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• Vedic Culture and Religious Movements

Vedic culture is divided into two groups and four Vedas – Aryans, Dravidians, and Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra respectively. It was founded in 1200 BCE. In the Vedic period, agriculture and pastoralism were economic factors. Vedas is the reason for religions flourishment. Religious Movements marked its changes with creating Upanishads. Let us learn more about Vedic Culture and two main religions – Buddhism and Jainism.

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Vedic culture.

Indo-Aryans followed the religion of Vedic culture. Initials of this culture if found around the end of Indus Valley Civilization that is around 1200 BCE. Vedic Culture is divided into four Vedas on the basis of the religious beliefs and religious groups. These 4 groups are Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra.

Brahmana is the religious group with has scholars and well-educated people of that era. Therefore brahmana is the most respected tribe. Kshatriya is the tribe which protects and fights for the welfare of the kingdom. Hence, Kings and soldiers usually belong to this tribe of Vedic culture.

Therefore, the tribe was brave and fought for the kingdom. Vaishya is the tribe which endured in an occupation like agriculture and cattle rearing but over a time they became the landowners and money lenders. Shudra is the lowest of all the varnas.

Browse more Topics under Ancient Indian History

• Introduction to Ancient History & Pre-Historic Period
• The Gupta Period, North, Deccan and South India
• The Harappan Culture and Different Civilization
• The Mauryan and Post Post – Mauryan Period (200 BC-AD 300)

Learn more about Harappan Civilization here .

Four Vedas of Indian Culture

In India four Veda flourished and the below mentioned are the 4 Vedas of Indian Culture and also the significance of that particular Veda

• The Rig Veda: Book Of Mantras
• The Sama Veda: Book Of Chant
• The Yajur Veda: Book Of Ritual
• The Atharva Veda: Book Of  Spell

Religious Movements

Change in culture and economic factors of society led to the Religions of people. The caste system introduced on Vedic Culture was very rigid and interchange amongst the caste was impossible. The religious rebel was strong in India at that time 62 different religious came up but the two main Religions to have its origin in India during this era are Jainism and Buddhism.

Jainism was found by Mahavir Vardhaman. This religion has twenty-four Tirthankaras, all of them belonged to the royal family.  Jain Tirthankaras of two types and they are Rishabha and Arishtanemi. Four teachings of Jainism are

• Non-lying: Satya
• Non-Injury: Ahinsa
• Non-Stealing: Asatya
• Non-Possession: Aparigraha

Once Mahavira attained supreme knowledge he was also known as Jitendriya(one who has conquered all his sense), Nragrantha(free from all bounds),  Mahavira (the brave). Jains are therefore the followers of Mahavira. Twelve Angas define Jainism completely and accurately Vallabhi has a written verse of there Angas.

Buddhism was found by Gautam Buddha. He attained his enlightenment at the age of 35. It is said that Buddha saw an old man dying out of suffering. Hence decided to go to seek mental peace. Buddha put forward and the eightfold path. The folds are Right Understanding, Right speech, Right Thoughts, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Efforts, Right Mindfulness, Right Concentration.

The development sequence is Mortality (Sheela) then Concentration (Samadhi) and then wisdom (Panna).  Hence by following these steps you gain full enlightenment and can lead a righteous life. The 3 pillars of  Buddhism is: the Budhha, it’s founder, the Dhamma, his teachings and the Sangha. The 1st pillar is the Buddha which represents the Gautam Bhudh himself. the Dhamma is his teachings which include the cycle of life. Altogether with rebirth, samadhi and also wisdom attained.

Question For You

Q1. Who is also known as Nigantha Nata Putra?

• Vardhamana Mahavira
• Gautam Buddha
• Shankaracharya

Answer: The answer is ”a”. Vardhamana Mahavira is also known as Nigantha Nata Putra. The literal meaning of the word ‘Nigantha Nata Putra’ is ‘The naked ascetic of the Jnatrika clan’. It is a later epithet used to refer Vardhamana Mahavira because of his tribal affiliation with the Jnatrika clan. His father was a chief of Jnatrika clan. Hence VardhamanaMahavirr is the answer.

Q2. Who among the following presided over the Buddhist Council held during the reign of Kanishka at Kashmir?

Answer: The answer is ”d”. The Fourth Buddhist Council was held in the 1st century A.D. in Kashmir under the patronage of King Kanishka. According to Chinese traditions, Vasumitra presided over the council. During this council, the Mahayana and the Hinayana sects of Buddhism got separated. Therefore, Vasumitra is the answer.

Q3. Prabhasgiri is a pilgrim spot of ___________.

• Vaishnavites

Answer: The answer is ”b”. Prabhasgiri, a famous pilgrim place of the Jainas. It is said that this is the place where 6th Tirthankara of Jainism, Lord Padam Prabhu had his two Kalyanakas. There is a Jain temple on the hilltop that attracts pilgrims. Given these points, Jains is the answer.

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Vedic Period

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Mains :  Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times

The Vedic Civilization, also known as the Vedic culture or the Vedic period, was a complex and varied civilisation that arose in ancient India between 1500 and 600 BCE. It was distinguished by the practice of Vedic religion and the composition of the Vedas, a collection of sacred texts that serve as the foundation of Hinduism.

The Vedas are the source of a remarkable civilisation's integral wisdom, science, tradition, and culture. They are oral compilations of the distilled wisdom of cosmic knowledge that has survived since the beginning of time. They are recognised not only as scriptures but also as the source of Indian culture and human civilisation.

What is Veda?

• The word Veda is derived from the root vid, which means ‘to know’ . The term Veda refers to the sacred knowledge contained in the Vedic texts.
• These four Vedas are also referred to as 'Samhitas' as they represent the oral tradition of the time.

Each Veda has four parts: Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.

Who were Vedic Aryans?

The Vedic Aryans were the authors of the Vedic hymns. Aryans were considered a race in the nineteenth century. Originally, the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the Steppes stretching from southern Russia to Central Asia.

• A group of them migrated from here to northwest India, where they were known as Indo-Aryans or simply Aryans.
• The Aryans are considered to represent a linguistic group speaking Indo-European languages. They are distinguished by traditional historians and archaeologists from the non-Aryan Harappans of the preceding period.

Migration of Aryans

Archaeologists have made attempts to link various post-Harappan cultures to the Aryans.

The Painted Grey Ware has been repeatedly connected with Aryan craftsmanship.

• From here, people moved north of Hindukush, and from here, they entered India.
• The texts written in this language are popularly known as the Vedic Texts.

Geographical Horizons of Vedic Aryans

• The early Vedic Aryans lived in the area known as sapta-sindhu, meaning an area of seven rivers.
• This corresponds to the entire Punjab and its neighbouring Haryana regions, but Rigvedic geography also included the Gomal plains, southern Afghanistan, and southern Jammu and Kashmir.
• Vitasta (Jhelum),
• Asikni (Chenab),
• Parushni (Ravi),
• Vipash (Beas),
• Shutudri (Sutlej),
• Sarasvati .
• During the Later Vedic period, they gradually moved eastward and came to occupy eastern U.P. (Kosala) and north Bihar (Videha).

Vedic Period (1500-600 BC)

In terms of literature, as well as social and cultural evolution, Vedic texts reflect two stages of development.

• The Rigvedic period, also known as the Early Vedic period, corresponds to the time when the Rigvedic hymns were composed, which was between 1500 BC and 1000 BC.
• The later stage, known as the Later Vedic period, is placed between 1000 BC and 600 BC.

Sources of the Early Vedic Period

• The Rigvedic Samhita consists of up to ten books or 'Mandalas ,' with books II to VII considered to be the earliest and belonging specifically to the Early Vedic Phase.
• Archaeological Sources: Excavations conducted in Punjab , Uttar Pradesh , and northern Rajasthan , along the Indus and Ghaggar rivers over the last 40 years, have unearthed many post-Harappan/Chalcolithic settlements from these regions.

Sources of the Later Vedic Period

• Literary Sources: Books I, VIII, IX and X are considered later additions to the Rigvedic Samhita. The other Vedic texts assigned to the Later Vedic phase are the later additions, particularly the 10th Mandala of the Rigveda Samhita and the Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda Samhitas.
• The Rigveda mentions "ayas," which might be referring to iron; however, archaeological evidence links iron to the Later Vedic period.

Political Life of the Vedic Period

There is no well-defined political hierarchy in the Early Vedic setup; however, changes during the period gave rise to a socio-political hierarchy, which manifested itself in the origin of the Varna system during the 'Later Vedic phase'. Early Vedic society was largely egalitarian and governed by tribal values and norms.

Social Life of the Vedic Period

The Early Vedic Period social structure, which was based on clan relations and was largely egalitarian, became much more complex in the later Vedic period. The early Vedic society was not divided on the basis of caste, while later, Vedic society was divided on the basis of the Varna system.

Religious Life of the Vedic Period

The hymns of the Rigveda reflect the religious ideas of the Vedic people. They revered the natural forces around them (such as wind, water, rain, thunder, fire, and so on) over which they had no control and invested nature with divinity conceived in human forms.

Economic Life of the Vedic Period

The Rigvedic hymns provide vast evidence of the significance of cattle in Vedic society. 

• Cattle were the primary measure of wealth, and a wealthy man who owned many cattle was referred to as a "gomat."
• Conflicts and battles were referred to as gavishti, gavesana, gavyat, and other terms during this time period.
• The raja, or chief, is known as the 'gopati ,' or one who protects cows.
• “Godhuli’’ is a term used in the Rigveda for a measure of time.
• Distance is called gavyuti.
• A daughter is referred to as a duhitri, or one who milks the cows.
• Kinship units are labelled as gotra .

PYQs on the Vedic Period

Question 1: With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC Prelims 2017)

• Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
• Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and iron.
• Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people having been aware of this animal.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

• 2 and 3 only
• 1 and 3 only

Answer: (c)

Question 2: The religion of early Vedic Aryans was primarily of (UPSC Prelims 2012)

• image worship and Yajnas
• worship of nature and Yajnas
• worship of nature and Bhakti

FAQs on the Vedic Period

What is the meaning of the word veda.

The word Veda is derived from the root vid, whichmeans ‘to know’. The word Veda means thesacred knowledge contained in the texts known asVedic text.

What are the four Vedas of the early Vedic period?

The Vedas are divided into four sections: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda, and the Atharvaveda. Each of the four Vedas is further subdivided into four sections. The Samhitas, Aranyakas, Brahmanas, and Upanishads are the subdivisions.

What is Samhita in Vedas?

The Samhitas are the most ancient part of the Vedas, which are the most ancient Hindu and yogic texts. It contains mantras, prayers, litanies and hymns to God.

Which Veda is the oldest Veda?

Rigveda is the oldest Veda , divided into ten books (known as mandalas ). It also includes Vishvamitra's famous Gayatri mantra and the Purusha Shukta prayer (the story of Primal Man). 

What are Vedic Suktas and Vedic Hymns?

Each of the four Vedas, Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda, contain Samhitas. Samhita means a collection. So, each Samhita is a collection of different hymns dedicated or addressed to various deities. These hymns are generally called Suktas, which literally means “very well spoken.” A sukta denotes a group of Vedic mantras (verses).

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6 Vedic Culture

P. Bhaskar Reddy

I. Introduction

Cities of the Harappan Culture had declined by 1500 BCE. Consequently, their economic and administrative system had slowly declined. Around this period the speakers of Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit, entered the North-West India from the Indo-Iranian region. The advent of Aryans opened a new chapter in the history of ancient India. It marked the end of the pre- and proto-historic period. The voluminous literature produced during this period gave us valuable information regarding the polity, economy, society and the religious set up of the Aryans.

North India, especially the Gangetic Valley, was the cradle of the Vedic Culture, known largely from the vast Vedic literature. Vedic literature has been traditionally held sacred, for it is believed to have a divine source. The Vedas, according to popular Indian perception, are eternal. The various sages (Rishis) were their authors, and were transmitted orally from generation to generation. The Vedas were not committed to writing until very late. The Vedic texts may be divided into two broad chronological strata: the early Vedic (c. 1500 – 1000 BCE) when most of the hymns of Rig Veda were composed, and the later Vedic (c.1000 – 600 BCE) which belong to the remaining Vedas and their branches. The two periods correspond to the two phases of Aryan expansion in India.

The discovery of the Painted Grey ware (PGW) from the sites in the indo-Ganges divide, upper Ganga valley and the Ganga-Yamuna doab has provided the valuable archaeological materials to supplement, corroborate, check and verify the literary data in the Vedic literature, especially the later Vedic texts.

2. Original home of the Aryans

In India, the founders of the Vedic culture were the Aryans, probably an immigrant people. Their first arrival in India is dated between c.2000 and 1500 BCE. It has long been a matter of controversy as to what region the Indo-Europeans inhabited before the arrival of one or more of their branches to India. The earliest Aryans lived in the geographical area covered by eastern Afghanistan, Punjab and fringes of western Uttara Pradesh. Some rivers of Afghanistan such as the river Kubha, and the river Sindhu and its five branches are mentioned in the Rig Veda. Another river mentioned is the Saraswathi, now lost in the sands of Rajasthan. The whole region in which the Aryans first settled in India is called Saptasindhu, the land of the Seven Rivers.

Many scholars such as Ganganath Jha, D.S. Triveda, L.D.Kalla etc., tried to prove that the Vedic Aryans were neither foreigners nor did they migrate into India, but were the indigenous  people, who regarded Sapta Sindhu as their original home. Bal Gangadhar Tilak suggested the Polar region as the original home of the Aryans on astronomical calculations.

Different scholars have identified different regions as the original home of the Aryans. They include Arctic region, Germany, Central Asia, Central Europe, Hungary, Scandinavia etc. But majority of them state that the Indo-Europeans emerged from the region between the Caspian Sea and the Southern Russian steppes. From there they migrated to far off places in search of pastured lands to graze their cattle. It has been proved that the Aryans before entering India stayed for a long time in Central Asia, but by second millennium BCE they migrated to North India through the passes of Hindukush, i.e., Khyber, Bolan and Gomal.

3. The Vedic Literature

The Vedas are the most important source of information about the Vedic Aryans. They attained their greatest cultural achievement. The Vedas are the oldest literature of the Indo-Aryans and perhaps the literary works in the whole group of Indo -European languages. The term Vedic literature means the four Vedas in their Samhitas and the Allied Literature based on or derived from the Vedas.

3.1 The Vedas

The word Veda comes from the root ‘ vid’ which means to know. In other words the term Veda signifies superior knowledge. The Vedas are four in number viz,

(i) Rig Veda                    (ii) Yajur Veda                (iii) Sama Veda              (iv) Atharva Veda.

Rig Veda is thought to be the most ancient and most sacred text. It is also the best source of information on the daily life of the early Vedic Aryans; their struggles, and aspirations, their religion and philosophical ideas. The Rig Veda contains 1028 hymns which are collected in ten books or cycles of songs. It is a collection of prayers offered to Agni, Indra, Mitra, Varuna and other gods by various families of poets and sages. The mantras (hymns) were sung in praise of various gods. These were recited at the time of sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion. Books II to VII are considered to be the most ancient ones; they are also called family books because they were produced by certain families of sages. Book I and X were composed at a later stage. Book X contains a great deal of philosophical reflection as well as evidence of the caste system which is missing in the root Saman i.e., melody.

Sama Veda is a ‘collection of melodies’. It has 1603 verses but except 99 rest of the hymns have been borrowed from the Rig Veda. It is called book of chants and the origins of Indian Music are traced in it. These were meant to be sung at the time of Soma sacrifice by the Udagatri priests.

Yajur Veda consists of various mantras for the purpose of recitation and rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice. The two royal ceremonies of Rajasuya and Vajapeya are mentioned for the first time in this Veda. It is divided into Krishna-Yajur Veda and Sukla-Yajur Veda .

Atharva Veda contains charms and magical spells in verse to ward off evils and diseases. Its contents throw light on the beliefs and practices of the non-Aryans. It is divided into two parts, Paippalada and Sannaka.

3.2 The Brahmanas

The Brahmanas are the explanatory treatises meant as manuals for the guidance of priests. They are written in prose. Every Veda has several Brahmanas attached to it. The most important as well as the most voluminous of all the Brahmanas is the Sathapatha Brahmana. It provides us information about not only sacrifices and ceremonies but also theology, philosophy, manners and customs of the later Vedic period.

3.3 The Aranyakas

The Aranyakas or the ‘Forest Texts or Books’ dealt with mysticism and symbolism of sacrifice and priestly philosophy. They were written mainly for the hermits and students living in the jungles, these are the concluding portion of the Brahmans. They lay emphasis not in sacrifices but on meditation. Owing to their magical power, secrets and danger the Aranyakas could be taught only in a forest.

3.4 The Upanishads

The word Upanishad is derived from the root Upanish which means ‘to sit down near someone’ and denotes a student sitting near his guru to learn. The Upanishads are the philosophical treatises representing the highest product of the Hindu intellect. There are 108 Upanishads. They are called Vedanta, firstly because they denote the last phase of the Vedic period and secondly, because they reveal the final aim of the Veda. They also condemn the ceremonies and sacrifices. They discuss the various theories of creation of the universe and define the doctrine of action (Karma), God (Brahma) and Soul (Atma) as identical. They contain all the main ideas which form the germs of the later system of Hindu philosophy.

All the works referred to above are also called ‘Shrutis’ which mean revelation. Literally speaking ‘Shruti’ means ‘hearing’ and refers to the rhythms of the infinite hearing by the Soul.

4. Allied Vedic Literature

Smritis : These are the auxiliary treatises of the Vedas, their supplementary. The word refers to that literature which has been passed on from one generation to the other. Literally smritis means remembrance. They are

i.   Six Vedangas

1. Siksha  2. Kalpa  3.Vyakarana  4. Nirukta  5. Chhanda  6. Jyotisha,

ii.   Shad-Darshanas

1.    Nyaya 2. Sankhya 3. Yoga, 4.Vaishesika, 5.Purva Mimamsa 6.Uttara Mimamsa.,

iii.  Four Upavedas

1.  Dhanur Veda  2. Gandharva Veda  3. Shilpa Veda        4. Ayur Veda

5. Rig Vedic Age (c. 1500 – 1000 BCE)

The Aryans during the early Vedic phase settled in the Sapta Sindhava region which corresponds to Easter Rajasthan, Punjab and the Western parts of the present Uttara Pradesh. The Aryans used the term Saptha Sindhava in the context of country. This include the five rivers of Punjab, namely Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej along with Indus and Saraswati. The Rig Vedic Aryans also knew the existence of three rivers the Kubha, the Krama and the Gomal. The words Samudra, Arnava, or Chatuh Samudra refer to the Vast Waters of the Indus. The political, social and cultural life of the Rig Vedic people could be traced from the hymns of the Rig Veda.

5.1 The Vedic Tribes and Conflicts

The whole of the territory known to the Vedic Aryans was divided into a number of tribal principalities, ruled normally by the leaders or kings of various tribes. They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the Dasas or Dasyus, etc. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by a chief called Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. The Bharatas and the Tritsu were the ruling Aryan clans, and they were supported by the priest Vasishtha. The country Bharatavarsha was eventually named after the tribe Bharata, which appears first in the Rig Veda. The Bharata ruling clan was opposed by a host of ten chiefs,  five of whom were heads of Aryan tribes and remaining five were Non-Aryans. The battle that was fought between Bharatas and confederacy of ten chiefs is known as famous “Dasarajna Yuddha” or the battle of ten kings. The confederacies of ten (eight and given two were to be traced) well known tribes are Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Ann, Druhyu, Alina, Paktha, Bhalanas. This battle was fought on the river Parushni, identical with the river Ravi, and it gave victory to Sudas and established the supremacy of the Bharatas. One of the defeated tribes, the most important was that of Purus. Subsequently the Bharatas joined hands with Purus and formed a new tribe called the Kurus. The kurus combined with the Panchalas, and they together established their rule in the upper gangetic basin where they played an important part in later Vedic times.

5.2 Vedic Polity

The basic unit of political organization was Kula or family. In the early Vedic period the tribes were organized on patriarchal pattern. As a result, the chief of the tribe became a tribal leader. The most capable protector was made the chief. The tribal chief or the Rajan was the leader of the people belonging to a particular tribe and not the ruler of any territory. There were several tribal kingdoms during the Rig Vedic period such as Bharatas, Matsyas, yadus and Purus. The Rig Vedic polity was normally monarchical and the succession was heredity. People’s primary loyalty was to the tribe, Jana. The term Jana occurs at about 275 times in Rig Veda. His authority was curtailed by the tribal assemblies called Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha, Gana etc. Purohita was another powerful person who accompanies the king to bath and boost his moral with prayers and spell. The Rig Vedic king did not have elaborate administrative machinery. The early Vedic Rajan was assisted by Senapati and Vrajapati in conducting the administration. The Senapati will head the tribal force in times of war. The Vrajapati was in-charge of pastures. The protection to the people was the sacred duty of the Rajan. In return he expected and received loyal obedience from his subjects.

5.3 Vedic Society

The early Vedic Society was divided into three classes namely i) the warriors ii) priestly and iii)  the commons. The classification indicated that the society was a class divided society. By the end of the Rig Vedic period the society was divided into four castes i.e., Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras. The Purushasukta, xth mandala in the Rig Veda, refers to the fourfold caste system. Professions were not hereditary. There was considerable amount of flexibility. There were no rigid rules limiting marriage and inter-dining between various occupational classes of the society.

In spite of the patriarchal character of the family, the position of women was much better in the Rig Vedic period than in later times. They could attend assemblies and offer sacrifices along with their husbands. Ghosha, Lopamudra and Apala were the famous women composers of hymns. Girls were normally married after puberty. There are evidence of levirate (Niyoga) and widow remarriage in the Rig Veda. Sati was symbolic in nature and confined only to the upper strata of the society. A variety of ornaments were used by both men and women. Two pieces of cloth were normally worn-the upper garment was called Uttariya and the lower one was known as Antariya. The dress for the male and female did not differ much. The students used garments made of skin or hide-cotton. Wheat, barley, milk and its products like curd and ghee, vegetables and fruits were the chief articles of food.

5.4 Economy

The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main occupation was cattle rearing. Wealth was estimated in terms of cattle. When they permanently settled in North India they began to practice agriculture. The Rig Veda refers to the practice of ploughing, sowing of seeds on the furrows, seasons, harvesting and threshing. With the knowledge and use of iron they were able to clean forests and bring more lands under cultivation. The main cereal produced by the people was Yava or barely. Wheat was the staple food. References to several arts and crafts were found in the early Vedic literature. Weaving seemed domestic  craft, by women. The early Vedic Aryans knew the use of metals like gold, copper, bronze, silver etc. Trade was practiced on barter system. In the later times, gold coins called Niskha were used as media of exchange in transactions.

5.5 Religion – Rig Vedic Gods

The religion of the early Vedic people was more simple, realistic and less ritualistic. The Rig Vedic Aryans worshipped the natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder. They personified these natural forces into many gods and worshipped them. Their number is stated to have been 33. Indra was the most popular of all the early Vedic gods, who is called Purandara or breaker of forts. Indra played the role of warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons. He shared some of the characteristics of the Greek god Zeus. Nearly three-fourths of the hymns of Rig Veda (250) have been devoted to him.

The second position was held by Agni (Fire God) to whom 200 hymns are devoted. Fire played a significant part in the life of primitive people because of its use in burning forest, cooking etc. Agni was worshipped as the god of priests and the intermediary between the devotees and god.

Varuna was next only to Indra in popularity. He was the upholder of the physical and moral order. Surya (the Sun) Savitri (the deity to whom the famous Gayatri mantra is addressed) and Pushan (Guardian of roads, herdsmen and cattle) were the other deities. Soma was considered to be the god of plants and an intoxicating drink was named after him. The Rig Veda has large number of hymns, which explain the methods of preparation of this drink from plants. The Maruts personify the storm.

A few female goddesses like Prithvi (Earth), Aditi (Mother of God), Ushas (dawn) and Arayani (goddess of forest) were worshipped. Thus there were a large number of gods representing the different forces of nature in one form or other.

Vedic people worshipped many gods to gain their favours. They thought that the gods might be satisfied by offering food and drink in order to get boons from them and avert evils that they were capable of doing them. They offered prayers and sacrifices to get in return pasu (cattle), praja (children), health and wealth (sampada).

In the Rig Veda a triple classification of Vedic gods has been hinted. The corresponding three orders are

i)  Terrestrial (Prithvisthan)

ii) Aerial or Intermediate (Madhyasthan)

iii)  Celestial (Dyusthana).

6.  Later Vedic Age (1000 BCE – 600 BCE)

The history of the later Vedic period is mainly based on the Vedic texts which were compiled after the age of the Rig Veda. The Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda, the Brahmanas and a few Upanishads were compiled during the later Vedic age, extending from c.1000 to 600 BCE.

The later Vedic texts show a wider knowledge of Indian geography than was found in the Rig Veda. They mention the ‘two seas’ the Arabian and the Indian Ocean. The Vindhya Mountains are indirectly referred to. During the period of composition of the later Vedic texts, Aryans became generally familiar with the major portion of the Gangetic plains. There they gradually settled.

The texts show that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of Uttara Pradesh covered by the Ganga-Yamuna doab. The Bharatas and Purus, the two major tribes, combined, to form the Kuru people. From the fringes of doab, they moved to its upper portion called ‘Kurukshetra’ or the land of Kurus. History of the Kuru tribe is important for the  battle of Bharata, which is the main theme of great epic Mahabharata. Later they coalesced with the Panchalas. Together the Kurus and Panchalas occupied Delhi, and the upper and middle parts of the Ganga-Yamuna doab. They set up their capital at Hastinapur situated in the district of Meerut. Towards the end of the later Vedic period around 600 BCE, the Vedic people moved further east to Kosala in eastern Uttara Pradesh and Videha in north Bihar. In the course of his eastward movement they encountered using copper groups which used distinctive pottery.

Now the Aryans made the transition from a semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture. This transition was accompanied by constant fights. After centuries of nomadic life the Vedic Aryans now began to cultivate fertile but semi-arid areas by means of river irrigation and also started to clear the Jungle wherever it was possible. The cultivation or irrigated arid lands must have been easier than the clearing of dense jungles. The Rig Veda mentions iron in texts which date back to the eleventh century BCE. This correlates very well with recent archaeological research which dates the first use of iron in north western India to the same age.

This period saw revolutionary changes in the Vedic polity. Aryans dominated the entire Gangetic basin and the fertile alluvial deposits were at their disposal. This brought substantial changes in their economic position and political setup. Many Jana tribes were amalgamated to form Janapadas or Rashtras in the later Vedic period. The Turvasas and the Krivis became the Panchala group. Finally the Kurus and Panchalas were amalgamated and became Kuru-Panchala group. Thus the later Vedic period provided a solid background for the emergence of the famous sixteen Janapadas of the Sixth Century BCE.

The royal power increased due to the amalgamation of tribes and increase in the size of kingdoms. Tribal authority tended to become territorial. The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position. They included Rajasuya, Asvamedha and Vajapeya. Later Vedic literature contains discussions on the origins of kingship. The kinghship evolved more monarchical and hereditary in nature. The tribal assemblies like Vidhata, Sabha, Samiti, though present, came to be dominated by the nobles and Brahmins. The government became more complex because of the necessity of appointing a large number of new officers like bhagalugha (Collector of taxes), sangrahitri (treasurer), Mahishi (Chief-Queen), Suta (Chronicler) etc. The most important change that is noticed from early vedic to the later vedic period is that tribal polity was replaced by organized monarchy.

6.2 Society

The social institutions were developed in a clear and visible manner. The later vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called the Brahmans, Rajanyas or Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras. Brahmanas emerged supreme and overtook the kshatriyas in the caste hierarchy, for they were responsible for investing divinity to the king. They claimed political and social privileges. They were exempted from punishments and taxation. The kshatriyas constituted the warrior class. They were the protectors of the people and the king was chosen among them. The Vaisyas devoted themselves to trade, agriculture and various crafts. They were the tax-paying class. The sudras the bulk of the population and attended to agriculture and other crafts.

Marriage between the members of the same gotra was not permitted. Women lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child marriages also came into vogue. Restrictions were placed on inter dining between classes. Vedic social system transformed from a class divided tribal society into a Varna divided society.

6.3 Economy

The later Vedic period saw the tremendous improvements in the agricultural sector and it is evident from the later Vedic literature. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to six, eight, twelve  and even twenty-four oxen were used to draw or drag plough. It also refers to the ploughing festivals. It is evident by about 1000 BCE. Iron was used in the Gandhara region. The use of iron implements became common in Punjab, Western UP and Rajasthan by 800 BCE. Not less than 500 later Vedic sites distributed throughout the length and breadth of the Gangetic basic yielded iron implements in association with Painted Grey Culture datable between 800 BCE. The surplus agricultural produce promoted trade and commerce. Trade was mainly based on barter system. Coins came into use only around 600 BCE. Nishka, Satamana and Krishnala were used as medium of exchange. Agricultural surplus and the development of trade and Commerce resulted in the emergence of cities and towns. It would thus appear from the above discussion that the later Vedic Aryans transformed the pastural economy of the early Vedic period into an agrarian economy.

6.4 Religion

Later Vedic period witnessed substantial changes in the realm of religion and mode of worship. The socio-economic changes that occurred during this period were responsible for that transformation. Sacrificial ritual cult became the corner stone of worship. Different types of sacrifices, rituals and ceremonies came into existence. Fabulous rewards were presented to the priests for performing sacrifices. The Upanishads dealt with much philosophical speculations. The Ashrama system had taken its roots and gained strength. This was meant to regulate the life of the people based on Varna dharma . They are the Brahmacharya , Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa . New gods like Prajapati, Vishnu and Rudra emerged and their importance grew at the cost of Indra and Varuna. The cult of Rudra evolved from a Harappan cult (Pasupati Mahadeva) and hence it was a non-Aryan influence. Vedic religion transformed from the simple polytheism to highly ritualistic and speculative one.

In conclusion it is stated that the tribal polity, pastoral economy, class divided society and the simple and polytheistic religion of the early Vedic period was transformed into organized monarchy, agrarian economy, caste divided society and the sacrificial ritual dominated religion in the later Vedic period. Towards the end of the Vedic period began a strong reaction against priestly domination, rituals and cults, especially in the land of the Panchalas and Videha around 600 BCE. The rise of Buddhism and Jainism was the direct result of this socio-economic problem.

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
• http://www.culturalindia.net/indian-history/ancient-india/vedic-civilization.html
• http://www.stephen-knapp.com/vedic_culture_hinduism_a_short_introduction.htm
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmin
• http://relijournal.com/hinduism/lesson-plan-of-the-day-global-studies-hinduism-hindu-scriptures/
• http://www.indianmirror.com/scriptures/vedas.html
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aranyaka
• http://www.ancient.eu/The_Vedas/
• http://www.timemaps.com/civilization-the-vedic-age
• http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/vedicgods.asp#usha
• http://www.stephen-knapp.com/gods_and_goddesses_of_vedic_culture.htm

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Instead they were a warlike people that organized themselves in individual tribal, kinship units, the jana . The jana was ruled over by a war-chief. These tribes spread quickly over northern India and the Deccan. In a process that we do not understand, the basic social unit of Aryan culture, the jana, slowly developed from an organization based on kinship to one based on geography. The jana became a janapada , or nation and the jana-rajya, or tribal kingdom, became the national kingdom (jana-rajyapada). So powerfully ingrained into Indian culture is the janapada , that Indians still define themselves mainly by their territorial origins. All the major territories of modern India, with their separate cultures and separate languages, can be dated back to the early jana-padas of Vedic India.

The earliest history of the Aryans in India is called the Rigvedic Period (1700-1000 BC) after the religious praise poems that are the oldest pieces of literature in India. These poems, the Rig Veda, are believed to represent the most primitive layer of Indo-European religion and have many characteristics in common with Persian religion since the two peoples are closely related in time. In this early period, their population was restricted to the Punjab in the northern reaches of the Indus River and the Yamuna River near the Ganges. They maintained the Aryan tribal structure, with a raja ruling over the tribal group in tandem with a council. Each jana seems to have had a chief priest; the religion was focused almost entirely on a series of sacrifices to the gods. The Rigvedic peoples originally had only two social classes: nobles and commoners. Eventually, they added a third: Dasas , or “darks.” These were, we presume, the darker-skinned people they had conquered. By the end of the Rigvedic period, social class had settled into four rigid castes: the caturvarnas, or “four colors.” At the top of the caturvarnas were the priests, or Brahmans. Below the priests were the warriors or nobles ( Kshatriya ), the craftspeople and merchants ( Vaishya ), and the servants ( Shudra ), who made up the bulk of society. These economic classes were legitimated by an elaborate religious system and would be eventually subdivided into a huge number of economic sub-classes which we call “castes.” Social class by the end of the Rigvedic period became completely inflexible; there was no such thing as social mobility.

In the early centuries of Later Vedic Period or Brahmanic Period (1000-500 BC), the Aryans migrated across the Doab (term like Mesopotamia ), which is a large plain which separates the Yamuna River from the Ganges. It was a difficult project, for the Doab was thickly forested. The Aryans slowly burned and settled the Doab until they reached the Ganges. While the Rig Veda represents the most primitive religion of the Aryans during the Rigvedic Period, the religion of the Later Vedic period is dominated by the Brahmanas, or priestly book, which was composed sometime between 1000 and 850 BC. Later Vedic society is dominated by the Brahmans and every aspect of Aryan life comes under the control of priestly rituals and spells. In history as the Indians understand it, the Later Vedic Period is the Epic Age. The great literary, heroic epics of Indian culture, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana , though they were composed between 500 and 200 BC, were probably originally formulated and told in the Later Vedic Period. Both of these epics deal with heroes from this period and demonstrate how Aryan cultural values, as we can understand them from the Rig Veda , are being transformed by mixing with Indus cultures.

Aryans seem to have had a well-developed musical culture, and song and dance dominated their society. They were not greatly invested in the visual arts, but their interest in lyric poetry was unmatched. They loved gambling. They did not, however, have much interest in writing even though they could have inherited a civilization and a writing system when they originally settled India. When exactly they became interested in writing it’s not known, but it may have been at the end of the Brahmanic period somewhere between 650 and 500 BC. Still, there are no Aryan writings until the Mauryan period.  From Harappa (2500-1750 BC) to Maurya (300 BC) is quite a long time. The script that the Mauryans used is called “ Brahmi” script and was used to write not only the religious and literary language of the time, Sanskrit, but also the vernacular languages. This script, Brahmi, is the national alphabet of India.

The Vedic period, then, is a period of cultural mixing, not of conquest. Although the Aryans were a conquering people when they first spread into India, the culture of the Aryans would gradually mix with indigenous cultures, and the war-religion of the Aryans, still preserved in parts of the Rig Veda, slowly became more ritualized and more meditative. By 200 BC, this process of mixing and transforming was more or less complete.

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Vedic Civilization

Last updated on April 23, 2023 by ClearIAS Team

The Vedic Civilization was the way of life and customs that prevailed in the Vedic period (1500-600 BCE). It existed during the Bronze Age and early Iron Age. The civilization is attributed to the Indo-Aryan tribes that lived at that time. Read here to learn more about the Vedic civilization.

The Vedic age refers to the period in India’s history between 1500 and 900 BCE when the Vedic literature, including the Vedas, was written on the northern Indian subcontinent.

It existed between the end of the I ndus Valley Civilization ‘s urban phase and the start of the second urbanization, which started in the Indo-Gangetic Plain’s center about 600 BCE.

The period and culture are attributed to the Indo-Aryan migrations to the Indus Valley.

Table of Contents

Historical groups of Indo-Aryan peoples moved into north-western India following the fall of the Indus Valley Civilization , which took place around 1900 BCE and began to live in the northern Indus Valley.

• The Indo-Aryan migrations were the movement of Indo-Aryan peoples into the Indian subcontinent.
• It is believed that Indo-Aryan arrived in the area from Central Asia began after 2000 BCE and diffused slowly over the Late Harappan era, resulting in a linguistic change in the northern Indian subcontinent.
• This ethnolinguistic group spoke the Indo-Aryan languages, which are still widely spoken in North India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives today.

The Indo-Aryan migration theory is still a disputed theory- many historians are of the notion that Aryans were of indigenous origin. The origin of Aryans is widely disputed- Some claim that they originated in the Central Asian region near the Caspian Sea (Max Muller), while others believe that they came from the Russian Steppes. According to Bal Gangadhar Tilak , the Aryans originated in the Arctic.

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The agreed upon facts about Aryans is that they were semi-nomadic, pastoral people who lived rural life compared to the previous urban Harappans.

• They spoke the Indo-Aryan language- Sanskrit.
• The knowledge about the Aryans comes mostly from the Rigveda Samhita .

The period of Vedic Civilization (1500-500 BCE) is divided into two broad parts-

• Early Vedic Period (1500-1000 BC), also known as Rig Vedic Period
• Later Vedic Period (1000- 600 BC)

Early Vedic civilization

The Rig Vedic period is the oldest documented age around 1400-1000 BCE.

Accounts of military conflicts between the various tribes of Vedic Aryans are described in the Rigveda.

• Most notable of such conflicts was the Battle of the Ten Kings, which took place on the banks of the river Parushni (modern-day Ravi).
• The Bharata tribe, headed by their chief Sudas, engaged in combat with a coalition of ten other tribes.
• The Purus, their western neighbors, dwelt near the lower reaches of the Saraswati River, while the Bharatas lived around its upper reaches.
• The other tribes lived in Punjab to the northwest of the Bharatas. The conflict could have been sparked by the division of the waters of Ravi.
• By widening the embankments of Ravi, the confederation of tribes attempted to engulf the Bharatas, but Sudas won the Battle of Ten Kings. After the conflict, the Bharatas and Purus joined to form the Kuru tribe.

It also contains accounts of conflicts between the Aryas and the Dasas and Dasyus. Dasas and Dasyus were the people who do not perform sacrifices (akratu) or obey the commandments of gods (avrata).

Political organization

• These tribal kingdoms included the Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus, and Purus.
• The ‘Rajan’ or king served as the head of the realm.
• Typically, the Rig Vedic state was a hereditary monarchy.
• There were two organizations: the Samiti (general assembly of people) and the Sabha (council of elders).
• The fundamental unit of political organization was the “kula.”
• A “grama” was made up of many related families.
• ‘ Gramani ‘ was the ‘grama’s’ leader.
• ‘Visu’ was the name of the group of villages commanded by ‘Vishayapati’.
• The ‘Jana’ or tribe served as the highest level of government and administration.

Societal organization

• In essence, the Rig Vedic civilization was patriarchal.
• The family, or “graham,” was the fundamental unit of society, and its leader was known as the “ grahapathi .”
• While polygamy was observed in royal and noble households, monogamy was the norm.
• Women enjoyed the same possibilities for intellectual and spiritual growth that males had. Women poets included Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa, and Lopamudra.
• The widely attended gatherings were open to women.
• No sati, no child marriage has been mentioned in the literature.
• Social stratification was flexible.
• The Aryans of the Rig Vedic civilization were pastoral herders.
• They started farming once they had made their permanent home in North India.
• Chariots and ploughs were built by carpenters.
• Workers used iron, bronze, and copper to create a range of items.
• A significant occupation was spinning, which produced cotton and woolen cloths.
• Jewelers crafted ornaments.
• The potters produced a variety of utensils for residential usage.
• Barter was used to conduct trade initially, but eventually, significant transactions switched to using gold coins called “nishka.”
• Rivers were used as a mode of transportation.
• The Rig Vedic Aryans humanized many natural forces such as earth, fire, wind, rain, and thunder into gods to worship them.
• Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain), and Indra (Thunder) are a few significant Rig Vedic deities.
• “Varuna” is the defender of the laws of nature.
• ‘Aditi’ and ‘Ushas’ are female deities.
• No idol worship or temples was observed.

Later Vedic Civilization

Around 1000 BCE, the Vedic society fully transformed into settled agriculture practitioners.

The demand for horses, which were required for cavalry and sacrifice but could not be bred in India, remained a top concern for Vedic leaders and a relic of the nomadic lifestyle.

• This led to trade routes beyond the Hindu Kush to sustain this supply.

Because of the dense forest cover, the Vedic tribes had been unable to access the Gangetic plains.

• After 1000 BCE, iron axes and ploughs were widely used, making it simple to clear the rainforests.
• Due to this, the Vedic Aryans were able to expand their settlements into the Ganga-Yamuna Doab’s western region.
• Many of the previous tribes merged to become more powerful political entities.
• ‘ Mahajanapadas or rashtras’ were created by the union of larger kingdoms.
• As a result, the king’s authority grew. To solidify his position, he carried out several ceremonies and sacrifices, including the Vajapeya (chariot race), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice), and Rajasuya (a consecration ceremony).
• Rajavisvajanan, Ahilabhuvanapathi (lord of the entire earth), Ekrat, and Samrat (only ruler) were the names that the monarchs adopted.
• However, the Samiti and the Sabha lost some of their significance.
• Four societal divisions—Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras—became the Varna system .
• Brahmins and Kshatriyas held positions of authority over others.
• Based on employment, several subcastes developed.
• Women had lost their political rights to attend assemblies and were now seen as inferior to and submissive to males.
• Child marriages increased in frequency.
• The removal of forests allowed for the cultivation of more land. The understanding of manure advanced.
• As a result, farming became the primary employment of those who grew wheat, rice, and barley.
• With the expansion of metalwork, leatherwork, woodwork, and ceramics, industrial activity became specialized.
• Both domestic and international trade increased significantly (they engaged in maritime trade with Babylon).
• A new class called vaniya, or hereditary merchants, emerged.
• Vaisyas who engaged in trade and business grouped to form “ganas,” or guilds.
• Coins: In addition to the “nishka,” gold coins called “satamana” and silver coins called “krishnala” were also employed as means of transaction.
• Agni and Indra became less significant.
• Rudra, the destroyer, Vishnu, the protector, and Prajapathi, the creator became significant deities.
• The rites and sacrifices grew increasingly complex.
• But prayers lost some of their significance.
• The priesthood evolved into an inherited profession. They established the guidelines for these sacrifices and rites.
• As a result, at the end of this time, there was a tremendous backlash against this priestly dominance as well as against complex sacrifices and rites. As a result, Buddhism and Jainism flourished.

Archaeology of Vedic Civilization

Archaeological evidence has been found from the phases of Vedic culture like the Ochre Coloured Pottery, the Gandhara grave, the Black and red ware, and the Painted Grey Ware.

Ochre-colored pottery was discovered in the Badaun and Bisjuar area of western Uttar Pradesh.

• This culture is considered to have been prevalent around the second half of the year 2000 BCE, during a time when the Harrapan culture was coming to an end and the Indus Valley civilization was in transition.

The term “ Gandhara graves ” describes the early cemetery that can be discovered in the Gandhara area, which stretches from Bajuar to the Indus.

• The burial layout and “mortuary practice” in these cemeteries appear predetermined, including rigid inhumation and cremation.
• This civilization developed in three stages: the bottom stage, during which graves are covered with enormous stone slabs, the upper stage, during which urn burials and cremations are added, and the third stage, known as the “surface” stage.

The phrase “ black and red ware culture ” was first used by Sir Mortimer Wheeler in 1946.

• In addition to portions of West Asia and Egypt, black-and-red pottery expanded throughout India during the Neolithic era and persisted until the early Middle Ages.
• As the name implies, the pottery often has a red bottom half on the outside and a black rim/inside surface.
• Red-ware pottery often falls into one of two subcategories: cooking pots or offering stands.
• The majority of these clay items were open-mouthed bowls with one side polished, painted, or slip-painted; however, a few jars, pots, and dishes-on-stands have also been discovered.

An important ceramic type known as painted grey ware has been associated with a group of people who lived in the Sutlej, Ghagger, and Upper Ganga/Yamuna Valleys.

• These people are thought to have been early Aryans who came to India at the beginning of the Vedic period.
• The painted grey ware culture is believed to have been spread by tribes that also brought iron technology to the Indo-Gangetic plains, making this pottery a significant indicator of the Northern Indian Iron Age.

-Article written by Swathi Satish

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Vedic Period [Complete Notes for UPSC]

Vedic Period [1500-500 BCE]

The Vedic Period started with the advent of the Aryans in around 1500 BCE, which coincided with the Late Harappan period (associated with the decline of the Indus valley civilisation). Aryans spoke Sanskrit, which is considered the origin of most of the current languages of the Indian subcontinent and is said to be a part of Indo-European languages, which is the origin point of most European languages and Persian.

Early scholars such as Wheeler believed that the Aryan tribes originally came from the steppes and invaded India around 1500 BCE. This was known as the   Aryan Invasion theory.   However, we have discussed in the previous article why an Aryan Invasion is an unlikely theory. Therefore, it has been rejected in favour of a much more plausible  Aryan Migration theory.

Basic of Aryan Migration Theory

Linguistic arguments.

• European scholars discovered linguistic similarities between Sanskrit and the major European languages during the colonial era led to the introduction of the Aryan migration theory.
• The Dravidian language family of south India is distinct from the Indo-European language spoken by ‘Aryans’ .
• Introduction of Horse: People of Steppe-pastoralist ancestry may have introduced horses in India as we don’t find any significant proof of horses in Indus valley civilisation .
• The initial written evidence for an Indo-Aryan language is found in northern Syria , the location of the Mitanni kingdom. The Mitanni kings adopted Old Indic throne names, and Old Indic technical terms were used for horse-riding and chariot-driving. The Old Indic term r’ta, meaning “the cosmic order”, is central to Rigveda and was also used in the Mitanni kingdom. Old Vedic gods, including Indra , were also known in the Mitanni kingdom, whereas it finds no place in Harappan art.

Arguments from the Study of Vedas

• Rigveda mentions non-Vedic tribes with people of a different colour ( Dasyus ).
• The term ‘ Varna’ , apart from being a reference to occupational categorisation, is also synonymous with colour.
• The early Vedic text mentions the Indus river system numerous times, whereas it mentions River Ganga only once.
• Boghaz-Koi tablets, a collection of more than 20,000 inscriptions, refer to cultural practices like the Vedic culture in central Asia. It mentions Indra, Varuna and Mitra. These tablets belong to the 2nd Millennia BCE.

Arguments from Genetics 

• In a collaborative effort between the Harvard Medical School and the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) , David Reich conducted a study. Through this, they were able to recognise two genetic groups in the majority of the Indian population, which they called “ Ancestral North Indians” (ANI) and “Ancestral South Indians” (ASI), respectively .  
• They found that the ANI genes are close to those of Middle Easterners , Central Asians and Europeans. In contrast, the ASI genes are not similar to all other known populations outside India, though the indigenous Andamanese people were determined to be the most closely related to the ASI population of any living group (although distinct from the ASI).

Chronology of the Aryan Migration

• Migration of Aryans:  Most scholars believe Aryans came from somewhere in the steppes , stretching from southern Russia to central Asia. On their journey toward India, Aryans first appeared in Iran, where Indo-Iranians lived for a long time.
• Early Vedic Period (1500 – 1000 BCE): In about 1500BCE, the Rig Vedic people appeared in the Indian subcontinent and lived in the land of “ Sapta Sindhu ” (seven rivers). Scholars associate this region with the Punjab plains. This period is known as the early Vedic period.
• River Yamuna has been mentioned three times while River Ganga only once in the Rig Veda. In comparison, the seven rivers are mentioned several times.

• The period after about 1000-1100BCE is generally referred to as the Later Vedic period. It is the widespread use of Iron that distinguishes the early Vedic phase from the later Vedic. 
• Iron allowed large-scale clearing of the forests in the Ganga planes . As a result, Vedic culture gradually moved towards Gangetic Valley, known as Aryavarta.
• This phase is also known as Painted Grey ware (PGW) culture as its inhabitants used earthen bowls and dishes made of painted grey pottery.

Vedic Literature 

We learn about the Aryans in India from Rigveda, the earliest literature in Sanskrit. The Vedic literature has been predominantly classified into two types.

1. Shruti Literature

– The word ‘Shruti’ means ‘to hear’. It describes the sacred texts, including Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, & Upanishads . Shruti Literature is canonical, consisting of revelation and unquestionable truth, and is considered eternal and divine.

2. Smriti Literature

Whereas the word ‘Smiriti’ literally means to be remembered and may change over time. Smriti Literature consists of the entire post-Vedic Classical Sanskrit literature and other texts such as Vedanga, Shad Darshana, Puranas, Itihasa, Upveda, Tantras, Agamas and Upangas.

The word Veda comes from ‘vid’, which means ‘to know. Vedas signify superior knowledge.

The Samhitas: The Mantra portion of the Vedas is known as Samhita. Being the central element of the Vedic texts, these are often referred to as the Vedas. These are four in numbers:

Rig Veda(1500-1000BC)

It is the oldest surviving literature in Sanskrit. It is a collection of hymns offered to Indra, Agni, Mitra and other gods by various families of sages. It consists of ten mandalas or books with 50 Anuvakyas (sub-sections) containing hymns or Suktas (well-said) in praise of god.

• Books II to VII form its earliest portion of these, and Books I and X seem to have been the latest additions. The Rigveda has many things in common with the Avesta (Religious text of Zoroastrians). 

Yajurveda (1200-800BCE)

It Primarily contains the details of rules to be observed at the time of sacrifice.

Sama Veda (1200-1000BCE)

It consists of hymns, ragas and raginis (musical notes). It has also been called the “book of chants” due to its lyrical nature. It is considered the genesis of Indian classical music.

Atharv Veda ( Before 900 BC )

It deals with healing various ailments and black magic. It also incorporated knowledge of indigenous people.

Each of the Veda was recited by a particular Vedic priest or a Ritvik:

Each Veda is accompanied by a text known as Brahmana, which is essentially a collection of texts with commentaries on the specific Veda. For example, Rigveda is accompanied by Aitreya and Kaushitaki Brahmana. 

• They deal with the vast bulk of sacrificial paraphernalia , which represents Karma-Kanda; these texts have little philosophy in them.

‘Aranya’ means forest. Aranyakas are concluding portions of the several Brahmanas. The Aranyaka texts are so called because ‘they were works to be read in the forest’ in contra-distinction to the regular Brahmanas, which were to be read in the village. 

• It is relatively small compared to the Brahmanas. 
• They form a bridge between Karma marga (Ritualism), the sole concern of the Brahmanas and the Gyan marga (Path of Knowledge), which the Upanishads advocated. 
• They mark a transition from ritualistic to philosophical thought.

These are philosophical texts. The word Upa-ni-sad means sitting down(sad) of the disciple near his teacher(ni) in a devoted manner (upa) to receive instruction about the highest reality. 

• Muktikopanishad gives the number of Upanishads as 108. However, 10-11 Upanisads on which Shankaracharya has commented are considered authentic. These are Isha, Kena , Katha, Prasna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Tarittiriya, Aitareya, Chhandogya, Brahdaranyaka.
• They developed the monistic ideas scattered in Samhita/Vedas, which were eventually compiled in the form of the Vedanta school (meaning the end of Vedas).

Various aspects of Early Vedic Society

Religion/ tribal gods.

The religious beliefs of the Vedic people are reflected in the hymns of Rigveda.

• Nature worship:  They venerated the natural forces around them (like wind, water, rain, thunder, fire etc.
• The dominance of masculine gods: Very few female deities were venerated, indicating a patriarchal set-up in society.
• Polytheism: There were other gods: 
• Rajasuya : conducted during coronation & commemoration. 
• Vajapeya : to gain strength for the king.
• Ashwamedha : to show the strength of the king.

Family structure during Vedic Age

• In the Aryan society, kinship was the basis of the social structure. A person was identified by his clan and was loyal to their tribe or Jana .
• KULA or family formed the basic unit, which then joined together to form Grama or village.
• Large families were the norm in society. GRAHAPATI , or KULAPA, was the head of the family.
• GRAMINI was the head of the village. Initially, he was only head of a fighting unit (for Sangram ); he later became head of the village. With time, he became identical to VRAJAPATI . In Later Vedic times, Vrajpati enjoyed authority over a large land or pasture.
• VISHU constituted a group of villages which Vishupati headed.

Polity of Vedic Age

• RAJAN : the king often enjoyed hereditary succession but was sometimes appointed by the people.
• PUROHITA : He was the priest and wielded a substantial amount of power and influence in Vedic society.
• SENANI : Commander of the army.
• According to tradition, Aryans were divided into five tribes (Pancha-Jana or Panchajanya) . It appears that Bharata and Tritsu were the ruling clans.
• Cows were the most important form of wealth, and the linguistic term for war was GAVISHTHI (search for cows). War is also referred to as a Sangrama, which could have meant war between villages.

• Clan-based assemblies existed, such as SABHA (general assembly) and SAMITIS (council of elders). Samiti was responsible for the election of Rajan/king. Other assemblies were VIDHATA (oldest) and GANA . These assemblies were attended by women as well.
• The Rigveda does not mention any officer for administering justice.

Tribal Conflicts during Vedic age

The growing need for more pasture lands and cattle to protect people and their settlement all probably led to an increase in inter and intra-tribal conflicts and warfare.

• They fought two types of battles, one with pre-Aryans ( Dasa and Dasyus ) and two amongst themselves.
• For example, the Battle of Ten Kings fought on the river Parushni (Ravi) is an important event mentioned in Rigveda . It was fought between the Bharata clan and a host of Ten Kings under the leadership of Purus . The Bharata clan emerged victorious under the leadership of king Sudasa.

Vedic Society

The Early Vedic Society was a tribal society in which predominant social relations were based on kinship ties.

• Absence of caste: The society was not divided according to caste lines, and even the Rajas (kings), the Purohitas (priests), the artisans etc. were parts of the clan networks. However, we trace the origin of the varna system in the Purusha Sukta found in the Xth Mandala of the Rig Veda . Purusha is the primordial being, constituted by the combination of the four Varnas. Brahmins constitute its mouth, Kshatriyas its arms, Vaishyas its thighs, and Shudras its feet.
• The basic social unit was Kula or the family, and the Kulapa , i.e. “one who protects the family”, means the eldest male member or the head of the family. 
• Position of women: Even though society was patriarchal, women had an important position. They were educated, and they had access to the assemblies. There are also instances of women who composed hymns (Lopamudra, Ghosha etc.). They had a right to choose their partners and could marry late. Child marriage was not practised; however, polygamy was prevalent.
• Occupations: Various occupational groups such as weavers, smiths, carpenters, leather workers, chariot makers, priests etc. are also mentioned. The chariot makers occupied a special social status.
• Dasas (probably an early branch of Aryans) or Dasyus (probably the original inhabitants) were those who did not perform sacrifices. Later they came to be known as slaves and were often captured in war-treated as property of their owners.

Economy during Vedic Period

• Cattle wealth: Cattle was the chief measure of wealth, and a wealthy man who owned many cattle was called ‘Gomat’ . Similarly, many linguistic expressions in Rigveda are associated with cows, such as Gavisthi (war or search for cows), Gotra (the ancestral house where cows are kept) etc., showing the importance of cows in the Vedic culture.
• Crops: They cultivated Wheat, Barley, Millet, Pulses and Cotton. Cultivation of Rice was rare.
• Crafts: Carpenter, chariot maker, weaver, leather workers, potters etc. are mentioned in the Vedic texts.
• Metallurgy was known, and the term ‘ Ayas ‘ (metal) was used to refer to Copper or Bronze. In the later Vedic age, ‘ Syam Ayas ‘ (black metal) was referred to as Iron.
• Taxation: There was no regular taxation, and a voluntary offering ( Bali ) and war bounties were sources of income.

  The arrival of the Vedic culture marks the actual starting point of India’s Ancient written history. It also marks a significant shift in the social and cultural aspects of Indian society. Further, by 1000 BCE, an important socio-political change also started with the formation of tribal republics or Janapadas , which we shall see in the following article .

Explore additional significant articles on Ancient Indian History listed in the table below:

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An Explanation About Vedic Society

In this article, we will tell you about Vedic society.

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The Vedic period or Vedic age is the period between 1500 BC and 600 BC. They were the next major civilization after the Indus Valley Civilization. During this period Vedas, the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism, were composed in the northern Indian subcontinent. The Vedas are religious texts which form the basis of Hinduism. The Vedas also explain how the people used to live in that period and how their behaviour was. 

These documents help in studying the Vedic society and its culture. The Vedic period can be categorised into two parts: The Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period and the Later Vedic Period or Painted Grey Ware Phase. The societies during both these times have different characteristics. In this article, we will tell you more about these two societies in great detail.

• The Aryans are the foreigners who had migrated to the Indus Valley and Ganges Plain
• Now, it is not sure where the Aryans came from. Some believe that their homeland is in the Caspian Sea in Central Asia, others believe they come from the Russian Steppes
• The word ‘Aryan’ comes from the Sanskrit language which means ‘noble people’
• The Indo-Aryans represented the Indo-Iranian tribes
• The Vedic age started with the Aryans. These people spoke Sanskrit and lived semi-nomadic

Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Society (1500 BC – 1000 BC):

• Sindhu (Indus)
• Vipash (Beas)
• Vitasta (Jhelum)
• Parushni (Ravi)
• Asikni (Chenab)
• Shutudri (Satluj) 

Let’s understand their living structure in detail:

Political Structure:

• The government was structured with a King which was known as Rajan
• Rashtra was the largest political unit
• When multiple families were formed together they were referred to as ‘grama’ and the leader of this group was called ‘gramani’
• Groups of villages that were formed together were called ‘visu’ and the leader of the group was referred to as ‘vishayapati’

Social Structure:

• During this time women were respected and had the authority to become part of major committees in the society such as Sabhas and Samitis. Most of the women were poets: Ghosa, Viswavara, Apala and Lopamudra
• Among all the cattle, cows were given more importance
• Monogamy which means having a relationship with one partner at a time was practised
• Although royal people were practising polygamy which means they were getting married to multiple people

Economic Structure:

• The main occupation was agriculture and most of them were pastoral and cattle-rearing people
• Horse chariots and ploughs were also present
• To make cotton and woollen fabrics spinning was used
• The barter system prevailed at first but, later it was transformed into gold coins called ‘nishka’
• Rivers were used for transportation
• People used to worship natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain, and thunder
• The most prominent god was Indra (thunder)
• The natural forces were given a name of god which are as follows: Prithvi (earth), Agni (fire), Varuna (rain) and Vayu (wind) and the female gods were Ushas and Aditi
• There are no temples and idol worship

Later Vedic Civilization or Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000 BC – 600 BC):

• In this period the Aryans had settled in the western and eastern UP (Kosala) and Bihar.
• The political committees Samiti and the Sabha were not present
• The larger kingdoms were given two names: ‘Mahajanapadas’ and ‘rashtras’
• The power of the king had increased and various sacrifices and rituals were performed by him like Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice), and Vajpeyi (chariot race)
• The Varna system became an important part and the society was divided into four divisions: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras
• The Brahmins and Kshatriyas had higher positions and were given more respect
• Women were not given a lot of power and authority and were considered inferior to men. They were also not allowed to attend political assemblies
• Child marriages were common
• Forests were cut down to make the land for cultivation
• Agriculture was still the main occupation
• Carpentry, pottery, leatherwork and metalwork had become significant
• Two gold coins i.e. satamana and nishka were used for trading
• Silver coins like krishnala had also become a part of trading
• Foreign trading with the regions that were far off like Babylon and Sumeria also started
• Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer) were worshipped by the people instead of Indra and Agni
• People started praying to God
• The priestly class had more power than others and they started making the rules of the rites and rituals
• People were unhappy with this and started protesting against the priestly class. Due to this Buddhism and Jainism emerged

Vedic Literature:

The four Vedas are as follows:

• The Rig Veda was composed during the Early Vedic Age and is one of the oldest known Vedic Sanskrit texts. It consists of 1028 hymns and is classified into 10 mandalas

Yajur Veda:

• In Yajur Veda there were formulas and mantras written. These rules need to be followed during sacrifices
• The Sama Veda has a collection of melodies and chants. The words of Rig Veda are basically converted into music

Atharva Veda:

• Atharva Veda consists of spells, prayers, charms, and hymns. The hymns help in curing illness with herbs, gaining a lover or partner, maintaining world peace and describing the nature of good and evil

Mahabharata and Ramayana were also composed during this period.

As you can see Vedic period has given us so much literature. Their method of living forms the basis of modern-day living. The style of living and approach to life was very different in the Early Vedic society and Later Vedic society.

Related Articles:

Frequently asked questions

Get answers to the most common queries related to the UPSC Examination Preparation.

What occupations dominated early Vedic Aryan society?

Pastoralism dominated early Vedic Aryan society.

What is the difference between the Pre Vedic society and the Post Vedic society?

In the early vedic period varna system was based on the.

In the Early Vedic Period varna system was based on occupation.

In the pre vedic society the politics were handled by the samithi and vidathas although in the post vedic society administration was purely handled by the king and kingship became hereditary. Women became inferior to men and were not allowed to study or participate in any political activities. In the post vedic period the varna system like  Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras also started. In the pre vedic society Aryans worshipped Indra, Prithvi , Agni, Varuna and Vayu. Although later Ganesha, Lakshmi, Parvathi, Saraswathi were given more importance.

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The history and culture of the indian people: vedic age.

Editor: Majumdar, R.C.

Keywords: India - History - Vedic period India - Civilization - Vedic period

Publisher: George Allen and Unwin, London

Source: Central Secretariat Library

Type: E-Book

Received From: Central Secretariat Library

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Short essay on the Vedic Age

After the end of the Indus valley civilization a new civilization called Vedic civilization came into existence. This civilization is also known as Aryan civilization. Aryan came to India from central Asia between 1500 B.C. and 2000 B.C.

The Aryans first settled in Punjab and this region was known as Sapt-Sindhu or the land of the seven rivers. They lived here for a long time and developed their early civilization. We learnt from the Rigveda that King Bharat fought a bloody battle with a confederacy of ten kings on the bank of river Parusni (Ravi). Later on the Kuru tribe (clan) became the important. The Kurus were further divided into two branches-Kauravas and the Pandavas. The Kauravas retained their seat at Hastinapur while the Pandavas shifted to Indraparastha. A little later, a terrible battle was fought between them on the battle-field of Kurukshetra which is known as the Mahabharat.

Political Organisation of the Aryan:

The family was the smallest unit of the society as well as the political organisation of the Aryans. Jana was the largest unit of the society and the head of the Jana was Rajan or King.

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The king governed the tribe with the help of ministers.

Economic life:

The Aryans were primarily agriculturist. Their principal occupation was the cultivation.

The domestication of animals was one of their important occupations. Their wealth and prosperity depended upon the possession of a large number of animals.

The exchange of articles on the barter system was in vogue.

The Vedic Religion:

Indra, Varun, Surya, Agni, Vayu, Pirthvi etc. were chief deities of the Aryans.

The Caste System:

The Aryan society was divided into four Varnas or castes such as the Brahmans, the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas and the Sudras.

Foods, Dress and Ornaments:

Wheat, barley, milk and milk products and fruits formed their main diets. They wore clothes made of cotton, wool and silk. Both men and women wore gold and silver ornaments.

Amusements:

Horse-racing, chariot-racing, hunting and ambling were popular entertainments of the Aryans.

Period of Vedic Age:

The Vedic age started in 1500 BC and ended in 600 BC.

Related Articles:

• 56 Important Questions of Vedic Age
• To which age belongs the Vedic Civilization? Who were the Aryans? What was their” original home? – Answered
• Short Essay on the The Vedic Tribes
• Short Essay on the Geographical Data in the Vedic Texts

Impact of Vedic Culture on Society

by Kaushik Acharya | 2020 | 120,081 words

Summary : This essay studies the Impact of Vedic Culture on Society as Reflected in Select Sanskrit Inscriptions found in Northern India (4th Century CE to 12th Century CE). The second chapter discusses the Indian tradition of Dana. The third chapter studies the migration of Vedic Brahmanas. The fourth chapter deals with the socio-cultural scenario of northern India. The fifth chapter contains a comparative study of the systems of administration prevalent in the Vedic period.

This dissertation also documents the migrations, rituals and other religious activities of Vedic Brahmanas, showing the impact of their culture and traditions. It also shows how the kings of northern India sometimes granted huge area of lands donated to those well-versed in the four Vedas for the purpose of austerities and Vedic education.

Source 1: exoticindiaart.com Source 2: shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in

Contents of this online book (  +  /  -  )

The full text of the Impact of Vedic Culture on Society in English is available here and publically accesible (free to read online). Of course, I would always recommend buying the book so you get the latest edition. You can see all this book’s content by visiting the pages in the below index:

Article published on 26 June, 2022

Rig Vedic Society (Study Notes)

The early Vedic Society represented human equality and simplicity at their best. It was a society of high moral standards.

It showed an advanced civilisation, a settled life, and an organised human relation.

The Aryan families were the backbone of the society. The society was organised on the basis of the family as a unit. Each home was like an abode of happiness.

This was because the Aryans laid great emphasis on the virtues of family life. A good family man was a good social being.

Image Source: interestingfacts.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/rig-veda-book.jpg

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Usually, the father was the head of the family. As the head, he controlled the other members. The younger members obeyed the senior members. The relation between father, mother, brothers and sisters rested on a sense of duty, devotion, affection and cordiality. The size of a family could be big enough to contain many members from grandparents to grand children. But they all lived in peace. In their daily life, the Aryan householders believed in plain living and high thinking. Truth, mercy, kindness, goodness, mutual help and understanding were the ideals of family life.

Chaturashrama:

The Aryans believed in the system of Chaturashrama or the four- fold division of one’s life. At the young age when man received education and training, he practiced Brahmacharya. Thereafter he married and led the Garhasthya life or the life of a householder. When man reached the third stage of his life, he adopted Vanaprastha. During that period he lived in a cottage away in forests to perform religious duties. In the final phase, of life in the old age, he practised the Sannyasa Vrata by renouncing everything. These practices showed the discipline of the Aryan life.

Position of Women:

The women held a high position in the Aryan society. Inside the family they played a prominent role. They exercised much influence in domestic affairs. In religious ceremonies and festivals, women enjoyed equal place with men. Before their marriage the Aryan daughters received education in the house of their parents. The word Duhitri in Sanskrit and Daughter in English came from the root Aryan word Dugh which means milking the cow. Perhaps the Aryan girls were fond of looking after the cows as their domestic duty.

There was no child marriage in the Rig-Veda society. Girls lived in the house of their parents till they attained marriageable age. They had freedom to select their husbands. Of course, arranged marriages were a more usual custom. Marriage was considered a sacred obligation in Vedic culture. It was indissoluble. There was no seclusion of women in the Vedic society. The Vedic women took part in the highest socio-religious duties. They studied the Vedas. Some of them like Lopamudra, Ghosha, Vishwavara and Apala become immortal as the authors of the Vedic hymns.

Social Equality:

The most praiseworthy feature of the early Vedic Society was the social equality of men. All Aryans were equal among themselves. There was no caste system to separate man from man. Every Aryan could learn the Vedas, could fight battles as a soldier, and work as a cultivator. It is only the conquered people who were given a lower rank in the society as the Dasas. In brief, the Rig-Veda Aryans lived in an ideal society which was unique in ancient world.

Economic Life:

The economic condition of the people in the early Vedic society was prosperous. The Aryans were a hard-working race. They were also the believers of simple life. They loved to live in villages. Their economic activities mostly centred in and around their villages.

Agriculture:

Agriculture was the chief occupation of the Vedic Aryans. They regarded cultivation as the main source of their livelihood. Around every village there were plenty of cultivable lands and wide pastoral fields for cattle. Each family had its own lands to grow crop. Grass lands for the animals were held in common by all villagers.

The lands under cultivation were called Kshetra. The Aryans depended much on the rains and rivers for agriculture. They also took water from canals to their fields. To make the land fertile, they used manure. Dhan and Yava were the two chief products of agriculture. Since the lands were fertile in those days and population was small, there was enough food in Vedic India to keep the people happy and self-sufficient.

Rearing of Animals:

Next to agriculture, the Vedic Aryans paid great attention to the rearing of cattle and various other domestic animals. Milk was regarded most useful, and cows were paid the maximum care. In every village there were cowherd boys to drive the cattle to the green pasture lands. Sheep, goats, and horses were the other useful animals in Vedic society.

Trade and Commerce:

The early Aryans also developed trade, commerce and industry. Merchants were there to carry various useful goods from place to place. Varieties of cloths, metal goods and skin products were sold by traders in different markets. Carts drawn by horses and oxen usually carried the articles of trade. Boats were used in rivers for internal movement of goods. Rare evidences are also there to prove that the Vedic Aryans had maritime activities across the seas.

Cottage Industry:

Cottage industries flourished in Vedic society. In most villages there were weavers, smiths or metal-workers, carpenters, and also tanners. Artistic goods were made at select centres. Ornaments, weapons, chariots, implements for cultivation, utensils and many other useful things were made by the people for regular use.

The Aryans loved to eat rice, barley, milk, meat, fish and fruits. In festivals and religious occasions, they used to drink Somarasa. On the whole, the economic life of the Vedic period was a life of plenty and prosperity. It is said that the early Aryans did not build big cities or Nagara. But they built strongholds and forts known as Pura with walls around and strong houses inside.

Political Organisation:

The Aryans were a powerful people. They came to India in an organised way. As they spread themselves in India and settled permanently, they developed political organisations in their society for a better life. The nature of the Vedic political organisation was as follows.

Administrative Divisions:

Several families formed a village or the Grama. The head of the Grama was called Gramani. He regulated the affairs of the village and maintained peace in his area. Several villages formed a district or canton which was called the Vis. The head of the vis was named as Vispati. If the Vis was very big in size, the Vispati ruled more or less like a king.

Several districts formed a Jana or people, which was like a big political unit or the Rastra. The Rastra or the State or the Jana was ruled by a head named as the Rajan or the king. He was said to be “without a rival and a destroyer of rivals.” In later times, when the territory became big in size the Rajan became a Samrat.

King and Kingship:

In Vedic India, the kingship was generally a hereditary institution. The king occupied a position of honour. He was anointed by the Chief Priests. He usually enjoyed the confidence and loyalty of the people. He lived in his palace. In dress, manners and style, he maintained the dignity of royalty.

The son of the king had his right to his father’s kingdom. Because of such continuity, it was a duty of the ruling king to train his successor in the art of good government as well as in various virtues required of a monarch. At places, the subjects also could elect or select a king for their land.

The king appointed several officers. Among such officers, the Purohita or chaplain, the Senani or the commander of the army, the Duta or the messenger, the Gramani or village headman played prominent role. The king also had his advisers or ministers. He appointed spies to collect information about the people. The king was required to perform two main duties. One was the protection of his land and the people from outside enemies. For this he maintained his army. The other was to serve and please the people.

The king or the Rajan of the Vedic age was not an autocrat. He governed according to the laws and customs of the land, according to religious beliefs and with the advice of the seers, sages, and elders. There were even some kind of popular assemblies in those days called Samiti to give opinion on the affairs of the state. There was also the Sabha or Council of Elders, containing wise men to advise the Government. The monarchy was thus limited.

It is also understood that at places there were some kind of republican governments among some of the Aryan tribes. The term Gana or people was perhaps used for such a state. Its head was called Ganapati or Jyeshtha (elder).

On the whole, the Vedic political organisations were sound and stable. The state rested on the foundations of ethics, morality, virtue and popular will. In course of time, smaller kingdoms yielded place to bigger kingdoms. Powerful monarchs wanted to rule over larger territories. Stronger political units and organisations thus became the need of the time.

Religious Life:

The Aryans were deeply religious. Their spiritual thoughts were of the highest order. Among the ancient races on earth, no race was equal to the Indian Aryans of the early Vedic age in spiritual and religious thoughts. While the whole world was in the darkness of ignorance and blind beliefs, the Rig-Veda India held the lamp of wisdom. Among the ancient-most religions of mankind, the Vedic religion is considered the best.

The Rig-Veda Aryans thought of the Supreme Creator through the Creation. Nature represented the different manifestations of that creation. They, therefore, became the worshippers of Nature. The mighty elements of Nature were regarded by the Aryans as their gods. All the useful elements of Nature appeared in divine form in the Aryan religious thought.

Dyus or the Shinning Sky, Prithivi or the Mother Earth, Indra or the God of Rain and Thunder, Varuna or the Lord of Waters, Surya or the Illuminator, Marut or the Lord of Storms, Vayu or the God of Wind, Agni or the God of Fire, and Usha or the Goddess of Dawn, were the famous divinities of the Aryan worship. Everyone of them was a part of Nature. While believing in several gods and goddesses, the early Aryans developed faith in the Supreme Being who was the Creator of all. Every other god was only His representation.

Therefore, they sang:

“They call him India, Mitra, Varuna,

And Agni…………

To what is One, the poets give many a name, They call It Agni, Yama, Matarisvan.”

The seers and sages of Vedic India were the epitomes of wisdom. They searched for the origin and meaning of the Universe and came to know the first cause of creation.

“Neither death nor deathlessness existed:

Of day and night there was yet no distinction,

Alone that one breathed calmly, self-supported,

Other than it was none, nor aught above It.”

While the religious faith of the Vedic Aryans was deeply spiritual, their religious practices were most simple. They performed Yajnas in which they made offerings of ghee, milk, grain and other things while singing hymns in honour of gods and goddesses. In their religious conduct, they became virtuous, kind, charitable and truthful.

Thus was the early Vedic Civilisation glorified. The social, political, and religious conditions of the time were the brightest proofs of that great civilisation.

Related Articles:

• Later Vedic Civilisation (Study Notes)
• Life of Aryan People in the Vedic Age of India
• Vedic Period: The Rituals and Practices observed during the Vedic Period
• Vedic Culture and the Indus Civilization | Indian History

Vedic Literature, Types, Shruti, Smriti and Importance

Vedic literature, foundational to Hinduism, is a rich tapestry encompassing the Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmanas. Check here Types of Vedic Literature in detail here.

Table of Contents

Vedic Literature refers to the ancient sacred texts that form the foundation of Hinduism. These texts are among the oldest religious scriptures in the world and are considered the authoritative source of knowledge in various fields, including philosophy, theology, science, and ritual. The term “Vedic” is derived from the Sanskrit word “Veda,” which means knowledge or wisdom. The Vedic Literature is classified into four main categories: Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. Each category serves a specific purpose and contributes to the comprehensive understanding of Vedic philosophy and spirituality.

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What is Vedic Literature?

The ancient and sacred texts of Hinduism were penned in the initial era’s Sanskrit, encompassing the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads in traditional belief. These Vedas stand as a testament to India’s profound cultural and religious traditions, encapsulating the essence of the nation’s heritage.

Their significance lies in more than just language; it extends to the richness of expression, understanding, and profound insights they offer. The Vedic literature serves as a repository of detailed information, providing insights into the socio-cultural origins of ancient India, the prevailing way of life, intricate rituals and ceremonies, societal norms, and the profound teachings of ancient Indian wisdom. This literary heritage not only reflects the cultural exuberance of the country but also serves as a timeless source for understanding the roots and evolution of Indian civilization.

Types of Vedic Literature

Vedic literature is broadly categorized into two main types: Shruti literature and Smriti literature, constituting the oldest Hindu writings and the earliest Sanskrit literature. The Vedas, regarded as the foundational scriptures, have been transmitted across generations through oral tradition. Let’s delve into each category in more detail:

Shruti Vedic Literature

Shruti literature comprises writings that hold fundamental significance in Hinduism, recognized for their profound insights and considered as repositories of indisputable truths. This category includes:

• Vedas: The core and oldest texts, the Vedas are divided into four parts – Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda. Each Veda consists of Samhitas (hymns), Brahmanas (rituals and ceremonies), Aranyakas (forest texts), and Upanishads (philosophical teachings).
• Brahmanas: These texts provide detailed explanations and instructions for the rituals and ceremonies mentioned in the Vedas. They offer a deeper understanding of the symbolic significance behind the rituals.
• Aranyakas: Bridging the gap between the ritualistic Brahmanas and the philosophical Upanishads, Aranyakas are associated with hermits and ascetics dwelling in the forest, focusing on contemplative practices.
• Upanishads: Representing the culmination of Vedic thought, Upanishads explore profound philosophical concepts, such as the nature of reality (Brahman) and the self (Atman). They encourage introspection and meditation for spiritual realization.

Check Here: Rig Vedic Period

Smriti Vedic Literature

In contrast, Smriti literature refers to works composed after the Vedic period and is often considered as remembered or traditional literature. This category includes:

• Puranas: These are vast compilations of myths, legends, and genealogies of gods, goddesses, and heroes. Puranas serve to disseminate religious and moral teachings in a narrative form.
• Upangas: Supplementary limbs of the Vedas, the Upangas cover various subjects, including grammar, metrics, astronomy, and law.
• Tantras: Focused on rituals, meditation, and worship, Tantras provide instructions for various spiritual practices.
• Upveda: Comprising four disciplines associated with each Veda – Ayurveda (related to medicine), Dhanurveda (archery and war), Gandharvaveda (music and performing arts), and Sthapatyaveda (architecture).
• Itihasa: Epic narratives, including the Ramayana and Mahabharata, which offer moral and philosophical teachings through captivating stories.

Check Here: Later Vedic Period

Vedic Literature – Vedas

The Vedas, foundational texts of Hinduism, are classified into four types:

• Rig Veda: The oldest and most significant Veda, consisting of hymns dedicated to various deities. Notable for its portrayal of early Vedic gods and includes the famous Gayatri mantra and Purusha Shukta.
• Sama Veda: Comprised of chants and melodies used during worship and rituals. Linked to the Rig Veda, it is the shortest of the four Vedas.
• Yajur Veda: Known as the ritual book, it provides guidelines for sacrificial ceremonies. It is divided into the Krishna Yajur Veda and Shukla Yajur Veda.
• Atharvaveda: Often referred to as the Veda of magic formulas, it contains hymns and incantations addressing various aspects of life outside the scope of traditional sacrifices.

Check here: Difference Between Early and Later Vedic Periods

Vedic Literature – Brahmanas

Brahmanas are prose texts embedded within each Veda, explaining the hymns and incorporating myths and legends. They serve as instructional material for Brahmins, detailing Vedic rituals. Brahmana literature also explores scientific knowledge, including observational astronomy and geometry related to altar construction. Some Brahmanas contain mystical and philosophical content, leading to the development of Aranyakas and Upanishads.

• Each Veda has its own Brahmanas, associated with specific Shakhas or Vedic schools.
• Fewer than twenty Brahmanas are extant today due to loss or destruction.
• The dating of Brahmanas is controversial, with the oldest dated around 900 BCE and the youngest around 700 BCE.

Vedic Literature – Aranyakas

Aranyakas, known as “Forest Books,” interpret sacrificial rituals in a symbolic and philosophical manner. They serve as a transition from external rituals to more internal, contemplative practices.

Vedic Literature – Upanishads

Upanishads are philosophical texts that explore profound ideas. Key points include:

• There are 108 Upanishads, with 13 considered major.
• Upanishads delve into the concepts of ‘Atman’ (individual self) and ‘Brahman’ (universal consciousness).
• They philosophically explore ideas related to sacrifice, the body, and the universe.

Vedic Literature – Vedangas

Vedangas, referred to as the limbs of the Veda, are six auxiliary disciplines essential for understanding and interpreting the Vedas. Mentioned in the Mundaka Upanishad, the Vedangas include:

• Siksha (pronunciation): Focuses on the correct pronunciation and phonetics of Vedic mantras.
• Kalpa (rituals): Deals with the procedures and rituals associated with Vedic ceremonies.
• Vyakarana (grammar): Concerned with the grammatical rules for understanding the Vedic texts.
• Nirukta (etymology): Involves the interpretation of Vedic words and their etymology.
• Chhanda (meter): Explores the meters and rhythms used in Vedic poetry.
• Jyotisa (astrophysics): Pertains to Vedic astronomy and timekeeping.

Vedic Literature – Shad-Darshana

The Shad-Darshana encompasses six schools of philosophical thought in India, each presenting distinct perspectives on life and existence. These are:

• Uttara Mimamsa: Concerned with the interpretation of the latter part of the Vedas, specifically the Upanishads.
• Nyaya: Deals with logic and reasoning.
• Vaisheshika: Explores atomic theory and metaphysics.
• Sankhya: Focuses on enumeration and the concept of dualism.
• Yoga: Explores the practice of spiritual discipline and meditation.
• Purva Mimamsa: Concerned with the interpretation of the earlier part of the Vedas, particularly the rituals and ceremonies.

These philosophical texts are written in a concise, direct, and aphoristic (Sutra) style, aiming to spread the values of righteous living.

Puranas are sacred texts providing a wealth of information on creation, ancestral lineage, moral guidelines, various worlds, and myths. While considered newer than the Vedas, they discuss the “later deities” like Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. Some well-known Puranas include Devibhagavata, Bhagavata, and Vishnu-Puranas.

Itihasas, such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata, are epic narratives. The Ramayana, authored by Maharishi Valmiki, consists of 24,000 verses, while the Mahabharata, composed by Maharishi Vyas, contains 100,000 verses.

Tantras encompass three main categories: Shaiva, Shakta, and Vaishnava. Tantric Literature, not consistently coherent, is primarily concerned with theistic worship and can include Agamas, Nigamas, and Samhitas. Saiva Tantras are often referred to as Agamas, Vaisnava Tantras as Samhitas, and Sakta Tantras as Tantras.

Agamas are instructional guides for deity worship, including Tantras, Mantras, and Yantras. They provide guidance on how to worship deities outside the body, such as in idols and temples, emphasizing four attributes: Jnana (Knowledge), Yoga (Concentration), Kriya (Esoteric Ritual), and Charya (Exoteric Worship).

Upavedas encompass four traditional branches of applied knowledge:

• Dhanurveda (art of warfare): Deals with military strategy and tactics.
• Gandharvaveda (music): Explores musical theory and practice.
• Silpaveda (art and architecture): Concerned with artistic principles and architectural design.
• Ayurveda (medicine): Focuses on traditional medical knowledge and practices.

Importance of Vedic Literature

• Spiritual Wisdom: Vedas, especially Upanishads, contain profound philosophical insights and spiritual teachings.
• Religious Guidance: Vedic literature provides detailed instructions for Hindu rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices.
• Moral Lessons: Puranas and Itihasas embed moral and ethical teachings in mythological narratives.
• Historical Record: Offers glimpses into the socio-cultural aspects and lifestyle of ancient India, aiding in historical reconstruction.
• Linguistic Foundations: Vedangas, particularly Vyakarana, contribute to Sanskrit linguistics and grammar development.
• Astrological and Scientific Insights: Jyotisa in Vedic literature provides ancient Indian astronomy and scientific knowledge.
• Cultural Identity: Shapes the cultural identity of India and contributes to a shared heritage among its people.
• Basis for Later Texts: Many later Hindu scriptures draw inspiration and references from Vedic literature.
• Unity in Diversity: Serves as a common thread uniting followers across diverse Hindu sects and traditions.

Vedic Literature UPSC

Vedic literature, foundational to Hinduism, is a rich tapestry encompassing the Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmanas, and more. The Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharvaveda constitute the core Vedas. They offer spiritual wisdom, ritual guidance, and moral lessons. Vedangas provide linguistic and grammatical foundations, while Puranas contribute historical and cultural insights. The Itihasas, including Ramayana and Mahabharata, narrate epic stories. The importance of Vedic literature lies in shaping Hindu philosophy, providing historical records, and influencing cultural identity, making it a pivotal topic in the UPSC examination for its multifaceted impact on India’s heritage.

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Vedic Literature FAQs

Vedic literature refers to the ancient sacred texts of Hinduism, including the Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmanas, and related texts.

How many Vedas are there?

There are four Vedas: Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharvaveda.

What is the significance of the Rig Veda?

Rig Veda is the oldest and most significant Veda, containing hymns dedicated to various deities and foundational texts of Hinduism.

What do Vedangas focus on?

Vedangas are auxiliary disciplines focusing on pronunciation, rituals, grammar, etymology, meter, and astrophysics.

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