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MLA Photograph Citation

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How to cite a photograph in a bibliography using MLA

The most basic entry for a photograph citation consists of the creator’s name(s), the image title, the creation date, and location details. The MLA 9 citation format varies depending on where you viewed the image.

Begin with the name of the photographer. This person’s name should be reversed, with a comma after the last name and a period after the first name (and any middle name). A suffix, such as a roman numeral or Jr./Sr. should appear after the person’s given name, preceded by a comma.

Photograph viewed firsthand in a museum:

When citing an image viewed in-person in a museum and/or collection, vary the format by including the name of the museum/collection and the city where the museum is located.

Last Name, First Name. Image Title . Creation Date, Museum/Collection Name, Location.

Smith, John. Sunset on the Atlantic . 2000. Museum of Modern Art, New York City.

Personal photograph viewed firsthand:

When citing an image viewed in-person, such as a personal photograph, vary the format by using a description of the image, not a formal title of the image. When describing an image without a title, capitalize the first word of the description as you would in a regular sentence. Omit the location information since it isn’t a famous or published work. You may also include the file format detail (e.g., JPEG, GIF, PNG) in the optional-element slot at the end of the entry.

Last Name, First Name. Description of the image. Creation Date. Digital File Type (optional).

Doe, Jane. My dog enjoying her walk. 3 May 2021. PNG.

Photograph viewed in a print publication:

For a photograph from a publication, conclude the citation with location information for the publication information, or the larger container, housing the photograph. See the Citation Guide entries for these works (e.g., books, magazines, newspapers) for more specific guidelines.

Last Name, First Name. Image Title . Publication Title , Publication Date, page(s).

Smith, John. Sunset on the Atlantic . The New Yorker , 14. Apr. 2015, p. 53.

If there is no creation date available, omit the date.

Smith, John. Sunset on the Atlantic . The New Yorker , p. 53.

Photograph viewed online:

For a photograph viewed online, conclude the citation with the website name in italics and the location (such as a DOI, permalink, or URL). According to MLA’s 9th edition updated in 2021, you may usually leave out http:// or https:// from URLs unless you want to hyperlink them or unless instructed otherwise. When in doubt, ask your instructor. If a DOI is available, use that instead of the URL. For DOIs, use http:// or https:// before the DOI: https://doi.org/xx.xxxx/xxx.xxxx.xxxx. Use a period after the DOI.

If a publication or posting date isn’t available, include the accessed date after the location. Format the date using the international format of day-month-year. Follow the access date with a period. For dates, abbreviate month names, except for May, June, and July (using the first four letters for September and the first three letters for all other months), followed by a period.

Last Name, First Name. Image Title . Publication Date. Publication Title , DOI or URL.

Smith, John. Sunset on the Atlantic . 1 Nov. 2000. CNN , cnn.com/imagearchives/image-sunset-on-atlantic.

Last Name, First Name. Image Title . Publication Title , DOI or URL. Accessed Date.

Smith, John. Sunset on the Atlantic . CNN , cnn.com/imagearchives/image-sunset-on-atlantic. Accessed 1 May 2021.

Troubleshooting

Solution #1: how to cite a photograph with no photographer.

1. Double check that the photo doesn’t have an organization or group photographer. If this is the case, the photo credit provided for the photo will be the name of an organization.

For example:

World Health Organization. Photograph of three doctors giving the thumbs up sign. “WHO and Partners Call for Action to Better Protect Health and Care Workers from COVID-19,” by Sonali Reddy, 21 Oct. 2021.  World Health Organization, www.who.int/news/item/21-10-2021-who-and-partners-call-for-action-to-better-protect-health-and-care-workers-from-covid-19.

However, if no credit is provided for the photo, do not assume that the organization/group that posted it is the photographer.

2. If no photographer or group/organization photographer has been identified for the photo you are trying to cite, you can begin your citation with the title or description of the photo.

For example: 

Photograph of watercolor paint tubes. “18 Essential Watercolour Techniques for Every Artist,” by Brynn Metheney, 21 Sept. 2021.  Creative Bloq , www.creativebloq.com/illustration/20-watercolor-techniques-every-artist-should-know-31619705.

Solution #2: How to cite a photograph within a book or article written by a different author

If you are citing a photo within an article or book, and the photographer is someone other than the author of the article or book, you need to make sure you give credit to both individuals in your citation. Follow the templates and examples below to learn how to format a reference list entry for a photograph within a book or article.

Reference list entry template:

Photographer Surname, First Name. Title or description of photograph. “Title of Article,” by Author First Name Surname, Publication date. Website/Publication Name , URL.

Photographer Surname, First Name. Title or description of photograph. Book Title , by Author First Name Surname, Publisher Name, Publication Year, Page Number.

Reference list entry example:

Akmen, Tolga. Photograph of commuters on London underground train. “An Offshoot of the Delta Variant is Rising in the U.K.,” by Sanjay Mishra, 2 Nov. 2021. National Geographic, www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/an-offshoot-of-the-delta-variant-is-rising-in-the-uk.

Photograph of the inside of a tokamak.  The Atom: A Visual Tour , by Jack Challoner, MIT Press, 2018, p. 163.

Solution #3: How to cite a photograph posted on social media

The format for citing a photograph on social media depends on the site being referenced. Below are templates and examples for citing photos on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.

1. Facebook

Account Name/Author Surname, First Name. Photo description. Facebook, Day Month Year posted, URL.

National Park Service. Photo of American Memorial Park. Facebook, 4 Nov. 2021, www.facebook.com/americanmemorialpark/photos/a.368285423296177/3292590387532318.

Account Name/Author Surname, First Name [@twitterhandle]. Photo description. Twitter, Day Month Year posted, URL.

Musk, Elon [@elonmusk]. Photo of rocket launch pad. Twitter, 12 Sept. 2021, twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1437220114613555202/photo/1.

3. Instagram

Account Name/Author Surname, First Name. Photo description. Instagram, Day Month Year posted, URL.

Green, John [@johngreenwritesbooks]. Photo of  A Beautifully Foolish Endeavor cover. Instagram,  7 July 2020, www.instagram.com/p/CCV89ubH-Ho/?utm_medium=copy_link.

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As per MLA style, a personal photograph viewed firsthand has a different format that includes the description of the image rather than an official title. Use the format and example below as a base to build upon.

Rickets, Rob. An astronaut taking a walk in space. 5 March 2000. BMP.

According to MLA style, a photograph viewed firsthand at a museum includes the name of the photographer, the title of the photograph (or a description, if there is no title), the year it was taken, the name of the museum, and the museum’s location. Use the format and example below to create your own works-cited entry for this type of source.

Photographer Last Name, First Name. Title or Description of the Image . Year, Museum, Location.

Cassatt, Mary. Young Mother Sewing . 1900, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City.

FLEET LIBRARY | Research Guides

Rhode island school of design, how to cite images.

• Chicago/Art Bulletin Style

MLA Caption Style

• When citing an image, the caption should be labeled as Figure (usually abbreviated Fig.), assigned a number, and given a title or caption
• For images found in a book or journal, include the publication information of the text.
• A caption ordinarily appears directly below the illustration and have the same one-inch margins as the text of the paper.
• Captions should be numbered consecutively.

Fig. 1. Mary Cassatt, Mother and Child , Wichita Art Museum. Illus. in Novelene Ross, Toward an American Identity: Selections from the Wichita Art Museum Collection of American Art (Wichita, Kansas: Wichita Art Museum, 1997) 107. Source: Gibaldi, Joseph. MLA Handbook . 8th ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America, 2016.

Additional Sources

MLA Style Center

Purdue Online Writing Lab: MLA Format

MLA Handbook (8th Ed) in the library

Citing Unidentified Images

When all or part of an image source is unknown or unknowable, use these points to guide your MLA image caption:

Unknown Artist, Author or Creator List that source by title in your works cited list. The title should be followed by the name of the source in the citation, and the remainder of the citation composed as appropriate for the source type. Alphabetize reference list entries beginning with a title using the primary word of the title (excluding a, an, or the).

An Image without a Title If an image is not titled, create a brief, descriptive title for it. Do not italicize this title or place it in quotes, and capitalize only the first word and any proper nouns.

Undated Sources Use "n.d." (for "no date") in the appropriate place in your citation. When this is used after a period in a citation, capitalize the "n" ("N.d.").

Sources consulted: MLA Citation Examples University of Maryland University Colleges Libraries Miscellaneous Photographs Collection , Archives of American Art

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How to Cite a Photograph

Last Updated: January 22, 2024 References

This article was co-authored by wikiHow staff writer, Megaera Lorenz, PhD . Megaera Lorenz is an Egyptologist and Writer with over 20 years of experience in public education. In 2017, she graduated with her PhD in Egyptology from The University of Chicago, where she served for several years as a content advisor and program facilitator for the Oriental Institute Museum’s Public Education office. She has also developed and taught Egyptology courses at The University of Chicago and Loyola University Chicago. There are 7 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been viewed 202,807 times. Learn more...

If you discuss or use a photograph in a paper or publication, you will need to cite it. A good citation protects the photographer's ownership of the image and allows your readers to access the image for further reference. The way you cite a photograph will depend on which citation style you are using, as well as the source of the photograph. If you reproduce a photograph in your work, you will need to include an appropriate credit line.

Selecting Your Citation Style

• If you live in the US, the most common citation styles are APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), and CMS (Chicago Manual of Style).

• If you are writing in a specialized discipline like the sciences or law and legal studies, choose a citation style that is specific to your discipline (e.g., Council of Science Editors for biology, or Association of Legal Writing Directors for legal studies). [1] X Research source

Citing Photographs in Your Text

• The photographer’s name.
• The date of the photograph.
• The title of the photograph, if there is one.
• The names of any people or places represented in the photograph.
• The original source of the photograph, if it is reproduced or taken from somewhere else.
• The current location of the photograph, if it is in a gallery or archive.

• For example, in APA format, an inline citation would look like this: “The cat is shown carrying a toy mouse in its mouth (Smith, 2013).”
• In MLA format, only the photographer’s name is needed. E.g., “Another image depicts the cat batting a ball of yarn (Smith).”
• If you don’t know the photographer’s name, use a shortened title or description of the work. E.g., (Cat with Mouse, 2013) [2] X Research source

• In the Chicago Manual of Style Format, a footnote citation for a photo should look like this: 27. Harold Rouse, Limestone Statue of an Egyptian Goddess , ca. 1933, photograph, Imaginary Museum of Ancient Art.
• If the photograph has no title, use a brief description in brackets. For example, [Cat Playing with a Toy Mouse].

• Roger Steele, Portrait of My Wife , 1982, black and white photograph, in The Works of Roger Steele , by Bob Smith (New York: Made-Up Books Inc., 2013), pl. 65.
• A photograph cited from the web should include the URL of the page where you found the image. E.g.: Azim Khan Ronnie, Prayer in Action , July 18, 2017, digital color photograph, National Geographic Photo of the Day, http://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/photo-of-the-day/2017/07/islam-prayers-bangladesh/ .

• For example, in Chicago style, your bibliographic entry should look like this: Steele, Roger. Portrait of My Wife . 1982. Black and white photograph. In The Works of Roger Steele , by Bob Smith, pl. 65. New York: Made-Up Books, Inc., 2013.
• In MLA style: Steele, Roger. Portrait of My Wife . 1982. The Works of Roger Steele . By Bob Smith. New York: Made-Up Books, Inc., 2013. Pl. 65. Print. [3] X Research source
• In APA style: Steele, R. (Photographer). (1982). Portrait of My Wife [photograph]. The Works of Roger Steele . By Bob Smith. New York, NY: Made-Up Books, Inc. Pl. 65.

Reproducing Photographs

• For example, in Chicago Style, the caption underneath a photograph could say: Fig. 1. Reginald Pepper, Still Life with Haddock . 1919, black and white photographic print. The Estate of B. Wooster. From: B. Wooster, Pepper’s Pictures . London: Faux Publications, 1932. Pl. 275. [5] X Research source

• Fig. 1. Reginald Pepper, Still Life with Haddock . 1919, black and white photographic print. The Estate of B. Wooster. From: B. Wooster, Pepper’s Pictures . London: Faux Publications, 1932. Pl. 275. Copyright 1932 by the Estate of B. Wooster. Reprinted with permission.
• Some sources (for example, online museum databases or photographic archives) may provide blanket permission to reproduce their images for certain types of uses. Check your source for terms and conditions and detailed information on how to credit their images. [7] X Research source

Community Q&A

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• ↑ https://subjectguides.library.american.edu/c.php?g=175008&p=1154150
• ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/02/
• ↑ http://www.bibme.org/citation-guide/mla/photograph/
• ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/717/2/
• ↑ https://sites.google.com/a/colgate.edu/colgatevr/citing-images/citing-images-chicago
• ↑ http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2016/01/navigating-copyright-part-4.html
• ↑ http://www.metmuseum.org/about-the-met/policies-and-documents/image-resources

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Locating and Using Images for Presentations and Coursework

• Free & Open Source Images
• How to Cite Images
• Alt Text Image Descriptions

Copyright Resources

• Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States from Cornell University Library
• Copyright Overview from Purdue University
• U.S. Copyright Office
• Fair Use Evaluator
• Visual Resources Association's Statement of Fair Use of Images for Teaching, Research, and Study
• Creative Commons Licenses

Attribution

Again, the majority of images you find are under copyright and cannot be used without permission from the creator. There are exceptions with Fair Use, but this Libguide is intended to help you locate images you can use with attribution (and in some case, the images are free to use without attribution when stated, such as with stock images from pixabay). ***Please read about public domain . These images aren't under copyright, but it's still good practice to include attribution if the information is available. Attribution : the act of attributing something, especially the ascribing of a work (as of literature or art) to a particular author or artist. When you have given proper attribution, it means you have given the information necessary for people to know who the creator of the work is.

Citation General Guidelines

Include as much of the information below when citing images in a paper and formal presentations. Apply the appropriate citation style (see below for APA, MLA examples).

• Image creator's name (artist, photographer, etc.)
• Title of the image
• Date the image (or work represented by the image) was created
• Date the image was posted online
• Date of access (the date you accessed the online image)
• Institution (gallery, museum) where the image is located/owned (if applicable)
• Website and/or Database name

Citing Images in MLA, APA, Chicago, and IEEE

• Directions for citing in MLA, APA, and Chicago MLA: Citing images in-text, incorporating images into the text of your paper, works cited APA 6th ed.: Citing images in-text and reference list Chicago 17th ed.: Citing images footnotes and endnotes and bibliography from Simon Fraser University
• How to Cite Images Using IEEE from the SAIT Reg Erhardt Library
• Image, Photograph, or Related Artwork (IEEE) from the Rochester Institute of Technology Library

Citing Images in Your PPT

Currently, citing images in PPT is a bit of the Wild West. If details aren't provided by an instructor, there are a number of ways to cite. What's most important is that if the image is not a free stock image, you give credit to the author for the work. Here are some options:

1. Some sites, such as Creative Commons and Wikimedia, include the citation information with the image. Use that citation when available. Copy the citation and add under the image. For example, an image of a lake from Creative Commons has this citation next to it:  "lake"  by  barnyz  is licensed under  CC BY-NC-ND 2.0 .

2. Include a marker, such as Image 1. or Figure 1., and in the reference section, include full citation information with the corresponding number

3. Include a complete citation (whatever the required format, such as APA) below the image

4. Below the image, include the link to the online image location

5. Hyperlink the title of the image with the online image location

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Referencing style - APA 7th: Images, tables and figures

• Introduction
• Books and book chapters
• Journal and newspaper articles
• Reports, theses and grey literature
• Web sources
• Conference papers
• Images, tables and figures
• Music and audiovisual resources
• Data sets and standards
• Secondary Sources
• Personal Communication
• Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI)
• Legal sources
• Example text
• Images and Copyright
• Tables and Figures
• More information

APA examples: Images, tables and figures

All images, figures and tables referred to in the text or reproduced in an essay, assignment or presentation, must be cited and included in your reference list. 

See this guides images, figures and tables tab to view how the attribution of these examples below are treated within the text. 

See  APA Style examples, Clip Art Image and  Artwork References  for general notes and more examples. 

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APA Citation Style, 7th edition: Electronic Image

• General Style Guidelines
• One Author or Editor
• Two Authors or Editors
• Three to Five Authors or Editors
• Article or Chapter in an Edited Book
• Article in a Reference Book
• Edition other than the First
• Translation
• Government Publication
• Journal Article with 1 Author
• Journal Article with 2 Authors
• Journal Article with 3–20 Authors
• Journal Article 21 or more Authors
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Basic Web Page
• Web page from a University site
• Web Page with No Author
• Entry in a Reference Work
• Government Document
• Film and Television
• Youtube Video
• Audio Podcast
• Electronic Image
• Twitter/Instagram
• Lecture/PPT
• Conferences
• Secondary Sources
• Citation Support
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Formatting Your Paper

Helpful Tip!

Where can I go to find images?

If you locate an image online you need to determine who the source is as well as the copyright restrictions.

See our Images Research Guide for more information on Images and Copyright.

Below are a few good places to locate online images.

NOTE: Although some images are in the Public Domain and do not require attribution, you should always follow your instructor's requirements for citing images.

• Center for Disease Control (CDC) Public Health Image Library (PHIL)
• Health Education Assets Library (HEAL) Collection
• Historical Anatomies on the Web
• Medical Gallery: Hardin MD site
• National Cancer Institute: Visuals Online
• National Human Genome Research Institute: Digital Media Database
• National Library of Medicine:Images from the History of Medicine
• NIDDK image library
• Photoshare (USAID)
• Wellcome images
• Wikimedia Commons
• Yale Image Finder

Image from an Electronic Source

Images, diagrams and artistic works should be cited as you would cite any other type of work.

• Images in text are also generally accompanied by a caption that includes copyright information and a statement of permission for use. Please check with your instructor to see if this is necessary.

Tip: You should give as much information as possible about the images that you have used, including these basics:

• creator's name (author, artist, photographer etc.)
• date the work was published or created
• title of the work
• place of publication
• type of material (for photographs, charts, online images)
• website address and access date
• name of the institution or museum where the work is located (for artworks and museum exhibits)
• dimensions of the work (for artworks)

General Format

In-Text Citation (Paraphrase):

(Artist Surname, Year)

In-Text Citation (Quotation):

References:

Artist Surname, First Initial. Second Initial. (Year). Title of the artwork [Format]. Title of the Website. URL (address of web site)

References (No Author):

Title of work [Type of work]. (Year image was created). Title of the Website. URL (address of web site)

References (No Author, No Title, No Date):

[Subject and type of work]. Title of the Website. URL (address of web site)

Many images found on the Web fall under this category. Try to locate the missing information by clicking on the image, and/or looking at the bottom of the image.

(Baumel, 2010)

References (Basic):

Baumel, A. (2010). Cholera treatment center in Haiti [Online image]. Doctors Without Borders. https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org

Flu epidemic [Online image]. (1919). History. http://www.history.net/photo/flu-epidemic-art/collections

[Untitled illustration of a sleeping dog]. Sleeping Animals. http://www.sleepinganimals/pix.com

Subject Guide

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MLA Works Cited: Other Common Sources

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Several sources have multiple means for citation, especially those that appear in varied formats: films, DVDs, television shows, music, published and unpublished interviews, interviews over e-mail, published and unpublished conference proceedings. The following section discusses these sorts of citations as well as others not covered in the print, periodical, and electronic sources sections.

Use the following format for all sources:

Author. Title. Title of container (self contained if book), Other contributors (translators or editors), Version (edition), Number (vol. and/or no.), Publisher, Publication Date, Location (pages, paragraphs URL or DOI). 2 nd container’s title, Other contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Publication date, Location, Date of Access (if applicable).

An Interview

Interviews typically fall into two categories: print or broadcast published and unpublished (personal) interviews, although interviews may also appear in other, similar formats such as in e-mail format or as a Web document.

Personal Interviews

Personal interviews refer to those interviews that you conduct yourself. List the interview by the name of the interviewee. Include the descriptor Personal interview and the date of the interview.

Smith, Jane. Personal interview. 19 May 2014.

Published Interviews (Print or Broadcast)

List the interview by the full name of the interviewee. If the name of the interview is part of a larger work like a book, a television program, or a film series, place the title of the interview in quotation marks and place the title of the larger work in italics. If the interview appears as an independent title, italicize it. For books, include the author or editor name after the book title.

Note: If the interview from which you quote does not feature a title, add the descriptor, Interview by (unformatted) after the interviewee’s name and before the interviewer’s name.

Gaitskill, Mary. Interview with Charles Bock. Mississippi Review , vol. 27, no. 3, 1999, pp. 129-50.

Amis, Kingsley. “Mimic and Moralist.” Interviews with Britain’s Angry Young Men , By Dale Salwak, Borgo P, 1984.

Online-only Published Interviews

List the interview by the name of the interviewee. If the interview has a title, place it in quotation marks. Cite the remainder of the entry as you would other exclusive web content. Place the name of the website in italics, give the publisher name (or sponsor), the publication date, and the URL.

Note: If the interview from which you quote does not feature a title, add the descriptor Interview by (unformatted) after the interviewee’s name and before the interviewer’s name.

Zinkievich, Craig. Interview by Gareth Von Kallenbach. Skewed & Reviewed , 27 Apr. 2009, www.arcgames.com/en/games/star-trek-online/news/detail/1056940-skewed-%2526-reviewed-interviews-craig. Accessed 15 May 2009.

Speeches, Lectures, or Other Oral Presentations (including Conference Presentations)

Start with speaker’s name. Then, give the title of the speech (if any) in quotation marks. Follow with the title of the particular conference or meeting and then the name of the organization. Name the venue and its city (if the name of the city is not listed in the venue’s name). Use the descriptor that appropriately expresses the type of presentation (e.g., Address, Lecture, Reading, Keynote Speech, Guest Lecture, Conference Presentation).

Stein, Bob. “Reading and Writing in the Digital Era.” Discovering Digital Dimensions, Computers and Writing Conference, 23 May 2003, Union Club Hotel, West Lafayette, IN. Keynote Address.

Panel Discussions and Question-and-Answer Sessions

The MLA Handbook makes a distinction between the formal, rehearsed portion of a presentation and the informal discussion that often occurs after. To format an entry for a panel discussion or question-and-answer session, treat the panel members or speakers as authors by listing them first. If these people are formally listed as panelists, indicate this by following their names with a comma and the title "panelist(s)." Follow with the title of the discussion, or, if there is no title, a simple description. In the latter case, don't capitalize the description. Follow this with the title of the conference or event. End with the date and the location.

Bavis, Jim and Stein, Tammi, panelists. Panel discussion. Dawn or Doom Conference, 4 Nov. 2018, Stewart Hall, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN.

Treat recorded discussions as instances of the appropriate medium (e.g., if you want to cite a recording of a panel discussion hosted on YouTube, cite it the same way you would cite an ordinary online video ).

Published Conference Proceedings

Cite published conference proceedings like a book. If the date and location of the conference are not part of the published title, add this information after the published proceedings title.

Last Name, First Name, editor. Conference Title , Conference Date and Location, Publisher, Date of Publication.

To cite a presentation from published conference proceedings, begin with the presenter’s name. Place the name of the presentation in quotation marks. Follow with publication information for the conference proceedings.

Last Name, First Name. “Conference Paper Title.” Conference Title that Includes Conference Date and Location , edited by Conference Editor(s), Publisher, Date of Publication.

A Painting, Sculpture, or Photograph

Provide the artist's name, the title of the artwork in italics, and the date of composition. Finally, provide the name of the institution that houses the artwork followed by the location of the institution (if the location is not listed in the name of the institution, e.g. The Art Institute of Chicago).

Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV . 1800, Museo del Prado, Madrid.

If the medium and/or materials (e.g., oil on canvas) are important to the reference, you can include this information at the end of the entry. However, it is not required.

For photographic reproductions of artwork (e.g. images of artwork in a book), treat the book or website as a container. Remember that for a second container, the title is listed first, before the contributors. Cite the bibliographic information as above followed by the information for the source in which the photograph appears, including page or reference numbers (plate, figure, etc.).

Goya, Francisco. The Family of Charles IV . 1800, Museo del Prado, Madrid. Gardener's Art Through the Ages , 10 th ed., by Richard G. Tansey and Fred S. Kleiner, Harcourt Brace, p. 939.

If you viewed the artwork on the museum's website, treat the name of the website as the container and include the website's publisher and the URL at the end of the citation. Omit publisher information if it is the same as the name of the website. Note the period after the date below, rather than the comma: this is because the date refers to the painting's original creation, rather than to its publication on the website. Thus, MLA format considers it an "optional element."

Goya, Francisco.  The Family of Charles IV . 1800 . Museo del Prado,  museodelprado.es/en/the-collection/art-work/the-family-of-carlos-iv/f47898fc-aa1c-48f6-a779-71759e417e74.

A Song or Album

Music can be cited multiple ways. Mainly, this depends on the container that you accessed the music from. Generally, citations begin with the artist name. They might also be listed by composers or performers. Otherwise, list composer and performer information after the album title. Put individual song titles in quotation marks. Album names are italicized. Provide the name of the recording manufacturer followed by the publication date.

If information such as record label or name of album is unavailable from your source, do not list that information.

Morris, Rae. “Skin.” Cold, Atlantic Records, 2014. Spotify , open.spotify.com/track/0OPES3Tw5r86O6fudK8gxi.

Online Album

Beyoncé. “Pray You Catch Me.” Lemonade, Parkwood Entertainment, 2016, www.beyonce.com/album/lemonade-visual-album/.

Nirvana. "Smells Like Teen Spirit." Nevermind , Geffen, 1991.

Films or Movies

List films by their title. Include the name of the director, the film studio or distributor, and the release year. If relevant, list performer names after the director's name.

Speed Racer . Directed by Lana Wachowski and Lilly Wachowski, performances by Emile Hirsch, Nicholas Elia, Susan Sarandon, Ariel Winter, and John Goodman, Warner Brothers, 2008.

To emphasize specific performers or directors, begin the citation with the name of the desired performer or director, followed by the appropriate title for that person.

Lucas, George, director. Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope . Twentieth Century Fox, 1977.

Television Shows

Recorded Television Episodes

Cite recorded television episodes like films (see above). Begin with the episode name in quotation marks. Follow with the series name in italics. When the title of the collection of recordings is different than the original series (e.g., the show Friends is in DVD release under the title Friends: The Complete Sixth Season), list the title that would help researchers to locate the recording. Give the distributor name followed by the date of distribution.

"The One Where Chandler Can't Cry." Friends: The Complete Sixth Season , written by Andrew Reich and Ted Cohen, directed by Kevin Bright, Warner Brothers, 2004.

Broadcast TV or Radio Program

Begin with the title of the episode in quotation marks. Provide the name of the series or program in italics. Also include the network name, call letters of the station followed by the date of broadcast and city.

"The Blessing Way." The X-Files . Fox, WXIA, Atlanta, 19 Jul. 1998.

Netflix, Hulu, Google Play

Generally, when citing a specific episode, follow the format below.

“94 Meetings.” Parks and Recreation, season 2, episode 21, NBC, 29 Apr. 2010. Netflix, www.netflix.com/watch/70152031.

An Entire TV Series

When citing the entire series of a TV show, use the following format.

Daniels, Greg and Michael Schur, creators. Parks and Recreation . Deedle-Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios, 2015.

A Specific Performance or Aspect of a TV Show

If you want to emphasize a particular aspect of the show, include that particular information. For instance, if you are writing about a specific character during a certain episode, include the performer’s name as well as the creator’s.

“94 Meetings.” Parks and Recreation, created by Greg Daniels and Michael Schur, performance by Amy Poehler, season 2, episode 21, Deedle-Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios, 2010.

If you wish to emphasize a particular character throughout the show’s run time, follow this format.

Poehler, Amy, performer. Parks and Recreation. Deedle-Dee Productions and Universal Media Studios, 2009-2015.

Begin with the title of the episode in quotation marks. Provide the name of the series in italics. Then follow with MLA format per usual.

“Best of Not My Job Musicians.” Wait Wait…Don’t Tell Me! from NPR, 4 June 2016, www.npr.org/podcasts/344098539/wait-wait-don-t-tell-me.

Spoken-Word Albums such as Comedy Albums

Treat spoken-word albums the same as musical albums.

Hedberg, Mitch. Strategic Grill Locations . Comedy Central, 2003.

Digital Files (PDFs, MP3s, JPEGs)

Determine the type of work to cite (e.g., article, image, sound recording) and cite appropriately. End the entry with the name of the digital format (e.g., PDF, JPEG file, Microsoft Word file, MP3). If the work does not follow traditional parameters for citation, give the author’s name, the name of the work, the date of creation, and the location.

Beethoven, Ludwig van. Moonlight Sonata . Crownstar, 2006.

Smith, George. “Pax Americana: Strife in a Time of Peace.” 2005. Microsoft Word file.

Council of Writing Program Administrators, National Council of Teachers of English, and National Writing Project. Framework for Success in Postsecondary Writing . CWPA, NCTE, and NWP, 2011, wpacouncil.org/files/framework-for-success-postsecondary-writing.pdf.

Bentley, Phyllis. “Yorkshire and the Novelist.” The Kenyon Review , vol. 30, no. 4, 1968, pp. 509-22. JSTOR , www.jstor.org.iii/stable/4334841.

Photo Essay on Mother’s Day 2024: A Mother’s Path to Resilience

By Bethany Peevy Downie

In this photo essay on Mother's day 2024, meet Nelda Gaitan, who changed the trajectory of her father’s farm, to secure a brighter future for her daughters.

As we celebrate Mother’s Day this time of year, we are inspired by the women around the world who are making a better life for their families. In Nicaragua, Nelda Gaitan is one such mother who has changed the trajectory of her father’s farm, turning it into a sustainable livelihood and securing a hopeful future for her two daughters. 

A Mother’s Day Essay: Meet Nelda Gaitan

Meet Nelda Gaitan, a 37-year-old mother of two who lives in the community of Temuá, Nicaragua. She and her two daughters are in charge of a 0.5-hectare plot of land that Nelda’s father left as her inheritance. Being one of the few women working in the sector has been difficult, but the challenges she has encountered as a farmer and a businesswoman have motivated her to push each day for new solutions for her family. 

Nelda started planting pitahaya five years ago. Pitahaya is a cactus native to southern Mexico and Central America, where it is grown in dry, tropical zones for use in juices and pulps. 

In the first three years, Nelda had low yields. She considered growing other varieties or even eliminating the crop. But in 2019, Nelda heard of TechnoServe’s Smallholder Market Access Program , an agricultural and marketing program in Guatemala and Nicaragua. The program aims to improve the livelihoods of 5,000 farmers by training them to improve the quality and quantity of their yields and to connect their improved production to formal, high-value market systems. 

Nelda changed her operations after learning new techniques from a TechnoServe farmer trainer. Rather than investing in a new crop, she now has the skills to reduce her operating costs while maintaining and improving her hard-won pitahaya crop. Even as extreme drought and storm events increase in frequency across Central America , low-cost strategies such as capturing rainwater within her plot can help to conserve water and reduce erosion. Improved farm planning approaches have also allowed her to better identify the most important activities for her operation and to plan how she invests her resources in each one. 

Thanks to her hard work, Nelda has not needed loans to maintain her farm and household. She can continue pursuing her business goals.

Beyond her personal success, Nelda is a mother who is motivated to lift up her fellow women farmers. She explains, “Women in the community are [usually] housewives, and even though they perform agricultural activities on the farm, they don’t participate in decision-making on its income…I see myself as an example and am proud because I am the highest-producing farmer in the community and can educate my daughters. One is in elementary school, and the other is in her second year at university.”

Despite the challenging conditions, Nelda continues selling her product to a local exporter and fruit pulp processor. The income has allowed her to sustain her household and make new investments. 

Above all, Nelda’s motivation to build a successful business comes from building a bright future for her daughters. 

She says, “I have hope for a better future for myself and my family. I want to expand my pitahaya production and even start a store.”

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Photo Essay: My Spring 2024 Semester at CDS

Hi there! My name is Isabella Boncser, and I'm currently a sophomore in the six-year Accelerated BS/DPT program in Boston University's Sargent College (2026/2028). In addition to my academic pursuits, I have a passion for photography, and am currently the CDS student event photographer. I love capturing student life within CDS, whether that be taking pictures of students studying in the building on a rainy day, attending 24-hour civic tech hackathon on the 17th floor, or a faculty and staff appreciation event. Over this past semester, I had the honor of working with the CDS communications team, led by Maureen McCarthy , director, and Alessandra Augusto , events & communications manager.

I was asked to highlight some of my best and brightest work from the semester. The following images were captured this spring, and are some of my favorite images. They showcase the versatility of student life within CDS and BU Spark !

BU Spark! hosted a Tech For Change Civic Tech Hackathon , where students spent 24 hours at BU to developed a new project with teamwork and technical skills at the forefront. I had the opportunity to meet students from 19 different schools, all of whom spent (literally) day and night on the 17th floor of the Center for Computing & Data Sciences working together and using their hacking skills to create a difference in the world. Pictured here are two students celebrating after discussing their individual projects and asking for some advice regarding their presentations.

CDS serves as home for a variety of people and their furry friends! This image shows Miss Belle, the beautiful English Setter (who loves birds) who shares office space with her owner, Chris DeVits, CDS Director of Administration.

The Center for Computing & Data Sciences truly has a place for everyone at BU. The main level has become the campus living room, where students can meet to chat over coffee, or catch up on emails on the staircase. On a rainy day, students can find a " cozy corner " and focus on their work in a relaxing environment. This is a glimpse of the "sit steps" - the large staircase with over two dozen conversation spaces that has become popular for students to relax and get some work done between classes.

You may have heard people refer to the Center for Computing & Data Sciences as the "Jenga Building" because of its Jenga-like architecture. The building, which is home to the Faculty of Computing & Data Sciences, the Departments of Mathematics & Statistics and Computer Sciences, and the renowned Rafik B. Hariri Institute for Computing and Computation Science & Engineering, embraces its beautiful yet fun architecture while focusing on community! Next time you are craving a fun study break, join the CDS Events Team for a night of Jenga and try some delicious popcorn!

Driving down Commonwealth Avenue, the building stands out amongst its peers and shines bright along the Boston city skyline. Illuminating the streets during dusk, the building is one of my favorites the photograph. The 17th floor is home to many events hosted by CDS faculty and staff, as well as the general BU community.

The students pictured had been working tirelessly on their TFC Civic Tech Hackathon project. This photo exemplifies teamwork, collaboration, and partnership. Although students were working on their projects for 24 hours on the 17th floor of CDS, they were all smiles for the camera during final presentations!

Yoga at the Top of BU has become a staple for students to come and enjoy a one-hour yoga session. The class is open to all students across BU, and is a great way to take a study break and get your body moving. If you are a zen master, or have never taken a yoga class before, come join us for the next session!

The BU Spark! team gathered for a group picture during the Civic Tech Hackathon which took place on the 17th floor in February. Over the Spring 2024 semester, I've had the pleasure of getting to know the ambassadors from each track, and their passion for their work within the BU community is truly inspiring. BU Spark! hosts numerous events, talks, and community-building programs like Cookie O'clock, town halls, and much more. Visit the BU Spark! space on the second floor to learn more about their involvement on campus!

Computational Humanities, Arts & Social Sciences ( CHASS ) hosted a variety of tutorials ranging from "An Analysis on Emerson's Work" to large language model discussions throughout the Spring 2024 semester. These sessions are a great way to learn about the data science industry and how your skills will be used in the real world. Check out the CHASS video tutorial library on YouTube .

I am heading to Dublin, Ireland to live and study abroad for the Fall 2024 semester! I am so thankful to Maureen McCarthy who gave me the opportunity to work with and celebrate the CDS community. I would also like to shoutout Sebastian Bak (QST'25) who recommended the position to me, and spoke so highly of the CDS community!

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THE WIDER IMAGE

For turkish performer, drag is a political act.

Drag performer Ilker Yazici, 23, gets ready to shoot a sequence for a TV series in Istanbul, Turkey, July 25, 2023. REUTERS/Dilara Senkaya

By Dilara Senkaya

Filed April 4, 2024, 3:19 p.m. GMT

Photography by Dilara Senkaya Reporting by Burcu Karakas

Filed: May 1, 2024, 8 a.m. GMT

Ilker Yazici - stage name Miss Putka - was in secondary school when he discovered he was gay.

There he met LGBT advocacy groups and joined street protests in Turkey’s capital Ankara to defend LGBT rights, carrying rainbow flags.

“At first I struggled with myself a lot,” he said. “You grow up in the Middle East. It is not easy. I felt like I was the only one, just like most LGBT people feel.”

Ilker, now 23, never felt the need to hide, however and went on to celebrate who he is. Inspired by “RuPaul’s Drag Race” series on Netflix, he sees drag performance as an act of self-expression rather than just entertainment.

“Drag is a political act. The audience probably look at me and think, ‘What is this freak doing?’ I’m getting them used to seeing something they are not used to seeing.”

Many in Turkey’s LGBT community live in fear after last year's election campaign when President Tayyip Erdogan described LGBT groups as deviants and vowed to strengthen traditional family values. Homosexuality is not a crime in Turkey, but hostility to it is widespread.

Ilker’s conservative father is unaware of the drag life: although other relatives found out about the performances - which take place every Friday and Saturday night - no one has dared to tell him.

“When I go on stage as a drag queen, the make-up makes me feel like I am hiding behind a mask,” Ilker said. “Miss Putka is a confident person, very open to communication. I am not.”

Ilker studies industrial design at Marmara University in Istanbul but is considering studying performing arts in Spain. “You can perform as long as you are healthy. I’ll do it as long as I’m able,” he said.

He has no worries about performing drag, but living in Turkey does worry him.

“I don’t know what the future will hold for me here,” he said. “It is so unpredictable.”

‘You have to behave with respect’

Ilker never thought he would become a drag artist on the day that, as a teenager, he stole his mother’s black sequined blouse from her closet to perform on stage for the first time in 2019.

He was preparing for the university entrance exam at the time, and left home at night by telling his parents he forgot a book at the library.

“I cut a pair of black jeans into shorts and wore them under my mother’s blouse with silver-coloured seven-centimetre heels and a bonus lilac wig I borrowed from a friend,” he said.

“Despite my terrifying make-up and costume, the audience applauded like crazy and I felt like a star.”

Born and raised in Ankara, he traveled for two years across the country to appear at gay life magazine GZone’s events. It was then that he began to buy costumes and shoes from second hand stores and flea markets.

When Miss Putka, whose name comes from a slang word for vagina, began to take the stage at XL, a night club in Istanbul, it was no longer a hobby but a regular job. Before his first professional show at the club, he was trained for a month by Russian dancers with whom he shared the stage.

“The venue is huge. I’ve got dancers behind and a tailor ready to do what I want,” he said.

At first he was annoyed by customers who ignored his performance and treated him rudely when he visited their tables. But he learned how to deal with it.

“I started to say, ‘I work here and you have to behave with respect’. They apologized.”

He became the stage manager, coordinating a team of about 15 people. Experienced drag performers advised him to use choreography to tell a story and also broaden the shows’ appeal. That is how he began playing popular Lady Gaga songs.

Miss Putka’s nun-like outfit with a bright red cross on her head was inspired by American singer Todrick Hall, who was a choreographer and judge on “RuPaul’s Drag Race”. Although this five-minute performance is the most acclaimed, it is not his favourite.

“I love the one where I shoot flames from my conical breasts while singing Rihanna songs.”

The Wider Image

Photography and reporting: Dilara Senkaya

Reporting: Burcu Karakas

Photo editing and design: Eve Watling and Maye-E Wong

Text editing: Jonathan Spicer and Philippa Fletcher

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Energy & Environmental Science

Photon and phonon powered photothermal catalysis.

Photo-thermal catalysis, leveraging light as an energy source, has emerged as a groundbreaking approach in driving chemical reactions. This method uniquely combines photonic and phononic elements of solar energy, offering enhanced reaction rates and altered selectivity under moderate conditions. This work delves into the core mechanisms of photo-thermal catalysis, focusing on the conversion processes and synergistic effect of photons and phonons, including the key advancements in applications such as catalytic CO2 and CH4 conversion, NH3 synthesis, and plastic upcycling. A guideline for future investigation in mechanisms and application development of photothermal catalysis could be paved.

• This article is part of the themed collection: Celebrating Professor Geoffrey Ozin's 80th Birthday

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C. Xu, Q. Tang, W. Tu and L. Wang, Energy Environ. Sci. , 2024, Accepted Manuscript , DOI: 10.1039/D4EE00783B

To request permission to reproduce material from this article, please go to the Copyright Clearance Center request page .

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If you are the author of this article, you do not need to request permission to reproduce figures and diagrams provided correct acknowledgement is given. If you want to reproduce the whole article in a third-party publication (excluding your thesis/dissertation for which permission is not required) please go to the Copyright Clearance Center request page .

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In photos: At least 83 dead as historic flooding hits southern Brazil

By Jintak Han | May 7, 2024

Record-breaking floods in Brazil’s southern Rio Grande do Sul state have killed at least 83 people over the past week, and another 111 were reported missing, local authorities said Monday.

Renan Mattos/Reuters

In the state capital, Porto Alegre, water levels of the Guaíba River peaked at 17.5 feet (5.33 meters) on Sunday — far exceeding the previous record of 15.6 feet (4.76 meters) observed in 1941, according to the prefectural government.

At least 291 people were injured, while damage from the rains forced more than 129,000 people from their homes. Approximately 20,000 took refuge in schools, gymnasiums and other temporary shelters.

May 6 | Porto Alegre, Brazil

An aerial view of the flooded Beira-Rio Stadium.

A group of volunteers on a flooded street.

Giulian Serafim/AFP/Getty Images

A car is filled with water on a flooded street in the Menino Deus neighborhood.

A military truck transports people out of the flooded area.

Nelson Almeida/AFP/Getty Images

Volunteers help residents evacuate from their homes in the Farrapos neighborhood.

May 5 | Porto Alegre, Brazil

An area after the flooding of Guaíba River.

May 5 | Canoas, Brazil

People are rescued after flooding.

Amanda Perobelli/Reuters

People are rescued by residents.

Rescue workers evacuate a flood victim.

A flooded street.

Anselmo Cunha/AFP/Getty Images

People wade through floodwaters.

People walk through floodwaters.

May 5 | Roca Sales, Brazil

Houses destroyed by floods.

Gustavo Ghisleni/AFP/Getty Images

May 5 | Jacarezinho, Brazil

People walk inside a shop destroyed by flash floods.

Diego Vara/Reuters

May 5 | Encantado, Brazil

An injured dog lies in the mud after heavy rains and floods.

Volunteers provide food, medical attention and clothing to people rescued from flooded houses at a gas station used as a meeting point.

Carlos Fabal/AFP/Getty Images

Julio Manichesque walks on the roof of his house after floods.

A flooded area after the flooding of Lake Guaiba.

May 4 | Porto Alegre, Brazil

A woman is evacuated from a flooded area.

May 4 | Canoas, Brazil

Rescue teams and volunteers help flood victims.

Alisson Moura/AFP/Getty Images

A man is rescued by military firefighters.

May 4 | Roca Sales, Brazil

A man is rescued after being injured during the floods.

May 3 | Eldorado do Sul, Brazil

Floodwaters overtake the streets.

May 3 | Porto Alegre, Brazil

A man wades through a flooded section of the city.

Carlos Macedo/AP

Residents of coastal islands near the shore of Lake Guaíba carry their belongings after being rescued.

Isaac Fontana/EPA-EFE/Shutterstock

May 2 | Encantado, Brazil

A woman carries two rescued cats.

People and a dog are rescued from the islands of Lake Guaíba.

May 1 | Encantado, Brazil

Houses next to the Taquari River are submerged by floodwaters.

May 1 | Sinimbu, Brazil

A house partially destroyed by heavy rains.

A resident climbs a rescue truck.

May 3 | Encantado, Brazil

A woman walks through mud as she tries to get to her house.

May 2 | Lajeado, Brazil

Two men are rescued by military firefighters.

Jeff Botega/Agencia RBS/Reuters

People throw bags across a puddle as they evacuate flooded areas.

Vehicles covered in mud.

Horses wade through a flooded beach along the Jacui River.

People and their pets are rescued from the flooding.

Renan Mattos/EPA-EFE/Shutterstock

Residents are rescued by the Brazilian army.

Displaced people take shelter in a public facility.

A displaced person rests at a shelter.

More from the Post

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Photo editing and production by Jintak Han and Troy Witcher

Home / Guides / Citation Guides / MLA Format / How to Cite an Essay in MLA

How to Cite an Essay in MLA

The guidelines for citing an essay in MLA format are similar to those for citing a chapter in a book. Include the author of the essay, the title of the essay, the name of the collection if the essay belongs to one, the editor of the collection or other contributors, the publication information, and the page number(s).

Citing an Essay

Mla essay citation structure.

Last, First M. “Essay Title.” Collection Title, edited by First M. Last, Publisher, year published, page numbers. Website Title , URL (if applicable).

MLA Essay Citation Example

Gupta, Sanjay. “Balancing and Checking.” Essays on Modern Democracy, edited by Bob Towsky, Brook Stone Publishers, 1996, pp. 36-48. Essay Database, www . databaseforessays.org/modern/modern-democracy.

MLA Essay In-text Citation Structure

(Last Name Page #)

MLA Essay In-text Citation Example

Click here to cite an essay via an EasyBib citation form.

MLA Formatting Guide

MLA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Sample Paper
• Works Cited
• MLA 8 Updates
• MLA 9 Updates
• View MLA Guide

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• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all MLA Examples

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To cite your sources in an essay in MLA style, you need to have basic information including the author’s name(s), chapter title, book title, editor(s), publication year, publisher, and page numbers. The templates for in-text citations and a works-cited-list entry for essay sources and some examples are given below:

In-text citation template and example:

For citations in prose, use the first name and surname of the author on the first occurrence. For subsequent citations, use only the surname(s). In parenthetical citations, always use only the surname of the author(s).

Citation in prose:

First mention: Annette Wheeler Cafarelli

Subsequent occurrences: Wheeler Cafarelli

Parenthetical:

….(Wheeler Cafarelli).

Works-cited-list entry template and example:

The title of the chapter is enclosed in double quotation marks and uses title case. The book or collection title is given in italics and uses title case.

Surname, First Name. “Title of the Chapter.” Title of the Book , edited by Editor(s) Name, Publisher, Publication Year, page range.

Cafarelli, Annette Wheeler. “Rousseau and British Romanticism: Women and British Romanticism.” Cultural Interactions in the Romantic Age: Critical Essays in Comparative Literature , edited by Gregory Maertz. State U of New York P, 1998, pp. 125–56.

To cite an essay in MLA style, you need to have basic information including the author(s), the essay title, the book title, editor(s), publication year, publisher, and page numbers. The templates for citations in prose, parenthetical citations, and works-cited-list entries for an essay by multiple authors, and some examples, are given below:

For citations in prose, use the first name and surname of the author (e.g., Mary Strine).

For sources with two authors, use both full author names in prose (e.g., Mary Strine and Beth Radick).

For sources with three or more authors, use the first name and surname of the first author followed by “and others” or “and colleagues” (e.g., Mary Strine and others). In subsequent citations, use only the surname of the first author followed by “and others” or “and colleagues” (e.g., Strine and others).

In parenthetical citations, use only the author’s surname. For sources with two authors, use two surnames (e.g., Strine and Radick). For sources with three or more author names, use the first author’s surname followed by “et al.”

First mention: Mary Strine…

Subsequent mention: Strine…

First mention: Mary Strine and Beth Radick…

Subsequent mention: Strine and Radick…

First mention: Mary Strine and colleagues …. or Mary Strine and others

Subsequent occurrences: Strine and colleagues …. or Strine and others

…. (Strine).

….(Strine and Radick).

….(Strine et al.).

The title of the essay is enclosed in double quotation marks and uses title case. The book or collection title is given in italics and uses title case.

Surname, First Name, et al. “Title of the Essay.” Title of the Book , edited by Editor(s) Name, Publisher, Publication Year, page range.

Strine, Mary M., et al. “Research in Interpretation and Performance Studies: Trends, Issues, Priorities.” Speech Communication: Essays to Commemorate the 75th Anniversary of the Speech Communication Association , edited by Gerald M. Phillips and Julia T. Wood, Southern Illinois UP, 1990, pp. 181–204.

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Stormy Daniels vs. Donald Trump

More from our inbox:, judge cannon’s ‘clear bias’, marjorie taylor greene’s mischief, r.f.k. jr.’s health history, the link between teen depression and smartphones.

To the Editor:

Re “ Daniels Details Sex With Trump, Which He Denies ” (front page, May 8):

I found Stormy Daniels’s detailed testimony about her one-night stand with Donald Trump, which he denies ever happened, to be very credible. Her admitted hatred of Mr. Trump felt like honesty, not a motive to have made up the story.

If the jury agrees, Mr. Trump is therefore the liar. It’s not far from there to make the reasonable inference that if he is lying about the event at the heart of the case, he will lie about everything that came after.

Stephanie Doba Brooklyn

You report that the judge during Stormy Daniels’s testimony objected to her description of the sexual positions with Donald Trump as veering in a “scurrilous direction.” It is too bad that no judge objected to the Kenneth Starr report on President Clinton’s affair with Monica Lewinsky, which was even more scurrilous in describing the sexual encounter.

“The prose, far from a dry, factual recitation, contained rich, erotic details of the sort we expect from a book-club romance,” Daniel M. Filler, a law professor, wrote in a California Law Review article, according to The Washington Post.

The truth then and now is that a sexual affair does not need any more description than “they had sex,” but we all like the details.

Stephen T. Schreiber Princeton, N.J.

We are living in a country where democracy is on trial. Yet New York’s restrictions on cameras in the courtroom deprive the public of live video coverage of Donald Trump’s hush money trial.

The public has to rely on details described by reporters, some sequestered in a different room with a video feed, others in the courtroom. Meanwhile, nuances like facial expressions, body language, interactions with legal teams and verbal outbursts are left to courtroom sketches shared with the public through the media.

While juror anonymity must be protected, there should be live audio-visual coverage. Mr. Trump’s trials are more critically important than any other in U.S. history. With a presidential election looming, citizens should be able to witness the courtroom activity through their own lens. It is not just Mr. Trump’s freedom at stake.

Cynthia Gardner Bruml Cleveland

Re “ We Are Talking About the Case Against Trump All Wrong ,” by Rebecca Roiphe (Opinion guest essay, May 5):

Ms. Roiphe’s guest essay reminds me of the Indian parable of the blind men who encounter an elephant for the first time and attempt to understand what it is like by touching different parts of its body and then arguing that their one perspective is the one truth.

Ms. Roiphe was an attorney at the D.A.’s office. For her the case is really about business ethics. Let’s say she’s holding an ear. That’s one component, but it’s not the whole story.

The Trump case in New York is also about election interference; let’s call that the tusks. Some say the case is about personal ethics; let’s call that the tail. Dismissing the trunk or the tail just because you are holding an ear does not help anyone.

The moral of the Indian parable is that individual perspectives can be limited. Her essay poses the danger of saying that the Trump case is only about one thing, thereby making it possible to dismiss the whole case as frivolous if you find fault with that one thing. The reality is the whole elephant.

Daniel O’Brien Lafayette, Ind.

Re “ Judge Postpones Start of Documents Trial ” (news article, May 8):

It was no great surprise to learn that the Trump documents trial was “indefinitely” postponed.

The federal judge on the case, Aileen Cannon, has done everything in her power to delay the trial, and possibly prevent it from ever occurring, showing clear bias in favor of the former president.

She should be removed not only from the case, but from the bench as well.

Gary L. Adler Lynbrook, N.Y.

Re “ Democrats Help Johnson Survive Bid to Oust Him ” (front page, May 9):

Representative Marjorie Taylor Greene’s failed attempt to oust Speaker Mike Johnson may appear, on first blush, to be as unhinged as her theory of a wildfire caused by Jewish space lasers, but there is method in her mania.

Ms. Greene, described by a Republican colleague as a “ dumpster fire ,” is a performative politician who is playing to an audience of one: Donald Trump. Her talk of overthrowing the “uniparty” (Democrats and Republicans voting together) is red meat to the MAGA base.

Reasonable people may try earnestly to unhear and unsee Ms. Greene’s theater of the absurd, but she is functioning as Mr. Trump’s attack dog. Do not underestimate her capacity for mischief; she is not going away anytime soon.

Eric Radack Santa Fe, N.M.

Re “ Kennedy Says Doctors Found a Dead Worm in His Brain ” (news article, May 9):

It took “a 2012 deposition reviewed by The New York Times” to reveal Robert F. Kennedy Jr.’s relevant health history. Voters should be less tolerant of the lack of medical disclosures, the failure to disclose tax returns, the sources of dark money funding campaigns and the unwillingness to participate in moderated debates and in-depth media interviews.

Jim Hoffmann Manchester, Mass.

Re “ Are Smartphones Driving Our Teens to Depression? ,” by David Wallace-Wells (Opinion, nytimes.com, May 1):

In questioning the relationship between smartphone use and the ongoing mental health crisis among our young people, Mr. Wallace-Wells ignores the extensive body of research documenting the conditions that contribute to children’s healthy development and well-being — and how social media provides the exact opposite conditions.

There is little debate that childhood trauma can have long-lasting psychological effects. Are we really to believe that repeated exposure to videos of car crashes, photos of dead bodies, memes about rape and posts glorifying eating disorders have had no effect on the mental health of the millions of children who have seen this content in their feeds?

At a time when suicide has become the second leading cause of death for 10- to 14-year-olds in the U.S., the need for urgent action cannot be overstated. While some argue over whether the current data constitutes causality, Big Tech is continuing to infiltrate our children’s brains with addictive algorithms and harmful content, all in the name of boosting profits.

Getting smartphones out of schools and policy safeguards that prevent social media companies from exploiting children are basic but crucial steps we can take to protect our kids and set them up for successful, healthy lives.

Julie Scelfo New York The writer is the founder and executive director of Mothers Against Media Addiction.

It’s not just teens who are negatively affected by smartphones. What about us older folks? It’s hard to keep up with this ever-changing digital world.

Ann Glasser Hamden, Conn.