet him at his word. They brandish personal biographies that intersect with Creed’s records; they finds lines about places with “golden streets” “where blind men see” more inspiring than corny, and many of them are etched with the tattoos to prove it. But in the band’s contemporary afterlife, when all its old context evaporates, Stapp has also attracted a community eager to treat Creed like the party band it never aspired to be—the group of licentious pleasure seekers Weiner wrote about. They’re all here, sprinkled throughout the boat, ready to drink a couple of Coronas and shred their lungs to “My Sacrifice.”

After wrapping up the first night of the cruise, Creed, along with the rest of the bands on the bill, was scheduled to administer a few glad-handing sessions on the weekend itinerary. On Saturday, Tremonti chaperoned a low-key painting session while the Pearl floated into the Bahamas at a dock already crammed with other day-trippers. (Our boat was parked next to a Disney cruise, and when we disembarked, in direct earshot of all the young families, the PA blasted Puddle of Mudd’s “She Fucking Hates Me.”) Tremonti keeps busy: The previous evening, he had judged a karaoke tournament—on the main stage—alongside 3 Doors Down lead singer Brad Arnold. Toward the end of the competition, Tremonti grabbed the microphone for a rousing cover of Frank Sinatra’s “My Way,” which I’d like to think served as a tribute to Creed’s own tenaciousness.

Stapp, on the other hand, is slated for exactly one appointment mingling with the masses: He’ll be shooting hoops with some of the more athletically oriented Creed adherents on a helipad that doubles as a basketball court near the rear of the boat. Stapp is, by far, the most famous person on board, evidenced by the security detail that stands guard on the concrete. So I take my seat on the bleachers and watch him casually drain 10 free throws in a row in mesh shorts under the piercing Atlantic sun with the distinct tang of contractually obligated restraint. Afterward, Stapp slips back into the mysterious alcoves of the ship, while an awed buzz of fans—hoping for a selfie, an autograph, or a split second of euphoric surrender—tail him until they are sealed off for good. It is the one and only time I see him cameoing anywhere but the stage, drawing a stark contrast to the other musicians on board, who flit between the casinos, restaurants, and watering holes in the guts of the Pearl .

This makes some sort of cosmic sense. Stapp, to both his detriment and credit, has never embraced the flippancy that so many other people wanted to impose on Creed. “Sometimes I wish we weren’t so damn serious,” he said in a memorable Spin cover story from 2000, at the height of his mystique. “My agenda from the beginning was to write music that had meaning and was from the heart. You can’t force the hand of the muse.” If you’ll excuse the ostentation of the sentiment, you can maybe understand how someone like Stapp might not be able to feel like himself when he’s orchestrating photo-ops around a free-throw line with that same young man dressed in his Nic Cage–themed parody Creed shirt. He seems to find nothing trivial about Creed’s music. The threat of irrelevance shall never tame him. You cannot force the hand of the muse.

Unfortunately, Stapp’s remoteness is also why Kelly Risch, a 58-year-old from Wisconsin with streaks of ringed, white-blond hair and glam-metal eye shadow, is currently fighting back tears in the Atrium, the ship’s lobby and central bar. Risch is sipping mimosas with her sister Shannon Crass, and, like so many of the others I have spoken to on this cruise, they each have matching Creed tattoos memorializing a personal catastrophe. Twenty years ago, Risch suffered a massive blood clot in her leg and almost died. Crass printed out the lyrics to the latter-day Creed ballad “Don’t Stop Dancing”—a song about finding dignity in the chaos of life—and pinned them in Crass’ intensive care unit during her recovery. Today the chorus is painted on their wrists, right above Scott Stapp’s initials.

The sisters were two of the first 500 customers to buy tickets to “Summer of ’99,” which guaranteed them a photo with the band at its cabin. This is why Risch is crying. The photo shoot came with strict rules, all of which she respected: no Sharpies, no hugs, and no cellphones. She’d hoped for a moment, though—after spending $5,000 and traveling all the way from the upper Midwest, after clinging to life with the help of Creed, and after waiting 12 long years to have the band back—to thank the singer for his comfort. But Stapp, even indoors, was wearing dark, face-obscuring sunglasses. She didn’t even get to make eye contact.

“He’s so great with the crowd. He’s so engaging onstage,” says Crass. “I think that’s why this is disappointing.”

The two sisters are determined to make the most of the rest of their vacation. The Pearl will be pulling into Miami tomorrow at 7 a.m., and there are plenty more mimosas left to drink. I tell them I’m going to speak with Stapp, and the rest of Creed, in an hour. Do they have anything they’d like me to ask?

“Tell him not to wear sunglasses during the photos,” they say.

Creed is finishing up the meet-and-greet obligations in a chilly rococo ballroom, paneled—somewhat inexplicably—with portraits of Russian royalty. The band members have been at this all morning, after a late night finishing off the second performance of their two comeback sets. A molasses churn of Creed fans, all sea-weathered and scalded with maroon sunburns, weaves through a bulwark of chairs and tables toward the pinned black curtains at the rear.

Creed has this down to an art. The band is capable of generating a photo every 30 seconds, and afterward, the fans exit back down the aisle, with beaming smiles, their brush with stardom consummated. Stapp chugs a bottle of Fiji water and holds out his hand for a fist bump after the last of those passengers disappear. A crucifix dangles above his navel, and an American flag is stitched to his T-shirt. He’s still wearing those sunglasses.

I am given just 15 minutes to ask questions, in a makeshift interview setup against the portside windows, under the watchful surveillance of the entire Creed apparatus—both PR reps, a few scurrying Sixthman operators, the photographer, and so on. I ask what their day-to-day life is like aboard the “Summer of ’99,” in this highly concentrated environment of super fans, with no obvious escape routes. Stapp says that he has spent most of the time on the cruise “resting and exercising,” while Brian Marshall, the band’s bassist, told me he executes his privilege of being one of the band’s secondary members by frequenting the sauna and steam room. Throughout the weekend, Marshall is hardly recognized.

Scott Phillips, Creed’s drummer, confirms my suspicions about the cruise’s demographics. The ticket data reveals that a good number of the passengers aboard are under 35 years old. I’m curious to know how the band members are adjusting to this new paradigm shift, and if they wish to settle common ground between the post-ironic millennials and the much more zealous Gen Xers, who bear Creed insignias on their calves and forearms.

“People are drawn to our music for different reasons,” Stapp says. “That’s probably why you have the guys you were talking about, who want to chill and drink light beer and scream ‘Creed rocks!’ and the others, who have a much deeper, emotional impact.”

“And maybe, at some point, with the light-beer guys, it does connect with them,” Phillips adds. Stapp agrees.

But, really, the reason I’m here is because I want to ask Stapp a question I’ve been curious about for the entirety of Creed’s career. The band’s bizarre odyssey, from its warm reception among youth groups across America to the bloodthirsty backlash that met its success to this current psychedelic revival, has all orbited around a single lasting question: Why is Scott Stapp so serious? Could he ever mellow out? Does he want to? Surely now is the time. If Stapp allocated some levity for himself, then so many of the bad things people have said about him would be easier to process. Who knows? Maybe he’d have an easier time getting his arms around the current state of Creed, a group that is now, without a doubt, simultaneously the coolest and lamest band in the world. Why must he make being in Creed so difficult?

“It’s just who I am,” he says. “It’s what inspires me. It’s where I come from. And it’s tough, because you have to live it. That’s the conundrum of it all. That’s the double-edged sword. If I started writing [lighter material], there would be a dramatic shift in my existence.”

There’s a break in the conversation, then Stapp asks me to identify the name of the new Taylor Swift album. The songwriter’s 11 th record has dropped like a nuclear bomb while we’ve all been out to sea, but data restrictions mean that nobody on board can access Spotify or any other streaming service. The Norwegian Pearl serves as a butt-rock pocket dimension: The biggest story in pop music simply can’t penetrate our airtight seal of Hinder, Staind, and so much Creed. “It’s called The Tortured Poets Department ,” I reply. Outside of my fiancée, he is the only person on the entire cruise I will speak to about Taylor Swift.

“That’s what I feel,” he says, without a shred of artifice. “I connect with that title.”

Later that evening, I climb to the top of the Pearl for a final round of karaoke, where fans keep the spirit of 1999 alive for a few more hours. The bar is more hectic than it’s been all trip—everyone is willing to risk a hangover now that Monday is all that looms on the horizon. The host asks a guest if they intended to sing “Torn” by Creed or “Torn” by Natalie Imbruglia. “I assume Creed, but Natalie would be a fun surprise.”

The playlist is more diverse than I expected. We are treated to both Jay-Z’s “Big Pimpin’ ” and Shania Twain’s “Any Man of Mine.” Brandon Smith, one of the very few people of color aboard the cruise, crushes Maroon 5’s “She Will Be Loved.” A lanky kid from St. Louis unleashes a Slipknot death-growl into the microphone. A queer couple quietly slow-dances on the otherwise empty dance floor. And a 16-year-old, teeth tightened by braces, orders his last Sprite of the night. “Rockers are the most awesome people!” shouts one transcendently inebriated guest over the clamor of his Rolling Stones cover. “Creed is awesome!” On this one thing, at least, we can all agree.

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Critic’s Pick

Jenny Holzer Shines New Light in Dark Places

Her signboards predated by a decade the news “crawl.” At the Guggenheim she is still bending the curve: Just read the art, is the message.

By Nancy Princenthal

Thirty-five years after she first set the Guggenheim’s rotunda ablaze with an electronic text racing along its spiral ramp, Jenny Holzer is reprising the installation, and turning up the heat. “Light Line,” a career-spanning exhibition, presents a newly updated LED sign which, together with other recent work, illuminates changes in political language and its modes of delivery unimaginable in 1989.

Her advice to viewers has remained fixed: Just read the art.

The targets of the texts Holzer wrote between the late 1970s and 2001 — variously excerpted and re-sequenced for the new sign — range broadly. Early on, she veered from laconic assessments of everyday injustice (“abuse of power comes as no surprise” is the best known) to puzzling propositions (“being happy is more important than anything else”; “it’s heroic to try to stop time”) and wry laugh lines (“having two or three people in love with you is like money in the bank”). In the newer, non-electronic work in this exhibition, she keeps a viselike grip on threats to democracy.

“Optimism is not my specialty,” Holzer, 73, freely conceded during a recent conversation at her river-facing Brooklyn studio, where one work after another bore witness to extrajudicial incarceration, “enhanced interrogation” and other governmental malfeasance. Her motivating question now, she said, is “how to represent lethal conflict” both in the United States and abroad. Yet her tone is imperturbably chipper. A Midwesterner by birth, born at midcentury, she is self-deprecating, plain-spoken and armed with a wicked gift for irony.

“Truisms, ” Holzer’s first language-based work, emerged amid the Conceptual art of the late 1970s and its backdrop of post-Watergate political fatigue, financial disarray, urban blight and cross-disciplinary punk. The gentrifying Reagan years that followed gave rise to archly analytic work addressing institutional power. Holzer’s early choices reflected — and resisted — all these conditions.

She began to put her texts on electronic signboards in the early 1980s. Often scrolling too fast to read and then stopping for a few blinding beats to flash, they were sometimes installed in sensory-overloading proximity. In her award-winning 1990 Venice Biennale installation, the first solo exhibition by a female artist at the U.S. Pavilion, racks of high-colored signboards were mirrored in the polished stone floors.

For the record, Holzer’s first signboards predated by more than a decade “the crawl” — the scrolling newsfeeds running along the bottom of the screen in cable news coverage of the Sept. 11 attacks, which inaugurated a major shift in journalistic practice. Holzer was way ahead of it.

She is still bending the curve — and, in the present work, favoring legibility over flash. The new LED sign scrolls up all six levels of the museum’s ramp — twice as many levels as in 1989 — and runs for more than six hours without repeating.

In some passages, it mimics its predecessor’s jumpy energy and dot-matrix font. Digitized fire rains down behind the words in one text segment, a liquid mix of bright color pools behind another. But for much of the time, the sign proceeds in clear sans-serif letters and has a smooth, moderately paced, disembodied flow. As the exhibition’s curator, Lauren Hinkson, puts it, the new sign feels “as if you’re drinking the words.”

Elsewhere embodiment takes its revenge, beginning with “Cursed,” a series of small raggedy sheets of various metals, some toxic, that are each stamped with one of the grandiose, grammatically challenged tweets Donald J. Trump began issuing soon after taking office as the country’s 45th president. Hung in a line near the lobby, these curse tablets descend to a poisonous heap on the floor.

The ancient world of bloody empire and fearful superstition to which they allude is evoked a little farther up the ramp in scattered fragments of polished stone slabs bearing fractured epigrams (SEX, BOREDOM MAKES YOU, NATURE’S WAY). These are relics of some of Holzer’s own bench-shaped sculptures, which she shattered (by having a crane drop other benches on them). This portentous graveyard of classicizing form is in part a dark joke at the artist’s expense. But there is no humor in a black granite sarcophagus engraved with a passage from Holzer’s “Laments,” a 1988-89 series addressed to AIDS, that sits across a ramp, blocking passage.

At about midpoint of the exhibition, which is resoundingly and quite radically sparse — many bays are vacant — it shifts to works on canvas. The “Redaction” paintings Holzer undertook in the early aughts reproduce heavily censored documents in which euphemism and brutality mingle in unholy union; the censors’ fields of black ink only highlight the dark sites they conceal.

Comic relief comes with a 2005 painting of an F.B.I. file on the painter Alice Neel (who would have guessed this activist artist had Communist friends?) and a voided dossier on George Orwell, which allows us to see only that on the pages in question, he is not mentioned.

One can’t help wondering what the U.S. Secret Service has on Holzer.

Redaction reaches a kind of apotheosis in nearly wordless paintings such as “Battle Rhythm,” which reproduces a document where blanked out information boxes are arranged in a garland of silvery circles set against a background of rosy gold. Holzer calls it her “af Klint,” after the celebrated Swedish artist Hilma af Klint’s spirit-guided abstractions. When I asked her about the bling, here and in other paintings surfaced in silver and gold leaf, she deadpanned that she was “making the paintings shiny to get attention.” In fact, the challenge for the viewer is tearing oneself away.

Among the inexplicably uncensored government documents Holzer has replicated there is a cropped map of Iraq from the lead-up to the U.S. invasion. It clarifies exactly which of Iraq’s oil fields the U.S. could seize (in a war ostensibly meant only to topple a rogue regime).

Holzer and her studio team have also been experimenting with A.I., prompting it to create geometric abstractions. The almost imperceptibly asymmetrical forms that resulted, in the series “Slaughterbots,” (2024) question AI’s trustworthiness, and, implicitly, where liability falls when its wobbles produce human casualties.

On the museum’s final ramp, seven gold-leafed canvases reveal some of the panicky communications that ricocheted around Trump’s inner circle during the Jan. 6, 2021, assault on the U.S. Capitol. One text pleads, “Please have POTUS call this off at the capitol. Urge rioters to disperse. I pray to you.” And, in the exhibition’s penultimate words, his reply: “I got the base FIRED UP.” It closes a bracket that opens with the single work in the museum’s lobby, which bears a handwritten message to Trump before he addressed the Jan. 6 rally: “They are ready for you when you are.”

From the start, Holzer has been committed to bringing art to the streets, and to working collaboratively. Her “Truisms” first appeared as posters wheat-pasted on storefronts in Manhattan. In a nod to that history, her “Inflammatory Essays” (1979-82) paper the walls of the gallery adjoining the Guggenheim ramp’s base, printed on neon-colored sheets that form a bright checkerboard. They are partially obscured by harrowing personal testimony from conflict zones, tagged in black marker by the painter, ex-graffitist and longtime Holzer friend Lee Quiñones.

Her studio practice, too, is collaborative, relying on an administrative staff of eight, a dozen painters, and, she says, “a gazillion researchers.” Arguably democratizing as well is her decision to forgo the door-stopping exhibition catalog in favor of an artist’s book consisting only of her texts, reproduced from rubbings of engraved benches and printed in hushed tones on translucent paper. Art critics are put on notice: Interpretive essays are not needed.

Indeed, Holzer’s steadily tightening focus on politics can leave fans of her early writing’s psychological latitude — I’m one of them — missing its puzzling questions. Skeptics will wonder if raising political awareness is best achieved in shiny, zingy art. But even for news junkies, Holzer delivers information that sharpens and deepens understanding, surely a boon to all.

The most public element of “Light Line” is the nighttime projection on the museum’s facade, from May 16-20, of spare, heartbreaking poetry by writers Holzer has long favored, beginning with Anne Carson’s “If Not, Winter: Fragments of Sappho” and also featuring Wislawa Syzmborska, Anna Swirszczynska, Henri Cole, Yehuda Amichai and others. (A free outdoor projection appeared on the Guggenheim in 2008.) Holzer has created public signage and projections for anti-gun, anti-violence and get-out-the-vote drives since the mid 1980s.

As Holzer departs ever further from signatory writing and mark-making, her work remains unmistakable. That steadiness of purpose throws into relief the thoroughgoing transformation of her context. Political art can no longer presume solidarity in its audience; activists join forces mainly, it seems, in circular firing squads. Freedom of speech is a virtue hijacked by its enemies. Most unforeseeably in 1989, the government and spy agencies she scrutinizes are now being assailed as much by the right as by the left. It is not Holzer’s job to offer guidance or even hope. But she can be relied on to turn the high beams up on the dark road we’re traveling.

Jenny Holzer: Light Line Opens Friday through Sept. 29, Guggenheim Museum, 1071 Fifth Avenue, Manhattan; (212) 423-3500; guggenheim.org .

Nancy Princenthal is a Brooklyn-based writer whose focus is contemporary and 20th-century art. More about Nancy Princenthal

Art and Museums in New York City

A guide to the shows, exhibitions and artists shaping the city’s cultural landscape..

Jenny Holzer signboards predated by a decade the news “crawl.” At the Guggenheim she is still bending the curve: Just read the art, is the message .

The artist-turned-film director Steve McQueen finds new depths in “Bass,”  an immersive environment of light and sound  in Dia Beacon keyed to Black history and “where we can go from here.”

A powerful and overdue exhibition at El Museo del Barrio links Amalia Mesa-Bains’s genre-defying installations  for the first time.

At the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Costume Institute, the immersive “Sleeping Beauties: Reawakening Fashion” exhibition features fragile dresses inside airtight vitrines, overcoats growing grass and pat-’n-sniff walls. But does it work ?

Looking for more art in the city? Here are the gallery shows not to miss in May .