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Online Guide to Writing and Research

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• Online Guide to Writing

Structuring the Research Paper

Formal research structure.

These are the primary purposes for formal research:

enter the discourse, or conversation, of other writers and scholars in your field

learn how others in your field use primary and secondary resources

find and understand raw data and information

For the formal academic research assignment, consider an organizational pattern typically used for primary academic research.  The pattern includes the following: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions/recommendations.

Usually, research papers flow from the general to the specific and back to the general in their organization. The introduction uses a general-to-specific movement in its organization, establishing the thesis and setting the context for the conversation. The methods and results sections are more detailed and specific, providing support for the generalizations made in the introduction. The discussion section moves toward an increasingly more general discussion of the subject, leading to the conclusions and recommendations, which then generalize the conversation again.

Sections of a Formal Structure

The introduction section.

Many students will find that writing a structured  introduction  gets them started and gives them the focus needed to significantly improve their entire paper. 

Introductions usually have three parts:

presentation of the problem statement, the topic, or the research inquiry

purpose and focus of your paper

summary or overview of the writer’s position or arguments

In the first part of the introduction—the presentation of the problem or the research inquiry—state the problem or express it so that the question is implied. Then, sketch the background on the problem and review the literature on it to give your readers a context that shows them how your research inquiry fits into the conversation currently ongoing in your subject area. 

In the second part of the introduction, state your purpose and focus. Here, you may even present your actual thesis. Sometimes your purpose statement can take the place of the thesis by letting your reader know your intentions. 

The third part of the introduction, the summary or overview of the paper, briefly leads readers through the discussion, forecasting the main ideas and giving readers a blueprint for the paper. 

The following example provides a blueprint for a well-organized introduction.

Example of an Introduction

Entrepreneurial Marketing: The Critical Difference

In an article in the Harvard Business Review, John A. Welsh and Jerry F. White remind us that “a small business is not a little big business.” An entrepreneur is not a multinational conglomerate but a profit-seeking individual. To survive, he must have a different outlook and must apply different principles to his endeavors than does the president of a large or even medium-sized corporation. Not only does the scale of small and big businesses differ, but small businesses also suffer from what the Harvard Business Review article calls “resource poverty.” This is a problem and opportunity that requires an entirely different approach to marketing. Where large ad budgets are not necessary or feasible, where expensive ad production squanders limited capital, where every marketing dollar must do the work of two dollars, if not five dollars or even ten, where a person’s company, capital, and material well-being are all on the line—that is, where guerrilla marketing can save the day and secure the bottom line (Levinson, 1984, p. 9).

By reviewing the introductions to research articles in the discipline in which you are writing your research paper, you can get an idea of what is considered the norm for that discipline. Study several of these before you begin your paper so that you know what may be expected. If you are unsure of the kind of introduction your paper needs, ask your professor for more information.  The introduction is normally written in present tense.

THE METHODS SECTION

The methods section of your research paper should describe in detail what methodology and special materials if any, you used to think through or perform your research. You should include any materials you used or designed for yourself, such as questionnaires or interview questions, to generate data or information for your research paper. You want to include any methodologies that are specific to your particular field of study, such as lab procedures for a lab experiment or data-gathering instruments for field research. The methods section is usually written in the past tense.

THE RESULTS SECTION

How you present the results of your research depends on what kind of research you did, your subject matter, and your readers’ expectations. 

Quantitative information —data that can be measured—can be presented systematically and economically in tables, charts, and graphs. Quantitative information includes quantities and comparisons of sets of data. 

Qualitative information , which includes brief descriptions, explanations, or instructions, can also be presented in prose tables. This kind of descriptive or explanatory information, however, is often presented in essay-like prose or even lists.

There are specific conventions for creating tables, charts, and graphs and organizing the information they contain. In general, you should use them only when you are sure they will enlighten your readers rather than confuse them. In the accompanying explanation and discussion, always refer to the graphic by number and explain specifically what you are referring to; you can also provide a caption for the graphic. The rule of thumb for presenting a graphic is first to introduce it by name, show it, and then interpret it. The results section is usually written in the past tense.

THE DISCUSSION SECTION

Your discussion section should generalize what you have learned from your research. One way to generalize is to explain the consequences or meaning of your results and then make your points that support and refer back to the statements you made in your introduction. Your discussion should be organized so that it relates directly to your thesis. You want to avoid introducing new ideas here or discussing tangential issues not directly related to the exploration and discovery of your thesis. The discussion section, along with the introduction, is usually written in the present tense.

THE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS SECTION

Your conclusion ties your research to your thesis, binding together all the main ideas in your thinking and writing. By presenting the logical outcome of your research and thinking, your conclusion answers your research inquiry for your reader. Your conclusions should relate directly to the ideas presented in your introduction section and should not present any new ideas.

You may be asked to present your recommendations separately in your research assignment. If so, you will want to add some elements to your conclusion section. For example, you may be asked to recommend a course of action, make a prediction, propose a solution to a problem, offer a judgment, or speculate on the implications and consequences of your ideas. The conclusions and recommendations section is usually written in the present tense.

Key Takeaways

• For the formal academic research assignment, consider an organizational pattern typically used for primary academic research. 
•  The pattern includes the following: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions/recommendations.

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Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

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Research Structure

Research structure is basically an outline of your paper. In your dissertation you are expected to provide the research structure towards the end of introduction chapter. The components of research structure are illustrated in table below:

Components of each chapter in research structure

The following is a sample of a research structure:

Chapter One communicates the purpose and focus of the study and explains the outline of the research. This chapter includes a brief explanation of the research background , and provides rationale for the selection of the research area . Moreover, the first chapter contains explanation of the research aim and objectives , and explains research structure.

Chapter Two constitutes a literature review, and accordingly, contains analysis of models and theoretical frameworks that have been previously introduced to the research area. This chapter contains definitions of main terms and explains search strategy for the secondary data . Viewpoints of other authors regarding the research area in general and research problem in particular have been presented in a logical manner in this chapter.

Chapter Three addresses methodology. The chapter explains the research process and addresses the issues of research philosophy . Moreover, methodology chapter contains explanation of research design , and the choice and implementation of data collection methods . Sampling aspect of the study and discussions of ethical considerations are also included in this chapter.

Chapter Four contains presentation of the primary data collected through questionnaires/interviews/focus groups/observation/etc. Presentation of primary data findings have been facilitated through bar charts/pie charts. Brief discussions have been included to explain each chart.

Chapter Five constitutes discussions and analyses. This chapter plays a critical role in the achievement of research aim and objectives. Findings of the literature review have been compared to primary data findings in this chapter. Also, in-depth discussions have been provided in relation to each individual research objective.

Chapter Six concludes the work and summarises the level of achievement of research aim and objectives. The chapter comprises acknowledgement of limitations of the study and highlights scope for future studies in the same research area.

Your dissertation has also to contain title page, acknowledgements, abstract, table of contents at the beginning. Furthermore, you need to add references, bibliography and appendices sections at the end of your dissertation.

John Dudovskiy

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• Knowledge Base
• Methodology

Research Design | Step-by-Step Guide with Examples

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 20 March 2023.

A research design is a strategy for answering your research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall aims and approach
• The type of research design you’ll use
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, frequently asked questions.

• Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities – start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types. Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships, while descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends, and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analysing the data.

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study – plants, animals, organisations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region, or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalise your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study, your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalise to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question.

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviours, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews.

Observation methods

Observations allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviours, or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected – for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are reliable and valid.

Operationalisation

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalisation means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in – for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced , while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method, you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
• How will you contact your sample – by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method, it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method, how will you avoid bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organising and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymise and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well organised will save time when it comes to analysing them. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings.

On their own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyse the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarise your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarise your sample data in terms of:

• The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

• Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

There are many other ways of analysing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.

For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.

Operationalisation means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioural avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalise the variables that you want to measure.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts, and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyse a large amount of readily available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how they are generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

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Structure of a Research Paper

Structure of a Research Paper: IMRaD Format

I. The Title Page

• Title: Tells the reader what to expect in the paper.
• Author(s): Most papers are written by one or two primary authors. The remaining authors have reviewed the work and/or aided in study design or data analysis (International Committee of Medical Editors, 1997). Check the Instructions to Authors for the target journal for specifics about authorship.
• Keywords [according to the journal]
• Corresponding Author: Full name and affiliation for the primary contact author for persons who have questions about the research.
• Financial & Equipment Support [if needed]: Specific information about organizations, agencies, or companies that supported the research.
• Conflicts of Interest [if needed]: List and explain any conflicts of interest.

II. Abstract: “Structured abstract” has become the standard for research papers (introduction, objective, methods, results and conclusions), while reviews, case reports and other articles have non-structured abstracts. The abstract should be a summary/synopsis of the paper.

III. Introduction: The “why did you do the study”; setting the scene or laying the foundation or background for the paper.

IV. Methods: The “how did you do the study.” Describe the --

• Context and setting of the study
• Specify the study design
• Population (patients, etc. if applicable)
• Sampling strategy
• Intervention (if applicable)
• Identify the main study variables
• Data collection instruments and procedures
• Outline analysis methods

V. Results: The “what did you find” --

• Report on data collection and/or recruitment
• Participants (demographic, clinical condition, etc.)
• Present key findings with respect to the central research question
• Secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.)

VI. Discussion: Place for interpreting the results

• Main findings of the study
• Discuss the main results with reference to previous research
• Policy and practice implications of the results
• Strengths and limitations of the study

VII. Conclusions: [occasionally optional or not required]. Do not reiterate the data or discussion. Can state hunches, inferences or speculations. Offer perspectives for future work.

VIII. Acknowledgements: Names people who contributed to the work, but did not contribute sufficiently to earn authorship. You must have permission from any individuals mentioned in the acknowledgements sections. 

IX. References:  Complete citations for any articles or other materials referenced in the text of the article.

• IMRD Cheatsheet (Carnegie Mellon) pdf.
• Adewasi, D. (2021 June 14).  What Is IMRaD? IMRaD Format in Simple Terms! . Scientific-editing.info. 
• Nair, P.K.R., Nair, V.D. (2014). Organization of a Research Paper: The IMRAD Format. In: Scientific Writing and Communication in Agriculture and Natural Resources. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-03101-9_2
• Sollaci, L. B., & Pereira, M. G. (2004). The introduction, methods, results, and discussion (IMRAD) structure: a fifty-year survey.   Journal of the Medical Library Association : JMLA ,  92 (3), 364–367.
• Cuschieri, S., Grech, V., & Savona-Ventura, C. (2019). WASP (Write a Scientific Paper): Structuring a scientific paper.   Early human development ,  128 , 114–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2018.09.011

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Writing Research Papers

• Research Paper Structure

Whether you are writing a B.S. Degree Research Paper or completing a research report for a Psychology course, it is highly likely that you will need to organize your research paper in accordance with American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines.  Here we discuss the structure of research papers according to APA style.

Major Sections of a Research Paper in APA Style

A complete research paper in APA style that is reporting on experimental research will typically contain a Title page, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and References sections. 1  Many will also contain Figures and Tables and some will have an Appendix or Appendices.  These sections are detailed as follows (for a more in-depth guide, please refer to " How to Write a Research Paper in APA Style ”, a comprehensive guide developed by Prof. Emma Geller). 2

What is this paper called and who wrote it? – the first page of the paper; this includes the name of the paper, a “running head”, authors, and institutional affiliation of the authors.  The institutional affiliation is usually listed in an Author Note that is placed towards the bottom of the title page.  In some cases, the Author Note also contains an acknowledgment of any funding support and of any individuals that assisted with the research project.

One-paragraph summary of the entire study – typically no more than 250 words in length (and in many cases it is well shorter than that), the Abstract provides an overview of the study.

Introduction

What is the topic and why is it worth studying? – the first major section of text in the paper, the Introduction commonly describes the topic under investigation, summarizes or discusses relevant prior research (for related details, please see the Writing Literature Reviews section of this website), identifies unresolved issues that the current research will address, and provides an overview of the research that is to be described in greater detail in the sections to follow.

What did you do? – a section which details how the research was performed.  It typically features a description of the participants/subjects that were involved, the study design, the materials that were used, and the study procedure.  If there were multiple experiments, then each experiment may require a separate Methods section.  A rule of thumb is that the Methods section should be sufficiently detailed for another researcher to duplicate your research.

What did you find? – a section which describes the data that was collected and the results of any statistical tests that were performed.  It may also be prefaced by a description of the analysis procedure that was used. If there were multiple experiments, then each experiment may require a separate Results section.

What is the significance of your results? – the final major section of text in the paper.  The Discussion commonly features a summary of the results that were obtained in the study, describes how those results address the topic under investigation and/or the issues that the research was designed to address, and may expand upon the implications of those findings.  Limitations and directions for future research are also commonly addressed.

List of articles and any books cited – an alphabetized list of the sources that are cited in the paper (by last name of the first author of each source).  Each reference should follow specific APA guidelines regarding author names, dates, article titles, journal titles, journal volume numbers, page numbers, book publishers, publisher locations, websites, and so on (for more information, please see the Citing References in APA Style page of this website).

Tables and Figures

Graphs and data (optional in some cases) – depending on the type of research being performed, there may be Tables and/or Figures (however, in some cases, there may be neither).  In APA style, each Table and each Figure is placed on a separate page and all Tables and Figures are included after the References.   Tables are included first, followed by Figures.   However, for some journals and undergraduate research papers (such as the B.S. Research Paper or Honors Thesis), Tables and Figures may be embedded in the text (depending on the instructor’s or editor’s policies; for more details, see "Deviations from APA Style" below).

Supplementary information (optional) – in some cases, additional information that is not critical to understanding the research paper, such as a list of experiment stimuli, details of a secondary analysis, or programming code, is provided.  This is often placed in an Appendix.

Variations of Research Papers in APA Style

Although the major sections described above are common to most research papers written in APA style, there are variations on that pattern.  These variations include: 

• Literature reviews – when a paper is reviewing prior published research and not presenting new empirical research itself (such as in a review article, and particularly a qualitative review), then the authors may forgo any Methods and Results sections. Instead, there is a different structure such as an Introduction section followed by sections for each of the different aspects of the body of research being reviewed, and then perhaps a Discussion section. 
• Multi-experiment papers – when there are multiple experiments, it is common to follow the Introduction with an Experiment 1 section, itself containing Methods, Results, and Discussion subsections. Then there is an Experiment 2 section with a similar structure, an Experiment 3 section with a similar structure, and so on until all experiments are covered.  Towards the end of the paper there is a General Discussion section followed by References.  Additionally, in multi-experiment papers, it is common for the Results and Discussion subsections for individual experiments to be combined into single “Results and Discussion” sections.

Departures from APA Style

In some cases, official APA style might not be followed (however, be sure to check with your editor, instructor, or other sources before deviating from standards of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association).  Such deviations may include:

• Placement of Tables and Figures  – in some cases, to make reading through the paper easier, Tables and/or Figures are embedded in the text (for example, having a bar graph placed in the relevant Results section). The embedding of Tables and/or Figures in the text is one of the most common deviations from APA style (and is commonly allowed in B.S. Degree Research Papers and Honors Theses; however you should check with your instructor, supervisor, or editor first). 
• Incomplete research – sometimes a B.S. Degree Research Paper in this department is written about research that is currently being planned or is in progress. In those circumstances, sometimes only an Introduction and Methods section, followed by References, is included (that is, in cases where the research itself has not formally begun).  In other cases, preliminary results are presented and noted as such in the Results section (such as in cases where the study is underway but not complete), and the Discussion section includes caveats about the in-progress nature of the research.  Again, you should check with your instructor, supervisor, or editor first.
• Class assignments – in some classes in this department, an assignment must be written in APA style but is not exactly a traditional research paper (for instance, a student asked to write about an article that they read, and to write that report in APA style). In that case, the structure of the paper might approximate the typical sections of a research paper in APA style, but not entirely.  You should check with your instructor for further guidelines.

Workshops and Downloadable Resources

• For in-person discussion of the process of writing research papers, please consider attending this department’s “Writing Research Papers” workshop (for dates and times, please check the undergraduate workshops calendar).

Downloadable Resources

• How to Write APA Style Research Papers (a comprehensive guide) [ PDF ]
• Tips for Writing APA Style Research Papers (a brief summary) [ PDF ]
• Example APA Style Research Paper (for B.S. Degree – empirical research) [ PDF ]
• Example APA Style Research Paper (for B.S. Degree – literature review) [ PDF ]

Further Resources

How-To Videos     

• Writing Research Paper Videos

APA Journal Article Reporting Guidelines

• Appelbaum, M., Cooper, H., Kline, R. B., Mayo-Wilson, E., Nezu, A. M., & Rao, S. M. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for quantitative research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report . American Psychologist , 73 (1), 3.
• Levitt, H. M., Bamberg, M., Creswell, J. W., Frost, D. M., Josselson, R., & Suárez-Orozco, C. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for qualitative primary, qualitative meta-analytic, and mixed methods research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report . American Psychologist , 73 (1), 26.  

External Resources

• Formatting APA Style Papers in Microsoft Word
• How to Write an APA Style Research Paper from Hamilton University
• WikiHow Guide to Writing APA Research Papers
• Sample APA Formatted Paper with Comments
• Sample APA Formatted Paper
• Tips for Writing a Paper in APA Style

1 VandenBos, G. R. (Ed). (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.) (pp. 41-60).  Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

2 geller, e. (2018).  how to write an apa-style research report . [instructional materials]. , prepared by s. c. pan for ucsd psychology.

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Article Contents

Primacy of the research question, structure of the paper, writing a research article: advice to beginners.

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Thomas V. Perneger, Patricia M. Hudelson, Writing a research article: advice to beginners, International Journal for Quality in Health Care , Volume 16, Issue 3, June 2004, Pages 191–192, https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzh053

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Writing research papers does not come naturally to most of us. The typical research paper is a highly codified rhetorical form [ 1 , 2 ]. Knowledge of the rules—some explicit, others implied—goes a long way toward writing a paper that will get accepted in a peer-reviewed journal.

A good research paper addresses a specific research question. The research question—or study objective or main research hypothesis—is the central organizing principle of the paper. Whatever relates to the research question belongs in the paper; the rest doesn’t. This is perhaps obvious when the paper reports on a well planned research project. However, in applied domains such as quality improvement, some papers are written based on projects that were undertaken for operational reasons, and not with the primary aim of producing new knowledge. In such cases, authors should define the main research question a posteriori and design the paper around it.

Generally, only one main research question should be addressed in a paper (secondary but related questions are allowed). If a project allows you to explore several distinct research questions, write several papers. For instance, if you measured the impact of obtaining written consent on patient satisfaction at a specialized clinic using a newly developed questionnaire, you may want to write one paper on the questionnaire development and validation, and another on the impact of the intervention. The idea is not to split results into ‘least publishable units’, a practice that is rightly decried, but rather into ‘optimally publishable units’.

What is a good research question? The key attributes are: (i) specificity; (ii) originality or novelty; and (iii) general relevance to a broad scientific community. The research question should be precise and not merely identify a general area of inquiry. It can often (but not always) be expressed in terms of a possible association between X and Y in a population Z, for example ‘we examined whether providing patients about to be discharged from the hospital with written information about their medications would improve their compliance with the treatment 1 month later’. A study does not necessarily have to break completely new ground, but it should extend previous knowledge in a useful way, or alternatively refute existing knowledge. Finally, the question should be of interest to others who work in the same scientific area. The latter requirement is more challenging for those who work in applied science than for basic scientists. While it may safely be assumed that the human genome is the same worldwide, whether the results of a local quality improvement project have wider relevance requires careful consideration and argument.

Once the research question is clearly defined, writing the paper becomes considerably easier. The paper will ask the question, then answer it. The key to successful scientific writing is getting the structure of the paper right. The basic structure of a typical research paper is the sequence of Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion (sometimes abbreviated as IMRAD). Each section addresses a different objective. The authors state: (i) the problem they intend to address—in other terms, the research question—in the Introduction; (ii) what they did to answer the question in the Methods section; (iii) what they observed in the Results section; and (iv) what they think the results mean in the Discussion.

In turn, each basic section addresses several topics, and may be divided into subsections (Table 1 ). In the Introduction, the authors should explain the rationale and background to the study. What is the research question, and why is it important to ask it? While it is neither necessary nor desirable to provide a full-blown review of the literature as a prelude to the study, it is helpful to situate the study within some larger field of enquiry. The research question should always be spelled out, and not merely left for the reader to guess.

Typical structure of a research paper

The Methods section should provide the readers with sufficient detail about the study methods to be able to reproduce the study if so desired. Thus, this section should be specific, concrete, technical, and fairly detailed. The study setting, the sampling strategy used, instruments, data collection methods, and analysis strategies should be described. In the case of qualitative research studies, it is also useful to tell the reader which research tradition the study utilizes and to link the choice of methodological strategies with the research goals [ 3 ].

The Results section is typically fairly straightforward and factual. All results that relate to the research question should be given in detail, including simple counts and percentages. Resist the temptation to demonstrate analytic ability and the richness of the dataset by providing numerous tables of non-essential results.

The Discussion section allows the most freedom. This is why the Discussion is the most difficult to write, and is often the weakest part of a paper. Structured Discussion sections have been proposed by some journal editors [ 4 ]. While strict adherence to such rules may not be necessary, following a plan such as that proposed in Table 1 may help the novice writer stay on track.

References should be used wisely. Key assertions should be referenced, as well as the methods and instruments used. However, unless the paper is a comprehensive review of a topic, there is no need to be exhaustive. Also, references to unpublished work, to documents in the grey literature (technical reports), or to any source that the reader will have difficulty finding or understanding should be avoided.

Having the structure of the paper in place is a good start. However, there are many details that have to be attended to while writing. An obvious recommendation is to read, and follow, the instructions to authors published by the journal (typically found on the journal’s website). Another concerns non-native writers of English: do have a native speaker edit the manuscript. A paper usually goes through several drafts before it is submitted. When revising a paper, it is useful to keep an eye out for the most common mistakes (Table 2 ). If you avoid all those, your paper should be in good shape.

Common mistakes seen in manuscripts submitted to this journal

Huth EJ . How to Write and Publish Papers in the Medical Sciences , 2nd edition. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1990 .

Browner WS . Publishing and Presenting Clinical Research . Baltimore, MD: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 1999 .

Devers KJ , Frankel RM. Getting qualitative research published. Educ Health 2001 ; 14 : 109 –117.

Docherty M , Smith R. The case for structuring the discussion of scientific papers. Br Med J 1999 ; 318 : 1224 –1225.

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Study designs: Part 1 – An overview and classification

Priya ranganathan.

Department of Anaesthesiology, Tata Memorial Centre, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Rakesh Aggarwal

1 Department of Gastroenterology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India

There are several types of research study designs, each with its inherent strengths and flaws. The study design used to answer a particular research question depends on the nature of the question and the availability of resources. In this article, which is the first part of a series on “study designs,” we provide an overview of research study designs and their classification. The subsequent articles will focus on individual designs.

INTRODUCTION

Research study design is a framework, or the set of methods and procedures used to collect and analyze data on variables specified in a particular research problem.

Research study designs are of many types, each with its advantages and limitations. The type of study design used to answer a particular research question is determined by the nature of question, the goal of research, and the availability of resources. Since the design of a study can affect the validity of its results, it is important to understand the different types of study designs and their strengths and limitations.

There are some terms that are used frequently while classifying study designs which are described in the following sections.

A variable represents a measurable attribute that varies across study units, for example, individual participants in a study, or at times even when measured in an individual person over time. Some examples of variables include age, sex, weight, height, health status, alive/dead, diseased/healthy, annual income, smoking yes/no, and treated/untreated.

Exposure (or intervention) and outcome variables

A large proportion of research studies assess the relationship between two variables. Here, the question is whether one variable is associated with or responsible for change in the value of the other variable. Exposure (or intervention) refers to the risk factor whose effect is being studied. It is also referred to as the independent or the predictor variable. The outcome (or predicted or dependent) variable develops as a consequence of the exposure (or intervention). Typically, the term “exposure” is used when the “causative” variable is naturally determined (as in observational studies – examples include age, sex, smoking, and educational status), and the term “intervention” is preferred where the researcher assigns some or all participants to receive a particular treatment for the purpose of the study (experimental studies – e.g., administration of a drug). If a drug had been started in some individuals but not in the others, before the study started, this counts as exposure, and not as intervention – since the drug was not started specifically for the study.

Observational versus interventional (or experimental) studies

Observational studies are those where the researcher is documenting a naturally occurring relationship between the exposure and the outcome that he/she is studying. The researcher does not do any active intervention in any individual, and the exposure has already been decided naturally or by some other factor. For example, looking at the incidence of lung cancer in smokers versus nonsmokers, or comparing the antenatal dietary habits of mothers with normal and low-birth babies. In these studies, the investigator did not play any role in determining the smoking or dietary habit in individuals.

For an exposure to determine the outcome, it must precede the latter. Any variable that occurs simultaneously with or following the outcome cannot be causative, and hence is not considered as an “exposure.”

Observational studies can be either descriptive (nonanalytical) or analytical (inferential) – this is discussed later in this article.

Interventional studies are experiments where the researcher actively performs an intervention in some or all members of a group of participants. This intervention could take many forms – for example, administration of a drug or vaccine, performance of a diagnostic or therapeutic procedure, and introduction of an educational tool. For example, a study could randomly assign persons to receive aspirin or placebo for a specific duration and assess the effect on the risk of developing cerebrovascular events.

Descriptive versus analytical studies

Descriptive (or nonanalytical) studies, as the name suggests, merely try to describe the data on one or more characteristics of a group of individuals. These do not try to answer questions or establish relationships between variables. Examples of descriptive studies include case reports, case series, and cross-sectional surveys (please note that cross-sectional surveys may be analytical studies as well – this will be discussed in the next article in this series). Examples of descriptive studies include a survey of dietary habits among pregnant women or a case series of patients with an unusual reaction to a drug.

Analytical studies attempt to test a hypothesis and establish causal relationships between variables. In these studies, the researcher assesses the effect of an exposure (or intervention) on an outcome. As described earlier, analytical studies can be observational (if the exposure is naturally determined) or interventional (if the researcher actively administers the intervention).

Directionality of study designs

Based on the direction of inquiry, study designs may be classified as forward-direction or backward-direction. In forward-direction studies, the researcher starts with determining the exposure to a risk factor and then assesses whether the outcome occurs at a future time point. This design is known as a cohort study. For example, a researcher can follow a group of smokers and a group of nonsmokers to determine the incidence of lung cancer in each. In backward-direction studies, the researcher begins by determining whether the outcome is present (cases vs. noncases [also called controls]) and then traces the presence of prior exposure to a risk factor. These are known as case–control studies. For example, a researcher identifies a group of normal-weight babies and a group of low-birth weight babies and then asks the mothers about their dietary habits during the index pregnancy.

Prospective versus retrospective study designs

The terms “prospective” and “retrospective” refer to the timing of the research in relation to the development of the outcome. In retrospective studies, the outcome of interest has already occurred (or not occurred – e.g., in controls) in each individual by the time s/he is enrolled, and the data are collected either from records or by asking participants to recall exposures. There is no follow-up of participants. By contrast, in prospective studies, the outcome (and sometimes even the exposure or intervention) has not occurred when the study starts and participants are followed up over a period of time to determine the occurrence of outcomes. Typically, most cohort studies are prospective studies (though there may be retrospective cohorts), whereas case–control studies are retrospective studies. An interventional study has to be, by definition, a prospective study since the investigator determines the exposure for each study participant and then follows them to observe outcomes.

The terms “prospective” versus “retrospective” studies can be confusing. Let us think of an investigator who starts a case–control study. To him/her, the process of enrolling cases and controls over a period of several months appears prospective. Hence, the use of these terms is best avoided. Or, at the very least, one must be clear that the terms relate to work flow for each individual study participant, and not to the study as a whole.

Classification of study designs

Figure 1 depicts a simple classification of research study designs. The Centre for Evidence-based Medicine has put forward a useful three-point algorithm which can help determine the design of a research study from its methods section:[ 1 ]

Classification of research study designs

• Does the study describe the characteristics of a sample or does it attempt to analyze (or draw inferences about) the relationship between two variables? – If no, then it is a descriptive study, and if yes, it is an analytical (inferential) study
• If analytical, did the investigator determine the exposure? – If no, it is an observational study, and if yes, it is an experimental study
• If observational, when was the outcome determined? – at the start of the study (case–control study), at the end of a period of follow-up (cohort study), or simultaneously (cross sectional).

In the next few pieces in the series, we will discuss various study designs in greater detail.

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Structure of a Research Paper: Tips to Improve Your Manuscript

You’ve spent months or years conducting your academic research. Now it’s time to write your journal article. For some, this can become a daunting task because writing is not their forte. It might become difficult to even start writing. However, once you organize your thoughts and begin writing them down, the overall task will become easier.

We provide some helpful tips for you here.

Organize Your Thoughts

Perhaps one of the most important tasks before you even begin to write is to get organized. By this point, your data is compiled and analyzed. You most likely also have many pages of “notes”. These must also be organized. Fortunately, this is much easier to do than in the past with hand-written notes. Presuming that these tasks are completed, what’s next?

Related: Ready with your title and looking forward to manuscript submission ? Check these journal selection guidelines  now!

When suggesting that you organize your thoughts, we mean to take a look at what you have compiled. Ask yourself what you are trying to convey to the reader. What is the most important message from your research? How will your results affect others? Is more research necessary?

Write your answers down and keep them where you can see them while writing. This will help you focus on your goals.

Aim for Clarity

Your paper should be presented as clearly as possible. You want your readers to understand your research. You also do not want them to stop reading because the text is too technical.

Keep in mind that your published research will be available in academic journals all over the world. This means that people of different languages will read it. Moreover, even with scientists, this could present a language barrier. According to a recent article , always remember the following points as you write:

• Clarity : Cleary define terms; avoid nonrelevant information.
• Simplicity : Keep sentence structure simple and direct.
• Accuracy : Represent all data and illustrations accurately.

For example, consider the following sentence:

“Chemical x had an effect on metabolism.”

This is an ambiguous statement. It does not tell the reader much. State the results instead:

“Chemical x increased fat metabolism by 20 percent.”

All scientific research also provide significance of findings, usually presented as defined “P” values. Be sure to explain these findings using descriptive terms. For example, rather than using the words “ significant effect ,” use a more descriptive term, such as “ significant increase .”

For more tips, please also see “Tips and Techniques for Scientific Writing”. In addition, it is very important to have your paper edited by a native English speaking professional editor. There are many editing services available for academic manuscripts and publication support services.

Research Paper Structure

With the above in mind, you can now focus on structure. Scientific papers are organized into specific sections and each has a goal. We have listed them here.

• Your title is the most important part of your paper. It draws the reader in and tells them what you are presenting. Moreover, if you think about the titles of papers that you might browse in a day and which papers you actually read, you’ll agree.
• The title should be clear and interesting otherwise the reader will not continue reading.
• Authors’ names and affiliations are on the title page.
• The abstract is a summary of your research. It is nearly as important as the title because the reader will be able to quickly read through it.
• Most journals, the abstract can become divided into very short sections to guide the reader through the summaries.
• Keep the sentences short and focused.
• Avoid acronyms and citations.
• Include background information on the subject and your objectives here.
• Describe the materials used and include the names and locations of the manufacturers.
• For any animal studies, include where you obtained the animals and a statement of humane treatment.
• Clearly and succinctly explain your methods so that it can be duplicated.
• Criteria for inclusion and exclusion in the study and statistical analyses should be included.
• Discuss your findings here.
• Be careful to not make definitive statements .
• Your results suggest that something is or is not true.
• This is true even when your results prove your hypothesis.
• Discuss what your results mean in this section.
• Discuss any study limitations. Suggest additional studies.
• Acknowledge all contributors.
• All citations in the text must have a corresponding reference.
• Check your author guidelines for format protocols.
• In most cases, your tables and figures appear at the end of your paper or in a separate file.
• The titles (legends) usually become listed after the reference section.
• Be sure that you define each acronym and abbreviation in each table and figure.

Helpful Rules

In their article entitled, “Ten simple rules for structuring papers,” in PLOS Computational Biology , authors Mensh and Kording provided 10 helpful tips as follows:

• Focus on a central contribution.
• Write for those who do not know your work.
• Use the “context-content-conclusion” approach.
• Avoid superfluous information and use parallel structures.
• Summarize your research in the abstract.
• Explain the importance of your research in the introduction.
• Explain your results in a logical sequence and support them with figures and tables.
• Discuss any data gaps and limitations.
• Allocate your time for the most important sections.
• Get feedback from colleagues.

Some of these rules have been briefly discussed above; however, the study done by the authors does provide detailed explanations on all of them.

Helpful Sites

Visit the following links for more helpful information:

• “ Some writing tips for scientific papers ”
• “ How to Structure Your Dissertation ”
• “ Conciseness in Academic Writing: How to Prune Sentences ”
• “ How to Optimize Sentence Length in Academic Writing ”

So, do you follow any additional tips when structuring your research paper ? Share them with us in the comments below!

Thanks for sharing this post. Great information provided. I really appreciate your writing. I like the way you put across your ideas.

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Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical bounded assumptions or predictions of behavior. The theoretical framework is the structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical framework encompasses not just the theory, but the narrative explanation about how the researcher engages in using the theory and its underlying assumptions to investigate the research problem. It is the structure of your paper that summarizes concepts, ideas, and theories derived from prior research studies and which was synthesized in order to form a conceptual basis for your analysis and interpretation of meaning found within your research.

Abend, Gabriel. "The Meaning of Theory." Sociological Theory 26 (June 2008): 173–199; Kivunja, Charles. "Distinguishing between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and Conceptual Framework: A Systematic Review of Lessons from the Field." International Journal of Higher Education 7 (December 2018): 44-53; Swanson, Richard A. Theory Building in Applied Disciplines . San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers 2013; Varpio, Lara, Elise Paradis, Sebastian Uijtdehaage, and Meredith Young. "The Distinctions between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and Conceptual Framework." Academic Medicine 95 (July 2020): 989-994.

Importance of Theory and a Theoretical Framework

Theories can be unfamiliar to the beginning researcher because they are rarely applied in high school social studies curriculum and, as a result, can come across as unfamiliar and imprecise when first introduced as part of a writing assignment. However, in their most simplified form, a theory is simply a set of assumptions or predictions about something you think will happen based on existing evidence and that can be tested to see if those outcomes turn out to be true. Of course, it is slightly more deliberate than that, therefore, summarized from Kivunja (2018, p. 46), here are the essential characteristics of a theory.

• It is logical and coherent
• It has clear definitions of terms or variables, and has boundary conditions [i.e., it is not an open-ended statement]
• It has a domain where it applies
• It has clearly described relationships among variables
• It describes, explains, and makes specific predictions
• It comprises of concepts, themes, principles, and constructs
• It must have been based on empirical data [i.e., it is not a guess]
• It must have made claims that are subject to testing, been tested and verified
• It must be clear and concise
• Its assertions or predictions must be different and better than those in existing theories
• Its predictions must be general enough to be applicable to and understood within multiple contexts
• Its assertions or predictions are relevant, and if applied as predicted, will result in the predicted outcome
• The assertions and predictions are not immutable, but subject to revision and improvement as researchers use the theory to make sense of phenomena
• Its concepts and principles explain what is going on and why
• Its concepts and principles are substantive enough to enable us to predict a future

Given these characteristics, a theory can best be understood as the foundation from which you investigate assumptions or predictions derived from previous studies about the research problem, but in a way that leads to new knowledge and understanding as well as, in some cases, discovering how to improve the relevance of the theory itself or to argue that the theory is outdated and a new theory needs to be formulated based on new evidence.

A theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their definitions and reference to relevant scholarly literature, existing theory that is used for your particular study. The theoretical framework must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are relevant to the topic of your research paper and that relate to the broader areas of knowledge being considered.

The theoretical framework is most often not something readily found within the literature . You must review course readings and pertinent research studies for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.

The theoretical framework strengthens the study in the following ways :

• An explicit statement of  theoretical assumptions permits the reader to evaluate them critically.
• The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing knowledge. Guided by a relevant theory, you are given a basis for your hypotheses and choice of research methods.
• Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces you to address questions of why and how. It permits you to intellectually transition from simply describing a phenomenon you have observed to generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
• Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations. A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a phenomenon of interest and highlights the need to examine how those key variables might differ and under what circumstances.
• The theoretical framework adds context around the theory itself based on how scholars had previously tested the theory in relation their overall research design [i.e., purpose of the study, methods of collecting data or information, methods of analysis, the time frame in which information is collected, study setting, and the methodological strategy used to conduct the research].

By virtue of its applicative nature, good theory in the social sciences is of value precisely because it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain the meaning, nature, and challenges associated with a phenomenon, often experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that we may use that knowledge and understanding to act in more informed and effective ways.

The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Corvellec, Hervé, ed. What is Theory?: Answers from the Social and Cultural Sciences . Stockholm: Copenhagen Business School Press, 2013; Asher, Herbert B. Theory-Building and Data Analysis in the Social Sciences . Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1984; Drafting an Argument. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Kivunja, Charles. "Distinguishing between Theory, Theoretical Framework, and Conceptual Framework: A Systematic Review of Lessons from the Field." International Journal of Higher Education 7 (2018): 44-53; Omodan, Bunmi Isaiah. "A Model for Selecting Theoretical Framework through Epistemology of Research Paradigms." African Journal of Inter/Multidisciplinary Studies 4 (2022): 275-285; Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Jarvis, Peter. The Practitioner-Researcher. Developing Theory from Practice . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1999.

Strategies for Developing the Theoretical Framework

I.  Developing the Framework

Here are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical framework:

• Examine your thesis title and research problem . The research problem anchors your entire study and forms the basis from which you construct your theoretical framework.
• Brainstorm about what you consider to be the key variables in your research . Answer the question, "What factors contribute to the presumed effect?"
• Review related literature to find how scholars have addressed your research problem. Identify the assumptions from which the author(s) addressed the problem.
• List  the constructs and variables that might be relevant to your study. Group these variables into independent and dependent categories.
• Review key social science theories that are introduced to you in your course readings and choose the theory that can best explain the relationships between the key variables in your study [note the Writing Tip on this page].
• Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory and point out their relevance to your research.

A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant data by focusing on specific variables and defining the specific viewpoint [framework] that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting the data to be gathered. It also facilitates the understanding of concepts and variables according to given definitions and builds new knowledge by validating or challenging theoretical assumptions.

II.  Purpose

Think of theories as the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing, and designing ways to investigate relationships within social systems. To that end, the following roles served by a theory can help guide the development of your framework.

• Means by which new research data can be interpreted and coded for future use,
• Response to new problems that have no previously identified solutions strategy,
• Means for identifying and defining research problems,
• Means for prescribing or evaluating solutions to research problems,
• Ways of discerning certain facts among the accumulated knowledge that are important and which facts are not,
• Means of giving old data new interpretations and new meaning,
• Means by which to identify important new issues and prescribe the most critical research questions that need to be answered to maximize understanding of the issue,
• Means of providing members of a professional discipline with a common language and a frame of reference for defining the boundaries of their profession, and
• Means to guide and inform research so that it can, in turn, guide research efforts and improve professional practice.

Adapted from: Torraco, R. J. “Theory-Building Research Methods.” In Swanson R. A. and E. F. Holton III , editors. Human Resource Development Handbook: Linking Research and Practice . (San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 1997): pp. 114-137; Jacard, James and Jacob Jacoby. Theory Construction and Model-Building Skills: A Practical Guide for Social Scientists . New York: Guilford, 2010; Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Sutton, Robert I. and Barry M. Staw. “What Theory is Not.” Administrative Science Quarterly 40 (September 1995): 371-384.

Structure and Writing Style

The theoretical framework may be rooted in a specific theory , in which case, your work is expected to test the validity of that existing theory in relation to specific events, issues, or phenomena. Many social science research papers fit into this rubric. For example, Peripheral Realism Theory, which categorizes perceived differences among nation-states as those that give orders, those that obey, and those that rebel, could be used as a means for understanding conflicted relationships among countries in Africa. A test of this theory could be the following: Does Peripheral Realism Theory help explain intra-state actions, such as, the disputed split between southern and northern Sudan that led to the creation of two nations?

However, you may not always be asked by your professor to test a specific theory in your paper, but to develop your own framework from which your analysis of the research problem is derived . Based upon the above example, it is perhaps easiest to understand the nature and function of a theoretical framework if it is viewed as an answer to two basic questions:

• What is the research problem/question? [e.g., "How should the individual and the state relate during periods of conflict?"]
• Why is your approach a feasible solution? [i.e., justify the application of your choice of a particular theory and explain why alternative constructs were rejected. I could choose instead to test Instrumentalist or Circumstantialists models developed among ethnic conflict theorists that rely upon socio-economic-political factors to explain individual-state relations and to apply this theoretical model to periods of war between nations].

The answers to these questions come from a thorough review of the literature and your course readings [summarized and analyzed in the next section of your paper] and the gaps in the research that emerge from the review process. With this in mind, a complete theoretical framework will likely not emerge until after you have completed a thorough review of the literature .

Just as a research problem in your paper requires contextualization and background information, a theory requires a framework for understanding its application to the topic being investigated. When writing and revising this part of your research paper, keep in mind the following:

• Clearly describe the framework, concepts, models, or specific theories that underpin your study . This includes noting who the key theorists are in the field who have conducted research on the problem you are investigating and, when necessary, the historical context that supports the formulation of that theory. This latter element is particularly important if the theory is relatively unknown or it is borrowed from another discipline.
• Position your theoretical framework within a broader context of related frameworks, concepts, models, or theories . As noted in the example above, there will likely be several concepts, theories, or models that can be used to help develop a framework for understanding the research problem. Therefore, note why the theory you've chosen is the appropriate one.
• The present tense is used when writing about theory. Although the past tense can be used to describe the history of a theory or the role of key theorists, the construction of your theoretical framework is happening now.
• You should make your theoretical assumptions as explicit as possible . Later, your discussion of methodology should be linked back to this theoretical framework.
• Don’t just take what the theory says as a given! Reality is never accurately represented in such a simplistic way; if you imply that it can be, you fundamentally distort a reader's ability to understand the findings that emerge. Given this, always note the limitations of the theoretical framework you've chosen [i.e., what parts of the research problem require further investigation because the theory inadequately explains a certain phenomena].

The Conceptual Framework. College of Education. Alabama State University; Conceptual Framework: What Do You Think is Going On? College of Engineering. University of Michigan; Drafting an Argument. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Lynham, Susan A. “The General Method of Theory-Building Research in Applied Disciplines.” Advances in Developing Human Resources 4 (August 2002): 221-241; Tavallaei, Mehdi and Mansor Abu Talib. "A General Perspective on the Role of Theory in Qualitative Research." Journal of International Social Research 3 (Spring 2010); Ravitch, Sharon M. and Matthew Riggan. Reason and Rigor: How Conceptual Frameworks Guide Research . Second edition. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2017; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education; Trochim, William M.K. Philosophy of Research. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Weick, Karl E. “The Work of Theorizing.” In Theorizing in Social Science: The Context of Discovery . Richard Swedberg, editor. (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014), pp. 177-194.

Writing Tip

Borrowing Theoretical Constructs from Other Disciplines

An increasingly important trend in the social and behavioral sciences is to think about and attempt to understand research problems from an interdisciplinary perspective. One way to do this is to not rely exclusively on the theories developed within your particular discipline, but to think about how an issue might be informed by theories developed in other disciplines. For example, if you are a political science student studying the rhetorical strategies used by female incumbents in state legislature campaigns, theories about the use of language could be derived, not only from political science, but linguistics, communication studies, philosophy, psychology, and, in this particular case, feminist studies. Building theoretical frameworks based on the postulates and hypotheses developed in other disciplinary contexts can be both enlightening and an effective way to be more engaged in the research topic.

CohenMiller, A. S. and P. Elizabeth Pate. "A Model for Developing Interdisciplinary Research Theoretical Frameworks." The Qualitative Researcher 24 (2019): 1211-1226; Frodeman, Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Another Writing Tip

Don't Undertheorize!

Do not leave the theory hanging out there in the introduction never to be mentioned again. Undertheorizing weakens your paper. The theoretical framework you describe should guide your study throughout the paper. Be sure to always connect theory to the review of pertinent literature and to explain in the discussion part of your paper how the theoretical framework you chose supports analysis of the research problem or, if appropriate, how the theoretical framework was found to be inadequate in explaining the phenomenon you were investigating. In that case, don't be afraid to propose your own theory based on your findings.

Yet Another Writing Tip

What's a Theory? What's a Hypothesis?

The terms theory and hypothesis are often used interchangeably in newspapers and popular magazines and in non-academic settings. However, the difference between theory and hypothesis in scholarly research is important, particularly when using an experimental design. A theory is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. Theories arise from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested assumptions that are widely accepted [e.g., rational choice theory; grounded theory; critical race theory].

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in your study. For example, an experiment designed to look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis that states, "We predict that students with better study habits will suffer less test anxiety." Unless your study is exploratory in nature, your hypothesis should always explain what you expect to happen during the course of your research.

The key distinctions are:

• A theory predicts events in a broad, general context;  a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.
• A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted among a set of scholars; a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.

Cherry, Kendra. Introduction to Research Methods: Theory and Hypothesis. About.com Psychology; Gezae, Michael et al. Welcome Presentation on Hypothesis. Slideshare presentation.

Still Yet Another Writing Tip

Be Prepared to Challenge the Validity of an Existing Theory

Theories are meant to be tested and their underlying assumptions challenged; they are not rigid or intransigent, but are meant to set forth general principles for explaining phenomena or predicting outcomes. Given this, testing theoretical assumptions is an important way that knowledge in any discipline develops and grows. If you're asked to apply an existing theory to a research problem, the analysis will likely include the expectation by your professor that you should offer modifications to the theory based on your research findings.

Indications that theoretical assumptions may need to be modified can include the following:

• Your findings suggest that the theory does not explain or account for current conditions or circumstances or the passage of time,
• The study reveals a finding that is incompatible with what the theory attempts to explain or predict, or
• Your analysis reveals that the theory overly generalizes behaviors or actions without taking into consideration specific factors revealed from your analysis [e.g., factors related to culture, nationality, history, gender, ethnicity, age, geographic location, legal norms or customs , religion, social class, socioeconomic status, etc.].

Philipsen, Kristian. "Theory Building: Using Abductive Search Strategies." In Collaborative Research Design: Working with Business for Meaningful Findings . Per Vagn Freytag and Louise Young, editors. (Singapore: Springer Nature, 2018), pp. 45-71; Shepherd, Dean A. and Roy Suddaby. "Theory Building: A Review and Integration." Journal of Management 43 (2017): 59-86.

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• Research Guides

Reading for Research: Social Sciences

Structure of a research article.

• Structural Read

Guide Acknowledgements

How to Read a Scholarly Article from the Howard Tilton Memorial Library at Tulane University

Strategic Reading for Research   from the Howard Tilton Memorial Library at Tulane University

Bridging the Gap between Faculty Expectation and the Student Experience: Teaching Students toAnnotate and Synthesize Sources

Librarian for Sociology, Environmental Sociology, MHS and Public Policy Studies

Academic writing has features that vary only slightly across the different disciplines. Knowing these elements and the purpose of each serves help you to read and understand academic texts efficiently and effectively, and then apply what you read to your paper or project.

Social Science (and Science) original research articles generally follow IMRD: Introduction- Methods-Results-Discussion

Introduction

• Introduces topic of article
• Presents the "Research Gap"/Statement of Problem article will address
• How research presented in the article will solve the problem presented in research gap.
• Literature Review. presenting and evaluating previous scholarship on a topic.  Sometimes, this is separate section of the article. 

​Method & Results

• How research was done, including analysis and measurements.  
• Sometimes labeled as "Research Design"
• What answers were found
• Interpretation of Results (What Does It Mean? Why is it important?)
• Implications for the Field, how the study contributes to the existing field of knowledge
• Suggestions for further research
• Sometimes called Conclusion

You might also see IBC: Introduction - Body - Conclusion

• Identify the subject
• State the thesis 
• Describe why thesis is important to the field (this may be in the form of a literature review or general prose)

Body  

• Presents Evidence/Counter Evidence
• Integrate other writings (i.e. evidence) to support argument 
• Discuss why others may disagree (counter-evidence) and why argument is still valid
• Summary of argument
• Evaluation of argument by pointing out its implications and/or limitations 
• Anticipate and address possible counter-claims
• Suggest future directions of research
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• Last Updated: Jan 19, 2024 10:44 AM
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How to Make Perfect-Structured Research Paper: Best Tips

Table of contents

• 1 Why Is It Necessary to Maintain the Research Paper Structure?
• 2.1 Title and Abstract
• 2.2 Introduction
• 2.3 Literature Review
• 2.4 Methodology
• 2.5 Results
• 2.6 Discussion
• 2.7 Conclusion
• 2.8 References
• 2.9 Appendices
• 3 Tips for Structuring a Research Paper
• 4 Mistakes in Structuring Research Paper
• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.2 Methodology
• 5.3 Results
• 5.4 Conclusion
• 6 Bottom Line

A research paper is a piece of academic writing that contains independent research analysis and argument. A research paper’s structure helps the writer organize their ideas, and PapersOwl would give ways to structure your academic research paper. It also shows their findings and communicates their contribution. The claim that gives significance to your work must be backed up by data and a logic that gives it credibility.

• You can get a free guide from PapersOwl on properly structuring a research paper.
• We also provide common mistakes and corrections in the research paper outline.
• This article will provide examples and writing process tips for each section.

Why Is It Necessary to Maintain the Research Paper Structure?

The structure of an academic research paper outline is a part of the process that requires the most attention. It has many helpful functions that assist during the writing and define the writer as a scientist. The basic structure has the following functions.

• Expository function. It reflects all the ideas that will be shown in the task.
• Informative function. For potential readers, the structure is a first glance at the issue. It is the first piece of data that is available to them.
• Structuring function. All the parts of writing a research paper are essential. They include appendices, figures, and tables. They will help during writing as they become the reflection of the order of the ideas.

Understanding the Research Paper Structure Parts

As is typical for all types of academic writing, a research paper has many components. They include the title page, abstract, Introduction, method, findings, discussion, conclusion, references, and acknowledgments. A research paper has a specific format divided into various important sections, one of which is the introduction of the research paper , and each serves a distinct purpose. Writing a straightforward and successful paper requires coherence. Understanding of the components of the research paper structure is also required. Doing so helps the writer provide the reader with a more thorough message that they can better grasp.

Title and Abstract

The  title page is the first page of the paper that shows the paper’s title and the author’s name (s). It also shows the affiliation(s), acknowledgments, and other specific information relevant to the topic. The abstract is a concise summary of the paper that includes the main problem, question, or goal of the study, the methods used, the result section of the research paper or findings, and the implications or contributions of the study. The title page is the start of the investigation that reflects the organization of the core idea.

Introduction

The Introduction is the first section of the paper. It provides the background and context of the study. It reviews the relevant literature and states the research question or hypothesis. It also outlines the main points or technical arguments of the paper. The Introduction is a brief presentation of the main topic combined. Review the current state of the investigation in the present scientific papers and community.

Literature Review

This section examines pertinent research and earlier studies, spotting knowledge gaps. It also finds new prospects on the subject. A good literature review for a research paper  gives a broader view of the study and language. It also allows the reader to understand other related works better.

Methodology

The methods section describes the design, participants, materials, procedures, and data analytics methods for conducting the study. This section, the methods section of a research paper , should be equipped with all the events and details used to arrive at the research outcome. The methods section should provide enough detail. In case other researchers need to replicate the study.

The results section reports the main findings or outcomes of the study. Various means like figures, tables, graphs, charts, or other visual aids present the data. The main results sections should be objective and factual, without interpretation or discussion.

The discussion section interprets and evaluates the results of the study. It should explain how they answer the research question. It should show how they relate to previous studies. State the limitations or weaknesses of the study. Write out the implications or recommendations for further research or practice.

The conclusion section summarizes the main points of the paper . Restates the central research question or hypothesis. Highlights the main contributions or implications of the study. The conclusion section should refrain from introducing new information. Refrain from repeating what has been said before.

The annotated bibliography is an overview of the reference list. Include the utilized materials, both digital and physical resources. The references section lists all the cited sources in the paper, using a consistent citation style (such as APA or MLA.). Only used or quoted sources should be in the references section. Sources that were only consulted or read should be irrelevant.

Appendices should contain all the supplementary materials like charts and statistics materials. Mathematical solutions and formulas that describe the situation most effectively.

Tips for Structuring a Research Paper

Restructuring can help you organize your ideas. Moreover, present your key findings, and communicate your contribution to the scholarly debate.

Here are some tips to address a typical research paper:

• Consider the Target Audience: Your target audience is the readers who will read. They would be there to appreciate your research paper. They are the end users of the academic work paper. To write for your target audience, you need to have observed. You need to know their characteristics, needs, and preferences. Adapt your purpose, content, and style to suit their expectations and interests.
• Begin with an Outline: An outline can help you to clarify your thesis statement and research question. Identify the main points and any argument that supports your thesis. Structure your paper according to the required format and guidelines.
• Provide Clear Signposting: Providing clear signposting is important for guiding your reader through your argument. It helps in showing how your ideas are connected. Signposting can help you to state the main purpose of your paper. Also, state the main point and sub-points. Show the relationship between different points.
• Use the “context-content-conclusion” approach: This approach consists of providing the background and motivation for your paper. State your research question or problem. Formatting guidelines and outlining the structure of your paper. Present your outcome and evidence logically and summarize your main points.
• Summarize your research in the abstract: An abstract is a concise summary of your paper that includes the main aim, methods, results and discussions, and research paper conclusions , as it paints a more precise picture before digging deep into the body of work. A summarized work in the abstract when research writing attracts attention.
• Explain the importance of your research in the Introduction. This is crucial when research writing your typical research paper. It convinces the reader that your paper is worth reading. You can also tell a brief story that illustrates the problem or issue that your study tackles.

Mistakes in Structuring Research Paper

A research article is a formal document presenting a scientific study’s results and discussion. Many researchers make mistakes when writing research papers. This usually affects the quality of their work.

Some common mistakes are:

• The Introduction is an extensive review of the literature. It should not be a lengthy summary of all the previous studies on the topic. It can bore the reader and obscure the main point of the paper.
• The Methods section should describe how the study was organized. This includes the design, sample, procedures, instruments, and data analysis methods. Provide enough explanation and detail to understand and evaluate the study’s validity. Other researchers might intend to replicate or extend it.
• The Results section should be separate, concise, and focused on the main research question. Put detailed tables that contain supplementary or secondary information in the appendix or a supplementary file. The results can also be expressed in the text.
• In the Introduction and Discussion, back up key arguments with appropriate references. They should also acknowledge and cite the sources of their ideas. This would avoid plagiarism.
• The References section should list all the cited sources in the paper. Use a consistent and standard format for publication. It should include up-to-date and accessible references. It should focus on the current state of knowledge on the topic.
• The Discussion section should interpret and explain the results. It should be about the research questions, experiment, and objectives. Compare them with existing literature.
• Talk about the applications of the results for theory, practice, or future research in the Discussion section. It should address the limitations of the study. This includes sample size, design flaws, measurement errors, and generalizability issues.
• The research paper should include something other than superfluous or irrelevant information. Remove anything that does not intend to contribute to the research question. Do not add opinions or anecdotes.

Research Paper Structure Example

Various sites offer a good deal of basic structure types on the Internet. Of these types of research papers , research articles structured in APA or MLA are the most popular.

Here is an example of the research paper’s main parts:

• The importance of the problem.
• The description of the current situation.
• List the objectives of the investigation.

Meditation is a practice that involves focusing your attention on a single object, thought, or sensation. This practice is a powerful tool that helps to cultivate inner peace and well-being. Rooted in ancient traditions and religion, meditation has gained significant attention in contemporary scientific research. This paper delves into the impact of meditation on the human mind and body, examining its physiological, psychological, and emotional benefits.

By exploring various meditation techniques and their effects on stress reduction, cognitive enhancement, emotional regulation, and overall well-being, this research aims to shed light on the transformative potential of meditation and its implications for personal growth and holistic health. Through a comprehensive analysis of existing studies and empirical evidence, this paper presents a compelling case for integrating meditation practices into daily life, highlighting its potential to enhance our physical and mental well-being profoundly.

This introduction contains all the necessary parts, which include:

• A catchy hook to draw and hold the reader’s attention.
• Background information to help the reader understand the relevance of the research.
• The objectives and purpose of the study.
• A thesis statement.
• The scope of the research.
• Organize the process.
• Define the method.
• Describe a potential sample.
• State the procedure of data collection.
• State the results of the gathered material.
• Describe the elements of your work.
• State the key points of the investigation.

The body part consists of several paragraphs, they are the basic building blocks of research papers. Each one should focus on a single claim or idea that helps to establish the overall argument of the paper’s purpose.

Here is an example of a well-structured paragraph:

Meditation is commonly practiced because of its ability to reduce stress. According to Jha et al. (2015), regular meditation practice can be linked to a significant decrease in cortisol, the stress hormone. In the study, a group of participants underwent a mindfulness meditation program for eight weeks, and the results showed a significant reduction in cortisol levels compared to the control group. This suggests meditation can effectively improve the body’s stress response, promoting relaxation and calmness.

• Sentence 1 is the topic sentence. It introduces the idea to be explored in the paragraph.
• Sentence 2 is the evidence. It provides evidence for the idea outlined in the topic sentence.
• Sentence 3 is a supporting sentence. It provides additional details of the sample study.
• Sentence 4 is the closing sentence. It summarizes the main point of the paragraph.
• Write the results of the work.
• Analyze the results with the set goals.
• Define the perspectives for future investigation.

Here is an example of the conclusion paragraph:

Meditation is a simple and effective way to improve one’s mental and physical health. By practicing meditation regularly, one can experience less stress. Also reduces anxiety and depression. It boosts concentration, memory, and creativity. It doesn’t require extensive training—just a little guidance and motivation. So embrace this practice, experience its wonders, and invite serenity and growth into your life.

This conclusion does the following:

• It restates the main idea or thesis of the article.
• It summarizes the main points or arguments that support the thesis.
• It provides a recommendation.

Bottom Line

A research report needs to be logical, precise, and brief. Follow the typical parts and structure. It consists of the Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. The guide above would have helped you write research papers , plan a research paper, and impress others with top-quality paperwork.

It should be clear of pointless details that could irritate the reader. If you still need help, you can ask for a research paper writer service that works without days off and around the clock.

Apply the basic structure for a better understanding of the message. It benefits the readers, communicates your scientific research better, and gives scholars an ambiance.

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Library Instruction

Structure of typical research article.

The basic structure of a typical research paper includes Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Each section addresses a different objective.

• the problem they intend to address -- in other words, the research question -- in the Introduction ;
• what they did to answer the question in Methodology ;
• what they observed in Results ; and
• what they think the results mean in Discussion .

A substantial study will sometimes include a literature review section which discusses previous works on the topic. The basic structure is outlined below:

• Author and author's professional affiliation is identified
• Introduction
• Literature review section (a discussion about what other scholars have written on the topic)
• Methodology section (methods of data gathering are explained)
• Discussion section
• Conclusions
• Reference list with citations (sources of information used in the article)

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Most research projects share the same general structure. You might think of this structure as following the shape of an hourglass. The research process usually starts with a broad area of interest, the initial problem that the researcher wishes to study. For instance, the researcher could be interested in how to use computers to improve the performance of students in mathematics. But this initial interest is far too broad to study in any single research project (it might not even be addressable in a lifetime of research). The researcher has to narrow the question down to one that can reasonably be studied in a research project. This might involve formulating a hypothesis or a focus question. For instance, the researcher might hypothesize that a particular method of computer instruction in math will improve the ability of elementary school students in a specific district. At the narrowest point of the research hourglass, the researcher is engaged in direct measurement or observation of the question of interest.

Once the basic data is collected, the researcher begins to try to understand it, usually by analyzing it in a variety of ways. Even for a single hypothesis there are a number of analyses a researcher might typically conduct. At this point, the researcher begins to formulate some initial conclusions about what happened as a result of the computerized math program. Finally, the researcher often will attempt to address the original broad question of interest by generalizing from the results of this specific study to other related situations. For instance, on the basis of strong results indicating that the math program had a positive effect on student performance, the researcher might conclude that other school districts similar to the one in the study might expect similar results.

Components of a Study

What are the basic components or parts of a research study? Here, we’ll describe the basic components involved in a causal study. Because causal studies presuppose descriptive and relational questions, many of the components of causal studies will also be found in those others.

Most social research originates from some general problem or question. You might, for instance, be interested in what programs enable the unemployed to get jobs. Usually, the problem is broad enough that you could not hope to address it adequately in a single research study. Consequently, we typically narrow the problem down to a more specific research question that we can hope to address. The research question is often stated in the context of some theory that has been advanced to address the problem. For instance, we might have the theory that ongoing support services are needed to assure that the newly employed remain employed. The research question is the central issue being addressed in the study and is often phrased in the language of theory. For instance, a research question might be:

Is a program of supported employment more effective (than no program at all) at keeping newly employed persons on the job?

The problem with such a question is that it is still too general to be studied directly. Consequently, in most research we develop an even more specific statement, called an hypothesis that describes in operational terms exactly what we think will happen in the study. For instance, the hypothesis for our employment study might be something like:

The Metropolitan Supported Employment Program will significantly increase rates of employment after six months for persons who are newly employed (after being out of work for at least one year) compared with persons who receive no comparable program.

Notice that this hypothesis is specific enough that a reader can understand quite well what the study is trying to assess.

In causal studies, we have at least two major variables of interest, the cause and the effect . Usually the cause is some type of event, program, or treatment. We make a distinction between causes that the researcher can control (such as a program) versus causes that occur naturally or outside the researcher’s influence (such as a change in interest rates, or the occurrence of an earthquake). The effect is the outcome that you wish to study. For both the cause and effect we make a distinction between our idea of them (the construct) and how they are actually manifested in reality. For instance, when we think about what a program of support services for the newly employed might be, we are thinking of the “construct.” On the other hand, the real world is not always what we think it is. In research, we remind ourselves of this by distinguishing our view of an entity (the construct) from the entity as it exists (the operationalization). Ideally, we would like the two to agree.

Social research is always conducted in a social context. We ask people questions, or observe families interacting, or measure the opinions of people in a city. An important component of a research project is the units that participate in the project. Units are directly related to the question of sampling. In most projects we cannot involve all of the people we might like to involve. For instance, in studying a program of support services for the newly employed we can’t possibly include in our study everyone in the world, or even in the country, who is newly employed. Instead, we have to try to obtain a representative sample of such people. When sampling , we make a distinction between the theoretical population of interest to our study and the final sample that we actually measure in our study. Usually the term “units” refers to the people that we sample and from whom we gather information. But for some projects the units are organizations, groups, or geographical entities like cities or towns. Sometimes our sampling strategy is multi-level: we sample a number of cities and within them sample families.

In causal studies, we are interested in the effects of some cause on one or more outcomes . The outcomes are directly related to the research problem – we are usually most interested in outcomes that are most reflective of the problem. In our hypothetical supported employment study, we would probably be most interested in measures of employment – is the person currently employed, or, what is their rate of absenteeism.

Finally, in a causal study we usually are comparing the effects of our cause of interest (e.g. the program) relative to other conditions (e.g. another program or no program at all). Thus, a key component in a causal study concerns how we decide what units (e.g. people) receive our program and which are placed in an alternative condition. This issue is directly related to the research design that we use in the study. One of the central questions in research design is determining how people wind up in or are placed in various programs or treatments that we are comparing.

These, then, are the major components in a causal study:

• The Research Problem
• The Research Question
• The Program (Cause)
• The Outcomes (Effect)

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Writing a Research Proposal

• Parts of a Research Proposal

Structure of a Research Proposal

Writing style.

• Common Proposal Writing Mistakes
• Proposal Writing Resources

Your research proposal should flow similarly to a research paper.  This is the general order of how content should be structured in a research proposal (McCombes, 2019):

• Cover Page: Contains your project title, your name, your supervisor's name, program/department, institution or affiliation, and date.
• Table of Contents: Outlines the contents of your entire proposal with respective page numbers.
• Introduction: Contains background and context, a problem statement, research questions, and the rationale behind the study.
• Literature review: Contains key concepts and theories that serve as the framework for your study as well as any gaps in research.
• Research design and methods: Contains research objectives, method, and potential limitations
• Implications: Explains how the study can be applied to the existing field of knowledge on the topic.
• Reference list: A list of references used to write the proposal.
• Research schedule: A timeline of research phases and how they will achieve the objective and meet deadlines.

In compliance with APA style, you can use these sections as headings for your document as well.  Using section headings makes information more organized for the reader and allows them to follow the author's thoughts more clearly.

Besides the contents of your proposal, you also need to pay attention to your writing style.  It is going to be different from other papers or documents you may have had to write in the past.  According to Academic Writer (n.d.), the following are some of the main elements of writing style.  These are important to making your proposal sound respectful and professional.

Instead of using common language, which is the type of language we use in normal conversations, you want to use the "language of research" or the "language of science."  This means that if a term has two meanings, you should only use the term for the meaning that is the most relevant to your research.  For example, if a chemist uses the word "element" in a proposal, they use it only in the context of its scientific definition.  This prevents the reader from getting confused throughout the document.  Avoid creating new terms in your proposal and be sure to clearly define unfamiliar words at the beginning of the proposal  (Locke et al., 2007).  Lastly, you also want to avoid using first person in your proposal ("I will...") as it does not demonstrate professionalism in writing.

The tone of your writing should be professional and serious.  In other words, use "academic voice" in your proposal writing.  Academic voice is meant to convey your thoughts and distinguish them from other authors (Robbins, 2016).  It is comprised of three elements ("What are the three elements," n.d.):

• Making declarative statements
• Avoiding casual language
• Demonstrating authority

These elements make your academic writing unique from other writers and present your thoughts in a professional manner.

You want to ensure that your writing is precise so that readers have a clear understanding of your project.  Proposals should exclude excessive jargon (technical terms), slang, and abbreviations.  They should also make logical comparisons between ideas to prevent readers from getting confused or lost ("Academic Writer," n.d.).  Here are some general tips for ensuring clarity in your writing:

• Using a term consistently throughout your paper (it refers to the same meaning throughout the document).
• Do not use excessive jargon or technical terms, and make sure you define any new terms.
• Draw comparisons between concepts to avoid ambiguity.  This requires using proper word choice and sentence structure.

Conciseness

• Do not overuse passive voice
• Describe things precisely and "to the point."
• Assign one argument or idea per paragraph.
• Locate areas in your document to break up text into different paragraphs.
• Use a variety of sentence lengths.
• Be mindful of how you use punctuation marks.  This includes commas, dashes, and hyphens.
• Use transitional words (and, or, therefore, etc.)  to maintain flow.
• Avoid using creative writing techniques, such as similes, metaphors, figurative language, and poetic devices.
• Do not use contractions in your proposal (can't, don't, etc.).
• Use words that reflect your involvement in research in your field.
• When writing about people, use respectful language.
• Use appropriate verb tenses to reflect series of events and timelines in your proposal.

For more in-depth content on writing style in academic writing, you can view quick guides and tutorials about scholarly writing on Academic Writer.  If you are new to using Academic Writer, we also have a database tutorial for new users.  The links to the database and tutorial are below.

Compose papers in pre-formatted APA templates. Manage references in forms that help craft APA citations. Learn the rules of APA style through tutorials and practice quizzes.

Academic Writer will continue to use the 6th edition guidelines until August 2020. A preview of the 7th edition is available in the footer of the resource's site. Previously known as APA Style Central.

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Home » Research Summary – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Summary – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Summary

Definition:

A research summary is a brief and concise overview of a research project or study that highlights its key findings, main points, and conclusions. It typically includes a description of the research problem, the research methods used, the results obtained, and the implications or significance of the findings. It is often used as a tool to quickly communicate the main findings of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or decision-makers.

Structure of Research Summary

The Structure of a Research Summary typically include:

• Introduction : This section provides a brief background of the research problem or question, explains the purpose of the study, and outlines the research objectives.
• Methodology : This section explains the research design, methods, and procedures used to conduct the study. It describes the sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
• Results : This section presents the main findings of the study, including statistical analysis if applicable. It may include tables, charts, or graphs to visually represent the data.
• Discussion : This section interprets the results and explains their implications. It discusses the significance of the findings, compares them to previous research, and identifies any limitations or future directions for research.
• Conclusion : This section summarizes the main points of the research and provides a conclusion based on the findings. It may also suggest implications for future research or practical applications of the results.
• References : This section lists the sources cited in the research summary, following the appropriate citation style.

How to Write Research Summary

Here are the steps you can follow to write a research summary:

• Read the research article or study thoroughly: To write a summary, you must understand the research article or study you are summarizing. Therefore, read the article or study carefully to understand its purpose, research design, methodology, results, and conclusions.
• Identify the main points : Once you have read the research article or study, identify the main points, key findings, and research question. You can highlight or take notes of the essential points and findings to use as a reference when writing your summary.
• Write the introduction: Start your summary by introducing the research problem, research question, and purpose of the study. Briefly explain why the research is important and its significance.
• Summarize the methodology : In this section, summarize the research design, methods, and procedures used to conduct the study. Explain the sample size, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
• Present the results: Summarize the main findings of the study. Use tables, charts, or graphs to visually represent the data if necessary.
• Interpret the results: In this section, interpret the results and explain their implications. Discuss the significance of the findings, compare them to previous research, and identify any limitations or future directions for research.
• Conclude the summary : Summarize the main points of the research and provide a conclusion based on the findings. Suggest implications for future research or practical applications of the results.
• Revise and edit : Once you have written the summary, revise and edit it to ensure that it is clear, concise, and free of errors. Make sure that your summary accurately represents the research article or study.
• Add references: Include a list of references cited in the research summary, following the appropriate citation style.

Example of Research Summary

Here is an example of a research summary:

Title: The Effects of Yoga on Mental Health: A Meta-Analysis

Introduction: This meta-analysis examines the effects of yoga on mental health. The study aimed to investigate whether yoga practice can improve mental health outcomes such as anxiety, depression, stress, and quality of life.

Methodology : The study analyzed data from 14 randomized controlled trials that investigated the effects of yoga on mental health outcomes. The sample included a total of 862 participants. The yoga interventions varied in length and frequency, ranging from four to twelve weeks, with sessions lasting from 45 to 90 minutes.

Results : The meta-analysis found that yoga practice significantly improved mental health outcomes. Participants who practiced yoga showed a significant reduction in anxiety and depression symptoms, as well as stress levels. Quality of life also improved in those who practiced yoga.

Discussion : The findings of this study suggest that yoga can be an effective intervention for improving mental health outcomes. The study supports the growing body of evidence that suggests that yoga can have a positive impact on mental health. Limitations of the study include the variability of the yoga interventions, which may affect the generalizability of the findings.

Conclusion : Overall, the findings of this meta-analysis support the use of yoga as an effective intervention for improving mental health outcomes. Further research is needed to determine the optimal length and frequency of yoga interventions for different populations.

References :

• Cramer, H., Lauche, R., Langhorst, J., Dobos, G., & Berger, B. (2013). Yoga for depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Depression and anxiety, 30(11), 1068-1083.
• Khalsa, S. B. (2004). Yoga as a therapeutic intervention: a bibliometric analysis of published research studies. Indian journal of physiology and pharmacology, 48(3), 269-285.
• Ross, A., & Thomas, S. (2010). The health benefits of yoga and exercise: a review of comparison studies. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16(1), 3-12.

Purpose of Research Summary

The purpose of a research summary is to provide a brief overview of a research project or study, including its main points, findings, and conclusions. The summary allows readers to quickly understand the essential aspects of the research without having to read the entire article or study.

Research summaries serve several purposes, including:

• Facilitating comprehension: A research summary allows readers to quickly understand the main points and findings of a research project or study without having to read the entire article or study. This makes it easier for readers to comprehend the research and its significance.
• Communicating research findings: Research summaries are often used to communicate research findings to a wider audience, such as policymakers, practitioners, or the general public. The summary presents the essential aspects of the research in a clear and concise manner, making it easier for non-experts to understand.
• Supporting decision-making: Research summaries can be used to support decision-making processes by providing a summary of the research evidence on a particular topic. This information can be used by policymakers or practitioners to make informed decisions about interventions, programs, or policies.
• Saving time: Research summaries save time for researchers, practitioners, policymakers, and other stakeholders who need to review multiple research studies. Rather than having to read the entire article or study, they can quickly review the summary to determine whether the research is relevant to their needs.

Characteristics of Research Summary

The following are some of the key characteristics of a research summary:

• Concise : A research summary should be brief and to the point, providing a clear and concise overview of the main points of the research.
• Objective : A research summary should be written in an objective tone, presenting the research findings without bias or personal opinion.
• Comprehensive : A research summary should cover all the essential aspects of the research, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions.
• Accurate : A research summary should accurately reflect the key findings and conclusions of the research.
• Clear and well-organized: A research summary should be easy to read and understand, with a clear structure and logical flow.
• Relevant : A research summary should focus on the most important and relevant aspects of the research, highlighting the key findings and their implications.
• Audience-specific: A research summary should be tailored to the intended audience, using language and terminology that is appropriate and accessible to the reader.
• Citations : A research summary should include citations to the original research articles or studies, allowing readers to access the full text of the research if desired.

When to write Research Summary

Here are some situations when it may be appropriate to write a research summary:

• Proposal stage: A research summary can be included in a research proposal to provide a brief overview of the research aims, objectives, methodology, and expected outcomes.
• Conference presentation: A research summary can be prepared for a conference presentation to summarize the main findings of a study or research project.
• Journal submission: Many academic journals require authors to submit a research summary along with their research article or study. The summary provides a brief overview of the study’s main points, findings, and conclusions and helps readers quickly understand the research.
• Funding application: A research summary can be included in a funding application to provide a brief summary of the research aims, objectives, and expected outcomes.
• Policy brief: A research summary can be prepared as a policy brief to communicate research findings to policymakers or stakeholders in a concise and accessible manner.

Advantages of Research Summary

Research summaries offer several advantages, including:

• Time-saving: A research summary saves time for readers who need to understand the key findings and conclusions of a research project quickly. Rather than reading the entire research article or study, readers can quickly review the summary to determine whether the research is relevant to their needs.
• Clarity and accessibility: A research summary provides a clear and accessible overview of the research project’s main points, making it easier for readers to understand the research without having to be experts in the field.
• Improved comprehension: A research summary helps readers comprehend the research by providing a brief and focused overview of the key findings and conclusions, making it easier to understand the research and its significance.
• Enhanced communication: Research summaries can be used to communicate research findings to a wider audience, such as policymakers, practitioners, or the general public, in a concise and accessible manner.
• Facilitated decision-making: Research summaries can support decision-making processes by providing a summary of the research evidence on a particular topic. Policymakers or practitioners can use this information to make informed decisions about interventions, programs, or policies.
• Increased dissemination: Research summaries can be easily shared and disseminated, allowing research findings to reach a wider audience.

Limitations of Research Summary

Limitations of the Research Summary are as follows:

• Limited scope: Research summaries provide a brief overview of the research project’s main points, findings, and conclusions, which can be limiting. They may not include all the details, nuances, and complexities of the research that readers may need to fully understand the study’s implications.
• Risk of oversimplification: Research summaries can be oversimplified, reducing the complexity of the research and potentially distorting the findings or conclusions.
• Lack of context: Research summaries may not provide sufficient context to fully understand the research findings, such as the research background, methodology, or limitations. This may lead to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of the research.
• Possible bias: Research summaries may be biased if they selectively emphasize certain findings or conclusions over others, potentially distorting the overall picture of the research.
• Format limitations: Research summaries may be constrained by the format or length requirements, making it challenging to fully convey the research’s main points, findings, and conclusions.
• Accessibility: Research summaries may not be accessible to all readers, particularly those with limited literacy skills, visual impairments, or language barriers.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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• Published: 08 May 2024

Structural pharmacology and therapeutic potential of 5-methoxytryptamines

• Audrey L. Warren   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1538-8648 1   na1 ,
• David Lankri   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1210-5673 2   na1 ,
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• Inis C. Serrano   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3588-821X 2 ,
• Lyonna F. Parise   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7527-8977 3 ,
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• Vaclav Havel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6911-4669 2 ,
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• Dalibor Sames   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6911-2260 2 , 4 &
• Daniel Wacker   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4951-7230 1 , 3  

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• Cryoelectron microscopy
• Molecular neuroscience
• Receptor pharmacology
• Stress and resilience

Psychedelic substances such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin show potential for the treatment of various neuropsychiatric disorders 1 , 2 , 3 . These compounds are thought to mediate their hallucinogenic and therapeutic effects through the serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)) receptor 5-HT 2A (ref. 4 ). However, 5-HT 1A also plays a part in the behavioural effects of tryptamine hallucinogens 5 , particularly 5-methoxy- N,N -dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT), a psychedelic found in the toxin of Colorado River toads 6 . Although 5-HT 1A is a validated therapeutic target 7 , 8 , little is known about how psychedelics engage 5-HT 1A and which effects are mediated by this receptor. Here we map the molecular underpinnings of 5-MeO-DMT pharmacology through five cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of 5-HT 1A , systematic medicinal chemistry, receptor mutagenesis and mouse behaviour. Structure–activity relationship analyses of 5-methoxytryptamines at both 5-HT 1A and 5-HT 2A enable the characterization of molecular determinants of 5-HT 1A signalling potency, efficacy and selectivity. Moreover, we contrast the structural interactions and in vitro pharmacology of 5-MeO-DMT and analogues to the pan-serotonergic agonist LSD and clinically used 5-HT 1A agonists. We show that a 5-HT 1A -selective 5-MeO-DMT analogue is devoid of hallucinogenic-like effects while retaining anxiolytic-like and antidepressant-like activity in socially defeated animals. Our studies uncover molecular aspects of 5-HT 1A -targeted psychedelics and therapeutics, which may facilitate the future development of new medications for neuropsychiatric disorders.

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Density maps and structure coordinates have been deposited into the Electron Microscopy Data Bank (EMDB) and the PDB with the following accession identifiers: EMD-29560 and PDB 8FY8 for 5-MeO-DMT–5-HT 1A –Gα i1 –Gβ 1 –Gγ 2 ; EMD-29597 and PDB 8FYT for LSD–5-HT 1A –Gα i1 –Gβ 1 -Gγ 2 ; EMD-29571 and PDB 8FYE for 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT–5-HT 1A –Gα i1 –Gβ 1 –Gγ 2 ; EMD-29585 and PDB 8FYL for vilazodone–5-HT 1A –Gα i1 –Gβ 1 –Gγ 2 ; and EMD-29599 and PDB 8FYX for buspirone–5-HT 1A –Gα i1 –Gβ 1 –Gγ 2 .   Source data are provided with this paper. Additional data from this study are available upon request.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by NIH grant R35GM133504, a Sloan Research Fellowship in Neuroscience, an Edward Mallinckrodt, Jr Foundation Grant, a McKnight Foundation Scholars Award, an Irma T. Hirschl/Monique Weill-Caulier Trust Research Award (all to D.W.); an NIH F31 MH132317 (A.L.W), and T32 Training Grant GM062754 and DA053558 (A.L.W and G.Z.); the G. Harold & Leila Y. Mathers Charitable Foundation, the NIH grant R01DA050613, G.L. Freeman, and Columbia University for support of this work (all to D.S.); and the following NIH grants: R01MH127820 and R01MH104559 (S.J.R.). L.F.P is supported by the Leon Levy Foundation and the Brain and Behavior Research Foundation. Some of this work was performed at the National Center for CryoEM Access and Training (NCCAT) and the Simons Electron Microscopy Center located at the New York Structural Biology Center, supported by the NIH Common Fund Transformative High Resolution Cryo-Electron Microscopy program (U24 GM129539) and by grants from the Simons Foundation (SF349247) and NY State Assembly. We further acknowledge cryo-EM resources at the National Resource for Automated Molecular Microscopy located at the New York Structural Biology Center, supported by grants from the Simons Foundation (SF349247), NYSTAR, and the NIH National Institute of General Medical Sciences (GM103310) with additional support from Agouron Institute (F00316) and NIH (OD019994). For additional data collection, we are grateful to staff at the Laboratory for BioMolecular Structure (LBMS), which is supported by the DOE Office of Biological and Environmental Research (KP160711). This work was supported in part through the computational and data resources and staff expertise provided by Scientific Computing and Data at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai and supported by the Clinical and Translational Science Awards (CTSA) grant ULTR004419 from the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences. We thank B. Bechand for early examination of in vivo pharmacology of the described compounds assisted by V. C. Galicia; C. Hwu for assistance with synthesis and purification of several compounds (all at Columbia University); and F. Zandkarimi from the Columbia University Chemistry Department Mass Spectrometry Core Facility for conducting the high-resolution mass spectrometry experiments.

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These authors contributed equally: Audrey L. Warren, David Lankri

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA

Audrey L. Warren, Michael J. Capper & Daniel Wacker

Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

David Lankri, Michael J. Cunningham, Inis C. Serrano, Andrew C. Kruegel, Priscilla Duggan, Vaclav Havel & Dalibor Sames

Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA

Lyonna F. Parise, Scott J. Russo & Daniel Wacker

Zuckerman Institute of Mind, Brain, Behavior, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

Gregory Zilberg & Dalibor Sames

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Contributions

D.S., A.C.K, M. J. Cunningham and D.L. conceived and initiated the project. A.L.W. designed experiments, expressed and purified protein for grid freezing, collected data, refined structures with help from M. J. Capper, performed signalling and uptake assays, and co-wrote the manuscript. D.L. designed, synthesized, purified and characterized compounds with assistance from V.H., and co-wrote the manuscript. M. J. Cunningham designed, synthesized, purified and characterized compounds. D.L., V.H. and D.S. designed and supervised the pharmacokinetics study. L.F.P. performed the chronic SD stress assay and subsequent behavioural analyses supervised by S.J.R. I.C.S. designed and performed in vivo pharmacology assays, including the open-field and HTR assays, with assistance from P.D. G.Z. prepared grids for structure determination and assisted with data collection. D.S. and D.W. conceptualized the overall project and designed experiments, analysed the data, supervised the project and management, and wrote the manuscript.

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Dalibor Sames or Daniel Wacker .

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Competing interests.

The authors declare the following competing financial interests: D.S. and A.C.K. are co-founders of Gilgamesh Pharmaceuticals and Kures. M. J. Cunningham is a co-founder of Gilgamesh Pharmaceuticals. A.L.W., D.L., I.C.S., L.F.P., S.J.R., D.S. and D.W. are inventors on a patent application related to the featured compound class. D.W. has consulted for Otsuka Pharmaceutical, Longboard Pharmaceuticals and Ocean Bio on the design of psychedelic-based therapeutics. None of the companies listed herein contributed to the funding or experimental design. All other authors declare no competing interests.

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Extended data figures and tables

Extended data fig. 1 cryo-em structure determination of drug-bound 5-ht 1a -gαi1/gβ1/gγ2 complexes..

a , Representative structure determination of 5-MeO-DMT-bound 5-HT 1A signalling complex. Top Left , Analytical size exclusion chromatography and SDS-PAGE show monodisperse and pure protein of intact complex and its components. Right , representative Cryo-EM micrograph (white bar indicates scale) of 4680 total micrographs and data processing schematic exemplified by 5-MeO-DMT-bound 5-HT 1A -Gi1 structure: After particle picking, 2D classification and multiple rounds of 3D classification, the final particle stack was refined using non-uniform refinement. A final map was obtained and resolutions were estimated applying the 0.143 cutoff in GS-FSC. Initial models were built in COOT, and then further refined in PHENIX for the generation of final coordinates shown in this manuscript. b , Local resolution map of a 5-MeO-DMT-bound 5-HT 1A -Gi1 complex ( left ) and FSC curves ( right ) calculated based on the final reconstruction in cryoSPARC. c , 5-MeO-DMT (yellow) in the orthosteric binding pocket from the side ( left ) and rotated 45° towards the top of the receptor ( right ) with the map of ligand and surround residue densities shown at 5σ.

Source data

Extended data fig. 2 comparison of different 5-ht 1a structures and differences in binding of lsd to 5-ht 1a and 5-ht 2a ..

a , Superposition of herein reported 5-MeO-DMT-bound 5-HT 1A -Gi complex with the previously reported 5-HT-bound 5-HT 1A -Gi structure (PDB ID: 7E2Y ) shows similar conformations. Additional residues in 5-HT 1A ’s EL2 and G proteins not observed in previous structures are highlighted in red. b , Lipids (blue) and cholesterol hemisuccinate (dark blue) are bound to similar sites as observed before. c , Local resolution map of a LSD-bound 5-HT 1A -Gi1 complex ( left ) and FSC curves ( right ) calculated the final reconstruction in cryoSPARC. d , LSD (grey) in the orthosteric binding pocket from the side ( top ) and rotated 45° towards the top of the receptor ( bottom ) with the map of ligand and surround residue densities shown at 5σ. e , LSD shows distinct binding modes bound to 5-HT 1A -Gi signalling complex and 5-HT 2A (PDB ID: 6WGT ). Left , 5-HT 1A -bound LSD (grey) sits deeper in the binding pocket compared to 5-HT 2A -bound LSD (orange). Zoom in of LSD in 5-HT 1A -Gi structure ( middle ) and 5-HT 2A structure ( right ) highlights differential stereochemistry and receptor-specific interactions of diethylamide moiety. Hydrogen bonds are indicated as grey dashed lines.

Extended Data Fig. 3 Global structure-activity landscape of tryptamine psychedelics at 5-HT 1A and 5-HT 2A receptors and their synthesis.

a , Overview of the cryo-EM structure of the 5HT 1A receptor-Gi signalling complex bound to 5-MeO-DMT ( center ). Classic psychedelics such as the prototypical compounds DMT and LSD are agonists of both 5-HT 1A and 5-HT 2A receptors ( left semi-circle ). 5-MeO-DMT ( top of the circle ), a major psychoactive compound found in toad secretions, shows comparable potency and efficacy at both 5-HT 1A and 5-HT 2A receptors. Systematic structural mapping via elaboration of the core 5-MeO-DMT structure identifies a class of 5-MeO-tryptamines with increasing 5-HT 1A selectivity ( right hemi-circle ). 5-MeO-DMT can be viewed as a deconstruction of ibogaine, a oneirogen with a complex polycyclic tryptamine structure ( bottom of the circle ). Iboga compounds show no activity at 5-HT 1A and 5-HT 2A receptors, but this activity re-emerges by deconstruction of the isoquinuclidine core to simple mono-cyclic tryptamines such as 5-MeO-PipT (5-methoxypiperidinyl-tryptamine) and 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT (4-fluoro, 5-methoxypyrrolidinyl-tryptamine, right hemi-circle). Images of peyote, mushrooms, ayahuasca, and toad are from iStock and ShutterStock, and Tabernanthe iboga schematic is adapted from previous work 65 .  b , General synthesis methodology of tryptamines. a. oxalyl chloride, b. MeOH, LAH, c. PPh3, CBr4, d. Amine, TEA, e. Amine, f. LAH.

Extended Data Fig. 4 Structural comparison of 5-MeO-DMT 5-HT1A-selective analog 4-F, 5-MeO-PyrT bound to 5-HT 1A .

a , Local resolution map of a 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT-bound 5-HT 1A -Gi1 complex ( left ) and FSC curves ( right ) calculated from the final reconstruction in cryoSPARC. b , 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT (dark blue) in the orthosteric binding pocket from the side ( left ) and rotated 45° towards the top of the receptor ( right ) with the map of ligand and surrounding residue densities shown at 5σ. c , structural side-by-side comparison of 5-HT 1A orthosteric site bound to 5-MeO-DMT (yellow) and 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT (dark blue). d , cAMP accumulation assays using wildtype and mutant 5-HT 1A , and different drugs. Concentration-response experiments reveal different sensitivities of distinct drugs to F361L mutation. All signalling studies were performed in triplicates and are averaged from two to three independent experiments. Data have been normalized against 5-HT and errors bars denote s.e.m.

Extended Data Fig. 5 Comparison of 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT binding pose to that of different clinical 5-HT 1A drugs.

a , b , Local resolution maps of vilazodone-bound ( a ) and buspirone-bound ( b ) 5-HT 1A -Gi1 complexes and corresponding FSC curves calculated from the final reconstructions in cryoSPARC. c , d , Vilazodone ( c , green) and buspirone ( d , teal) in the orthosteric binding pocket from the side ( left ) and rotated 45° towards the top of the receptor ( right ) with the density map of ligand and surrounding residues shown at 5σ. e-h , Extracellular view of 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT ( e , dark blue), Vilazodone ( f , green), Aripiprazole ( g , magenta, PDB ID: 7E2Z ), and Buspirone ( h , teal) binding poses in 5-HT 1A ’s orthosteric site.

Extended Data Fig. 6 Selectivity of different 5-MeO-DMT analogs and off-target activity of 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT.

a , 5-HT 1A -Gi and 5-HT 2A -Gq BRET of 5-HT, 5-MeO-DMT, 5-MeO-MET, and 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT with respective potencies and 5-HT 1A  > 5-HT 2A selectivities. b , Off-target inhibition of transporters SERT, PMAT, OCT1, and OCT2 by 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT and known inhibitors. SERT uptake was performed in triplicates and data was averaged from two independent experiments showing data as mean+s.e.m. PMAT, OCT1, and OCT2 uptake was performed once in quadruplicate. c, Arrestin-recruitment of 5-HT and 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT at all human 5-HT receptor subtypes except for 5-HT 7A , whose activation was measured via cAMP stimulation. All functional studies were performed in triplicates and are averaged from two to three independent experiments. Data have been normalized against 5-HT, Citalopram, and Decynium-22, and errors bars denote the s.e.m.

Extended Data Fig. 7 Effects of 5-MeO-DMT derivatives on rodent behavior.

a , Evaluation of 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT in open field for two hours (n = 3-4/group). b , Exemplary traces of the ambulatory distance traveled in open field following 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT (1 mg/kg, s.c.) administration and with and without WAY-100635 pre-treatment (1 mg/kg, s.c., 15 min prior). Panel was created with BioRender.com. c , Effect of WAY-100635 (1 mg/kg, s.c., 15 min prior) on 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT’s and 5-MeO-MET’s effect on total locomotion (n = 7 - 8/group, 30 min). d , Determination of optimal inhibitory WAY-100635 dose via administration of 1 mg/kg and 2 mg/kg WAY-100635 prior to studying 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT’s effects on total locomotion (n = 7 - 8 /group) and HTR (n = 6/group). Analysis was done using one-way ANOVA with multiple comparisons with Tukey’s post hoc test, and exact p values have been denoted in the Figure. e-g , Effects of saline or 4-F,5-MeO-PyrT administration on control (Control) or chronically defeated mice (Stress). Determination of e , distance moved as a measure of locomotor activity, f , social interaction as a measure of anxiety- and depression-related phenotype, g , corner time as a measure of anxiety-like behavior. Analysis was done in a sub-cohort of the animals reported in Fig. 5d . Number of mice for each group is indicated below the data for each respective cohort. Differences were determined by two-way ANOVA with multiple comparisons using Fisher’s LSD post hoc test, and exact p values have been denoted in the Figure. h , Vehicle- and drug-treated stressed mice shown in Fig. 5d were divided into susceptible (SI ratio<1) and resilient (SI ratio>1) populations. Significance in the population shift was determined by a two-sided Fisher’s exact test and p value and number of mice have been denoted in the Figure. Error bars denote the s.e.m.

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Warren, A.L., Lankri, D., Cunningham, M.J. et al. Structural pharmacology and therapeutic potential of 5-methoxytryptamines. Nature (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07403-2

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Will Knight

Google DeepMind’s Groundbreaking AI for Protein Structure Can Now Model DNA

Google spent much of the past year hustling to build its Gemini chatbot to counter ChatGPT , pitching it as a multifunctional AI assistant that can help with work tasks or the digital chores of personal life. More quietly, the company has been working to enhance a more specialized artificial intelligence tool that is already a must-have for some scientists.

AlphaFold , software developed by Google’s DeepMind AI unit to predict the 3D structure of proteins, has received a significant upgrade. It can now model other molecules of biological importance, including DNA, and the interactions between antibodies produced by the immune system and the molecules of disease organisms. DeepMind added those new capabilities to AlphaFold 3 in part through borrowing techniques from AI image generators.

“This is a big advance for us,” Demis Hassabis , CEO of Google DeepMind, told WIRED ahead of Wednesday’s publication of a paper on AlphaFold 3 in the science journal Nature . “This is exactly what you need for drug discovery: You need to see how a small molecule is going to bind to a drug, how strongly, and also what else it might bind to.”

AlphaFold 3 can model large molecules such as DNA and RNA, which carry genetic code, but also much smaller entities, including metal ions. It can predict with high accuracy how these different molecules will interact with one another, Google’s research paper claims.

The software was developed by Google DeepMind and Isomorphic labs, a sibling company under parent Alphabet working on AI for biotech that is also led by Hassabis. In January, Isomorphic Labs announced that it would work with Eli Lilly and Novartis on drug development.

AlphaFold 3 will be made available via the cloud for outside researchers to access for free, but DeepMind is not releasing the software as open source the way it did for earlier versions of AlphaFold. John Jumper, who leads the Google DeepMind team working on the software, says it could help provide a deeper understanding of how proteins interact and work with DNA inside the body. “How do proteins respond to DNA damage; how do they find, repair it?” Jumper says. “We can start to answer these questions.”

Understanding protein structures used to require painstaking work using electron microscopes and a technique called x-ray crystallography. Several years ago, academic research groups began testing whether deep learning , the technique at the heart of many recent AI advances, could predict the shape of proteins simply from their constituent amino acids, by learning from structures that had been experimentally verified.

In 2018, Google DeepMind revealed it was working on AI software called AlphaFold to accurately predict the shape of proteins. In 2020, AlphaFold 2 produced results accurate enough to set off a storm of excitement in molecular biology. A year later, the company released an open source version of AlphaFold for anyone to use, along with 350,000 predicted protein structures, including for almost every protein known to exist in the human body. In 2022 the company released more than 2 million protein structures.

Gabrielle Caplan

The latest AlphaFold’s ability to model different proteins was improved in part through an algorithm called a diffusion model that helps AI image generators like Dall-E and Midjourney create weird and sometimes photo-real imagery. The diffusion model inside AlphaFold 3 sharpens the molecular structures the software generates. The diffusion model is able to generate plausible protein structures based on patterns it picked up from analyzing a collection of verified protein structures, much as an image generator learns from real photographs how to render realistic-looking snapshots.

AlphaFold 3 is not perfect, though, and offers a color-coded confidence scale for its predictions. Areas of a protein structure colored blue indicate high confidence, while red areas show less certainty.

David Baker , a professor at the University of Washington who leads a group working on techniques for protein design, has competed with AlphaFold. In 2021, before DeepMind open sourced its creation, his team released an independent protein-structure prediction inspired by AlphaFold. His own lab recently released a diffusion model to help model a wider range of molecular structures, but he concedes that AlphaFold 3 is more capable. “The structure prediction performance of AlphaFold 3 is very impressive,” Baker says.

Baker adds that it is a shame that the source code for AlphaFold 3 has not been released to the scientific community.

Hassabis, who leads all of Alphabet’s AI initiatives, has long taken a special interest in the potential for AI to accelerate scientific research . But he says the latest techniques being developed for AlphaFold, a highly specialized AI system, could prove useful for building more general systems that aim to exceed human capabilities on many dimensions.

If AI programs like Google’s Gemini become a lot more capable over the next decade, he says, “you could imagine them using things like AlphaFold as tools, to achieve some other goal.”

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Physical Review Research

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Comparative analysis of folding and unfolding dynamics and free-energy landscapes in homologous cold shock proteins with variable thermal stabilities

Zhenyong xue, hao sun, haiyan hong, zhuwei zhang, yuhang zhang, zilong guo, shimin le, and hu chen, phys. rev. research 6 , 023170 – published 14 may 2024.

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Supplemental Material

• INTRODUCTION
• MATERIALS AND METHODS
• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Cold shock proteins from the mesophilic organism Bacillus subtilis (BsCSP), the thermophilic organism Bacillus caldolyticus (BcCSP), and the hyperthermophilic organism Thermotoga maritima (TmCSP) are homologous proteins with similar native structure but quite different thermal stabilities, which makes them promising candidates for investigating the general and specific aspects the folding and unfolding dynamics of proteins and free-energy landscapes. In this study, we employed magnetic tweezers to explore the force-dependent folding and unfolding rates of BsCSP, BcCSP, and TmCSP at forces from several pN to tens of pN. Our results indicate similar force-dependent folding rates for these three proteins, while the unfolding rate of BsCSP, BcCSP, and TmCSP decreases sequentially, consistent with previous biochemical findings. Comparing with TmCSP, BcCSP shows lower but sufficient stability with folding free energy of 8.0 k B T , and its force-dependent unfolding rates exhibit tremendous nonlinear behavior deviated from Bell's model like TmCSP. BsCSP has very low stability with folding free energy of only 3.9 k B T , and its force-dependent unfolding rates at 3–10 pN exhibit almost linear behavior. Comprehensive free-energy landscapes are constructed, revealing common barriers that governs folding and unfolding dynamics for BcCSP and TmCSP but a wide merged barrier for BsCSP. Our findings provide valuable insights into the folding and unfolding mechanisms of these CSPs, shedding light on the relationship between protein structure, stability, and mechanical properties.

• Received 10 January 2024
• Accepted 1 May 2024

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevResearch.6.023170

Published by the American Physical Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license. Further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the published article's title, journal citation, and DOI.

Published by the American Physical Society

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• 1 Research Institute for Biomimetics and Soft Matter, Fujian Provincial Key Lab for Soft Functional Materials Research, Department of Physics, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
• 2 Center of Biomedical Physics, Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou 325000, China
• * [email protected]
• † [email protected]

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Vol. 6, Iss. 2 — May - July 2024

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The native structures and amino acid sequences of BsCSP, BcCSP, and TmCSP. Among the amino acid sequences, negative charged ones are marked in red, while positive charged ones are marked in blue. Conserved amino acids are underlined.

Diagram of the protein construct in magnetic tweezers experiment and the representative extension time courses in constant loading rate experiment. (a) Schematic of magnetic tweezers stretching protein construct of AviTag(biotin)-I27 2 -CSP-I27 2 -SpyTag which was attached to a streptavidin-coated paramagnetic bead and SpyCatcher-coated coverslip surface. CSP represents the three types of CSPs studied in this paper. [(b)–(d)] Extensions of CSP protein constructs were recorded (top panel) when force increased with a loading rate of 0.6 pN/s from 1 to 39 pN and decreased with loading rate − 0.6 pN/s from 39 to 1 pN (bottom panel). (b) When force was increasing, BsCSP unfolded with step size of 7.6 nm at ∼ 3.2 pN, then refolded and unfolded several times. The last unfolding event occurred with step size of 9.5 nm at ∼ 4.6 pN. When force was decreasing, a refolding step with step size of 9.1 nm was observed at ∼ 4.3 pN, then unfolded and folded several times. The last folding event occurred with step size of 8 nm at ∼ 3.6 pN. (c) When force was increasing, BcCSP unfolded with step size of 10.7 nm at ∼ 5.6 pN, then refolded and unfolded again with step size of 12.5 nm at ∼ 7.2 pN. When force was decreasing, a refolding step with step size of 12 nm was observed at ∼ 7 pN, then unfolded and folded several times. The last folding event occurred with step size of 9.3 nm at ∼ 4.4 pN. (d) When force was increasing, TmCSP unfolded with step size of 17 nm at ∼ 14 pN. A refolding step with step size of 10 nm was observed at ∼ 4.9 pN when force was decreasing. In all experiments, raw data were recorded at 200 Hz (black) and smoothed in time window of 0.1 s (red). The typical fingerprint signal of around 4 nm from SpyTag-SpyCatcher was observed at ∼ 30 pN.

Equilibrium measurement of three CSPs at constant forces. (a) Extension time course of BsCSP at 3.5, 4.0, and 4.5 pN for 3 s. (b) Extension time course of BcCSP at 5.0, 5.5, and 6.0 pN for 30 s. (c) Extension time course of TmCSP at 5.5, 6.3, and 7.0 pN for 600 s. Raw data were recorded at 200 Hz (gray) and smoothed in a time window of 0.1 s for BsCSP and BcCSP and 0.25 s for TmCSP (black). Red lines show the results of hidden Markov model analysis. The right panel shows corresponding relative frequency of the smoothed extensions and fitting curves by two-peak Gaussian function. (d) Force-dependent unfolding probabilities of three CSPs are fitted by Eq. ( 1 ). The average unfolding probabilities of BsCSP, BcCSP were determined from three independent tethers, and those of TmCSP were obtained from five independent tethers. Error bars show the standard deviation, and force is estimated to have 5% uncertainty.

Folding and unfolding rates obtained from equilibrium constant force measurement of three CSPs. [(a)–(c)] The survival probability of native states and unfolded states of BsCSP at 3.5 and 4.5 pN (a), BcCSP at 5 and 6 pN (b), and TmCSP at 5.5 and 7 pN (c). The lines are exponential fitting results to determine k u and k f . (d) The average unfolding and folding rates were obtained from equilibrium constant force measurement for three independent BsCSP, BcCSP tethers, and four TmCSP tethers. The folding rates can be described using Arrhenius's law [Eq. ( 4 )], where BcCSP and TmCSP are along the same curve (solid purple curve) with k f 0 = 200 s − 1 and the size of folding transition state l ts = 4.6 nm and BsCSP (solid black curve) with k f 0 = 290 s − 1 and the size of folding transition state l ts = 2.8 nm. The unfolding rates are fitted with Bell's model to obtain the zero-force unfolding rates and unfolding distances at low forces. Error bar of rates show the standard error of the mean, and force is estimated to have 5% uncertainty.

Unfolding dynamics of BsCSP and BcCSP at different forces measured in the force-jump experiment. Representative force-jump measurement of the unfolding courses of BsCSP at 5 to 10 pN (a) and BcCSP at 8 to 30 pN (b). For BcCSP, unzipping-zipping transitions of SpyTag-SpyCatcher can be observed at 30 pN. Raw data were recorded at 200 Hz (gray) and smoothed in a time window of 0.1 s (black). (c) The survival probability of the native state of BsCSP at 5, 7, and 10 pN. (d) The survival probability of the native state of BcCSP at 8, 15, and 30 pN. The data in (c) and (d) are from three independent BsCSP, and BcCSP protein tethers. Straight lines correspond to single exponential fitting results.

Force-dependent unfolding and folding rates and free-energy landscape of CSPs. (a) The unfolding and folding rates obtained from the equilibrium measurements (solid symbols) and force-jump measurements (open symbols) for three CSPs. The average unfolding rates were obtained from force-jump measurements for three BsCSP, BcCSP, and four TmCSP protein tethers. Error bar of rates show the standard error of the mean, and force is estimated to have 5% uncertainty. The unfolding rates of BsCSP at 5–10 pN (black line), BcCSP at 8–30 pN (blue line), and TmCSP at 10–50 pN (red line, refer to our previous study) are fitted with Bell's model to determine k u , 1 0 and x u , 1 . (b) Using unfolded states of BsCSP, BcCSP, and TmCSP as the reference, and the free-energy landscapes of all three CSPs are constructed from folding free energy, barrier height, and location of TS1 and TS2. The dashed lines between TS1 and TS2 represent transient intermediate states which may exist but cannot be directly observed in magnetic tweezers experiments.

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• Published: 10 May 2024

Barriers to equitable healthcare services for under-five children in Ethiopia: a qualitative exploratory study

• Hailu Fekadu 1 ,
• Wubegzier Mekonnen 2 ,
• Aynalem Adugna 3 ,
• Helmut Kloos 4 &
• Damen Hailemariam 2  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  613 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Disparities in child healthcare service utilization are unacceptably high in Ethiopia. Nevertheless, little is known about underlying barriers to accessing child health services, especially among low socioeconomic subgroups and in remote areas. This study aims to identify barriers to equity in the use of child healthcare services in Ethiopia.

Data were obtained from 20 key- informant interviews (KII) and 6 focus group discussions (FGD) with mothers and care givers. This study was conducted in Oromia Region, Arsi Zone, Zuway Dugda District from June 1–30, 2023. The study participants for this research were selected purposively. The information was collected based on the principle of saturation after sixteen consecutives interview were conducted. Both KII and FGD were audio-recorded and complementary notes were taken to record observations about the participants’ comments and their interactions. Each interview and FGD data were transcribed word-for-word in the local Afaan Oromo and Amaharic languages and then translated to English language. Finally, the data were analyzed thematically using NVivo 14 software and narrated in the linked pattern of child health service utilization.

This study identified six major themes which emerged as barriers to healthcare utilization equity for caregivers and their -under-five children. Barriers related to equity in low level of awareness regarding need, low socioeconomic status, geographical inaccessibility, barriers related to deficient healthcare system, community perception and cultural restrictions, and barriers of equity related to political instability and conflict . The most commonly recognized barriers of equity at the community level were political instability, conflict, and a tremendous distance to a health facility. Transportation challenges, poor functional services, closure of the health facility in working hours, and lack of proper planning to address the marginalized populations were identified barriers of equity at organizational or policy level.

This study showed that inequity in child healthcare utilization is an important challenge confronting Ethiopia. To achieve equity, policy makers and planners need to change health policy and structure to be pro-poor. It is also necessary to improve the healthcare system to increase service utilization and access for impoverished women, individuals with lower levels of education, and residents of isolated rural areas. Furthermore, context specific information pertaining to cultural barriers and political ecology are required.

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Over the last few decades, the issue of equitable distribution and utilization of healthcare services has captured the attention of scholars, governments, and policy makers. While some countries have made much improvement in this regard, others have lagged behind. Child healthcare service use is no exception, and it has recently become a global concern [ 1 ].

Equity in health and health service utilization is a focus in the global health discourse as one of the cornerstones of primary health care (PHC) [ 2 ]. The United Nations has set a goal to reduce global neonatal deaths from 25 per 1,000 live births to 12 per 1,000 by the year 2030 [ 3 ]. Achieving this target will require strong commitment from both service providers as well as financiers of the health sector, including government and community leaders [ 3 ]. Among the World Health Organization’s main focus areas for under-five health, is the reduction of inequities in accordance with the universal health coverage principles. This includes addressing the health needs of children in poor and remote communities. Many countries have implemented various programs aimed at minimizing unnecessary disparities in health service utilization [ 4 ]. Community based health services in particular have been found to be effective in minimizing inequities in health status and health service utilization [ 4 ]. For instance, the Ethiopian government is committed to improve equity through the health extension program and other initiatives [ 5 ]. Moreover, Ethiopia included the equity objective in its health sector transformation plan [ 6 ]. Nevertheless, inequities in service coverage and difference in maternal and child health outcomes remain a challenge [ 7 , 8 ]. The coverage of child health services and basic child immunizations has favored wealthier, more educated, and urban populations. [ 9 ]. For instance, despite significant decline is observed in under five mortality from 123 per 1,000 live births in 2005 to 59 in 2019, still there exists a disparity between different population groups [ 9 ].

Ethiopia met the MDGS for child mortality rate (CMR) in 2013 [ 10 ]. However, the gains made between 1990 and 2013 were not uniformly distributed among Ethiopians; inequity indicators of mortality by wealth had not significantly decreased. During this 23-year period, the mortality among the poorest was unchanged. Even though child health services are supposed to be provided free of charge at public facilities, the disparity in access to or utilization of the services is high in Ethiopia. Like mortality disparity, there is a considerable disparity in coverage of life-saving interventions by wealth status and place of residence [ 11 ].

Addressing equity is a significant challenge in healthcare delivery in Ethiopia. The barriers that were reported to be significantly associated with service utilization included geographical access as a function of distance; financial barriers; and socio-cultural factors such as language, cultural norms, health beliefs and perceptions, maternal education and decision making power and lack of knowledge and awareness, which in the aggregate can lead to low demand for and use of services, particularly by the poor [ 12 , 13 ]. Long distances and extended travel times remain key barriers to access health facilities in many rural communities in Ethiopia [ 11 , 14 ]. For instance, in Indonesia proximity to healthcare facilities significantly decreases child mortality [ 15 ]. Furthermore, according to a study from Uganda, Nigeria and Ethiopia long distances to health care facilities cause delays seeking care [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Even where health care services are available, the cost of seeking care may delay or prevent poor households from accessing them. This problem is particularly discriminating in rural areas where the density of modern health care facilities is low and in settings where transportation systems and road infrastructures are poor [ 18 ]. Furthermore, over the last five years, Ethiopia has faced internal conflict and political instability which exacerbated inequity in the utilization of child health services among the poor and in rural communities. Both insecurity and scarce resources are critical issues in child healthcare accessibility for women living in conflict zones and socioeconomically unstable settings [ 19 ].

Political instability disrupts electricity, water, and food supplies, destabilizes social and welfare systems, including the health and transportation systems, and increases unemployment, homelessness, and poverty—all of which have a negative impact on the use of maternal and child health services [ 20 ]. Hence, these issues did not addressed in any of the studies done so far.

Thus, while many studies have been conducted on the utilization of healthcare services, there is insufficient comprehensive evidence on the barriers of equity in accessing and in utilization of healthcare services for under-five children from policy makers and community level perspective. Therefore, the objective of this study is to examine the context of specific barriers to achieving equity in child health-care services utilization in Ethiopia.

Inequity in child health care service is a major public health problem in developing countries, including Ethiopia. Accordingly, the study explored barriers to equitable healthcare services for under-five children, their health seeking behavior, geographical variation, their awareness, perceptions, attitude and political impact and policy contents of the country. The findings will benefit program leaders, policy makers on health inequality reduction and serve as an input to policy documents related to the new health sector strategic plan. Moreover, mothers and under-five children’s are directly benefited from the finding. Conceptual framework shows how different barriers affect equity in utilization of child health services (Fig.  1 ).

Modified Andersen and WHO conceptual framework, on social determinants of health inequity

The study setting and approach

This study was conducted in Oromia Region, Arsi Zone, Zuway Dugda District from June 1–30, 2023. The Ethiopian healthcare system is three-tiered, comprising primary, secondary, and tertiary care [Fig.  2 ]. The primary level healthcare system is responsible for providing child health services, such as immunizations, and the treatment of sick children. The primary care unit includes primary hospitals, health centers, and health posts which are responsible for providing services to rural communities ([ 17 ]; Arsi Zone Health Department report, Unpublished data, 2022). Women's development armies (WDAs) provide support to health extension workers (HEWs) by organizing and connecting women and their children with healthcare facilities. Based on 2022, the Arsi Zone report, Zuway Dugda district was low in utilization of child healthcare services and the population is low in socioeconomic status and mostly depends on the Safety Net program for nutritional and financial needs (Arsi Zone Health Department report, Unpublished data, 2022). The goal of the Safety Net program is to preserve family assets while generating new ones for the community. To achieve this, the program offers food or cash incentives in exchange for public works projects that improve the environment or create local infrastructure, like roads (e.g. terracing).

Ethiopian health care system [ 17 ]

Participant selection

The study includes 20 in-depth interviews of key informants (KII) and six focus group discussions (FGD). By taking into account various factors that contribute to variations in the use of child healthcare services, study participants were selected from a variety of demographic subgroups. The study participants were drawn from different segments of the population by considering different dimensions that explain disparities in utilization of child healthcare services. The selection of participants was based on their experience of child healthcare services as well as the information they possessed. For the purposes of this research, to ensure representativeness, and to understand the multifaceted levels of the study framework within society and how individuals and the environment interact within a social system, we used maximum variations sampling technique and we classified the participants into four groups. They were “mothers or caregivers who have under- five children”, “males who have under-five children”, “healthcare leaders at different levels” and “healthcare providers at different health facility”. The first group,, “women” refers to mothers who were gave birth prior to the study period and currently having under-five children. The second group were “males or husbands of the women who have under-five children”. The third groups, “healthcare leaders” like; heads of the health centers, district health office, expertise working on child health programs in district, Zonal, regional or national level. The fourth group, “health-care providers”, refers to health professionals, including doctors, health officers, nurses, midwives, and health extension workers working at different health facilities in Arsi Zone and having direct relation with child healthcare services.

Participants in the focus group discussions (FGDs) could be women and their partners who had under-five children at the time of the study. The participant mothers or caregivers were recruited by the HEWs and kebe le (neighborhood associations) leaders. They were identified on a purposive basis with the help of health extension workers and were contacted a few days before the planned FGD to explain the objectives of the study and request their participation. For the key informant interviews, the study participants were contacted by the principal investigator two weeks before the interviews. The information was collected based on the principle of saturation; for our case at least 16 interviewees were needed to reach information saturation principles. Then, data collection was terminated when no new information was generated.

An interview guide was prepared for both the key informant interviews (KII) and FGDs. First, the guides were prepared in English language and then translated into the local language [ 21 ]. Then, the guides were pre-tested and problems relating to the sequence of questions, conceptually similar questions, and sensitive wording were corrected. The data collectors for the KII and FGD were professionals with the background in health and health related fields with master and who are experienced in collecting qualitative data. Moreover, they are fluent in the local language and familiar with the culture of the local community. Key informant interviews were conducted at the office or at the health facility where the interviewee worked and FGDs were conducted in community halls or public rooms. Both key informant-interviews and focus group discussions were audio-recorded. Additionally, complementary observations and notes regarding the remarks made by the participants and their interactions were made.

Data analysis

The principal investigator and the moderator transcribed each interview and FGD word-for-word in the local Afaan Oromo and Amaharic languages and then translated the transcripts back into English. The translations were verified by listening to the recordings while re-reading the transcripts. The data were analyzed thematically using NVivo 12 software and narrated in the pattern linked to child health service utilization. Major themes representing the FGD participants and in-depth interviews are presented in the findings section, with illustrative quotes included to support the main findings.

Trustworthiness

In qualitative research, trustworthiness is determined by credibility, dependability, conformability and transferability. Establishing credibility involved the primary researcher spending a considerable amount of time at the study site to get a feel for the environment, receiving ongoing feedback from peers during peer debriefing, and applying negative case analysis. Dependability was demonstrated by providing an in-depth explanation of the techniques employed, keeping careful interview records, and recording the analytical procedure. All events that took place in the field, the researchers' personal reflections on the study, any phenomena that emerged during the investigation, and pertinent details of their personal histories were documented in order to verify that the interpretations of the findings were derived from the data and were not the product of their imagination. The investigators attempted to build rapport and trust with the informants by developing a long-term attachment because they were skeptical or doubtful if the information felt off. Triangulation of data sources was also employed. A thorough description that includes explaining each step of the research process was employed to aid in the transferability of research findings. At the end of each qualitative data collection session, the data collectors rephrased the collected information by summarizing major points and obtained approval from the participants for the corrected summary.

Characteristics of the study participants

A total of six focus group discussions (FGD)- three with mothers and three with fathers of under five children were conducted. And 20 key informant interview (KII) were held. The number of FGD participants ranged from 8 -12 in each groups. The majorities of women’s participating in FGDs were housewives and had at least one child under the age of 5 years in their care at the time of the FGD. The key informant interviews were conducted with leaders and policy makers at different levels of the health care system and a healthcare worker, including FMoH child health directors, Regional Health bureaus experts, Zonal Health office child health experts, woreda health office heads, Health center heads and health extension workers at health posts were involved. In all, 28 men and 30 women took part in the FGDs. In contrast, six HEW, three heads of health centers, one head of the district health office and with ten experts participated in the key informant interview. Each FGD took on average 42 min (38–52 min), while the key informant interviews took about 36 min (19 to 55 min) (Tables 1 and 2 ).

Barriers to equitable healthcare services for under-five children

Six major themes emerged from the findings.

These include; barriers related to low awareness, low socioeconomic status, geographical inaccessibility, barriers related to deficient healthcare system, cultural and behavioral constraints, and political instability and conflict, all of which lead to unmet healthcare needs such as delay in receiving appropriate care and inability to obtain healthcare services (Table  3 ).

Lack of awareness about benefits of the services

Lack of awareness and misconceptions were one of the top reasons raised by KII and FGD participants for not using healthcare services for under-five children especially in rural communities. Recognition of illness and the potential benefits of treatment are pre-requisites for health care demand. Communities who lived in remote areas and are undereducated tend to have little knowledge concerning health issues. Rural people have insufficient exposure to the media, attending low level of schooling to grasp and understand health related information. The key-informant interviewees and FGD discussants reported that because of low health literacy, rural community and the poor households have less access to health facilities to get treatment for childhood diseases, and for immunization services. One of the key informants mentioned that there are variation or differences among urban and rural rich and poor, literate and uneducated people in child health care service utilization.

“… . Children who visited our health center with malnutrition were from remote and far to reach areas and were brought to our health facility only after these cases were seriously complicated. So there is great variation among urban and rural, rich and poor, literate and illiterate communities in child health care service utilization in our district .” Male , KII, age 34years

One FGD discussant from women group added her experience and her awareness of immunization and availability of free service in health post in such ways;

“Yes, if I had been aware of the benefit of immunization and informed that they were given free of charge, I would have used these services for my sick child from health posts, not from traditional healers” Female FGD discussant, age 35 years, Seeking care from traditional healer

The health extension workers at health posts also approved the lack of awareness among mothers and caregivers on the availability of health service which jeopardizes health- seeking and utilization of health service for their under-five children. One worker said that.

“Most of the women’s and care givers did not know about the availability of treatment at the health post, especially for diarrhea and pneumonia. Those women’s who live near a health facility, are educated and young have more awareness about childhood illnesses and seek care from health posts than uneducated mothers; this may result in inequitable utilization of health services by illiterate care givers ” KII, Female 35 years

In some areas there is a mix of knowledge about utilization of healthcare services for under-five children. Health professionals used abbaa gadaa, or hadha sinqee (male and female cultural leaders) and members of the female development army (FDA) to raise the level of awareness in the community. One key informant interviewee shared the experience of his districts in utilizing women’s development army and these cultural leaders to increase the knowledge of the community as follows;

“We improve the awareness of our community on child healthcare utilization through women’s development army and cultural leaders, we trained these women about early recognition of maternal and child health danger sign. we provide them local COC for them. By now in our district, women’s development armies have equivalent knowledge with HEW and, we used them to teach the community”. Male, Key informant, age 42 year.

Socioeconomic barriers

Lack of sufficient income at household level and low level of maternal and paternal education were identified as major barriers for equity in utilization of healthcare services for under-five children. As part of its HSDP II strategic objectives, the Ethiopian Government intends to address equity in maternal and child health, particularly for the impoverished and rural communities, by providing free health services to these subgroups and allocating a sufficient budget. However, the actual and perceived cost of seeking care keeps some people from traveling to medical facilities. Out-of- pocket costs of health care, cost of transportation and living cost may prevent poor people from using services, leading to untreated childhood illness.

For instance after they reached to health facility, they obligated to pay for medical treatment or drugs they used to treat their children. In this case some advanced diagnosis and treatment is not available in governmental health facilities.. For example, CT scan and MRI to diagnose severe childhood diseases and some essential drugs to treat pneumonia, sepsis and diarrhea were not available in health centers and in health posts. They were advised to get this treatment from private clinics and to buy the drugs from private pharmacies. However, or mothers could not afford to purchase them from private clinic.

A woman from FGD discussant explained her experience of an availability of certain services in Government health facility and high cost of services in private clinic as follows:

“Yes, nowadays, the cost of drugs and treatment for childhood illness is increasing, when I used to get treatment for my sick child from a health center or health post the health professional referred me to a private clinic to be seen or diagnosed by a highly expensive machine; I am unable to afford for this machine. Moreover there were no drugs at the health post and the health center. They told us to purchase them from private clinics. So, how can the poor people get treatment from Governmental health facility?” Female FGD discussant age, 34 years, with low income.

Another FGD discussant described this problem as follows:

“Yes, getting treatment in this health facility is good but sometimes you go here and there to get examined and prescribed for drugs and you need money for those drugs. If you don’t have money, then you remain with the illness” Female FGD discussant, age 29 years.

The study participants suggested that, socioeconomic healthcare inequity must be addressed by healthcare system revisions such as the provision of health insurance, fee retention; waiving and exemptions from fees for poor people, and subsiding the cost of the transportation were considered as solution to reduce inequity in health care services.

Geographical barriers

Distance of health facilities from home and unavailability of motorized transportation were another major barrier to health services utilization. Pit the fact that availability of some community based services should increase health service utilization to caregivers, distance from homes to health facilities, poor roads and unavailability of motorized transport were major barriers for many people. Distance from health centers and health posts and lack of transportation and cost of transportation were cited as barberries of equity for child health service utilization by rural and the poor communities. Long distances, shoddy road construction, and a shortage of ambulances make it difficult for residents of remote communities and low-income families to get to medical facilities and thus have fewer opportunities to vaccinate their children. One key informant said that.

“…the primary issue facing this district is the lack of transportation and the distance between the residential area and the medical facilities . The caregivers were unable to get transportation service easily. In some areas the distance between health facilities and residential areas of the community is too far, besides there is no road to get access to health facility. We need more vehicles at health center level; moreover, the transportation issue cannot be solved unless quality roads will be constructed for the community.”Male, key-informant interview, age 40 years.

Another FGD discussant said that.

“ Yaa, we move more than 30 km on foot to access health facilities, especially health centers, there is no road for cars., we carry our sick child on our backs to get treatment from this health facility” FGD, Male, age 44 years.

One FGD described the transportation problem a follows:

“…even though roads were constructed, there is no reliable transportation system in our area. Ambulance service is not available in our area, no mobile network to call to ambulance service. Moreover, if we were hardly access the ambulance, we are requested to pay 1000 Birr for fuel. Therefore, the Government and concerned body has to understand and solve our situation related to distance and transportation problem.” Male, FGD discussant, Age 49 year.

The study participant also suggested that geographical and financial accessibility barriers have to be addressed by bringing services closer to homes or residential areas.

Healthcare system barriers

Certain aspects of healthcare system were identified as barriers to equitable healthcare services for under-five children. In Ethiopia, important deterrents include unavailability, unaffordability of the service, and closure of health posts during working hours and issues related to behaviors of the health professionals were the emerged theme from this study.

One of the important barriers of equity in utilization of child healthcare services especially by poor were unavailability of child care services at health posts. Even though the health posts are supposed to give services for the rural and poor populations, it was closed on many working days and at weekends. In addition, absence of health extension workers from the duty during working hours, services inconsistently and unavailability of drugs in the health posts were barberries of equity raised by KII and FGD discussants. One of key informant interviewees explained his observations as follows;

“Even though, the health posts are expected to give maternal and child health services for the rural community free of charge, how the poor and the rural community get these services, the health posts were closed during working hours, most of the time the HEW workers are in another duty, they were assigned to collect taxes and insurance from the community, so the richest household will get these services from private health institution but the poor and the rural community is in problem in accessing these services” Key-informant interview, Male, 45 years.

Besides giving health services, in some rural areas the health extension workers are assigned to other administrative and political activities. A health extension worker in health post acknowledged the absence of health services during working hour in such ways;

“ How can we give health services for the poor community, we are assigned to collect insurance, taxes and to register member for the political parties, if we say no we will be fired, most of the time the health posts were closed, all services were intercepted, mothers from rural area repeatedly came for immunization, but they did not get us in the health post, those mothers who were educated and have the money for transportation may went to health centers and Hospitals to get immunization service, but the poor mother were waiting us till the health post is opened” Female, Age 39 year.

One woman from FGD participant also explains her experience as follows;

“One day my 3 years old child was sick and I came to consult the HEW, but, the door is closed and she was not around” Female, FGD discussant, Age 38year, rural community

Another important finding from this qualitative study was issue of marginalized populations. The health services do not cover marginalized and poor people, like, beggars, around churches, mosques and along roads on child health services especially immunization . Key informant participants from the one woreda health office described this issue as follows;

“Here is the gap, now the health facilities have no plan and willing to give immunization services to marginalized poor people like; beggars around the mosque, church, and on roads. These poor people are totally forgotten, the motivation of health workers to serve this community is almost zero or near to nil. All vaccination mandates are given to HEW, but now health centers and health posts are not connected to these people and their children’s are not vaccinated at all. There is no supervision or support from higher officials, no accountability among HEW “KII M ale, 45yer.

Lack of adequate supply of medicines and other medical supplies emerged as a recurring theme in FGDs and KII at both the policy and service delivery levels. The health posts do not have all basic medicines available and end up giving inadequate drugs, no separate budget is allocated for child health by Ministry of Health or the regional health bureaus. Donors, NGO,s and partners have reduced their budgets and support of child health programs.

One KII participant shared his perceived cause of inadequate supplies and budgeting for health facility as follows:

“…Currently only limited budgets are allocated to the health sector, especially for maternal and child health. There are no donors and partners who support the healthcare system; this is probably linked to the current Ethiopian political upheavals. This creates problems for free services for maternal and child care. In my opinion this is the cause of an availability of materials and some drugs at health facility” key-informant-interview, age 44 year.

Disrespectful care and treatment was the issue raised as barriers to equity by caregivers for their under-five children. Ethiopian communities pay attention to respectful and quality of care, therefore giving preference to urban health centers, which generally meet patient expectation. But urban health facilities also discriminate against poor people. A female FGD discussant raised the issue of non-compassionate and disrespectful care given to her at an urban health facility, as follows:

“Yes, we looked unclean and came from rural areas, the health professionals treated us as not as humans and gave us poor care. They did not touch us by their hands or used apparatus to examine our problem. They simply asked us about our illness and gave us prescription to buy drugs” Female, FGD, 42 years.

Respondents suggest that, the government need to ensure the availability of adequate essential vaccines, drugs and supplies in health facilities. The FGD discussants further emphasized that, both central and local healthcare systems need to allocate adequate financial resources and procure adequate logistic and material supplies towards effective implementation of quality healthcare services.

Cultural and behavioral barriers

Low demand and utilization of modern health interventions often derives from deep-rooted attitudes that reflect culture, social norms and traditions of the community. Few FGD participants mentioned that cultural barriers such as using traditional medicines at home and taking the children to traditional healers were barriers to using child health services, especially in rural areas. In some areas peoples believed that the cause of the illness is caused by supernatural agents, exposure to cold, wind or the devil eye. Therefore they do not bring their children to health facilities. Many poor mothers and care givers in rural areas use traditional medicine or religious interventions such as payer as the first treatment for childhood illness because of their ready accessibility and low cost, as stated by one father:

“I have encountered people in some districts who delayed treatment because of traditional beliefs. One of them said … If my child gets sick, I will not bring it to a health facility immediately, I will wait until the disease matures and shows full blown sign can l be observed or till it will resolved by itself” key-informant interview, Male 42 years.

There are also other traditions, customs and beliefs among some rural communities which are barriers to equity of child health services. For instance haamachisaa is a kind of blessing used as the first treatment by traditional healers for neonates aged less than 3 months before seeking care services from health facilities. They believe that haamachisaa prevent malicious birds or the evil eye to inflict illness on neonates, as described by one mother:

“ in our area some of the rural communities will not send their “ children below three months of age” to get immunization services from health facilities before they practice haamchisaa or blessing services from a traditional healer because a bird or the evil eye may see the neonate “ Female, key- informant, 39 years.

In some rural districts, obstacles to child health care service utilization include the use of traditional uvulectomy, getting treatment for measles from traditional healers and using holy water (tsebel) at churches when children fall ill.

“In our area, when their child develops measles some of them refuse to take their children to health facility because they believe that the treatment there will cause girsha, the dissemination of the rash to different organ systems” Male, key-informant, 30 years head of HC.

Another FGD discussant described her preference of traditional healers for her sick child because of cost of the drug as follows;

“I visited a traditional healer for my child when he had tonsil, because drugs and repeated treatment from a health facility are expensive; After the tonsils are removed by a traditional healer there is no recurrence, so it is less costly for me” Female, FG, Age 40 year.

In another way less attention was given for morbidity and mortality of the child by rural community, especially to the neonate (if a neonate died) the funeral ceremony will not be practice in the church or mosque. The burial or funeral ceremony is accomplished at near house of the parents; the dead body is not brought to church or mosque. The community did not consider a neonatal death as a death of human being or adult death but, is concealed, as described by a male key-informant:

“ Here in the community less attention is given to child health, especially for the newborns; if the newborn dies the dead body will not brought to a church or mosque but it will be buried around the home. Nobody will go to that home to morn with the parents” Male key-informant, 42 years.

In many Ethiopian communities, women’s have low autonomy to decide for her own and their children’s health in Ethiopia. They need the permission of their husbands to seek care for their children, because of economic, psychological and material dependence. The norms and values of the community also reinforce this behavior.

One of the important finding of this study was inequity related to ethnicity. Almost all KII and FGD participants stated that there is no disparity in healthcare service utilization because of ethnicity.

“…..Even though Ethiopia is having a diversified ethnic group still there is no marginalization or inequity in utilization of child health services from health facility because of ethnicity; rather they encounter barriers related to language in understanding and to get consultation from service providers” Key-informant, Male, Age 39 year.

The study participants further suggested that barriers related to health illiteracy or mistrust of the healthcare system have to be addressed by involving different stakeholders such as community leaders, traditional healers and religious leaders .

Politics, conflict and security issues

Over the last few years, Ethiopia is suffering from different types of military conflicts between the Ethiopian government and insurgent forces in most regions and administrative areas. This protracted conflict hinders maternal and child health service delivery affected communities, especially in isolated rural areas. As a result, health services could not operate safely in the war zone, Increasing the incidence of vaccine-preventable diseases and malnutrition. A male FGD discussant explained the effects of conflict on maternal and children service utilization as follows:

“ In our district there is continuous military conflict between the government and rebel forces; most of the time the health facilities were closed, there is diversion of supplies for maternal and child health services to the armed forces, no immunization services was given to the community during this conflict period, roads were closed, the health professionals fled health facilities because they felt insecure, even ambulances assigned to MCH services were used for military purposes;, the rich may get the service from private clinic, the poor did not get anything, simply waiting an interventions from God,, or simply wait to die or migrate to other places” Male, FGD, age 45 years.

One key-informant interview participant reported his observation of security problem on child health services in his district as follows:

“Regarding the issue of security problem, currently in our area there is a military conflict between government and rebellions. Due to this there is no maternal and child healthcare services, 24 h ambulance was served for political purposes, as a result mothers and children are dying from severe anemia and severe pneumonia at their home, therefore, politically instability and conflict among Government and armed rebellion force exacerbate the existed disparity in utilization of healthcare services for mothers and children in our district”. Key –informant, male, age 41 years.

The research participant added that communication between opposing groups is necessary to resolve political unrest and conflict which has direct impact on child healthcare utilization.

This study aimed at exploring barriers of equity that mothers and their children face in accessing and utilization of healthcare services for under-five children. The findings point out multiple dynamics of barriers of equity to care-seeking and utilization of healthcare services in Ethiopia.

In this study the barriers and challenges linked with access and utilization of equitable healthcare services for under-five children were found to fall under six themes ; lack of awareness about availability of the service, socioeconomic barriers, geographic barriers, health system related barriers, cultural and behavioral barriers and political instability and military conflict related barriers. These barriers are inter-related and complex in nature. As key-informants and FGD discussants reported that lack of awareness was one of the top barriers for not using healthcare services for under-five children, especially in rural communities. Populations who have settled in far to reach areas and uneducated have no equal awareness about health related issues compared to urban and well educated populations. Their reasons are people leave in rural area has insufficient exposure to media, attending low level of schooling to grasp and understand health related information. Most studies reported that because of low health related literacy, rural community and the poor household had delayed to access health facility to get treatment for most of childhood illnesses, and vaccination services [ 22 ]. In this study having participants confirm that there is a gap in knowledge regarding the causes of childhood illness and regarding the availability of treatments at health posts, it is clear that a campaign to educate and mobilize community members will be necessary. The need for transmission of information about the availability of services was also highlighted by several other studies [ 23 ]. Studies in Ethiopia reported that, HEW home visits were reportedly valuable for increasing awareness and use of services and mothers of under-fives who received health information [ 24 ]. Different studies suggest that community education and mobilization campaigns may increase level of awareness of communities. One study also reported that HEWs and HDA were credible sources of health-related information [ 25 , 26 ]. For example, the HEW increased the awareness of communities during pregnant woman conferences, vaccination campaigns, and other community meetings.

This study further highlights that, socioeconomic barriers to health care utilization are strong deterrents that increase under-five mortality in Ethiopia. Limited financial resources for medical treatment and low educational level of parents are barriers to the use of healthcare services for children among disadvantaged populations. In this regard, the Ethiopian government plans to provide free health services for women and under-five children, through the HSTP. II but our finding revealed that low household income, low level of maternal education, and out-of- pocket payments for health care prevent poorer people from using services for under-five children. Furthermore it should be noted that the government of Ethiopia has adopted a waiver fee policy for the vulnerable groups. However, cost of services still play a major role in access to service since the exemption from paying for the services is unevenly applied.

Several studies corroborate our findings of the socioeconomic impact on health service utilization [ 27 , 28 ]. A study conducted by Daniel et al. confirmed that the levels of household income and health literacy affect access to healthcare services [ 27 ]. Moreover, indirect costs such as loss of work time, loss of income and transportation cost have a significant economic impact on poorer families [ 28 ]. Implementing health insurance scheme and waiving user fees may shield the poor from these charges and weaken household health budget constraints.

Our findings of the negative impact of low education of parents is corroborated by several studies. [ 29 , 30 ]. Pregnant mothers with higher education are more aware of the significance of good nutrition and child care as well as the prerequisites for being healthy [ 31 ]. Education plays a vital role in shaping attitudes, opinions, customs, and norms and also promotes the adoption of new ideas and values.

The result of our study revealed that, distance from health facility, lack of transportation and uncomfortable road topography especially in summer were mentioned as an important barriers of equity in healthcare service utilization for under –five children. Previous studies in Ethiopia confirmed that far to reach regions, districts and areas often face special issues and problems compared to non-far to reach areas [ 32 , 33 ]. Several studies in other countries also showed that travelling to a health center was challenging for caregivers of children residing in far to reach areas and cost of transportation, unreliability and its unavailability of services were the main impairments of equity in accessing healthcare services [ 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 ]. For example, a study of measles vaccination coverage in various African countries found that distance was a key factor in determining the level of immunization coverage [ 39 , 40 , 41 ]. In addition to the inverse relationship between distance and health services utilization, geographical location of health facilities in isolated rural areas also jeopardizes the staffing of health facilities. Doctors, midwifes and nurses are less eager to serve in such areas than in urban communities and vaccines and flooding may prevent the delivery of vaccines and drugs to distant mountain communities during the rainy season.

Respondents highlighted the need to ensure reliable availability of HEWs at the health post during opening hours and extending the hours of the health post so that services would be available working hours and on weekends. Such closures have been shown to be a major challenge in previous studies [ 42 ]. HEWs travel for activities such as collecting taxes registering political membership from the residential and payment for health insurance from the community should be stunned by the community and so that there is at least one HEW in each health post to give services for the community . Another important finding from this study was issue of marginalized populations. Some key-informant and FGD discussant cited that, the health facility is not have especial plan to address the services to marginalized poor people, like, baggers around the church, mosques and around roads on child health services especially for immunization services. Hence this may create critical inequity in child healthcare service utilization among the poor.

Barriers to equity in access and utilization of services extend beyond accessibility and availability issues, disrespectful care and negative attitude acts as a barrier to accessing health care services. Negative attitude of health workers in the form of verbal expression, represented a theme of recurrence as a barrier of equity in utilization of the services. Female FGD discussant raised the issue of non-compassionate and disrespectful care given to them by health professionals at health facility and they were receiving poor quality of care, and there is no companionate care for the poor. Improving quality and outcomes at health centers offers an incentive for the utilization of a service. In many African countries, low quality of health services has been identified as a hindrance to equitable access of services [ 43 ]. In the current study, few participants mentioned that cultural factors like home remedies taking the children to traditional healers were obstacles to utilization equity. Other studies from Sub-Saharan Africa show similar results [ 44 ]. This shows that, traditional beliefs and norms of the community impede from seeking-care modern healthcare and utilization of the services from health facility.

One of the promising finding in this study was, even though Ethiopia have a diversified ethnic group there is no report related disparity or inequity in utilization of child health services because of his/her ethnicity, rather they encounter barrier related to language in understanding and to get consultation from service provider.

Our finding revealed that, war and political instability disrupt health services accessibility and utilization. There was also reported from several other countries, including Afghanistan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Pakistan, and Somalia [ 45 ]. Key impacts include disrupted infrastructure and supply chain; violence against health workers; difficulties retaining health workers; delivery service interruptions; and displacement and migration [ 46 ]. For populations affected by military conflict, adopting flexibility surrounding age and eligibility criteria can increase immunization coverage.

Strength and limitation of this study

Strengths of this study include the collection of data by experienced interviewers, efforts made to increase trustworthiness of the study, checking transcripts against audio-records and field notes by two independent experts, and use of the participants’ own language for data collection. In addition, inclusion of participants from all levels of the healthcare system and caregivers (both mothers and father) of the children broadened the range of experiences and opinions on inequity in child health services accessibility and utilization. The major limitation of this qualitative study is that its findings are may not be generalized to other settings. Furthermore, since the study was only conducted in one district, it might not be representative of the entire nation.

Conclusions and recommendations

We conclude that inequity in child healthcare utilization continues to be an important challenge confronting Ethiopia. Constraints such as poor community awareness of the availability of curative healthcare services, geographic inaccessibility, inadequate healthcare resources, socioeconomic barriers, and constraints related to the functioning of the healthcare system and political instability and military conflict were the most cited barriers to equity.

To achieve equity, Ethiopian policymakers and partners need to invest in health infrastructure, including bringing services closer to people by constructing new health posts, health centers and roads in rural areas, and increasing the quality of services. In addition, context-specific cultural barriers such as the use of traditional medicines and illness beliefs need to be addressed through health promotion and military conflict needs to be solved through dialog between opposing bodies.

Availability of data and materials

The data that support the finding of this study are available and attached as related files.

Abbreviations

Certificate of competency

Compassionate respectful care

Focus group discussion

Federal Ministry of Health

Health care workers

Health extension workers

Key-informant interview

Maternal and child health

Millennium developmental goals

Oromia Regional Health Bureau

Primary health care

United Nations

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the study participants, the Federal Ministry of Health, regional health bureaus, and zonal and district level health leaders. We also acknowledge Addis Ababa University and Professor Helmut Kloos for funding this study.

Addis Ababa University School of Public Health, and support from Professor Helmut Kloos.

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Contributions

H.F and D.H contributed to the design and conception of the study and analyzed and interpreted the data. W.M, H.K, and A.A participated in data analysis, interpretation and revision of the manuscript. All authors read and revised the draft of this manuscript and approved the final version.

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Fekadu, H., Mekonnen, W., Adugna, A. et al. Barriers to equitable healthcare services for under-five children in Ethiopia: a qualitative exploratory study. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 613 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11074-0

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Study shows natural shorelines support greater biodiversity in the Chicago river

by Shedd Aquarium

New research published today sheds light on the positive effects of maintaining natural shoreline structure on freshwater ecosystems, as opposed to armoring them with steel walls or piles of rocks. The work is published in the journal Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems .

The study, conducted by Shedd Aquarium, Illinois Department of Natural Resources and Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, revealed important trends in fish diversity and abundance along various types of shorelines in the Chicago Area Waterway System (CAWS). The findings indicated that both fish species richness and the numbers of fish grew with increasing proportions of natural shoreline.

Shoreline armoring, or the practice of reinforcing shorelines to prevent erosion, is a common alteration to aquatic systems worldwide. However, while its impact on coastal and estuarine environments is extensively studied, research of its effects on freshwater systems has been sparse. To address this gap, the study reviewed data collected during a large-scale, long-term fish survey with a new lens. There was a clear correlation between shoreline type and biodiversity, consistent with those shown in coastal ecosystem studies.

"Our research shows the importance of natural shorelines, which can be functional for both aquatic life and humans," said Dr. Austin Happel, research biologist at Shedd Aquarium. "As urbanization continues to encroach on freshwater systems, reviewing alternatives to armoring, along with restoring or enhancing vegetated space and advocating for policy are all proactive conservation measures to safeguard the health and biodiversity of freshwater ecosystems , which benefits human health, economies, and climate."

One key example the authors point out is that barge traffic is prevalent both in the downtown portion of the Chicago River and the Little Calumet River. However, only the downtown portion exhibits extreme levels of shoreline armoring, while the Little Calumet River sections support relatively high barge traffic without extensively armored shorelines.

The shoreline differences between these two sections are reflected by strong changes to the fish communities. For example, none of the 15 downtown Chicago samples had more than 6 species, whereas 53% of the 336 samples from the Little Calumet River had 10 or more species. The authors use this example to illustrate that extensive barge traffic does not require extensive shoreline armoring, and more natural shore could aid aquatic biodiversity.

Further, particularly of note for the CAWS is the hunting habitat provided by natural sloping shorelines for wading birds like great blue herons (Ardea herodias) and the state-endangered black-crown night-heron (Nycticorax nycticorax). As such, a reduction of steel-walled bulkhead areas in urban waterways, in favor of natural and vegetated shorelines, would increase biodiversity and ecosystem services both within and around the aquatic ecosystem.

In areas where de-armoring is not possible, additions of new habitats or enhancements could also benefit the ecosystem. Floating wetlands with native plants are one example of ways to supplement habitat for aquatic life in urban waterways. Shedd Aquarium has teamed up with local nonprofit Urban Rivers to expand floating habitats on the Wild Mile and in the South Branch of the Chicago River. While any shoreline changes require regulatory reviews from municipal, state and federal agencies, continued novel approaches and innovations for restoration and reducing reliance on armoring provide benefits to aquatic life and people who rely on freshwater systems.

Provided by Shedd Aquarium

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

This article is part of the research topic.

New Insights in the Neuroanatomy and Neuropathology of Marine Mammals

The amygdaloid body of the family Delphinidae: a morphological study of its central nucleus trough calbindin-D28k Provisionally Accepted

• 1 Veterinary Histology and Pathology, Institute of Animal Health, Veterinary School, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
• 2 Department of Veterinary Medical Science, University of Bologna, Italy

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

The amygdala is a noticeable bilateral structure in the medial temporal lobe and it's composed of at least 13 different nuclei and cortical areas, subdivided into the deep nuclei, the superficial nuclei, and the remaining nuclei which contain the central nucleus (CeA). CeA mediates the behavioral and physiological responses associated with fear and anxiety through pituitary-adrenal responses by modulating the liberation of the hypothalamic Corticotropin Releasing Factor/Hormone. Five dolphins of three different species, belonging to the family Delphinidae (three striped dolphins, one common dolphin, and one Atlantic spotted dolphin), were used for this study. CeA extended mainly dorsal to the lateral nucleus and ventral to the striatum. It was medial to the internal capsule and lateral to the optic tract and the medial nucleus of the amygdala. The dolphin amygdaloid complex resembles that of primates, including the subdivision, volume, and location of the CeA.

Keywords: amygdaloid body, Amygdala, central nucleus of the amygdala, toothed whales, Delphinidae, Dolphins, calbindin-D28k Eliminado: Recently, m In the toothed whales

Received: 04 Feb 2024; Accepted: 14 May 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 SACCHINI, Bombardi, Arbelo and Herraez Thomas. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Prof. SIMONA SACCHINI, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Veterinary Histology and Pathology, Institute of Animal Health, Veterinary School, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35413, LAS PALMAS, Spain

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