the essay on emotional intelligence

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

Mia Belle Frothingham

Author, Researcher, Science Communicator

BA with minors in Psychology and Biology, MRes University of Edinburgh

Mia Belle Frothingham is a Harvard University graduate with a Bachelor of Arts in Sciences with minors in biology and psychology

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Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to perceive, understand, and manage one’s own emotions and relationships. It involves being aware of emotions in oneself and others and using this awareness to guide thinking and behavior. Emotionally intelligent individuals can motivate themselves, read social cues, and build strong relationships

Some researchers propose that emotional intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others argue it is an inborn characteristic.

The ability to express and manage emotions is essential, but so is the ability to understand, diagnose, and react to the emotions of others. Imagine a world in which one could not understand when a friend felt sad or a classmate was angry.

Why is Emotional Intelligence Critical?

Emotional Intelligence is the “ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior” (Salovey and Mayer, 1990).

Having a higher level of emotional intelligence allows one to empathize with others, communicate effectively, and be both self and socially aware. How people respond to themselves and others impacts all types of environments.

Living in this world signifies interacting with many diverse kinds of individuals and constant change with life-changing surprises.

Being emotionally intelligent is key to how one reacts to what life throws. It is furthermore a fundamental element of compassion and comprehending the deeper reasons behind other people’s actions.

It is not the most intelligent people who are the most prosperous or the most fulfilled in life. Many people are academically genius and yet are socially incompetent and unsuccessful in their careers or their intimate relationships.

Intellectual ability or intelligence quotient (IQ) is not enough on its own to achieve success in life. Undoubtedly, IQ can help one get into university, but your Emotional Intelligence (EI) will help one manage stress and emotions when facing final exams.

IQ and EI exist in tandem and are most influential when they build off one another.

Emotional intelligence is also valuable for leaders who set the tone of their organization. If leaders lack emotional intelligence , it could have more far-reaching consequences, resulting in lower worker engagement and a higher turnover rate.

While one might excel at one’s job technically, if one cannot effectively communicate with one’s team or collaborate with others, those specialized skills will get neglected.

By mastering emotional intelligence, one can positively impact anywhere and continue to advance one’s position and career in life. EI is vital when dealing with stressful situations like confrontation, change, and obstacles.

Emotional intelligence helps one build stronger relationships, succeed at work or school, and achieve one’s career and personal goals, as well as reduce group stress, defuse conflict, and enhance job satisfaction.

It can also help connect with one’s inner feelings, turn purpose into action, and make informed decisions about what matters most to oneself.

During these times, it is essential to remember to practice kindness, and being in touch with our emotions can help us do just that.

Examples of Emotional Intelligence

How does one become emotionally intelligent? Below we will discuss what one can do to learn to improve the skills that are behind emotional intelligence (EI).

Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and to reason and problem-solve based on them (Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999).

By working on and improving these skills, one can become more emotionally intelligent and, therefore, more successful!

Emotional Awareness and Understanding

Self-awareness, or the ability to recognize and comprehend one’s own emotions, is a vital emotional intelligence skill. Beyond acknowledging one’s feelings, however, is being conscious of the effect of one’s actions, moods, and emotions on other people.

According to research by Tasha Eurich, an organizational psychologist, 95% of individuals believe they are self-aware. Still, only 10 to 15 percent genuinely are, which can cause problems for the people one interacts with.

Being with people who are not self-aware can be frustrating and lead to increased stress and decreased encouragement.

To become self-aware, one must be capable of monitoring one’s emotions while recognizing different emotional reactions and correctly identifying each distinct emotion.

Self-aware individuals also can recognize the connections between the things they feel and how they act.

These individuals also acknowledge their strengths and weaknesses, are open to new data and experiences, and learn from their exchanges with others.

Furthermore, people who maintain self-awareness have a fine sense of humor, are confident in themselves and their capabilities, and know how others perceive them.

Here are some tips on improving one’s self-awareness:

Ask for constructive feedback from others.

Keep a journal of one’s thoughts and feelings.

Practice mindfulness – try meditating.

Pay careful attention to one’s thoughts and emotions.

Pursue one’s passions and do what makes one happy.

Learn new skills and set goals for oneself.

Reflect on one’s experiences and be grateful.

Use positive self-talk daily.

Work on building a growth mindset.

Emotional Self Regulation (Managing Emotions)

In addition to being aware of one’s own emotions and the impact one has on others, emotional intelligence requires one to regulate and manage one’s emotions .

This does not mean taking emotions out of sight and essentially “locking” them away, hence hiding one’s true feelings. It just means waiting for the right time and place to express them. Self-regulation is all about communicating one’s emotions appropriately in context. A reaction tends to be involuntary.

The more in tune one is with one’s emotional intelligence, the easier one can transition from an instant reaction to a well-thought-out response. It is crucial to remember to pause, breathe, compose oneself, and do what it takes to manage one’s emotions.

This could mean anything to oneself, like taking a walk or talking to a friend, so that one can more appropriately and intentionally respond to tension and adversity.

Those proficient in self-regulation tend to be flexible and acclimate well to change. They are also suitable for handling conflict and diffusing uncomfortable or difficult situations.

People with healthy self-regulation skills also tend to have heightened conscientiousness. They reflect on how they influence others and take accountability for their actions.

Here are some tips on improving one’s self-regulation:

Look at challenges as opportunities.

Be mindful of thoughts and feelings.

Build distress and anxiety tolerance skills.

Work on accepting reflections and emotions.

Find ways to manage difficult emotions.

Practice communication and social skills.

Recognize that one has a choice in how one responds.

Use cognitive reframing to change emotional responses and thought patterns.

Social Empathy (Perceiving Emotions)

Empathy , or the capability to comprehend how other people are feeling, is crucial to perfecting emotional intelligence.

However, it involves more than just being able to identify the emotional states of others. It also affects one’s responses to people based on this knowledge.

How does one respond when one senses someone is feeling sad or hopeless? One might treat them with extra care and consideration, or one might make a push to lift their mood.

Being empathetic also allows one to understand the authority dynamics that frequently influence social relationships, especially in the workplace.

This is essential for guiding one’s daily interactions with various people. In fact, it is found that empathy ranks as the number one leadership skill.

Leaders proficient in empathy perform more than 40% higher in coaching, engaging others, and decision-making. In a different study, researchers found that leaders who show more empathy toward their co-workers and constructive criticism are viewed as better performers by their supervisors.

Those competent in this element can recognize who maintains power in different relationships. They also understand how these forces impact feelings and behaviors. Because of this, they can accurately analyze different situations that hinge on such power dynamics.

Here are some tips on improving social empathy:

Be willing to share emotions.

Listen to other people.

Practice meditation.

Engage in a purpose like a community project.

Meet and talk to new people.

Try to imagine yourself in someone else’s place.

Social Skills (Using Emotions)

The ability to interact well with others is another vital aspect of emotional intelligence. Solid social skills allow people to build meaningful relationships with others and develop a more robust understanding of themselves and others.

Proper emotional understanding involves more than just understanding one’s own emotions and those of others. One also needs to put this information to work in one’s daily interactions and communications.

In the workplace or professional settings, managers benefit by being able to build relationships and connections with employees.

Workers benefit from developing a solid rapport with leaders and co-workers. Some prefer to avoid conflict, but it is crucial to address issues as they arise correctly.

Research shows that every unaddressed conflict can waste almost eight hours of company time on unproductive activities, damaging resources and morale. Essential social skills include active listening , verbal communication, nonverbal communication, leadership , and persuasiveness.

Here are some tips on improving social skills:

Ask open-ended questions.

Find icebreakers that will help start conversations.

Practice good eye contact.

Practice active listening with the entire body.

Notice other people’s social skills.

Show interest in others and ask them personal questions.

Watch one’s body language and that of others.

In The Workplace

Emotional intelligence includes showing genuine compassion, empathizing with the needs of individuals, and encouraging the ongoing personal growth of individuals.

When a leader takes into account the emotions of their followers, they then learn how to best engage with them.

1. Lending a Compassionate Ear to a Frustrated Co-Worker

Employees will inevitably get upset, have bad moods, argue, and just generally have bad days. In practice, compassion, understanding, and awareness are definite signs of emotional intelligence.

Awareness of and reacting to other people’s emotional states shows an understanding that all humans experience intense emotions and says that a person’s feelings matter.

2. Listening to Others Respectfully

Ever been to a conference when it seems like everyone is speaking over each other, trying to get the last word?

This is not only an indication of egos taking over and a lack of consideration for others; these are also indications of there being a lack of emotional intelligence.

When individuals are allowed to speak, and others listen without persistent interruptions, it is a good sign of EI. It shows reciprocal respect between parties and is more likely to lead to a productive conclusion in meetings.

3. Being Flexible

Flexibility is a critical term in organizations today. Building flexibility into how people function can be the difference between keeping the best workers and drifting out the door.

Emotionally intelligent leaders comprehend the changing needs of others and are ready to work with them rather than attempting to impose rigid restrictions on how people go about their work.

They do not expect everyone to work the hours they do, hold the same priorities, or live by precisely the same values.

In Healthcare

1. being patient with hurting individuals.

When in healthcare, it is expected that doctors and nurses will have to manage people in pain. Emotional intelligence not only allows for better patient care but also for better self-care.

For instance, if a patient is lashing out, and one can see that they are in pain, one will be far less likely to take their combativeness personally and treat them better.

2. Acting as the Effective Leader

In healthcare, there is a necessity to have influential leaders, a trusting environment with a helpful team, critical thinking, and quality patient and family-centered care.

A higher emotional intelligence will allow healthcare professionals to respond and react better to patients. Studies have shown a correlation between emotional intelligence and positive patient outcomes.

3. Responding Better to Stressful Situations

Multiple occasions in healthcare involve an urgent situation involving a life or death scenario. Doctors and nurses must check their own emotions.

Being in healthcare is a highly emotional career, and being aware of your feelings when they come up is key to effective self-care.

Interacting with patients can cause overwhelming joy or deep sadness, and these fluctuations can be utterly exhausting.

The ability to deal with these feelings, take breaks, and ask for help when you need it is another example of good emotional intelligence that nurses should practice.

Tips for Improving EI

Be more self-aware.

Awareness of one’s emotions and emotional responses to others can significantly improve one’s emotional intelligence. Knowing when one is feeling anxious or angry can help process and communicate those feelings in a way that promotes healthy results.

Recognize how others feel

Emotional intelligence could start with self-reflection, but measuring how others perceive one’s behavior and communication is essential. Adjusting one’s message based on how one is being received is an integral part of being emotionally intelligent.

Practice active listening

People communicate verbally and nonverbally, so listening and monitoring for potentially positive and negative reactions is essential. Taking the time to hear others also demonstrates a level of respect that can form the basis for healthy relationships.

Communicate clearly

Solid communication skills are critical for emotional intelligence. Knowing what to express or write and when to offer information is crucial for building strong relationships.

For instance, as a manager in a work environment, communicating expectations and goals is required to keep everyone on the same page.

Stay positive

A positive attitude is incredibly infectious. Emotionally intelligent people comprehend the power of positive words, encouraging emails, and friendly gestures. When one can also remain positive in a stressful situation, one can help others stay calm. It can also encourage further problem-solving and collaboration.

Thinking about how others might be feeling is an essential quality of emotional intelligence. It means you can empathize with feelings that one may not be feeling oneself and respond in a way that is respectful and relaxing to others.

Be open-minded

Emotionally intelligent people are comfortable to approach because they are good listeners and can consider and understand other viewpoints. They are also receptive to learning new things and embracing novel ideas.

Listen to feedback

It is essential to be the type of person who can hear feedback, whether it is positive on a recent presentation or more critical advice on how you should commission tasks more efficiently.

Being receptive to feedback means taking responsibility for one’s actions and being willing to improve how one communicates with others.

Stay calm under pressure

It is essential to approach stressful situations with a calm and positive attitude. Pressures can quickly escalate, primarily when people are operating under deadlines, so keeping steady and concentrating on finding a solution will help everyone complete their goals.

History of Emotional Intelligence

In the 1930s, psychologist Edward Thorndike explained the concept of “social intelligence” as the ability to get along with other individuals.

During the 1940s, psychologist David Wechsler suggested that different practical elements of intelligence could play a critical role in how successful people are in life.

In the 1950s, the school of thought was known as humanistic psychology, and scholars such as Abraham Maslow concentrated attention on how people could build emotional strength.

Another critical concept to arise in the development of emotional intelligence was the concept of multiple intelligences . This idea was put forth in the mid-1970s by Howard Gardner, presenting the idea that intelligence was more than just a single, broad capacity.

Emotional intelligence did not come into our vernacular until around 1990. The term “emotional intelligence” was first utilized in 1985 as it was presented in a doctoral dissertation by Wayne Payne.

In 1987, there was an article written by Keith Beasley and published in Mensa Magazine that used the term emotional quotient or EQ.

Then in 1990, psychologists John Mayer and Peter Salovey published their milestone article, Emotional Intelligence , in the journal Imagination, Cognition, and Personality .

They described emotional intelligence as the capability to monitor one’s and others’ feelings and emotions, discriminate among them, and use this knowledge to guide one’s thinking and actions.

Salovey and Mayer also initiated a research study to develop accurate measures of emotional intelligence and explore its significance. For example, they found in one investigation that when a group of people saw an upsetting film, those who ranked high on emotional clarity, or the ability to recognize and label a mood that is being experienced, recovered more quickly.

In a different study, people who scored higher in the ability to perceive accurately, understand and appraise others’ emotions were sufficiently capable of responding flexibly to changes in their social environments and building supportive social networks.

But despite it being a relatively new term, attraction to the concept has grown tremendously. In 1995, the concept of emotional intelligence was popularized after the publication of Daniel Goleman’s book  Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ.

Frequently Asked Questions

Why is emotional intelligence important in the workplace.

Researchers have indicated that emotional intelligence influences how excellently employees interact with their colleagues, and EI is also considered to play a role in how employees manage stress and conflict.

It also affects overall performance on the job. Other studies have connected emotional intelligence with job satisfaction.

Studies have shown that workers with higher scores on measures of EI also tend to be ranked higher on criteria of interpersonal functioning, leadership abilities, and stress management.

While standard intelligence was associated with leadership success, it alone was not enough. People who are prosperous at work are not just brilliant; they also have a high EI.

But emotional intelligence is not simply for CEOs and senior executives.

It is a quality that is essential at every level of a person’s career, from university students looking for internships to seasoned workers hoping to take on a leadership role.

Emotional intelligence is critical to success if one wants to succeed in the workplace and move up the career ladder.

Can emotional intelligence be taught?

As it turns out, the question whether emotional intelligence can be learned is not a straightforward one to answer.

Some psychologists and researchers claim that emotional intelligence is a skill that is not quickly learned or improved. Other psychologists and researchers, though, believe it can be improved with practice.

One key to improving EI is sustained practice – especially in high-stakes situations. Referring back to the above tips, one could read them and say those guidelines are pretty straightforward.

But, the challenging task is to do these practices in real-time and consistently. It takes practice to develop these skills. Then as you acquire them, you have to rehearse them under stress.

Can emotional intelligence be measured?

Several different assessments have arisen to gauge levels of emotional intelligence. These trials typically fall into one of two types: self-report tests and ability tests.

Self-report tests are the most abundant because they are the quickest to administer and score. Respondents respond to questions or statements on such tests by rating their behaviors.

For example, on a comment such as “I sense that I understand how others are feeling,” a test-taker might describe the statement as strongly agree, somewhat agree, somewhat disagree, or strongly disagree.

On the other hand, ability tests involve people responding to situations and assessing their skills. These tests often require people to demonstrate their abilities, which a third party rates.

If one is taking an emotional intelligence trial issued by a mental health professional, here are two measures that could be used: Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) and the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI).

What is the dark side of emotional intelligence?

The dark side of emotional intelligence is using one’s understanding of emotions manipulatively, to deceive, control, or exploit others.

High emotional intelligence can mask hidden agendas, enabling insincere charm or feigned empathy, potentially leading to deceitful or self-serving actions.

Boyatzis, R. E., & Goleman, D. (2011). Emotional and social competency inventory (ESCI): A user guide for accredited practitioners.  Retrieved December ,  17 , 2019.

Eurich, T. (2018). What self-awareness really is (and how to cultivate it).  Harvard Business Review , 1-9.

Gardner, H. E. (2000). Intelligence reframed: Multiple intelligences for the 21st century . Hachette UK.

Goleman, D. (1996).  Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ . Bloomsbury Publishing.

Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence.  Intelligence, 27 (4), 267-298.

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1993). The intelligence of emotional intelligence.  Intelligence, 17 (4), 433-442.

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (2007).  Mayer-Salovery-Caruso emotional intelligence test . Toronto: Multi-Health Systems Incorporated.

Payne, W. L. (1985). A study of emotion: developing emotional intelligence; self-integration; relating to fear, pain and desire.

Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence .  Imagination, cognition and personality ,  9 (3), 185-211.

Thorndike, R. L., & Stein, S. (1937). An evaluation of the attempts to measure social intelligence.  Psychological Bulletin ,  34 (5), 275.

Wechsler, D., & Kodama, H. (1949).  Wechsler intelligence scale for children  (Vol. 1). New York: Psychological corporation.

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Emotional Intelligence: How We Perceive, Evaluate, Express, and Control Emotions

Is EQ more important than IQ?

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Shereen Lehman, MS, is a healthcare journalist and fact checker. She has co-authored two books for the popular Dummies Series (as Shereen Jegtvig).

Hinterhaus Productions / Getty Images 

• How Do I Know If I'm Emotionally Intelligent?
• How It's Measured

Why Is Emotional Intelligence Useful?

• Ways to Practice
• Tips for Improving

Emotional intelligence (AKA EI or EQ for "emotional quotient") is the ability to perceive, interpret, demonstrate, control, evaluate, and use emotions to communicate with and relate to others effectively and constructively. This ability to express and control  emotions  is essential, but so is the ability to understand, interpret, and respond to the emotions of others. Some experts suggest that emotional intelligence is  more important than IQ  for success in life.

While being book-smart might help you pass tests, emotional intelligence prepares you for the real world by being aware of the feelings of others as well as your own feelings.

How Do I Know If I'm Emotionally Intelligent?

Some key signs and examples of emotional intelligence include:

• An ability to identify and describe what people are feeling
• An awareness of personal strengths and limitations
• Self-confidence and self-acceptance
• The ability to let go of mistakes
• An ability to accept and embrace change
• A strong sense of curiosity, particularly about other people
• Feelings of empathy and concern for others
• Showing sensitivity to the feelings of other people
• Accepting responsibility for mistakes
• The ability to manage emotions in difficult situations

How Is Emotional Intelligence Measured?

A number of different assessments have emerged to measure levels of emotional intelligence. Such tests generally fall into one of two types: self-report tests and ability tests.

Self-report tests are the most common because they are the easiest to administer and score. On such tests, respondents respond to questions or statements by rating their own behaviors. For example, on a statement such as "I often feel that I understand how others are feeling," a test-taker might describe the statement as disagree, somewhat disagree, agree, or strongly agree.

Ability tests, on the other hand, involve having people respond to situations and then assessing their skills. Such tests often require people to demonstrate their abilities, which are then rated by a third party.

If you are taking an emotional intelligence test administered by a mental health professional, here are two measures that might be used:

• Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) is an ability-based test that measures the four branches of Mayer and Salovey's EI model. Test-takers perform tasks designed to assess their ability to perceive, identify, understand, and manage emotions.
• Emotional and Social Competence Inventory (ESCI)   is based on an older instrument known as the Self-Assessment Questionnaire and involves having people who know the individual offer ratings of that person’s abilities in several different emotional competencies. The test is designed to evaluate the social and emotional abilities that help distinguish people as strong leaders.

There are also plenty of more informal online resources, many of them free, to investigate your emotional intelligence.

Try Our Free Emotional Intelligence Test

Our fast and free EQ test can help you determine whether or not your responses to certain situations in life indicate a high level of emotional intelligence:

What Are the 4 Components of Emotional Intelligence?

Researchers suggest that there are four different levels of emotional intelligence including emotional perception, the ability to reason using emotions, the ability to understand emotions, and the ability to manage emotions.  

• Perceiving emotions : The first step in understanding emotions is to perceive them accurately. In many cases, this might involve understanding nonverbal signals such as body language and facial expressions.
• Reasoning with emotions : The next step involves using emotions to promote thinking and cognitive activity. Emotions help prioritize what we pay attention and react to; we respond emotionally to things that garner our attention.
• Understanding emotions :   The emotions that we perceive can carry a wide variety of meanings. If someone is expressing angry emotions, the observer must interpret the cause of the person's anger and what it could mean. For example, if your boss is acting angry, it might mean that they are dissatisfied with your work, or it could be because they got a speeding ticket on their way to work that morning or that they've been fighting with their partner.
• Managing emotions : The ability to manage emotions effectively is a crucial part of emotional intelligence and the highest level. Regulating emotions and responding appropriately as well as responding to the emotions of others are all important aspects of emotional management.

Recognizing emotions - yours and theirs - can help you understand where others are coming from, the decisions they make, and how your own feelings can affect other people.

The four branches of this model are arranged by complexity with the more basic processes at the lower levels and the more advanced processes at the higher levels. For example, the lowest levels involve perceiving and expressing emotion, while higher levels require greater conscious involvement and involve regulating emotions.

Interest in teaching and learning social and emotional intelligence has grown in recent years. Social and emotional learning (SEL) programs have become a standard part of the curriculum for many schools.

The goal of these initiatives is not only to improve health and well-being but also to help students succeed academically and prevent bullying. There are many examples of how emotional intelligence can play a role in daily life.

Thinking Before Reacting

Emotionally intelligent people know that emotions can be powerful, but also temporary. When a highly charged emotional event happens, such as becoming angry with a co-worker, the emotionally intelligent response would be to take some time before responding.

This allows everyone to calm their emotions and think more rationally about all the factors surrounding the argument.

Greater Self-Awareness

Emotionally intelligent people are not only good at thinking about how other people might feel but they are also adept at understanding their own feelings. Self-awareness allows people to consider the many different factors that contribute to their emotions.

Empathy for Others

A large part of emotional intelligence is being able to think about and empathize with how other people are feeling. This often involves considering how you would respond if you were in the same situation.

People who have strong emotional intelligence are able to consider the perspectives, experiences, and emotions of other people and use this information to explain why people behave the way that they do.

How You Can Practice Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence can be used in many different ways in your daily life. Some different ways to practice emotional intelligence include:

• Being able to accept criticism and responsibility
• Being able to move on after making a mistake
• Being able to say no when you need to
• Being able to share your feelings with others
• Being able to solve problems in ways that work for everyone
• Having empathy for other people
• Having great listening skills
• Knowing why you do the things you do
• Not being judgemental of others

Emotional intelligence is essential for good interpersonal communication. Some experts believe that this ability is more important in determining life success than IQ alone. Fortunately, there are things that you can do to strengthen your own social and emotional intelligence.

Understanding emotions can be the key to better relationships, improved well-being, and stronger communication skills. 

Press Play for Advice On How to Be Less Judgmental

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Are There Downsides to Emotional Intelligence?

Having lower emotional intelligence skills can lead to a number of potential pitfalls that can affect multiple areas of life including work and relationships. People who have fewer emotional skills tend to get in more arguments, have lower quality relationships, and have poor emotional coping skills.

Being low on emotional intelligence can have a number of drawbacks, but having a very high level of emotional skills can also come with challenges. For example:

• Research suggests that people with high emotional intelligence may actually be less creative and innovative.
• Highly emotionally intelligent people may have a hard time delivering negative feedback for fear of hurting other people's feelings.
• Research has found that high EQ can sometimes be used for manipulative and deceptive purposes.

Can I Boost My Emotional Intelligence?

While some people might come by their emotional skills naturally, some evidence suggests that this is an ability you can develop and improve. For example, a 2019 randomized controlled trial found that emotional intelligence training could improve emotional abilities in workplace settings.

Being emotionally intelligent is important, but what steps can you take to improve your own social and emotional skills? Here are some tips.

If you want to understand what other people are feeling, the first step is to pay attention. Take the time to listen to what people are trying to tell you, both verbally and non-verbally. Body language can carry a great deal of meaning. When you sense that someone is feeling a certain way, consider the different factors that might be contributing to that emotion.

Picking up on emotions is critical, but we also need to be able to put ourselves into someone else's shoes in order to truly understand their point of view. Practice empathizing with other people. Imagine how you would feel in their situation. Such activities can help us build an emotional understanding of a specific situation as well as develop stronger emotional skills in the long-term.

The ability to reason with emotions is an important part of emotional intelligence. Consider how your own emotions influence your decisions and behaviors. When you are thinking about how other people respond, assess the role that their emotions play.

Why is this person feeling this way? Are there any unseen factors that might be contributing to these feelings? How to your emotions differ from theirs? As you explore such questions, you may find that it becomes easier to understand the role that emotions play in how people think and behave.

Drigas AS, Papoutsi C. A new layered model on emotional intelligence . Behav Sci (Basel). 2018;8(5):45. doi:10.3390/bs8050045

Salovey P, Mayer J. Emotional Intelligence . Imagination, Cognition, and Personality.  1990;9(3):185-211.

Feist GJ. A meta-analysis of personality in scientific and artistic creativity . Pers Soc Psychol Rev . 1998;2(4):290-309. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0204_5

Côté S, Decelles KA, Mccarthy JM, Van kleef GA, Hideg I. The Jekyll and Hyde of emotional intelligence: emotion-regulation knowledge facilitates both prosocial and interpersonally deviant behavior . Psychol Sci . 2011;22(8):1073-80. doi:10.1177/0956797611416251

Gilar-Corbi R, Pozo-Rico T, Sánchez B, Castejón JL. Can emotional intelligence be improved? A randomized experimental study of a business-oriented EI training program for senior managers . PLoS One . 2019;14(10):e0224254. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0224254

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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A New Layered Model on Emotional Intelligence

Athanasios s. drigas.

1 Net Media Lab, Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications, National Centre for Scientific Research “Demokritos”, 15310 Agia Paraskevi, Greece

Chara Papoutsi

2 Net Media Lab, Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications, NCSR Demokritos, 15310 Agia Paraskevi, Greece; [email protected]

Emotional Intelligence (EI) has been an important and controversial topic during the last few decades. Its significance and its correlation with many domains of life has made it the subject of expert study. EI is the rudder for feeling, thinking, learning, problem-solving, and decision-making. In this article, we present an emotional–cognitive based approach to the process of gaining emotional intelligence and thus, we suggest a nine-layer pyramid of emotional intelligence and the gradual development to reach the top of EI.

1. Introduction

Many people misinterpret their own emotional reactions, fail to control emotional outbursts, or act strangely under various pressures, resulting in harmful consequences to themselves, others, and society. Other people have a greater ability to perform sophisticated information processing about emotions and emotion-relevant stimuli and to use this information as a guide for their own thoughts and behaviors and for others, in general [ 1 ].

Emotional intelligence (EI) is of great interest to scientists and researchers. Studies, from the past till today, continue to be made about the nature of emotional intelligence, its measurement, its structure, its positive and negative effects, and its relationship to many research fields [ 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Its influence on daily life in the short and long-term is important as well.

Intellectual ability is significant to succeed in everyday life within many different sectors [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 ]. Intelligence is an important aspect of the mind that includes a lot of cognitive abilities such as one’s abilities in logic, planning, problem-solving, adaptation, abstract thinking, understanding of ideas, language use, and learning [ 13 , 14 ]. However, there are some other important components that contribute to the aforementioned success including social capabilities, emotional adaptation, emotional sensitivity, empathy, practical intelligence, and incentives [ 15 , 16 ]. EI also focuses on the character and aspects of self-control, such as the ability to delay pleasures, the tolerance to frustrations, and the regulation of impulses (ego strength) [ 17 ]. Emotional intelligence also speaks to many areas of the psychological sciences—for example, the neuroscience of emotion, the theory of self-regulation, and metacognition—as well as the search for human cognitive abilities beyond what is traditionally known as academic intelligence [ 18 , 19 ].

In this paper, we are going to present the most discussed theories of intelligence, of emotions, and of emotional intelligence. We then present the construction of a 9-layer model (pyramid) of emotional intelligence which aims to show the levels a human must pass in order to reach the upper level of EI—emotional unity. The stratification of the pyramid of emotional intelligence is in tune with the pyramid of the functions of general intelligence [ 20 ].

2. Research Findings

2.1. theories of intelligence.

The structure, nature, and characteristics of human intelligence have been discussed and have been the subject of debate since the time of Plato and Aristotle, at least a thousand years ago. Plato defined intelligence as a “learning tune” [ 21 , 22 ]. Under this concept, Plato and Aristotle put forth the three components of mind and soul: intellect, sentiment, and will [ 23 ]. The word “intelligence” comes from two Latin words: intellegentia and ingenium. The first word, considered in the way Cicero used the term, means “understanding” and “knowledge”. The second word means “natural predisposition” or “ability” [ 24 ].

At various points in recent history, researchers have proposed different definitions to explain the nature of intelligence [ 22 ]. The following are some of the most important theories of intelligence that have emerged over the last 100 years.

Charles Spearman [ 25 ] developed the theory of the two factors of intelligence using data factor analysis (a statistical method) to show that the positive correlations between mental examinations resulted from a common underlying agent. Spearman suggested that the two-factor theory had two components. The first was general intelligence, g , which affected one’s performance in all mental tasks and supported all intellectual tasks and intellectual abilities [ 25 , 26 ]. Spearman believed that the results in all trials correlated positively, underlying the importance of general intelligence [ 25 , 27 ]. The second agent Spearman found was the specific factor, s . The specific factor was associated with any unique capabilities that a particular test required, so it differed from test to test [ 25 , 26 ]. Regarding g , Spearman saw that individuals had more or less general intelligence, while s varied from person to person in a job [ 28 ]. Spearman and his followers gave much more importance to general intelligence than to the specific agent [ 25 , 29 ].

In 1938, American psychologist Louis L. Thurstone suggested that intelligence was not a general factor, but a small set of independent factors that were of equal importance. Thurstone formulated a model of intelligence that centered on “Primary Mental Abilities” (PMAs), which were independent groups of intelligence that different individuals possessed in varying degrees. To detect these abilities, Thurstone and his wife, Thelma, thought up of a total of 56 exams. They passed the test bundle to 240 students and analyzed the scores obtained from the tests with new methods of Thurstone’s method of analysis. Thurstone recognized seven primary cognitive abilities: (1) verbal understanding, the ability to understand the notions of words; (2) verbal flexibility, the speed with which verbal material is handled, such as in the production of rhymes; (3) number, the arithmetic capacity; (4) memory, the ability to remember words, letters, numbers, and images; (5) perceptual speed, the ability to quickly discern and distinguish visual details, and the ability to perceive the similarities and the differences between displayed objects; (6) inductive reasoning, the extraction of general ideas and rules from specific information; and (7) spatial visualization, the ability to visualize with the mind and handle objects in three dimensions [ 30 , 31 ].

Joy Paul Guilford extended Thurstone’s work and devoted his life to create the model for the structure of intelligence. SI (Structure of Intellect theory, 1955) contains three dimensions: thought functions, thought content, and thought products. Guilford described 120 different kinds of intelligence and 150 possible combinations. He also discovered the important distinction between convergent and divergent thought. The convergent ability results in how well one follows the instructions, adheres to rules, and tries. The divergent ability decreases depending on whether or not one follows the instructions or if one has a lot of questions, and it usually means that one is doing the standard tests badly [ 32 , 33 ].

The Cattell-Horn Gf-Gc and the Carroll Three-Stratum models are consensual psychometric models that help us understand the construction of human intelligence. They apply new methods of analysis and according to these analyses, there are two basic types of general intelligence: fluid intelligence (gf) and crystallized intelligence (gc). Fluid intelligence represents the biological basis of intelligence. How fast someone thinks and how well they remember are elements of fluid intelligence. These figures increase in adulthood but as we grow older they decrease. Fluid intelligence enables a person to think and act quickly, to solve new problems, and to encode short-term memories. Crystallized intelligence, on the other hand, is the knowledge and skills acquired through the learning process and through experience. Crystallized abilities come from learning and reading and are reflected in knowledge trials, general information, language use (vocabulary), and a wide variety of skills. As long as learning opportunities are available, crystallized intelligence may increase indefinitely during a person’s life [ 14 , 34 ].

In the 1980s, the American psychologist Robert Sternberg proposed an intelligence theory with which he tried to extend the traditional notion of intelligence. Sternberg observed that the mental tests that people are subjected to for various intelligence measurements are often inaccurate and sometimes inadequate to predict the actual performance or success. There are people who do well on the tests but not so well in real situations. Likewise, the opposite occurred as well. According to Sternberg’s triarchic (three-part) theory of intelligence, intelligence consists of three main parts: analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence. Analytical intelligence refers to problem-solving skills, creative intelligence includes the ability to handle new situations using past experiences and current skills, and practical intelligence refers to the ability to adapt to new situations and environments [ 35 , 36 ].

In 1983, psychologist Howard Gardner introduced his theory of Multiple Intelligences (MI), which, at that time, was a fundamental issue in education and a controversial topic among psychologists. According to Gardner, the notion of intelligence as defined through the various mental tests was limited and did not depict the real dimensions of intelligence nor all the areas in which a person can excel and succeed. Gardner argued that there is not only one kind of general intelligence, but rather that there are multiple intelligences and each one is part of an independent system in the brain. The theory outlines eight types of “smart”: Linguistic intelligence (“word smart”), Logical–mathematical intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”), Spatial intelligence (“picture smart”), Bodily–Kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”), Musical intelligence (“music smart”), Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”), Intrapersonal intelligence (“self smart”), and Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”) [ 37 , 38 ].

2.2. Emotions

According to Darwin, all people, irrespective of their race or culture, express emotions using their face and body with a similar way as part of our evolutionary heritage [ 39 , 40 ]. Emotion is often defined as a complex feeling which results in physical and psychological changes affecting thought and behavior. Emotions include feeling, thought, nervous system activation, physiological changes, and behavioral changes such as facial expressions. Emotions seem to dominate many aspects of our lives as we have to recognize and to respond to important events related to survival and/or the maintenance of prosperity and, therefore, emotions serve various functions [ 41 ]. Emotions are also recognized as one of the three or four fundamental categories of mental operations. These categories include motivation, emotion, cognition, and consciousness [ 42 ]. Most major theories of emotion agree that cognitive processes are a very important source of emotions and that feelings comprise a powerful motivational system that significantly influences perception, cognition, confrontation, and creativity [ 43 ]. Researchers have been studying how and why people feel emotion for a long time so various theories have been proposed. These include evolutionary theories [ 44 , 45 ], the James-Lange Theory [ 46 , 47 ], the Cannon-Bard Theory [ 48 ], Schacter and Singer’s two-factor theory [ 49 , 50 ], and cognitive appraisal [ 51 ].

2.3. Emotional Intelligence

Anyone can become angry-that is easy. But to be angry with the right person, to the right degree, at the right time, for the right purpose, and in the right way-this is not easy. —Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics

Thorough research has indicated the important role that emotions play in our lives in many fields [ 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 ]. Researchers have found that Emotional Intelligence is equal to or sometimes much more important than I.Q [ 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 ]. Emotion and intelligence are heavily linked [ 61 , 62 , 63 ]. If you are aware of your own and others’ feelings, this will help you manage behaviors and relationships and predict success in many sectors [ 64 , 65 , 66 ].

Emotional Intelligence is the ability to identify, understand, and use emotions positively to manage anxiety, communicate well, empathize, overcome issues, solve problems, and manage conflicts. According to the Ability EI model, it is the perception, evaluation, and management of emotions in yourself and others [ 67 ]. Emotional Intelligence (EI), or the ability to perceive, use, understand, and regulate emotions, is a relatively new concept that attempts to connect both emotion and cognition [ 68 ].

Emotional Intelligence first appeared in the concept of Thorndike’s “social intelligence” in 1920 and later from the psychologist Howard Gardner who, in 1983, recommended the theory of multiple intelligence, arguing that intelligence includes eight forms. American psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer, who together introduced the concept in 1990 [ 69 ], define emotional intelligence “as the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions”. People who have developed their emotional intelligence have the ability to use their emotions to direct thoughts and behavior and to understand their own feelings and others’ feelings accurately. Daniel Goleman, an American writer, psychologist, and science journalist, disclosed the EI concept in his book named “Emotional Intelligence” [ 58 , 59 , 60 ]. He extended the concept to include general social competence. Goleman suggested that EI is indispensable for the success of one’s life.

Mayer and Salovey suggested that EI is a cognitive ability, which is separate but also associated with general intelligence. Specifically, Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, and Sitarenios [ 70 ] suggested that emotional intelligence consists of four skill dimensions: (1) perceiving emotion (i.e., the ability to detect emotions in faces, pictures, music, etc.); (2) facilitating thought with emotion (i.e., the ability to harness emotional information in one’s thinking); (3) understanding emotions (i.e., the ability to understand emotional information); and (4) managing emotions (i.e., the ability to manage emotions for personal and interpersonal development). These skills are arranged hierarchically so that the perceptual emotion has a key role facilitating thinking, understanding emotions, and managing emotions. These branches are arising from higher order basic skills, which are evolved as a person matures [ 67 , 71 ].

According to Bar-On emotional-social intelligence is composed of emotional and social abilities, skills and facilitators. All these elements are interrelated and work together. They play a key role in how effectively we understand ourselves and others, how easily we express ourselves, but also in how we deal with daily demands [ 72 ].

Daniel Goleman (1998) defines Emotional Intelligence/Quotient as the ability to recognize our own feelings and those of others, to motivate ourselves, and to handle our emotions well to have the best for ourselves and for our relationships. Emotional Intelligence describes capacities different from, but supplementary to, academic intelligence. The same author introduced the concept of emotional intelligence and pointed out that it is composed of twenty-five elements which were subsequently compiled into five clusters: Self Awareness, Self-Regulation, Motivation, Empathy, and Social Skills [ 61 , 73 ].

Petrides and Furnham (2001) developed the Trait Emotional Intelligence model which is a combination of emotionally-related self-perceived abilities and moods that are found at the lowest levels of personality hierarchy and are evaluated through questionnaires and rating scales [ 74 ]. The trait EI essentially concerns our perceptions of our inner emotional world. An alternative tag for the same construct is trait emotional self-efficacy. People with high EI rankings believe that they are “in touch” with their feelings and can regulate them in a way that promotes prosperity. These people may enjoy higher levels of happiness. The trait EI feature sampling domain aims to provide complete coverage of emotional aspects of personality. Trait EI rejects the idea that emotions can be artificially objectified in order to be graded accurately along the IQ lines [ 75 ]. The adult sampling domain of trait EI contains 15 facets: Adaptability, Assertiveness, Emotion perception (self and others), Emotion expression, Emotion management (others’), Emotion regulation, Impulsiveness (low), Relationships, Self-esteem, Self-motivation, Social awareness, Stress management, Trait empathy, Trait happiness, and Trait optimism [ 76 ].

Research on emotional intelligence has been divided into two distinct areas of perspectives in terms of conceptualizing emotional competencies and their measurements. There is the ability EI model [ 77 ] and the trait EI [ 74 ]. Research evidence has consistently supported this distinction by revealing low correlations between the two [ 64 , 78 , 79 , 80 , 81 ].

EI refers to a set of emotional abilities that are supposed to foretell success in the real world above and beyond general intelligence [ 82 , 83 ]. Some findings have shown that high EI leads to better social relationships for children [ 84 ], better social relations for adults [ 85 ], and more positive perception of individuals from others [ 85 ]. High EI appears to influence familial relationships, intimate relationships [ 86 ], and academic achievement positively [ 87 , 88 ]. Furthermore, EI consistently seems to predict better social relations during work performance and in negotiations [ 89 , 90 ] and a better psychological well-being [ 91 ].

3. The Pyramid of Emotional Intelligence: The Nine-Layer Model

Τaking into consideration all the theories of the past concerning pyramids and layer models dealing with EI, we analyze the levels of our pyramid step by step ( Figure 1 ), their characteristics, and the course of their development so as to conquer the upper levels, transcendence and emotional unity, as well as pointing out the significance of EI. Our model includes features from both constructions (the Ability EI and the Trait EI model) in a more hierarchical structure. The ability level refers to awareness (self and social) and to management. The level of trait refers to the mood associated with emotions and the tendency to behave in a certain way in emotional states considering other important elements that this construction includes as well. The EI pyramid is also based on the concepts of intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligences of Gardner [ 92 , 93 ].

The emotional intelligence pyramid (9-layer model).

3.1. Emotional Stimuli

Every day we receive a lot of information-stimuli from our environment. We need to incorporate this information and the various stimuli into categories because they help us to understand the world and the people that surround us better [ 94 ]. The direct stimulus of emotions is the result of the sensorial stimulus processing by the cognitive mechanisms [ 95 , 96 , 97 ]. When an event occurs, sensorial stimuli are received by the agent. The cognitive mechanisms process this stimulus and produce the emotional stimuli for each of the emotions that will be affected [ 98 ]. Emotional stimuli are processed by a cognitive mechanism that determines what emotion to feel and subsequently produce an emotional reaction which may influence the occurrence of the behavior. Emotional stimuli are generally prioritized in perception, are detected more quickly, and gain access to conscious awareness [ 99 , 100 ]. The emotional stimuli constitute the base of the pyramid of emotional intelligence pointing to the upper levels of it.

3.2. Emotion Recognition

The next level of the pyramid after the emotional stimuli is the recognition of emotions simultaneously expressed at times. Accuracy is higher when emotions are both expressed and recognized. Emotion recognition includes the ability to accurately decode the expressions of others’ feelings, usually transmitted through non-verbal channels (i.e., the face, body, and voice). This ability is positively linked to social ability and interaction, as non-verbal behavior is a reliable source of information on the emotional states of others [ 101 ]. Elfenbein and Ambady commented that emotion recognition is the most “reliably validated component of emotional intelligence” linked to a variety of positive organizational outcomes [ 102 ]. The ability to express and recognize emotions in others is an important part of the daily human interaction and interpersonal relationships as it is a representation of a critical component of human socio-cognitive capacities [ 103 ].

3.3. Self-Awareness

Socrates mentions in his guiding principle, “know thyself”. Aristotle also mentioned “knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom”. These two ancient Greek aphorisms encompass the concept of self-awareness, a cognitive capacity, which is the following step in our pyramid after having conquered the previous two. Self-Awareness is having a clear perception of your personality, including your strengths, weaknesses, thoughts, beliefs, motives, and feelings [ 104 ]. As you develop self-awareness, you are able to change your thoughts which, in turn, allow you to change your emotions and eventually change your actions. Crisp and Turner [ 105 ] described self-awareness as a psychological situation in which people know their traits, feelings, and behaviors. Alternatively, it can be defined as the realization of oneself as an individual entity. Developing self-awareness is the first step to develop your EI. The lack of self-awareness in terms of understanding ourselves and having a sense of ourselves that has roots in our own values impedes our ability to self-manage and it is difficult, if not impossible, to know and to respond to the others’ feelings [ 61 ]. Daniel Goleman [ 106 , 107 ] recognized self-awareness as emotional consciousness, accurate self-esteem, and self-confidence. Knowing yourself means having the ability to understand your feelings, having an accurate self-assessment of your own strengths and weaknesses, and showing self-confidence. According to Goleman, self-awareness must be ahead of social awareness, self-management, and relationship management which are important factors of EI.

3.4. Self-Management

Once you have clarified your emotions and the way they can affect the situations and other people, you are ready to move to the EQ area of self-management. Self-management allows you to control your reactions so that you are not driven by impulsive behaviors and feelings. With self-management, you become more flexible, more extroverted, and receptive, and at the same time less critical on situations and less reactionary to people’s attitudes. Moreover, you know more about what to do. When you have recognized your feelings and have accepted them, you are then able to manage them much better. The more you learn on the way to manage your emotions, the greater your ability will be to articulate them in a productive way when need be [ 108 ]. This does not mean that you must crush your negative emotions, but if you realize them, you can amend your behavior and make small or big changes to the way you react and manage your feelings even if the latter is negative. The second emotional intelligence (EQ) quadrant of self-management consists of nine key components: (1) emotional self-control; (2) integrity; (3) innovation and creativity; (4) initiative and prejudice to action; (5) resilience; (6) achievement guide; (7) stress management; (8) realistic optimism and (9) intentionality [ 80 , 106 , 107 , 109 ].

3.5. Social Awareness—Empathy—The Discrimination of Emotions

Since you have cultivated the ability to understand and control your own emotions, you are ready to move on to the next step of recognizing and understanding the emotions of people around you. Self-Management is a prerequisite for Social-Awareness. It is an expansion of your emotional awareness. Social Awareness refers to the way people handle relationships and awareness of others’ feelings, needs, and concerns [ 110 ]. The Social Awareness cluster contains three competencies: Empathy, Organizational Awareness, Service Orientation [ 107 ]. Being socially aware means that you understand how you react to different social situations, and effectively modify your interactions with other people so that you achieve the best results. Empathy is the most important and essential EQ component of social awareness and is directly related to self-awareness. It is the ability to put oneself in another’s place (or “shoes”), to understand him as a person, to feel him and to take into account this perspective related to this person or with any person at a time. With empathy, we can understand the feelings and thoughts of others from their own perspective and have an active role in their concerns [ 111 ]. The net result of social awareness is the ongoing development of social skills and a personal continuous improvement process [ 107 , 112 , 113 ]. Discrimination of emotions belongs to that level of the pyramid because it is a rather intellectual ability that gives people the capacity to discriminate with accuracy between different emotions and label them appropriately. The latter in relation to the other cognitive functions contributes to guide thinking and behavior [ 77 ].

3.6. Social Skills—Expertise

After having developed social awareness, the next level in the pyramid of emotional intelligence that helps raising our EQ is that of social skills. In emotional intelligence, the term social skills refers to the skills needed to handle and influence other people’s emotions effectively to manage interactions successfully. These abilities range from being able to tune into another person’s feelings and understand how they feel and think about things, to be a great collaborator and team player, to expertise at emotions of others and at negotiations. It is all about the ability to get the best out of others, to inspire and to influence them, to communicate and to build bonds with them, and to help them change, grow, develop, and resolve conflict [ 114 , 115 , 116 ]. Social skills under the branch of emotional intelligence can include Influence, Leadership, Developing Others, Communication, Change Catalyst, Conflict Management, Building Bonds, Teamwork, and Collaboration [ 61 ]. Expertise in emotions could be characterized as the ability to increase sensitivity to emotional parameters and the ability not only to accurately determine the relevance of emotional dynamics to negotiation but also the ability to strategically expose the emotions of the individual and respond to emotions stemming from others [ 117 ].

3.7. Self-Actualization—Universality of Emotions

As soon as all six of these levels have been met, the individual has reached the top of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs; Self-Actualization. Every person is capable and must have the will to move up to the level of self-actualization. Self-Actualization, according to Maslow [ 118 , 119 , 120 ], is the realization of personal potential, self-fulfillment, pursuing personal development and peak experiences. It is important to note that self-actualization is a continual process of becoming, rather than a perfect state one reaches such as a ‘happy ever after” [ 121 ]. Carl Rogers [ 122 , 123 ] also created a theory that included a “growth potential” whose purpose was to incorporate in the same way the “real self” and the “ideal self”, thereby cultivating the appearance of the “fully functioning person”. Self-actualization is one of the most important EI skills. It is a measure of your sense that you have a substantial personal commitment to life and that you are offering the gifts to your world that are most important for you. Reuven Bar-On [ 124 ] illustrates the close relationship between emotional intelligence and self-actualization. His research led him to conclude that “you can actualize your potential capacity for personal growth only after you are socially and emotionally effective in meeting your needs and dealing with life in general”. Self-actualizers feel empathy and kinship towards humanity as a whole and therefore, that cultivates the universality of emotions, so that those they have emotional intelligence in one culture probably have emotional intelligence in another culture too and they have the ability to understand the difference of emotions and their meanings despite the fact that sometimes emotions are culturally dependent [ 125 , 126 ].

3.8. Transcendence

Maslow also proposed that people who have reached self-actualization will sometimes experience a state he referred to as “transcendence”. In the level of Transcendence, one helps others to self-actualize, find self-fulfillment, and realize their potential [ 127 , 128 ]. The emotional quotient is strong and those who have reached that level try to help other people understand and manage their own and others’ emotions too. Transcendence refers to the much higher and more comprehensive or holistic levels of human consciousness, by behaving and associating, as ends rather than as means, to ourselves, to important others, to human in general, to other species, to nature, and to the world [ 129 ]. Transcendence is strongly correlated with self-esteem, emotional well-being and global empathy. Self-transcendence is the experience of seeing yourself and the world in a way that is not impeded by the limits of one’s ego identity. It involves an increased sense of meaning and relevance to others and to the world [ 130 , 131 ]. In his perception of transcendence Plato affirmed the existence of absolute goodness that he characterized as something that cannot be described and it is only known through intuition. His ideas are divine objects that are transcendent of the world. Plato also speaks of gods, of God, of the cosmos, of the human soul, and of that which is real in material things as transcendental [ 132 ]. Self-transcendence can be expressed in various ways, behaviors and perspectives like the exchange of wisdom and emotions with others, the integration of physical/natural changes of aging, the acceptance of death as part of life, the interest in helping others and learning about the world, the ability to leave your losses behind, and the finding of spiritual significance in life [ 133 ].

3.9. Emotional Unity

Emotional unity is the final level in our pyramid of emotional intelligence. It is an intentionally positive oriented dynamic, in a sense that it aims towards reaching and keeping a dominance of emotions, which inform the subject that he or she is controlling the situation or the setting in an accepted shape. This reached level of emotional unity in the subject can be interpreted as an outcome of emotional intelligence [ 134 ]. The emotional unity is an internal harmony. In emotional unity one feels intense joy, peace, prosperity, and a consciousness of ultimate truth and the unity of all things. In a symbiotic world, what you do for yourself, you ultimately do for another. It all starts with our love for ourselves, so that we can then channel this important feeling to everything that exists around us [ 135 ]. Not only in human beings, but also in animals, plants, oceans, rocks, and so forth. All it takes is to see the spark of life and miracle in everything and be more optimistic. The point is that somehow, we are all interconnected, and the more we delve deeper our heart and follow it, the less likely it will be for us to do things that can harm others or the planet in general [ 136 ]. The others are not separate from us. Emotional unity emanates humility and empathy that bears with the imperfections of the other. Plato in Parmenides also talks about unity [ 137 ], Being, and One. As Parmenides writes: “Being is ungenerated and indestructible, whole, of one kind and unwavering, and complete. Nor was it, nor will it be, since now it is, all together, one, continuous…” [ 138 , 139 ].

4. Cognitive and Metacognitive Processes in the Emotional Intelligence Pyramid

Cognition encompasses processes such as attention, memory, evaluation, problem-solving language, and perception [ 140 , 141 ]. Cognitive processes use existing knowledge and generate new knowledge. Metacognition is defined as the ability to monitor and reflect upon one’s own performance and capabilities [ 142 , 143 ]. It is the ability of individuals to know their own cognitive functions in order to monitor and to control their learning process [ 144 , 145 ]. The idea of meta-cognition relies on the distinction between two types of cognitions: primary and secondary [ 146 ]. Metacognition includes a variety of elements and skills such as Metamemory, Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Self-Monitoring [ 144 , 147 ].

Metacognition in Emotional Intelligence means that an individual perceives his/her emotional skills [ 148 , 149 ]. Its processes involve emotional-cognitive strategies such as awareness, monitoring, and self-regulation [ 150 ]. Apart from the primary emotion, a person can experience direct thoughts that accompany this emotion as people may have additional cognitive functions that monitor a given emotional situation [ 151 ], they may evaluate the relationship between emotion and judgment [ 152 ], and they may try to manage their emotional reaction [ 153 ] for the improvement of their own personality and that will motivate them to help other people for better interpersonal interactions. Applying the meta-knowledge to socio-emotional contexts should lead to the opportunity to learn to correct one’s emotional errors and to promote the future possibility of a proper response to the situation while maintaining and cultivating the relationship [ 154 ].

In the pyramid of Emotional Intelligence, to move from one layer to another, cognitive and metacognitive processes are occurred ( Figure 2 ).

The cognitive and metacognitive processes to move from a layer to another.

5. Discussion & Conclusions

Emotional Intelligence is a very important concept that has come back to the fore in the last decades and has been the subject of serious discussions and studies by many experts. The importance of general intelligence is neither underestimated nor changed, and this has been proven through many surveys and studies.

On the other hand, however, we must also give emotional intelligence the place it deserves. The cultivation of emotional intelligence can contribute to and provide many positive benefits to people’s lives in accordance with studies, surveys, and with what has been already mentioned. When it comes to happiness and success in life, emotional intelligence (EQ) matters just as much as intellectual ability (IQ) [ 60 ]. Furthermore, it should be noted that despite the various discussions about emotional intelligence, studies have shown that emotional abilities that make up emotional intelligence are very important for the personal and social functioning of humans [ 83 ]. A core network of brain regions such as the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex is the key to a range of emotional abilities and plays a crucial role for human lesions [ 155 ]. Specific Emotional Intelligence components (Understanding Emotions and Managing Emotions) are directly related to the structural microarchitecture of major axial pathways [ 156 ].

With emotional intelligence you acknowledge, accept, and control your emotions and emotional reactions as well as those of other people. You learn about yourself and move on to the understanding of other people’s self. You learn to coexist better, which is very important since we are not alone in this world and because when we want to advance ourselves, and society as a whole, there must be cooperation and harmony. With emotional intelligence, you learn to insist, to control your impulses, to survive despite adversities and difficulties, to hope for and to have empathy. Emotional Intelligence provides you with a better inner world to cope with the outside world according to Trait EI [ 157 ]. It involves and engages higher cognitive functions such as attention, memory, regulation, reasoning, awareness, monitoring, and decision-making. The results show that negative mood and anticipated fear are two factors of the relationship between trait EI and risk-taking in decision-making processes among adults [ 158 ]. Research has also shown this positive correlation between emotional intelligence and cognitive processes and this demonstrates the important role that emotional intelligence plays with emotion and cognition, thus, empowering individuals and their personality and benefitting the whole society [ 159 , 160 , 161 , 162 , 163 , 164 ].

Αs we rise through the levels of the pyramid of emotional intelligence that we have presented, we step closer to its development to the fullest extent, to the universality of emotions, to emotional unity. The human being is good at trying to reach the last level of the pyramid because at each level he cultivates significant emotional, cognitive, and metacognitive skills that are important resources for the successes in one’s personal life, professional life, interpersonal relationships, and in life in general.

Emotional intelligence is a skill that can be learned and developed [ 165 , 166 ]. The model of emotional intelligence has been created with a better distinct classification. It is a more structured evaluation and intervention model with hierarchical levels to indicate each level of emotional intelligence that everyone is at and with operating procedures to contribute to the strengthening of that level and progressive development of the individual to the next levels of emotional intelligence. It is a methodology for the further development and evolution of the individual. This model can have practical applications as an evaluation, assessment, and training tool in any aspect of life such as interpersonal relationships, work, health, special education, general education, and academic success. Researchers claim that an emotional mind is important for a good life as much as an intelligent mind and, in certain cases, it matters more [ 167 ]. The ultimate goal should be to develop Emotional Intelligence, do further research on the benefits of such an important capacity and the correlations between the layered Emotional Intelligence model and other variables.

In this paper, we presented the pyramid of Emotional Intelligence as an attempt to create a new layer model based on emotional, cognitive, and metacognitive skills. In essence, each higher level of the pyramid is an improvement toward one’s personal growth and a higher state of self-regulation, self-organization, awareness, consciousness, attention, and motivation.

Author Contributions

A.S.D. and C.P. contributed equally in the conception, development, writing, editing, and analysis of this manuscript. The authors approved the final draft of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

The Importance of Emotional Intelligence (Incl. Quotes)

Can you manage those feelings without allowing them to swamp you?

Can you motivate yourself to get jobs done? Do you sense the emotions of others and respond effectively?

If you answered yes to these questions, it is likely that you have developed some or all of the skills that form the basis of emotional intelligence.

Emotional intelligence ( EI ) forms the juncture at which cognition and emotion meet, it facilitates our capacity for resilience, motivation, empathy, reasoning, stress management, communication, and our ability to read and navigate a plethora of social situations and conflicts. EI matters and if cultivated affords one the opportunity to realize a more fulfilled and happy life.

Before you read on, we thought you might like to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will not only enhance your ability to understand and work with your emotions but will also give you the tools to foster the emotional intelligence of your clients, students or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is the importance of emotional intelligence, five categories of emotional intelligence (ei/eq), value and benefits of emotional intelligence.

• Self Management, Self Regulation, and EQ

Resilience and EQ

Does emotional intelligence matter more than iq, is there a link between ei and job performance, how about emotional intelligence and motivation, using emotional intelligence to deal with stress, linking ei and decision-making, can emotional intelligence and success be related, goals and ei, how eq affects communication, why emotional intelligence matters for happiness.

• 6 Youtube Videos and TED Talks on Emotional Intelligence

21 Quotes on the Value of Emotional Intelligence

A take-home message.

The term ‘ Emotional Intelligence ’, first coined by psychologists Mayer and Salovey (1990), refers to one’s capacity to perceive, process and regulate emotional information accurately and effectively, both within oneself and in others and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions and to influence those of others.

Emotional intelligence can lead us on the path to a fulfilled and happy life by providing a framework through which to apply standards of intelligence to emotional responses and understand that these responses may be logically consistent or inconsistent with particular beliefs about emotion.

As the workplace evolves, so too does the body of research supporting that individuals (from interns to managers) with higher EI are better equipped to work cohesively within teams, deal with change more effectively, and manage stress – thus enabling them to more efficiently pursue business objectives.

Goleman (1995) recognized five distinct categories of skills which form the key characteristics of EI and proposed that, unlike one’s intelligence quotient (IQ), these categorical skills can be learned where absent and improved upon where present.

Thus, EI, unlike its relatively fixed cousin, IQ, is instead a dynamic aspect of one’s psyche and includes behavioral traits that, when worked upon, can yield significant benefits, from personal happiness and wellbeing to elevated success in a professional context.

Self-awareness is the first step toward introspective self-evaluation and enables one to identify behavioral and emotional aspects of our psychological makeup which we can then target for change.

Emotional self-awareness is also about recognizing what motivates you and, in turn, what brings you fulfillment.

• Self-regulation: the ability to manage one’s negative or disruptive emotions, and to adapt to changes in circumstance. Those who are skilled in self-regulation excel in managing conflict, adapt well to change and are more likely to take responsibility.
• Motivation: the ability to self-motivate, with a focus on achieving internal or self-gratification as opposed to external praise or reward. Individuals who are able to motivate themselves in this way have a tendency to be more committed and goal focused.
• Empathy: the ability to recognize and understand how others are feeling and consider those feelings before responding in social situations. Empathy also allows an individual to understand the dynamics that influence relationships, both personal and in the workplace.
• Social skills: the ability to manage the emotions of others through emotional understanding and using this to build rapport and connect with people through skills such as active listening, verbal and nonverbal communication.
• Self-awareness: the ability to recognize and understand one’s own emotions and their impact on others.

Emotional intelligence has been shown to play a meaningful role in academic success, mental and physical health, as well as attainment in professional domains; the findings of Bar-On (1997) suggested that people with higher EI performed better than those with lower EI in life.

In the modern, agile workplace, there is an ever-increasing emphasis from employers on the importance of EI over academic qualifications.

The importance of EI should not go unappreciated; the ability to understand and manage your emotions is the first step in realizing your true potential. How can we achieve meaningful progress if we don’t recognize and acknowledge the point from where we’re starting? When checking directions on your sat-nav, a destination is useless unless we know the origin.

Whether it be connecting with others and improving interpersonal communication, achieving success in the workplace or social relationships, dealing with stress and improving motivation or refining decision-making skills – emotional intelligence plays a central role in realizing success in both personal and professional life.

The value and benefits of emotional intelligence are vast in terms of personal and professional success. It is a core competency in many vocations, can support the advancement towards academic and professional success, improve relationships, and boost communication skills, the list goes on.

Bar-On (1997) goes so far as to suggest that people with higher EI tend to perform better than those with lower EI in life overall, regardless of IQ. There has been much discussion regarding the benefits of teaching EI in schools , with an emphasis on the idea that emotionally intelligent children grow up to become emotionally intelligent adults.

Proficiency in EI is becoming a vital prerequisite in prolonged or intense areas of ‘emotional work’ such as nursing, social work, the service industry, and management roles. High EI improves the physical and psychological health of people and encourages academic and business performance (Bar-On & Parker, 2000).

Emotional intelligence is an integral part of forming and developing meaningful human relationships. Schutte et al (2001) found that, over a series of studies, there were significant links between high EI and more successful interpersonal relations.

Those participants who exhibited higher levels of EI also showed a greater propensity for empathic perspective taking, cooperation with others, developing affectionate and more satisfying relationships as well as greater social skills in general.

So far, we have focused on the social and psychological benefits of EI, it is important to note that self-awareness – the ability to manage emotions and stress – and the ability to solve personal, as well as interpersonal problems, are also significantly related to physical health.

Chronic stress and the prolonged negative effects which accompany it such as anger, depression, and anxiety can precipitate the onset and progression of hypertension, heart problems, and diabetes; increase susceptibility to viruses, and infections; delay healing of wounds and injuries; and exacerbate conditions such as arthritis and atherosclerosis (Bar-On, 2006, Black & Garbutt, 2002).

The value of EI is immense; developing emotional intelligence encourages many positive traits, from resilience to communication, motivation to stress management, all of which can be seen as conducive to effectively achieving personal, physical and occupational health, and success.

Undoubtedly you know how valuable it is to develop your emotional intelligence abilities, but have you ever wondered exactly why?

Research shows there are many benefits for those with high levels of emotional intelligence, including greater resilience, social skills and connection.

But how do you reach a stage where you can reap these benefits? What barriers stand in your way? How can you help your clients, friends, colleagues, students and even your children develop excellent EI skills?

For answers to all these questions and more, check out our Emotional Intelligence Masterclass© .

Self-Management, Self-Regulation, and EQ

While it’s commonly accepted that our emotions are driven by impulses over which we have little-to-no control, we do have the capacity for self-management and  self-regulation ; the ability to manage – if not control – the resultant emotions and our reactions thereto.

Consider the calm and rational pilot despite the aircraft’s landing gear being jammed or the surgeon who carries on with their duties despite losing a patient.

This form of self-regulation builds on the basis of self-awareness and is an integral part of becoming emotionally intelligent by exercising the capacity to liberate ourselves from impulse-driven reaction (Goleman, 1995).

Self-management builds on this further and allows an individual to use knowledge about their emotions to better manage them in order to self-motivate and to create positive social interactions.

Leaders with an aptitude for self-regulation are far less likely to be aggressively confrontational and make snap decisions. Self-regulation and self-management do not pertain to the absence of anger; rather it’s about remaining in control of your emotions and not allowing your actions to be emotion-driven.

In instances of negative emotions such as anger, EI can help identify what you are feeling and determine the cause of the emotion through reflection and self-analysis allowing one to respond in a rational manner.

Self-regulation is critical in relation to other facets of EI and can be developed from early childhood, adolescence and throughout adulthood. Mastering self-management allows us the opportunity to open the door to the other beneficial aspects of EI while in the absence of self-regulation other competencies, such as effective communication and conflict management, are challenging.

The good news is that it’s never too late to embark on self-management and regulation training; the potential benefits are numerous and should not be underestimated.

The skills enabled through the development of self-regulation can aid success for (but by no means limited to) counselors, psychotherapists, small business owners, managers, and executives.

Those with stronger skills in this area are less likely to become angry or exhibit stress while being more likely to respond calmly to negative environments, harness personal needs in order to achieve goals and remain motivated.

Emotional intelligence is undoubtedly a valuable tool to utilize in the face of adversity; it has the potential to enhance not only leadership abilities and teamwork effectiveness but also personal resilience.

Focusing on the impact of EI on one’s resilience, that is, one’s ability to cope with stressful conditions, research suggests that those who display higher levels of emotional intelligence are less likely to succumb to the negative impacts of stressors.

In the context of a leadership role, one might expect increased responsibility to coincide with elevated potential stressors, highlighting the importance of strong EI for those in leadership or management positions.

An investigation into the relationship between emotional intelligence and the stress process found that participants who displayed higher levels of EI were less likely to be negatively impacted by the presence of stressors.

Participants completed an ability-based test of EI before rating the subjectively perceived threat level posed by two stressors, they then self-reported their emotional reaction to said stressors and were also subjected to physiological stress-response tests in order to assess their response.

In summary, the findings suggested that “ EI facets were related to lower threat appraisals, more modest declines in positive affect, less negative affect and challenge physiological responses to stress… This study provides predictive validity that EI facilitates stress resilience, ” (Schneider, Lyons & Khazon, 2013, pp 909).

Further research suggested a link between higher emotional intelligence, resilience and the propensity for depressive behaviors. In an examination of medical professionals – an occupation with a relatively high ‘burnout’ rate – Olson & Matan (2015) found a positive correlation between EI and resilience as well as a negative correlation between resilience, mindfulness, and self-compassion with the ‘burnout’ rate.

In a nutshell, those with higher levels of emotional intelligence also displayed greater resilience and were less likely to ‘burnout’ or succumb to depression.

These results build on previous research which found EI scores were positively correlated with psychological wellbeing while being negatively correlated with depression and burnout. Given the dynamic nature of EI, the study highlighted the potential ability to reduce one’s susceptibility to depression by way of interventions to increase EI (Lin, Liebert, Tran, Lau, & Salles 2016).

Interestingly, EI is strongly correlated with individual advancement and performance, with evidence suggesting a significant link between one’s resilience and one’s motivation to achieve (Magnano, Craparo & Paolillo, 2016).

Furthermore, it is suggested that resilience plays a mediational role between EI and self-motivated achievement. In other words, emotional intelligence is a prerequisite for resilience, and resilience can lead to greater motivation. Resilience has an underlying perseverance component that motivates endurance in the face of obstacles (Luthans, Avey & Avolio, 2010).

When psychologists began to discuss intelligence, the focus was very much on cognitive aspects relating to memory and problem-solving.

While there had been references to intelligence as having “non-intellective”, as well as “intellective” elements such as affective, personal, and social factors (Wechsler, 1943), historically, the concepts of emotion and intelligence, have been regarded as being mutually exclusive. How can one be intelligent about the emotional aspects of life when emotions can hinder individuals from achieving their goals? (Lloyd, 1979).

In reality, high IQ is no guarantee of success. How successful we are in life is determined by both emotional intelligence and by IQ, though intellect works best when it’s accompanied by high emotional intelligence.

Goleman (1995, 2011) suggests that it is not simply a case of IQ versus EI, instead, both have considerable value. Where IQ tells us the level of cognitive complexity a person can achieve and may to some degree predetermine levels of academic achievement, EI tells us which individuals will make the best leaders within top management positions, for example.

IQ has limited connections to both work and life success. Snarey & Vaillant (1985) suggested it is actually less of a predictor of how well we will do in life than our ability to handle frustration, control emotions, and get along with other people – characteristics not only accounted for but also learnable under current EI theory .

Today, standards of intelligence are still commonly applied to cognitive performance. The misconception that IQ alone is the predictor of success is still very real.

In reality, IQ contributes to around 20% of the factors that determine life success – we all know someone (or perhaps are that person) who has a high IQ yet struggles to do ‘well’. So what accounts for the other 80%? Outwith factors such as social class and plain old luck, Goleman (1995) argued that life success is influenced more by an individual’s ability to engage the 5 aspects of EI detailed above.

While there is much discussion regarding the capability of individuals to improve IQ scores, EI can be developed and refined over time with the condition – just like any skill – that it is given the necessary focus and effort to do so. Many would argue that the ability to connect with and understand others is a more powerful skill to possess than cognitive intellect alone.

In the words of American civil rights activist, Maya Angelou:

“I’ve learned that people will forget what you said, people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how you made them feel.”

The increasing awareness of emotional intelligence in management-focused literature and leadership training suggests the link between emotional intelligence and job performance not only exists but has value in myriad areas.

The workplace represents a distinct social community, separate from our personal lives, in which there is a growing appreciation that higher EI allows a person to understand themselves and others better, communicate more effectively, and cope with challenging situations.

Utilizing and developing emotional intelligence in the workplace can significantly improve the personal and social capabilities of individuals within that workplace.

EI is about managing emotions in order to improve job performance and, in turn, helping people stay calm and to think logically in order to establish good relationships and achieve goals. There is an undeniable relationship between EI and the way senior executives manage their employees – managers with higher emotional intelligence have the tools at their disposal to not only manage stress but to also recognize and address stress in others.

If we think of emotional intelligence in terms of managing stress and building relationships, the link between emotional intelligence skills and job performance is clear, with stress management positively impacting job commitment and satisfaction.

It is also important to mention that EI does not only apply at management level, likewise, employees lower down the business hierarchy with sophisticated emotional intelligence skills have the desire and ability to establish and maintain high-quality relationships in the workplace (Lopes, Salovey, & Straus, 2003).

Additionally, individuals with high EI are better equipped to effectively manage conflicts and, in turn, sustain relationships within the workplace when compared to those with low to moderate levels of EI.

Increasingly, organizations are recognizing the value of employees who exhibit the skills to cope with change and respond accordingly. EI is an important factor in job performance both on an individual level and a group level. In fact, as an individual moves up an organizational hierarchy, the positive effect of emotional intelligence on coping with situations and doing tasks in effective ways increases (Moghadam, Tehrani & Amin, 2011).

Emotional intelligence matters for motivation, and motivation matters for success. Whether it’s in relation to work, personal goals or health, the emotionally intelligent individual understands the deeper meaning of their aspirations and the self-motivation skills required to achieve them.

Goleman (1995) identified four elements that make up motivation: our personal drive to improve, our commitment to the goals we set for ourselves, our readiness to act on opportunities that present themselves to us and our resilience.

Magnano et al (2016) assert that motivation is the basic psychological process we use to stimulate ourselves into action to achieve a desired outcome. Whether it’s picking up the remote to change the TV channel or dedicating hundreds of hours to delivering a project, without motivation we’d be unable to act.

Motivation arouses, energizes, directs and sustains behavior and performance. Intrinsic motivation, that is, motivation that comes from within, pushes us to achieve our full potential. An Emotionally Intelligent individual not only possesses the skills for self-motivation but also the skills required to motivate others, a useful talent to have especially in management positions.

While self-motivation is central to achieving one’s goals, emotionally intelligent leaders within a business can also impact employee motivation. The capacity to recognize the emotions and, in turn, the concerns of others is an invaluable skill to have at your disposal in terms of realizing the most effective ways to motivate teams and individuals.

In a recent study, the EI levels of first-year medical undergraduates were found to be positively related to self-motivation to study medicine and satisfaction with choosing to study medicine (Edussuriya, Marambe, Tennakoon, Rathnayake, Premaratne, Ubhayasiri, & Wickramasinghe, 2018).

A study of senior managers with high EI employed in public sector organizations found that EI augments positive work attitudes, altruistic behavior, and work outcomes. It seems, unsurprisingly, that happy employees are motivated employees.

The ability to better cope with stress and anxiety, for example, is also a useful EI tool in terms of motivation – if one can recognize the emotions that may have a negative impact on motivation, they can be addressed and managed effectively (Carmeli, 2003).

We all endure stressful days, it’s completely normal and completely manageable if you have the right skills at your disposal. An individual with high Emotional Intelligence has sufficient self-awareness to recognize negative feelings and respond accordingly to prevent escalation. Uncontrolled and misunderstood emotions can exacerbate our vulnerability to other mental health issues, like stress, anxiety, and depression.

The skills associated with emotional intelligence can effectively help individuals deal with negative emotional states like stress and promote more positive emotions in its place. Failure to address and manage stress can lead to a further deterioration of one’s mental state and impact our physical health in turn.

Research into the social, psychological and medical components of stress emphasizes the importance of dealing with negative emotions to effectively cope with stress and in turn, reduce the potential for negative psychological and physical health outcomes.

Ganster & Schaubroeck (1991) consider our working and professional environment as the primary source of the stress, going on to suggest the ability to effectively recognize and deal with emotions and emotional information in the workplace is a vital tool in preventing negative stress and coping with occupational stress.

Emotional intelligence allows us to effectively cope with stress. Furthermore, emotionally intelligent people also have the ability to initially evaluate situations as less stressful.

While this has the obvious effect of lessening the adverse impact thereof, it also results in greater life satisfaction and happiness. Conversely, a deficit in EI and self‐regulation can lead to lower subjective wellbeing and a relatively exaggerated response to stressors.

The intelligent use of emotions is a fundamental mechanism in psychological adaptation and wellbeing. Individuals with higher EI have been found to report lower levels of stress and higher levels of happiness, indicating that the ability to regulate perceived stress directly impacts satisfaction (Ruiz‐Aranda, Extremera & Pineda‐Galán, 2014).

The role of emotional intelligence in perceiving occupational stress and preventing employees of human services from negative health outcomes is essential (Oginska-Bulk, 2005).

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Emotional Intelligence is closely related to personal and professional development, it impacts on more than how we manage our behavior and navigate social complexities, it also affects how we make decisions.

Having an authentic understanding of the emotions we feel and why we are feeling them can have a huge impact on our decision-making abilities, if we can’t look at our emotions objectively how can we avoid making misguided decisions based on them?

Superior emotional intelligence is an important element in the prevention of decision making based on emotional biases, whereas lower EI can create anxiety and lead to poor decisions. It’s not about removing emotions completely from the decision-making process, rather it’s about recognizing the emotions that are unrelated to the problem and not allowing them to be influential to the final result.

Negative emotions can impede problem-solving and decision making both in the workplace and personal circumstances. The ability to recognize emotions that are superfluous to forming a rational decision and having the capacity to effectively disregard said emotions, negating their impact on the final outcome, holds obvious benefits for decision-making processes.

Through a series of questions and observations with a focus on improving EI awareness and using EI skills to enhance the decision-making process, Hess & Bacigalupo (2011) found that organizations and individuals benefitted from the practical application of EI in decision-making scenarios.

The observations suggest EI training is an effective strategy to introduce when developing decision-making skills and aids in understanding the potential consequences of bad decision making.

Understanding the causes and consequences of emotions allows an individual to both manage the feeling and make an objective decision. Imagine you have a disagreement with your partner and go to work angry and a little stressed out, later that day you dismiss a proposal from a colleague without really paying attention to what they’re suggesting – you’re just not in the mood.

This form of emotional interference can be detrimental to the decision-making process, those with more developed EI can identify and manage this kind of emotional interference and avoid emotionally-driven decisions.

Much like happiness, ask someone to define success and you will probably get more than one answer. Does your career make you successful? Your intelligence? How much money you have? Finding contentment and happiness? Depending on who you ask, it can be anything!

What is clear is that no matter your definition of success, emotional intelligence can play a vital role in achieving it.

As addressed, it isn’t always the most intelligent people who achieve the greatest success. IQ alone is not enough to excel in life. You can be the most intelligent person in the room, but if you don’t have EI do you have the skills to quieten negative thoughts or the mental fortitude to manage stress? Goleman (1995) described EI as being powerful and, at times, more powerful than IQ in predicting success in life.

It’s your Emotional Intelligence that really helps you achieve your goals and attain greater levels of success, developing EI can greatly influence our success by contributing to increased morale, motivation and greater co-operation (Strickland, 2000).

In the workplace, managers who consistently outperform their peers not only have technical knowledge and experience, but more importantly, they utilize the strategies associated with EI to manage conflict, reduce stress and as a result, improve their success.

There is growing evidence that the range of abilities that constitute what is now commonly known as ’emotional intelligence’ play a key role in determining success – both in one’s personal life and in the workplace – with real-life applications extending to parenting, relationships, businesses, medical professionals, service workers and so many more.

Emotional intelligence enables one to manage emotions in anxiety-provoking situations, such as taking exams at school or university and also has positive associations with success in personal relationships and social functioning.

Success within social relationships can be achieved by using EI competencies to detect others’ emotional states, adopt others’ perspectives, enhance communication, and regulate behavior.

If we think of goals as an aim or desired result, we can see how emotional intelligence skills can help one to achieve personal goals and when exercised correctly by leaders and managers, can also help to drive change and progress in the workplace.

The facets of EI are interwoven, to achieve self-actualization, we must first achieve motivation, in order to achieve motivation we must also be happy in what we are doing. Without happiness, it is a challenge to reach the levels of motivation required to achieve our goals. In essence, if we are not motivated how can we expect to achieve our goals?

There is a wealth of management literature emphasizing the importance of utilizing EI in relation to success and performance, with a focus on how individuals with high EI perform better in all aspects of a management role.

The average level of Emotional Intelligence of team members is reflected by the team process effectiveness and in team goal focus, conversely teams with lower EI skills performed at a lower level of goal achievement. (Jordana, Ashkanasyb, Härtelb, & Hooperb, 2007)

In order to produce our best and achieve our goals, we need positive self-regard, heightened emotional self-awareness, effective problem solving and decision-making skills. We must understand clearly what our goals are, and be motivated to accomplish all we can.

Our ability to be aware of and understand our own emotions can aid our awareness and understanding of the feelings of others.

This sensitivity, or lack thereof, impacts our communication capabilities in both personal and work life.

If we consider communication in the workplace, and more specifically, conflict resolution in the workplace, individuals with higher emotional intelligence are more likely to approach conflict resolution in a collaborative manner, working together with others in order to effectively reach a mutually acceptable outcome.

Relationships in the workplace are affected by how we manage our own emotions and our understanding of the emotions of those around us.

The ability to identify, manage, and understand emotions help us communicate without resorting to confrontation. A person with high EI is better equipped to manage conflict and build meaningful relationships given their elevated capacity to understand, and therefore address, the needs of those with whom they engage. (Lopez, 2005).

Emotional intelligence has unquestionably received greater attention in recent years as a driver of effective communication within teams, including the growing area of virtual teams (also known as remote or geographically dispersed teams). If we examine EQ as a predictor of virtual team success, the results support that not only is EQ a driver of team viability, but also positively impacts the quality of communication (De Mio, 2002).

The process of successful communication and, in terms of conflict, successful negotiation are closely linked to high levels of EQ. Where those with low levels of EQ may react defensively in stressful situations and escalate conflict, individuals with higher emotional intelligence have the skills available at their disposal to communicate effectively without resorting to confrontation or escalating tension.

Happiness seems like a simple enough concept, but have you ever tried to define it? Try now – what is happiness? It is more difficult than it seems because it means something different to each of us. While it is true that happiness means distinctly different things to different people, what is clear is that emotional intelligence really does matter for happiness irrespective of your interpretation.

EI facilitators such as happiness contribute to our self-actualization and self-actualization, in turn, contributes to our happiness in a positive feedback loop. Happiness, according to Wechsler (1943), is the key factor that has a positive impact on intelligent behavior.

Studies examining the link between EI and a range of interpersonal relations found that participants with higher EQ scores had higher scores for empathic perspective taking, self-monitoring and social skills, cooperation with partners, relationship satisfaction, and more affectionate relationships. (Schutte, Malouff, Bobik, Coston, Greeson, Jedlicka, Rhodes, & Wendorf, 2001).

By developing the skills for EI one can reduce stress, which consequently has a positive impact on wellbeing and happiness. In addition to its motivational value, happiness monitors one’s immediate wellbeing and interjects positive mood in the way individuals cope with daily demands, challenges, and pressures.

It is this positivity that encourages the emotional energy required to increase one’s motivational level to get things done, in short, it helps individuals to achieve what they want to achieve and tells them how well they are doing (Bar-On, 2001).

Research conducted by Furnham (2003) indicated that a large amount of the variance found in happiness and wellbeing to be determined by people’s emotion-related self-perceptions and dispositions such as the ability to regulate emotions, relationship skills, and social competence.

While these EI skills are not the sole contributor to levels of happiness, it is important to recognize their impact, with over 50% of the total variances in happiness being attributed to emotional intelligence competencies.

From Aristotle to Freud, the emphasis on the optimization of happiness has been thoroughly discussed. To augment happiness one is often required to use more sophisticated behavioral patterns such as self-regulation to subdue instant pleasure motivations.

Contemporary psychological research continues to recognize the need for this form of optimization. Mischel (1974) explicitly taught children how to delay immediate pleasures for greater long-term gain. The ability to delay gratification is important in many aspects of cognitive development given the capacity for such delays encourages an increase in cognitive competence and social maturity.

17 Exercises To Develop Emotional Intelligence

These 17 Emotional Intelligence Exercises [PDF] will help others strengthen their relationships, lower stress, and enhance their wellbeing through improved EQ.

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6 YouTube Videos and TED Talks on Emotional Intelligence

We recommend watching the following videos for more insight into Emotional Intelligence.

The Power of Emotional Intelligence – Travis Bradberry

You aren’t at the mercy of your emotions – your brain creates them – Lisa Feldman Barrett

6 Steps to Improve Your Emotional Intelligence – Ramona Hacker

Learning Human Values Via Emotional Intelligence – Ruby Bakshi Khurdi

Your Forensic Mirror: Applying Emotional Intelligence To Achieve Success – Paula Clarke

The People Currency: Practicing Emotional Intelligence – Jason Bridges

See also: 15 Most Valuable Emotional Intelligence TED Talks on YouTube .

“Emotional intelligence is a way of recognizing, understanding, and choosing how we think, feel, and act. It shapes our interactions with others and our understanding of ourselves. It defines how and what we learn; it allows us to set priorities; it determines the majority of our daily actions. Research suggests it is responsible for as much as 80 percent of the “success” in our lives.”

Joshua Freedman

“If your emotional abilities aren’t in hand, if you don’t have self-awareness, if you are not able to manage your distressing emotions, if you can’t have empathy and have effective relationships, then no matter how smart you are, you are not going to get very far.”

Daniel Goleman

Maya Angelou

“Anybody can become angry, that is easy; but to be angry with the right person, and to the right degree, and at the right time, and for the right purpose, and in the right way, that is not within everybody’s power, that is not easy.”

“Emotional intelligent people use self-awareness to their advantage to assess a situation, get perspective, listen without judgment, process, and hold back from reacting head on. At times, it means the decision to sit on your decision. By thinking over your situation rationally, without drama, you’ll eventually arrive at other, more sane conclusions.”

Marcel Schwantes

“Never stop because you are afraid – you are never so likely to be wrong.”

Fridtjof Nansen

“We are dangerous when we are not conscious of our responsibility for how we behave, think, and feel.”

Marshall B. Rosenberg

“What really matters for success, character, happiness and life long achievements is a definite set of emotional skills – your EQ — not just purely cognitive abilities that are measured by conventional IQ tests.”

“Whatever is begun in anger, ends in shame.”

Benjamin Franklin

“If you are interested in emotions, learning about them will satisfy your curiosity. If you depend upon emotional knowledge in your job, learning more about emotions would likely help.”

“Do not judge me by my successes, judge me by how many times I fell down and got back up again.”

Nelson Mandela

“When dealing with people, remember you are not dealing with creatures of logic, but with creatures of emotion.”

Dale Carnegie

“It is very important to understand that emotional intelligence is not the opposite of intelligence, it is not the triumph of heart over head – it is the unique intersection of both.”

David Caruso

“Until you make the unconscious conscious, it will direct your life and you will call it fate.”

“It takes something more than intelligence to act intelligently.”

Fyodor Dostoyevsky

“No doubt emotional intelligence is more rare than book smarts, but my experience says it is actually more important in the making of a leader. You just can’t ignore it.”

“Emotional intelligence is what humans are good at and that’s not a sideshow. That’s the cutting edge of human intelligence.”

Ray Kurzweil

“Emotional intelligence is the ability to sense, understand, and effectively apply the power and acumen of emotions as a source of human energy, information, connection, and influence.”

Robert K. Cooper

“The strength of character and emotional intelligence to face your failures and learn from them are at the core of success.”

Robert Kiyosaki

“Surround yourself with amazingly intelligent men and women. The people I work with not only are smarter than I am, possessing both intellectual and emotional intelligence, but also share my determination to succeed. I will not make an important decision without them.”

George Steinbrenner

“What I’ve come to realize is that emotional intelligence was the only way I knew how to lead, and is, in my option, the only way to inspire real change.”

Kevin Allen

Find more emotional intelligence quotes here .

Emotional Intelligence is important, the value and benefits of developing your EQ are extensive and in many areas massively under-utilised. Emotional intelligence is the gateway to living a more fulfilled and happy life, and here’s why:

• Emotional intelligence allows you to understand and manage your emotions in order to self-motivate and to create positive social interactions; it’s the first step in realizing your true potential.
• The value and benefits of EI are vast in terms of personal, academic, and professional success.
• Individuals with higher levels of emotional intelligence are less likely to succumb to the negative impacts of stressors, while effectively help individuals deal with negative emotions and promote more positive emotions in its place.
• Intellect works best when it’s accompanied by high emotional intelligence.
• Utilizing and developing emotional intelligence in the workplace can greatly improve both job performance and the social capabilities of individuals within that workplace.
• Emotional Intelligence is a useful skill to prevent making decisions based on emotional biases.
• The process of successful communication and negotiation are closely linked to high levels of EQ.
• Key EI facilitators such as happiness contribute to our self-actualization.

Thanks for reading! I hope you have enjoyed this journey into the world of emotional intelligence and the important role it plays in achieving personal, physical and occupational success.

For further reading:

• 13 Emotional Intelligence Activities & Exercises
• 26 Best Emotional Intelligence Books (Reviews + Summaries)
• The Emotion Wheel: What is It and How to Use it? [+PDF]

We hope you found this article useful. Don’t forget to download our three Emotional Intelligence Exercises for free .

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Now i know that helping others develop their own EI is part of my own EI growth as well. i plan to put this into action more intentionally to increase overall productivity.

I think it’s important to remember that emotional intelligence is a skill that can be developed and improved over time. By practicing mindfulness, improving communication skills, and working on self-awareness, individuals can become more emotionally intelligent and ultimately, more successful in all aspects of their lives. Thank You!

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• Emma Stanton , specialist registrar in psychiatry 1 ,
• Douglas Noble , public health registrar 2
• 1 South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust
• 2 NHS Tower Hamlets
• dremmastanton{at}gmail.com

Emma Stanton and Douglas Noble consider whether improving emotional intelligence enhances patient safety

Since Lord Darzi’s review of the NHS stated that health services perform better when clinicians are leading, 1 opportunities for doctors to develop leadership skills have increased considerably. Many leadership courses focus on learning about the complicated architecture of the NHS and how to lead within such a structure. Although an understanding of the broader healthcare system is undoubtedly beneficial, further, and crucial, dimensions of leadership are self reflection and effective communication.

Communication skills

Although communication skills are now a central part of the undergraduate and postgraduate medical curriculums, patients continue to complain that their doctor or healthcare professional didn’t listen to them or seemed distracted. 2 For example, we once observed a general practitioner, who, despite the patient articulating their problem succinctly and clearly, immediately responded with the question: “So tell me about the problem?” This is reminiscent of One Flew Over The Cuckoo’s Nest , 3 where on consulting with McMurphy the psychiatrist fails to listen. Instead, he sits behind his desk, takes notes, avoids eye contact, and contributes the occasional condescending remark. This exemplifies what is meant by a lack of emotional intelligence. It not only damages the doctor-patient relationship, it also has potential to compromise patient safety. In McMurphy’s case this contributed to an institutional riot.

Safer care and emotional intelligence

It is widely agreed that determining intelligence quotient alone is insufficient to fully measure cognitive ability. 4 Deeper, more nuanced measures are necessary. Emotional intelligence provides a framework for measuring and articulating the ability and capacity to identify and manage one’s own emotions as well as those of others.

Emotional intelligence is not a new concept. It originates from the phrase “social intelligence,” which was used in 1920 to describe the skills entailed in managing and understanding others.

Emotional intelligence can be described in a variety of ways. One well known way, which is receiving widespread media coverage, is described in Daniel Goleman’s best seller Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ . 5

Goleman describes five core characteristics of emotional intelligence: self awareness; self regulation; motivation; empathy; and social skill. Goleman found that more than 90% of the difference between high performers and average performers in senior leadership resulted from emotional intelligence rather than cognitive ability safety (see table ⇓ ). 6 We ask whether a wider awareness of emotional intelligence could lead to improvements in patient.

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Self awareness

In 2001, a patient was given vincristine spinally. Vincristine should never be given by that route, and the patient tragically died. Two doctors, both employees of the hospital trust for less than six months, had assumed unwarranted competency. Senior supervision was lacking.

The subsequent inquiry stated: “A newcomer assumes that he knows what the organisation is about, assumes others in the setting have the same idea, and practically never bothers to check out these assumptions.” 7 Despite concerns by the less experienced doctor, the culture did not facilitate this concern being articulated.

Possessing sufficient self awareness and confidence to question clinical decisions is a necessary defence against medical error, rather than being a threat or challenge to authority. Self awareness relies on having a deep understanding of emotions; strengths and weaknesses; needs; and drives. Recognising that mood affects everyone’s performance and behaviour and knowing when to ask for help is paramount.

Unquestionably, healthcare can be frustrating. Patients or colleagues may be late, equipment might be unavailable, and unanticipated events are all too frequent. Clinicians are expected to remain calm, adapting to constant changes and disruption without panic or judgment. To do this, impulses must be controlled—for example, rushing to give a blood transfusion in an emergency without stopping to verify the patient’s identity.

Self regulation

People who manage their emotions might be considered to lack passion, whereas individuals with fiery temperaments may be considered charismatic. Self regulation is a skill, from the toolbox of emotional intelligence, that controls and challenges emotions. This involves reflection and thoughtfulness. Being in control of your feelings creates an environment of trust and openness that is palpable to others and vital to improving patient safety. Following a medical error, self regulation means resisting the urge to blame individuals, one of the main facets of the blame culture.

Leaders in both business and health care are frequently high achievers. High levels of motivation are often accompanied by an intense passion to work hard, beyond seeking money and status. Levels of motivation are often played out at appraisal. Clinicians who are highly motivated will often track their progress, whereas those with less motivation may have incomplete or absent records. An inner drive can be attractive, infectious, and effective at building a strong team.

Another dimension of emotional intelligence is empathy—the ability to understand and read the emotional make up of others. Doctors are rarely given feedback about how they make the patient feel emotionally during an appointment or admission. If doctors are excessively preoccupied with their own emotions, they may be unable to consider the feelings of others.

It is well documented that on psychiatry wards, the emotions of those present on the ward will be hugely affected by the suicide or self harm of a patient. Clinical leaders need to be able to react in an emotionally intelligent manner to such intensely emotional events and to bring the healthcare team together to share their feelings and reactions openly.

Social skill

The final dimension of emotional intelligence is proficiency in managing relationships and building networks through social skill. Goleman suggests that social skill is the culmination of other dimensions of emotional intelligence. Individuals with a high level of social skill build bonds widely. Socially skilled individuals are able to move seamlessly across communities, hierarchies, and organisational boundaries. This makes social skill a core leadership competency. Within healthcare, it has the potential to enable the socially skilled healthcare professional to improve safety across primary and secondary care boundaries, and between the realms of mental and physical healthcare.

Innate or acquired?

Whether people can develop emotional intelligence bears similarities to the debate as to whether leadership skills are innate or acquired. In Outliers , Malcolm Gladwell suggests that the key to perceived genius is devoted practice. 8 Although there is a likely genetic component to emotional intelligence, it has been shown to improve with age and practice.

As with leadership, emotional intelligence cannot be taught on a brief didactic course. Behavioural therapy demonstrates that change with lasting results requires positive reinforcement over time. People learn best through motivation, extended practice, and feedback.

Emotional intelligence is essential

Emotional intelligence has moved from “nice to have” to “need to have.” Improvement in patient safety requires healthcare professionals to evolve from emotional unawareness to emotional intelligence. This will not only benefit the professional, the healthcare team, and the wider organisation but, most importantly, has the potential to improve patient safety.

Competing interests: None declared.

• ↵ Department of Health. High quality care for all: NHS next stage review final report . DH, 2008 .
• ↵ Snyder U. The doctor-patient relationship I: the web underscores the divide. Medscape Journal of Medicine 2008 ; 10 : 292 . OpenUrl
• ↵ Kesey K. One Flew Over The Cuckoo’s Nest . Picador Pan Books, 1973 .
• ↵ Gardner H. Frames of mind . Basic Books, 1983 .
• ↵ Goleman G. Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ . Bloomsbury Publishing, 1996 .
• ↵ Goleman D. What makes a leader? Harvard Business Review, 2004 .
• ↵ Department of Health. External inquiry into the adverse incident that occurred at Queen’s Medical Centre, Nottingham, 4 January 2001 . DH, 2001 .
• ↵ Gladwell M. Outliers . Penguin, 2009 .

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Emotional Intelligence Essay

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How Burnout Became Normal — and How to Push Back Against It

• Kandi Wiens

Seven strategies to get back to a healthy baseline.

Slowly but steadily, while we’ve been preoccupied with trying to meet demands that outstrip our resources, grappling with unfair treatment, or watching our working hours encroach upon our downtime, burnout has become the new baseline in many work environments. From the 40% of Gen Z workers who believe burnout is an inevitable part of success, to executives who believe high-pressure, “trial-by-fire” assignments are a required rite of passage, to toxic hustle culture that pushes busyness as a badge of honor, too many of us now expect to feel overwhelmed, over-stressed, and eventually burned out at work. When pressures are mounting and your work environment continues to be stressful, it’s all the more important to take proactive steps to return to your personal sweet spot of stress and remain there as long as you can. The author presents several strategies.

If we’re exposed to something repeatedly, it seems we can become desensitized to almost anything. An event that once evoked shock can come to seem routine; what once prompted alarm can eventually inspire no more than a shrug.

• Kandi Wiens , EdD, is a senior fellow at the University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Education and the author of the book Burnout Immunity : How Emotional Intelligence Can Help You Build Resilience and Heal Your Relationship with Work (HarperCollins, 2024). A nationally known researcher and speaker on burnout, emotional intelligence, and resilience, she developed the Burnout Quiz to help people understand if they’re at risk of burning out.

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

The influence of leader-subordinate emotional intelligence congruence on the flow experience: evidence from the liquor manufacturing industry.

• 1 School of Management, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, China
• 2 Business Research Laboratory, Xifeng Liquor Group Co. Ltd., Xi’an, China

Previous research has provided evidence supporting a positive correlation between emotional intelligence (EI) and flow. However, intriguing findings in the liquor manufacturing industry prompt me to consider the necessity of examining the effects of leader-subordinate EI congruence on flow. Therefore, this article begins with two questions: First, what is the impact of leader-subordinate EI congruence on flow? Second, do two distinct congruent scenarios (i.e., high-high and low-low) exhibit significant nuances that differentially influence flow? To answer these questions, this study utilizes polynomial regression and three-dimensional response surface analysis methods. A multi-source and three-phase investigation method was used to collect data from 279 subordinates and 56 leaders in the liquor manufacturing industry. Based on the person-environment (PE) fit theory, this study investigates the influence of leader-subordinate EI congruence on flow while considering leader-member exchange (LMX) as a mediator in these processes. The current study not only demonstrates a positive relationship between leader-subordinate EI congruence and LMX, but also reveals that a high-high EI matching pattern can enhance the favorable dynamics of congruence and yield higher LMX compared to a low-low matching pattern. Furthermore, this study identifies LMX as a mediator in the positive relationship between leader-subordinate EI congruence and flow. Additionally, although the incongruent scenarios are beyond the scope of this study, the findings demonstrate that a high EI subordinate paired with a low EI leader has a more detrimental impact on the LMX than a low EI subordinate paired with a high EI leader. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

1 Introduction

In order to promote active participation and enjoyment at work among subordinates, scholars have shown great enthusiasm for the proliferation of studies on positive organizational behavior (POB) over the past decade ( Luthans, 2002 ; Salanova et al., 2006 ). Flow, as a core concept of POB, refers to a psychological state experienced by individuals when they are fully immersed in an activity and oblivious to everything else ( Csikszentmihalyi and Rathunde, 1993 ). Subordinates who experience flow report higher levels of enjoyment, initiative, and performance while experiencing less psychological discomfort ( Aust et al., 2022 ). Therefore, cultivating a state of flow is crucial for both subordinates and organizations.

Emotional intelligence (EI) encompasses the ability to identify, comprehend, utilize, and regulate emotions ( Mayer and Salovey, 1997 ). Scholars have underscored the significance of subordinates’ EI on their organizational behavior within the manufacturing and retail industry ( Xie, 2021 ; Jain et al., 2023 ). Therefore, in order to achieve a state of flow, subordinates in liquor manufacturing industry may need to effectively employ EI in regulating their own emotions and accurately perceiving the emotions of others ( Xie, 2021 ). However, intriguing findings in the liquor manufacturing industry prompt me to consider that the relationship between EI and flow in real-world situations may be more complex and require further exploration of leader-subordinate EI congruence. Specifically, recognizing the crucial role of EI in effectively facilitating subordinates’ flow within a similar industry ( Xie et al., 2021 ), and acknowledging that “finding flow is the holy grail of business success for individual employees, teams, and companies” (p. 8) ( Van den Hout and Davis, 2019 ), a renowned Chinese liquor manufacturing group has implemented an annual training program encompassing a diverse range of EI training activities specifically tailored for leaders and subordinates. Despite the steady increase in leaders’ and subordinates’ EI, many subordinates still perceive limited progress or even regression in their state of flow. This is evident from slight improvements or declines in efficiency, motivation, and joy. In investigating the root cause of this phenomenon, the manufacturing group identified that leader-subordinate EI interaction may capture the overall impact of EI and play a significant role in influencing the focal subordinate’s state of flow. Exploring the impact of leader-subordinate EI congruence on flow may provide further insights into explaining this phenomenon, as the benefits of EI are acquired through interpersonal interactions among stakeholders in the workplace ( Mayer et al., 2008 ). Furthermore, one of the fundamental principles of person-environment fit theory suggests that the person and the environment together predict human behavior better than each of them does separately ( Van Vianen, 2018 ). Surprisingly, there has been no prior investigation into the factors that influence flow in terms of the interaction between personal and organizational attributes ( Peifer and Wolters, 2021 ). Therefore, drawing on the aforementioned theoretical and practical perspectives, this study aims to investigate 279 subordinates and 56 leaders across four subsidiaries within this liquor manufacturing group. The study aims to investigate two important questions regarding leader-subordinate EI congruence: First, what is the influence of leader-subordinate EI congruent interaction on flow? Second, do high-high and low-low congruent scenarios exhibit crucial nuances that differentially influence flow?

According to PE fit theory, it is probable that a subordinate’s experience of flow does not depend solely on their individual EI; instead, congruent EI dynamics between the focal leader and subordinate also play a significant role in shaping this outcome. As a result, exploring the impact of EI congruence between two loci (i.e., leader and subordinate) provides a fertile ground for examining the influence of interaction effects on flow. Furthermore, drawing on the PE fit theory, leaders may establish and maintain different levels of LMX with subordinates in their dyadic EI interactions based on the level of EI fit. This aligns with the leader-member exchange theory of leadership, which emphasizes the significance of emotional exchanges and mutual emotional fits in fostering high-quality development of LMX relationships ( Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995 ). The literature has emphasized the pivotal role of LMX in shaping subordinates’ desirable work behaviors in terms of cognitive and affective states ( Mueller and Lee, 2002 ; Radstaak and Hennes, 2017 ; Estiri et al., 2018 ). Therefore, based on the aforementioned rationale, I expect LMX to serve as a crucial dyadic characteristic mediating the relationship between leader-subordinate EI congruence and flow. Furthermore, in response to the scholarly demand for investigating detailed information on interaction effects in organizational settings ( Edwards and Parry, 1993 ), this study utilized polynomial regression and three-dimensional response surface analysis methodologies to evaluate all proposed hypotheses and address the two questions raised in the previous paragraph based on two EI congruent scenarios (high-high, low-low).

This study is expected to make theoretical contributions in the following ways. First, the present study contribute to the existing literature on PE fit. (a) This study recognizes that individuals do not exist in isolation but rather exchange within a social context where leaders play a crucial role. That said, a leader and a subordinate who share similar characteristics, particularly EI, exchange more effectively and therefore develop desirable flow experience. By exploring this novel perspective, I hope to shed light on a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of PE fit in organizational settings. (b) Some scholars in the field of PE fit argue that regardless of absolute levels, PE fit produces identical outcomes; however, others express doubts regarding this proposition which necessitate further verification (p. 216) ( Edwards, 2008 ). This study offers valuable insights into the asymmetric effects of PE fit and misfit based on four scenarios (high-high, low-low, high-low, and low-high). Second, this study makes two contributions to the literature on flow. (a) This study provides the initial empirical investigation into the influence of interaction effects on flow, as previous research on this subject has primarily been theoretical: “…a holistic fit of both the relevant attributes of an individual with the attributes of the job/task sphere and the attributes of the organizational/social sphere should provide the greatest flow potential…” “…to our best knowledge, the interaction of personal and organizational attributes has not yet been investigated and should clearly receive research attention in the future…” (P. 307) ( Peifer and Wolters, 2021 ). (b) This study enhances understanding of the locus of flow. While knowledge of specific determinants is important, I suggest that understanding the influence of interactions between different loci (i.e., leaders and subordinates) helps frame the consequences of determinants within a broader framework where flow emerges. By focusing on locus interactions rather than individual determinants, this study is able to compare the influence exerted by all underlying characteristics at each locus. This approach facilitates the identification of influential factors in flow research at deeper levels, thereby highlighting promising areas for further study. In summary, this study contributes to the advancement of flow theory within an extensive and inclusive framework ( Peifer and Wolters, 2021 ; Peifer et al., 2022 ). Third, this study contributes novel insights to the existing literature on EI and LMX by utilizing polynomial regression and three-dimensional response surface analysis methodologies. This approach provides a novel lens for exploring potential outcomes of EI within leader-subordinate dynamics, such as LMX, thereby enhancing theoretical understanding of the nuanced variations in the relationship between EI and LMX ( Lopes et al., 2004 ; Sy et al., 2006 ). In addition, this study also aims to offer practical suggestions for organizations in effectively promoting flow within the workplace.

2 Hypotheses

2.1 leader-subordinate ei congruence and lmx.

The present study adopts the PE-fit theory as the overarching theoretical framework. The fundamental assumption of the PE-fit theory is grounded in the similarity-attraction paradigm, positing that a higher degree of similarities can foster enhanced interpersonal attraction and harmony between two parties ( Byrne, 1971 ). PE-fit offers an effective framework for analyzing the dynamics between leaders and subordinates, thereby facilitating a comprehensive understanding of subordinates attitudes and behaviors ( van Vianen, 2000 ; van Vianen et al., 2011 ). According to the concept of PE-fit, leaders and subordinates seek to confirm their cognition and view of the world. When there is congruence between a leader and a subordinate, they establish a shared understanding, experience a sense of connection, and hold similar expectations regarding behavioral norms ( Kristof-Brown et al., 2005 ; Uhl-Bien, 2006 ). The aforementioned similarities may significantly impact the reciprocal evaluations and establishment of relationships between the focal leader and subordinate ( Kristof-Brown and Guay, 2011 ).

The concept of LMX represents a reciprocal exchange process that evolves through the progressive development of stronger interpersonal affect and enhanced role definition ( Dansereau et al., 1975 ; Dienesch and Liden, 1986 ). According to the PE-fit theory, the presence of greater similarities can facilitate enhanced interpersonal attraction, harmony, and exchange between the focal leader and subordinate. Consequently, effective interpersonal communication processes and high-quality exchange relationships are more likely to occur in the leader-subordinate EI congruent dynamics ( Byrne, 1971 ). Similarly, leaders and subordinates may develop a stronger sense of interpersonal closeness, emotional attachment, and interactive engagement towards individuals whose EI align with their own ( Kristof-Brown et al., 2005 ). In addition, if a supervisor and a subordinate exhibit a congruent inclination towards effectively managing and leveraging emotions in their workplace interactions, this similarity may serve to validate and reinforce their self-perceptions regarding emotional utilization and role definition, ultimately leading to an enhanced quality of LMX. This aligns with the broaden-and-build effect ( Fredrickson, 2001 ), which posits that a shared capacity to recognize, comprehend, utilize, and regulate emotions within the leader-subordinate dynamics may facilitate the development of upward spirals towards accumulating enduring psychological and social resources for both the focal leader and subordinate. This, in turn, enhances their appreciation and engagement in reciprocal exchange processes within the leader-subordinate dynamics. To summarize, the aforementioned findings and arguments collectively support the formulation of the following hypothesis:

H1 : Leader-subordinate EI congruence is positive related to LMX.

2.2 EI congruence in high versus low

The rationale behind the examination of leader-subordinate EI congruence aligns with existing PE-fit research, which suggests that leader-subordinate congruence generally yields positive outcome ( Kristof-Brown et al., 2005 ). The aforementioned assumption, however, may obscure crucial nuances in the leader-subordinate EI dynamics. To attain a more comprehensive understanding of EI within leader-subordinate relationships, it may be imperative to acknowledge that the impacts of congruence are not equally positive. Specifically, the leader-subordinate EI congruence can be further categorized into high-high and low-low EI congruence, respectively. In comparison to the low-low EI congruence scenario, the high-high scenario is likely to enhance favorable dynamics of congruence.

According to Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence (ESI), EI encompasses the capacity for self-awareness, self-understanding, and self-expression; the ability to perceive, comprehend, and engage with others; proficiency in managing intense emotions and regulating impulsive behaviors; as well as adaptability in navigating personal or social challenges and resolving problems ( Bar-On, 2006 ). Therefore, individuals with higher EI (compared to those with low EI) demonstrate a greater capacity in facilitating self-awareness, understanding of others, effective expression, and adept handling of social demands. That is to say, when there is a high-high level of leader-subordinate EI congruence matching (compared to low-low matching), leader-subordinate dynamics may be more interactive, cooperative, and effective. The occurrence of more LMX is therefore expected in a high-high leader-subordinate EI congruence matching pattern compared to a low-low matching pattern. Specifically, Goleman (2003) emphasized that leaders with high EI exhibit superior abilities in managing relationships. They possess a deeper understanding of their employees and cultivate a more harmonious and approachable work environment ( Drigas and Papoutsi, 2019 ). Likewise, subordinates with high EI exhibit enhanced social awareness and improved social management skills, enabling them to integrate more effectively into their team ( Drigas and Papoutsi, 2019 ). Consequently, high-high leader-subordinate EI congruence matching may facilitates stronger LMX. To be more precise, leaders with high EI will be able to transmit their thoughtfulness to their subordinates making them feel more efficient, happier and satisfied at work ( Drigas and Papoutsi, 2019 ). High EI subordinates are more skilled at managing their relationships with their leaders by excelling in the practice of “managing upward” ( Sy et al., 2006 ). Therefore, the high-high scenario has the potential to enhance positive dynamics of congruence through the facilitation of positive emotions and upward spirals within the organization ( Fredrickson, 2003 ). This, in turn, can lead to more effective interpersonal communication processes and higher quality exchange relationships between the focal leader and subordinate. The following hypothesis is proposed in summary:

H2 : In cases of leader-subordinate EI congruence, a high-high EI matching pattern between leaders and subordinates leads to higher LMX than a low-low matching pattern.

2.3 The mediating effect of LMX

LMX focuses on the leader-subordinate dyadic relationship at the organizational level, placing emphasis on the quality of interaction between these parties. LMX posits that cultivating strong emotional connections between a leader and a subordinate may facilitate various desirable work behaviors in terms of cognitive and affective states ( Dansereau et al., 1975 ). Thus, LMX, which involves high-quality interpersonal relationship between a leader and a subordinate, presents a potential avenue for enhancing the focal subordinate’s flow experience.

Specifically, the leader in high quality LMX provides the focal subordinate a wide range of resources, encompassing both tangible and intangible assets such as information, feedback, social support, and valuable assignments ( Martin et al., 2010 ; Schyns and Day, 2010 ). Given that subordinates experience flow when their basic needs are satisfied ( Bakker and van Woerkom, 2017 ), a high quality LMX may stimulate the focal subordinate with the necessary energy and resources to attain this optimal psychological state. Moreover, in terms of the relationship between LMX and flow experience, the presence of a clearly defined and precise purpose, constructive feedback, and effective open communication channels in high-quality LMX may correspond to an increased level of flow experience for focal subordinate ( Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi, 2005 ). Likewise, the findings of a study conducted by Bakker (2005) indicate that music teachers who receive high levels of social support and feedback are more likely to experience flow. In summary, the present study posits that LMX possesses the motivational capacity to enhance focal subordinate’s flow experience.

Based on the combination of the impact of leader-subordinate EI congruence on LMX and the influence of LMX on flow experience, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H3 : LMX mediates the positive relationship between leader-subordinate EI congruence and flow experience.

3 Materials and methods

3.1 participants and procedures.

This study collected data from four subsidiaries of a renowned liquor manufacturing group in China, situated within a high-tech industrial park in western China. These subsidiaries encompass the interconnected sectors of liquor production, intelligent manufacturing, marketing, and retail. The manufacturing group implements a system that promotes the integration and efficiency of the liquor industry chain by facilitating mutual mobility between leaders and subordinates across its four subsidiaries, while maintaining standardized leader-subordinate relationships and distinct divisions of labor among subordinates. Prior to commencing the research, I requested the human resources department to extend invitations to eligible subordinates who have maintained their current positions for a minimum duration of 6 months, thereby ensuring a comprehensive understanding of their work and fostering stable leader-subordinate relationships. The subordinate information provided by the human resource department was analyzed, and no significant similarities were identified. In addition, we pre-surveyed 61 subordinates and 12 leaders randomly to assess the clarity and reasonableness of the questionnaire. The analysis of cross-sectional data confirmed the reliability and validity of questionnaire. In summary, this study enhances confidence in the representativeness and applicability of research tools and samples.

In the formal surveys, a multi-source and three-phase investigation approach was implemented to mitigate potential common source bias. The questionnaire was assigned code numbers for the purpose of matching and distributed in paper format. It was sealed and collected after each round of survey. The human resources department provided the subordinates’ demographic information prior to the formal survey initiation (time 0). During the first survey phase (time 1), I distributed around 430 questionnaires to leaders and subordinates for evaluating their EI. After eliminating inconsistent or incomplete questionnaires and excluding those from teams with less than three members ( Carter and Mossholder, 2015 ), 346 subordinates and 68 leaders responses were retained following code matching. One month later, subordinates who had completed the first round were invited to participate in the second phase of survey (time 2) and their LMX was measured. Due to the absence of certain subordinates who were either on business trips or had resigned, I implemented the same screening process for questionnaires as in the initial phase and collected a total of 316 questionnaires from subordinates and 63 questionnaires from leaders. After an additional month, subordinates who had completed the second round were invited to participate in the third survey phase (time 3) and have their flow experience measured. After conducting the same screening process used in both the first and second survey phases, I collected 279 subordinate questionnaires and 56 leader questionnaires, resulting in response rates of 80.63 and 82.35%, respectively. The average team size was 4.98 subordinates.

The demographic characteristics of leaders in the paired samples were as follows: 64.29% were male and 35.71% were female; their average age was 36.12 years with a standard deviation of 4.36, and their average years of education was 17.12 with a standard deviation of 2.06. The demographic profile of subordinates was as follows: 59.86% male, 40.14% female, with an average age of 30.66 years (standard deviation = 4.32), an average educational attainment of 15.13 years (standard deviation = 2.62), and an average tenure with the supervisor of 3.26 years (standard deviation = 1.61).

3.2 Measures

This study used a 16-item scale by Wong and Law (2017) to measure Leaders’ and subordinates’ EI. The sample item included “I really understand what I feel.” The Cronbach’s α was 0.94 for leader EI and 0.94 for subordinate EI.

LMX was measured with 7-items scale by Graen and Uhl-Bien (1995) . Subordinates were asked to respond to items such as: “How would you characterize your working relationship with your leader.” The Cronbach’s α was 0.87.

This study used Bakker (2008) 13-item scale to measure flow experience. The sample item included “when I work, I lose track of time.” The Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.92.

Previous research suggests that individual EI and leader-subordinate congruence may be related to similarities in the demographic characteristics such as gender, age, and education level ( Phillips and Bedeian, 1994 ; Cole et al., 2013 ; Matta et al., 2015 ; Jena and Goyal, 2022 ). Therefore, I controlled these variables in this study. In addition, consistent with Wong and Law (2017) and Cole et al. (2013) , the dyadic tenure of each leader and subordinate were also controlled to exclude the potential familiarity effect.

To prevent central tendency bias, a six-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 for “strongly disagree” to 6 for “strongly agree”) was used to measure all variables because Chinese respondents tend to show a higher preference for the middle of the scale ( Harzing, 2006 ; Xie et al., 2021 ). The back-translation method proposed by Brislin (1980) was used to translate the items from English into Chinese. The psychometric properties of all study measures used in this research have been demonstrated to be satisfactory within the Chinese organization’s context. In addition, an introductory letter was included at the beginning of the questionnaire to clarify that participants’ data would solely be used for research purposes and emphasize their right to withdraw from the study at anytime.

3.3 Analytical methods

The present study employs polynomial regression and three-dimensional response surface methodology to investigate the congruence effect of leader-subordinate EI ( Edwards and Parry, 1993 ). The polynomial regression model, which predicts LMX using leader-subordinate EI, incorporates higher-order terms of both variables beyond their linear term ( Cohen et al., 2010 ). In the polynomial regression equation, Y represents the dependent variable (LMX), while L and S represent leader and subordinate EI, respectively. To streamline the equation, I have excluded control variables from this equation while incorporating them into the analysis:

The regression coefficients are used to plot three-dimensional response surfaces, with L and S on the horizontal axes and Y on the vertical axis ( Edwards and Parry, 1993 ). The plot’s horizontal plane consists of two lines: the congruence line (L = S) where leader-subordinate EI scores are equal, and the incongruence line (L = −S) indicating opposite signs but equal absolute values for leader EI and subordinate EI scores. The slope and curvature of the congruence line are calculated by adding specific coefficients from Eq. 1 , namely b 1  + b 2 for slope and b 3  + b 4  + b 5 for curvature ( Edwards and Parry, 1993 ; Edwards and Cable, 2009 ). I will test hypotheses 1 and 2 by using characteristics of the response surface that provide evidence for the congruence effect. As for hypotheses 3, polynomial regression coefficients are used to establish a block variable for testing this mediating effect ( Edwards and Cable, 2009 ).

Table 1 presents descriptive statistics, internal consistency reliability, and Pearson correlation for the core variables. Leader EI is significantly positively correlated with subordinate EI (r = 0.30, p < 0.01). Subordinate EI is significantly positively correlated with LMX (r = 0.60, p < 0.01) and flow experience (r = 0.40, p < 0.01). LMX is significantly positively correlated with flow experience (r = 0.51, p < 0.01). The structural validity of the variables was assessed through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) before testing hypothesized predictions. The results presented in Table 2 demonstrate that the four-factor model exhibits a good fit ( χ 2 /df = 1.25, IFI = 0.96, PNFI = 0.79, RMSEA = 0.03, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95). Furthermore, the goodness of fit for the four-factor model significantly surpasses that of the other four alternative models.

Table 1 . Descriptive statistics and correlations.

Table 2 . Comparison of measurement models.

Hypothesis 1 examines the effect of leader-subordinate EI congruence on LMX. As shown in Table 3 , the explained variance of LMX in model 3 significantly increased after including the square-item and interaction term of the leader-subordinate EI (△R 2  = 0.22, p  < 0.001). The significant increase in R 2 indicates the existence of a non-linear association between leader-subordinate EI and LMX, providing a prerequisite for subsequent surface tests ( Edwards, 2002 ). According to the polynomial regression of Model 3, the significant curvature along the congruence line for LMX (curvature = 0.31, p  < 0.001) indicates that leader-subordinate EI congruence is positively related to LMX. Furthermore, I utilized mathematical software to generate a three-dimensional image for enhanced visualization of EI congruence effect. As shown in Figure 1 , it can be observed that the response surface graph curves upward along the congruence line (solid line). This highlight that higher levels of leader and subordinate EI congruence (at the back top corner of Figure 1 ), or lower levels of leader and subordinate EI congruence (at the front top corner of Figure 1 ), result in the higher levels of LMX, thus providing support for the hypothesis 1. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 is supported.

Table 3 . Results of polynomial regression analysis.

Figure 1 . Response surface for LMX.

Hypothesis 2 predicts that when there is congruence in EI between leaders and subordinates, a high-high matching pattern of EI leads to higher LMX compared to a low-low matching pattern. To test this hypothesis, it is necessary to consider the slope along the congruence line (solid line). The findings support our hypothesis, as they demonstrate a significant positive slope along the congruence line (slope = 0.59, p  < 0.001). Furthermore, the response surface in Figure 1 illustrates the result: It shows that LMX is higher in the rear corner (where both leader and subordinate EI are highest) than in the front corner (where both leader and subordinate EI are lowest).

Hypothesis 3 predicts that LMX mediates the positive relationship between leader-subordinate EI congruence and flow experience. To verify the mediating effect, I initially conducted a polynomial regression analysis and introduced the mediating variable of LMX (Model 4 in Table 3 ). The regression coefficient for LMX was found to be significant (r = 0.22, p  < 0.05), thereby providing preliminary evidence supporting Hypothesis 3. Furthermore, following the recommendations of Edwards and Cable (2009) , the construction of a block variable was undertaken to further validate the indirect impact of leader-subordinate EI congruence on flow experience through LMX. I combined the estimated coefficients (as shown in Eq. 1 ) to obtain the block variable, which represents a weighted linear combination of five polynomial terms: L (leader EI), S (subordinate EI), L 2 (leader EI square), L × S (the product of the leader EI and subordinate EI), and S 2 (subordinate EI square). The indirect effect of EI congruence on flow experience via LMX can be calculated by multiplying the coefficient of the block variable on LMX (the α path) with the coefficient of LMX on flow experience (the β path). As shown in Table 4 , the block variable for EI congruence has a positive relationship with LMX (path α  = 1.00, p  < 0.001, CI = [0.91, 1.10]), and LMX is positively associated with flow experience (path β  = 0.22, p  < 0.01,CI = [0.06, 0.38]). Moreover, the indirect effect through LMX was also significant and did not include zero ( α  ×  β  = 0.22, p  < 0.01, CI = [0.06, 0.39]). Thus, the overall findings provide support for hypothesis 3.

Table 4 . Examinations of indirect effects.

Additionally, the validity of findings is further enhanced through the implementation of a robustness check, which examines the impact of our control variables on the results ( Becker, 2005 ). Upon removing these control variables, the conclusions drawn from this study show no significant change. Therefore, I believe that the findings of data analysis support the theories proposed in this study.

5 Discussion

Building upon PE-fit theory, this study conducted an examination of the complex relationship among leader-subordinate EI congruence, LMX, and flow experience. This study utilized polynomial regression and response surface analysis methods based on three-wave paired data collected from a sample of 56 leaders and 279 subordinates. The results indicate that first, leader-subordinate EI congruence is positively related to LMX. Second, a high-high EI matching pattern can enhance the favorable dynamics of congruence and yield higher LMX compared to a low-low matching pattern. Third, LMX acts as a mediator in the positive relationship between leader-subordinate EI congruence and flow. Additionally, findings in this study demonstrate that the misfit resulting from pairing a high EI subordinate with a low EI leader has a more detrimental impact on the LMX than the misfit resulting from pairing a low EI subordinate with a high EI leader. The following sections will discuss how our findings contribute to both theoretical and managerial implications in a more comprehensive manner.

5.1 Theoretical implications

First, this research makes two contributions to the literature on PE-fit. First, this study expands the scope of PE fit theory by specifically examining fit along a deep-level characteristic, namely EI, and present evidence that the psychological states of subordinates are influenced not only by their isolated personal characteristics but also by the level of fit between the focal leaders’ and subordinates’ characteristics. This underscores the significance of PE fit in fostering desirable psychological states among subordinates, which should not be underestimated. I highly recommend further empirical examination of PE fit in other studies on positive organizational behavior (POB) as it has the potential to generate more fascinating discoveries. Second, this study makes a valuable contribution to the existing body of knowledge on asymmetric PE-fit. As Edwards (2008) emphasized that the lack of attention to the differential effects of congruence at high and low levels is a notable limitation in PE-fit studies. Some scholars in the field argue that regardless of absolute levels, PE-fit leads to the same outcomes, while others have doubts about this proposition that require further verification (p. 216) ( Edwards, 2008 ). Therefore, in order to advance the PE fit theory, it is imperative to explore the crucial nuances of leader-subordinate EI congruence. The slope in Table 3 indicate that the impact of congruence or incongruence effects on EI varies depending on the level of EI exhibited by both leaders and subordinates, rather than being equal positive or negative. To be more precise, a high-high EI matching pattern can enhance the favorable dynamics of congruence and yield higher desirable outcomes compared to a low-low matching (slop alone the congruence line =0.59, p  < 0.001). Likewise, low-high leader-subordinate EI matching leads to a more negative impact than high-low matching (curvature alone the incongruence line = −0.22, p  < 0.01; slop alone the incongruence line = −0.55, p  < 0.001). Overall, this study responds to the call made in previous research to explore the complex nature of PE-fit ( Edwards, 2008 ) and present novel corroborative evidence that supports the asymmetric effect in PE-fit.

Second, this study offers two contributions to the existing literature on flow. First, the flow channel model ( Csikszentmihalyi and Rathunde, 1993 ) has already identified one person-environment fit combination as a precursor to the flow experience: specifically, the alignment between a person’s skills and task demands. Findings in this study extend the concept of fit in the flow channel model by demonstrating that leader-subordinate EI fit combination can also contribute to predicting flow, thereby offering new avenues for future research. This effectively addresses the gap highlighted in previous study ( Peifer and Wolters, 2021 ) by providing compelling evidence that the development of flow is a multifaceted process where the interaction between leaders and subordinates should not be overlooked. Second, this study enhances the understanding of the locus of flow by examining different EI interaction scenarios, allowing for a comparison of the influence exerted by all underlying characteristics of EI at each locus (i.e., leader and subordinate). This approach facilitates the identification of influential factors in flow research at deeper levels, thereby highlighting promising areas for further study. Specifically, this study demonstrates that a high-high EI matching pattern can result in a greater flow experienced by subordinates through LMX compared to a low-low matching pattern (slope along the congruence line = 0.59, p  < 0.001). I suggest that this may be attributed to the potential of the high-high scenario in enhancing positive dynamics of congruence compared to the low-low scenario. Therefore, future research on flow could explore environmental and individual factors that might foster favorable dynamics of congruence. To summarize, this study contributes to the advancement of flow theory within a comprehensive and inclusive framework.

Third, this study provide innovative perspectives to the current body of literature on EI and LMX. First, to date, limited attention has been given to exploring the impact of crucial nuances in leader-subordinate EI dynamics on LMX. By employing polynomial regressions and response surface analyzes, this study unveil the “black box” of asymmetric congruence effect in EI, revealing that the high-high EI congruence scenario can lead to higher levels of LMX compared to the low-low scenario. Furthermore, this study uncovers the nuanced effects of EI incongruent scenarios. The results indicate that the negative impact on LMX resulting from pairing a high EI subordinate with a low EI leader is more pronounced than the impact resulting from pairing a low EI subordinate with a high EI leader (slope along the incongruence line = −0.55, p  < 0.001; curvature along the incongruence line = −0.22, p  < 0.01). This finding aligns with previous research ( Marstand et al., 2017 ), which suggests that LMX was found to be lowest when the leader did not fulfill subordinate’s high work values. Thus, the present study builds upon existing research on the impact of EI on the development of social interaction ( Lopes et al., 2004 ) by comprehensively examining the crucial role that EI congruence and incongruence can play in fostering leader-subordinate interactions, particularly LMX. Second, this study not only aligns with previous research findings that indicate a significantly positive impact of leader-subordinate fit on LMX ( van Vianen et al., 2011 ), but also expands upon the insights provided by Sy et al. (2006) by suggesting that even when there is a lower level of EI congruence, leader-subordinate congruence can still result in comparatively high LMX.

5.2 Managerial implications

Based on the results of this study, two managerial implications are proposed: First, findings in this study highlight the significance of leader-subordinate EI congruence in shaping the focal subordinate’s flow experience. Therefore, in order to enhance subordinates’ flow, organizations should allocate time and resources not only to the development of leaders’ and subordinates’ EI, but also to improving EI congruence through strategic team configuration, particularly by ensuring high-high EI matching.

Second, if there is an unavoidable incongruence in EI between leaders and subordinates, the findings suggest that interventions focused on enhancing LMX may yield advantageous outcomes. As highlighted by Edwards and Cable (2009) , addressing mediating mechanisms can effectively compensate for a lack of PE fit. Given the crucial role of communication in LMX ( Graen and Uhl-Bien, 1995 ), leaders could reap some benefits of EI congruence through regular and transparent conversations. In addition, previous studies indicate that leadership training effectively enhances communication skills ( Frese et al., 2003 ). Therefore, this study highly recommends that organizations provide training for managers to adjust their communication styles in order to enhance subordinates’ positive perceptions.

5.3 Limitations and future research

The present study adhered to the principles of scientific research and yielded intriguing findings; however, it is important to acknowledge several limitations. First, despite collecting data from multiple sources at three different time points with one-month intervals to minimize the potential impact of CMV, the research design primarily relied on self-reported questionnaires. Therefore, further investigation is needed to integrate questionnaire surveys, experimental designs, and diary studies in order to comprehensively examine the implied causal flow in my model.

Second, the data were collected from the liquor manufacturing industry in China, so it is important to acknowledge that these findings may not fully represent other industries or cultural contexts. Therefore, this study suggests that future research should replicate this methodology in various cultural and industrial contexts to test the generalizability of the findings and identify any culturally and industrially specific aspects. This approach may enhance the external validity of this study and potentially uncover additional fascinating results.

Third, although the current study confirms the significance of leader-subordinate EI congruence on subordinates’ flow experience, it is strongly recommended that future research incorporates group flow, a collective state that occurs when a group is performing at the peak of its abilities ( Sawyer, 2003 ), into my model to explore and identify intriguing findings related to flow experience at different levels. In addition, other dimensions of leader-subordinate interaction, such as power distance orientation interaction, may also yield intriguing insights.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent from the patients/participants or patients/participants legal guardian/next of kin was not required to participate in this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author contributions

ZL: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

ZL was employed by Xifeng Liquor Group Co., Ltd.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Marstand, A. F., Martin, R., and Epitropaki, O. (2017). Complementary person-supervisor fit: an investigation of supplies-values (S-V) fit, leader-member exchange (LMX) and work outcomes. Leadersh. Q. 28, 418–437. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.10.008

Martin, R., Epitropaki, O., Thomas, G., and Topakas, A. (2010). “A review of leader–member exchange research: future prospects and directions” in International review of industrial and organizational psychology . eds. G. P. Hodgkinson and J. K. Ford (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons)

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Keywords: PE-fit, polynomial regression, leader-subordinate EI congruence, LMX, flow experience

Citation: Lu Z (2024) The influence of leader-subordinate emotional intelligence congruence on the flow experience: evidence from the liquor manufacturing industry. Front. Psychol . 15:1324721. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1324721

Received: 20 October 2023; Accepted: 08 April 2024; Published: 24 April 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Lu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Zhuoran Lu, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Emotional Intelligence

The multigenerational impact of emotional intelligence, the pioneer who prioritizes psychological health creates lasting positive change..

Posted April 23, 2024 | Reviewed by Abigail Fagan

• Until physical safety is present, it may be difficult to prioritize emotional health.
• It takes courage to be the first in one's family to invest in psychological understanding.
• When one person prioritizes emotional development, their whole family will benefit.

My father grew up as the youngest of six within the only Jewish family in Eureka, South Dakota, population 1,500. He was a first-generation immigrant; his father had escaped Russia in 1906, traveling to the United States by ship, steerage class, after his two brothers were murdered because of their Jewish faith.

Like many immigrant families, starting anew in a new country with a new language and new customs, the focus was on survival. Physical stability was prioritized. The family invested all their energy into securing the family business (the Bender General Store), investing in a home, having enough food, and protecting one another.

While they clearly cared about one another, there was no time or energy to consider emotional needs. My grandparents didn’t ask my father about his classes at school, his basketball games, or his feelings. If my father cried as a child, my grandfather called him a “knish” (a classic Jewish savory pastry with a soft filling); it wasn’t a compliment. My great-grandmother’s advice when faced with a dilemma: “If you have a problem, tell it to a stone.”

Each generation has an opportunity to build upon the gifts of the one prior. My grandparents provided the priceless gift of safety. But during young adulthood, my father felt a longing inside, a small but growing want for a greater understanding of the human condition. Given his family of origin and lived experience, this wish was courageous and revolutionary — that feelings could matter and deserved time, attention , and compassion.

Following his interest in physiology, my father became a physician. While working in the public health service, he came across Lewis R. Wolberg's book, The Technique of Psychotherapy , which outlines the power of talking therapy to relieve emotional distress. It was an epiphany. Here, here it was. This was the world he had been searching for but wasn’t sure existed — a world that described and appreciated the multifaceted complexity of a person, a world that prioritized emotional awareness and responsiveness. He decided to become a psychiatrist and a psychoanalyst and practiced for 58 years, loving his work and the meaning and purpose it provided him.

My childhood couldn’t have been more different than his. My father regularly asked about my thoughts, my interests, and my feelings — a stark contrast to his childhood experience. I internalized the message that what I felt and what I thought were significant and important.

As a parent, my father prioritized the importance of feelings. When I was upset and crying, I was not labeled a “cry baby,” “waterworks,” or a “knish”. Instead, my father would sit next to me with a compassionate look: Suz, you are just like me when I was a kid, you are a Tender Bender, he would say. The label created a compassionate construct; tears weren’t shameful. My strong emotions meant I was like my adored father, who always had the words to comfort me when I felt overwhelmed. I can only imagine how my identity formation would have been different if he had chosen less sensitive and more disparaging words to describe my difficult moments. The term “Tender Bender” is now familiar to all of his grandchildren, and they even use it to tune in to friends in distress (“In my family, we call this a Tender Bender moment” ) My father’s personal investment in emotional intelligence was akin to throwing a stone in a pond, with positive reverberations within his work and his family, across generations.

When I was a child, my father’s emotional skill set seemed almost magical. Even as an ongoing recipient of his empathic listening, it wasn’t an intuitive process for me to emulate him. My “Wolberg moment” occurred when I was introduced to the wonderful parent guidance book, How to Talk so Kids Will Listen and Listen so Kids Will Talk, during my child psychiatry training. It provided the map I needed — clear guidance on how to listen in the way my father managed so effortlessly.

The first chapter “Helping Children Deal with Their Feelings”, explains the power of tuning in and acknowledging a child’s emotions. Let’s say a child comes home upset about an interaction with a friend. It is so easy to minimize the experience, “It will be okay; this too shall pass”, or provide advice, “Have you tried exercising when you feel mad?” While well-intentioned, these reactions are generally less helpful than listening carefully, and naming the feeling: “It makes sense you feel disappointed when Clara didn’t want to come over to play today.” This is the calming validating approach my father used. As I teach child psychiatry trainees, I emphasize that this chapter is a must-read. Engaged empathic listening is the seed of everything we do in mental health.

In my psychiatric practice, I am privileged to work with patients with many different backgrounds who have ties all around the world. Often, my patient is the first in their family with the time and energy to invest in emotional health, a story not unlike my father’s. We talk about their parenting struggles and they may say “ I don’t know how to respond to my child, but I want to be different than my parents.” I recognize the courage of this moment. It may feel anxiety -provoking to talk openly and honestly about emotional vulnerability, especially if one is the first in the family to do so. Like my father, they are searching for a new way of interacting and understanding others. And when one person’s psychological understanding increases, the whole family benefits. As my patient and I work together, I share, “It’s important to recognize you are a pioneer. You are trail-blazing as you learn more about yourself and how to parent in a psychologically attuned manner. Your investment will not only positively affect your family, but also the generations to come.”

In loving memory and in honor of Dr. David Bender MD 1931-2024.

Bender, RE & Bender KM (2019). Still. Fargo, ND: North Dakota State University Press.

Wolberg, LR. (1954). The Technique of Psychotherapy. New York, NY. Grune and Stratton.

Faber A. & Mazlish E. (2012). How to Talk so Kids will Listen and Listen so Kids will Talk. New York. NY. Scribner.

Suzanne Bender, M.D., is a child adolescent and adult psychiatrist in private practice and on faculty at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts.

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Why Companies Should Prioritize Emotional Intelligence Training Alongside AI Implementation Emotional intelligence is just as important as artificial intelligence, and we need it now more than ever.

By Rimi Basu • Apr 24, 2024

Key Takeaways

• While AI is transforming business operations, it's essential to recognize its limitations, particularly in customer-facing roles.
• Statistics show that human interaction often outperforms AI in resolving issues and providing satisfactory experiences.
• Despite AI advancements, emotional intelligence and human connection remain irreplaceable for innovation, complex problem-solving, and ethical decisions, urging companies to balance AI integration with emotional intelligence training.

Opinions expressed by Entrepreneur contributors are their own.

Recently, while traveling abroad for work, I made an Amazon purchase of something I was unable to find in local shops. However, this purchase was running late, despite my paying extra for it to arrive on time. By the time it was ready to be delivered, I had already moved to a new hotel in a different part of the city. I was unable to update the location on the order, and this was something I needed ASAP, so I called up Amazon customer support to see what I could do.

Amazon sure tried its level best to avert me from speaking to someone, keeping me on the phone for 10 minutes and bumping me back and forth through a maze of unhelpful menu options and generic FAQ pages that did nothing to help with my specific query. Never once in any of these options did they even offer the option to " speak to a live human ." So naturally, I had to interrupt the bot and ask (demand) to speak to someone myself.

Related: In An Era Of Artificial Intelligence, There's Always Room For Human Intelligence

The power of empathy

And once I was finally routed to a human, guess what happened?

I explained to the agent my situation in an angry huff. She listened and replied: "Ma'am, I can understand this must be very frustrating, and I'm so so sorry, but we are unable to update the address once it's out for delivery. Your only choice is to cancel the order and re-order."

Ironically, even though she did nothing to solve the problem besides giving me more work to do, my anger had melted away. Just having someone, a real person, empathize and authentically apologize for the inconvenience made it all a little better.

And that, my friends, is something AI can't do(at least not yet). Imagine an AI trying to robotically and creepily express empathy — not quite the same.

Complementing AI with emotional intelligence training

Employees by and large are grappling with the harsh realities of AI taking over many previously human tasks. People are indeed losing jobs, or are in danger of losing jobs, so these fears are not unwarranted. As a change management lead who has aided companies in adopting AI into their workflows, I've encountered both the fears and the actual repercussions of mass layoffs and reorganizations at many of my clients' companies.

But while AI has drastically transformed how businesses operate, I would argue that it is still not ripe to replace most customer-facing functions — just augment them. Companies should think twice before completely swapping out people and replacing them with AI .

For one, take a look at some of these statistics published in a report by UJET recently regarding the use of AI bots for customer service:

80% of customers said using chatbots increased their frustration level.

78% of consumers were forced to connect with a human after failing to resolve their needs through an automated service channel.

63% indicated that their interaction with a chatbot did not result in a resolution.

72% felt that using a chatbot for customer service was a waste of time.

More than half of consumers (54%) believe that a phone call with a live agent provides the fastest resolution and best overall customer service.

A survey conducted by Cyara found that of 1,554 consumers worldwide, 30% were driven away from a brand by a negative chatbot experience.

It is true that in many cases, for more generic issues, a bot can help solve the problem through a predictable workflow and pointing to some online resource.

But most customers who take the time to contact customer service have already searched publicly available sources of information and were not able to find the solution to fit their problem.

Related: AI Can Replace (Some) Jobs — But It Can't Replace Human Connection. Here's Why.

When AI isn't as effective as humans

Rest assured that there are still some areas where human intelligence outshines artificial intelligence. Here are a few:

Innovation : While AI can generate novel ideas and artworks, it often lacks the depth of human creativity. Humans excel at combining disparate ideas, emotions and experiences to produce truly original solutions.

Complex problem-solving : AI is powerful when it comes to solving specific, well-defined problems within a structured environment. However, it struggles with ambiguity and may not adapt well to entirely new or unforeseen situations where human intuition and creativity are crucial.

Ethical decision-making : AI lacks a moral compass. While it can be programmed with ethical guidelines , it may not always make morally sound decisions in complex scenarios that require understanding nuances, cultural contexts and human values.

Interpersonal communication and negotiation : Building rapport, understanding subtle cues and negotiating effectively are skills that humans excel at but can be challenging for AI, especially in dynamic, unpredictable social interactions.

Intuition and gut feeling : Humans often make decisions based on intuition or gut feeling, drawing on subconscious processes that are difficult to replicate in AI systems, which rely on explicit algorithms and data.

Nearly all of these examples have a common thread, which I would sum up as emotional intelligence .

And while there is no doubt that AI will continue to advance and get better at mimicking human emotional intelligence, quite possibly to an eerie level, it may be a long while before we can really buy into it as being an adequate substitute for human connection.

Related: The Art and Science of Promoting Emotional Intelligence

So, in conclusion, my message to employees is to keep your head up in these difficult times and invest in those soft skills.

And to employers as well: Don't overlook the importance of emotional intelligence .

Certainly invest in incorporating AI into operations, but at the same time, don't forget to invest in offering emotional intelligence training — it sure can make or break the customer experience!

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More From Forbes

Emotions at work: how to recognize them and react effectively.

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Every interaction carries emotions.

Picture a leader stepping into a conference space, immediately in tune with the team's mood, effortlessly deciphering each colleague's emotional state. Consider a leader adept at picking up the subtle emotional cues in a team member's digital correspondence.

These skills transcends mere observation; they are indepsensible to modern leaders.

The talent for recognizing and reacting thoughtfully to emotions sets truly outstanding leaders apart.

Importance of Emotional Intelligence to Leadership

Emotions are present in every interaction. Reading them and responding accordingly enables leaders to create a trusting and engaging work culture.

Leaders with high EI navigate workplace dynamics with a deft understanding of emotions, both their own and those of their teams. Groundbreaking work in the field of EI has shown that emotional intelligence is the cornerstone of impactful leadership , paving the way for more harmonious and productive workplaces.

Samsung Is Giving Away A Free Galaxy S24 In A New Promotion

The fallout 4 next gen update is not going great, mike tyson on becoming a heavy hitter in weed, recognizing emotional undercurrents.

Recognizing and addressing emotional undercurrents is vital to emotional intelligence.

Leaders who tune in to their workplace's emotional frequencies can anticipate challenges and address them with insight and compassion.

The Importance of Empathy and Active Listening

Complemented by active listening, empathy is the key to understanding emotional undercurrents. Paying full attention to others, including noticing tone, body language, and emotional cues, will enhance a leader's understanding of the experiences and perspectives of others. As a result, they will be better equipped to respond with precision and care.

Envision a team leader who regularly interacts with diverse team members, bringing their unique backgrounds and perspectives to the workplace. During team meetings, the leader notices that a usually vocal team member has become increasingly quiet, often appearing contemplative or hesitant to speak up.

Applying empathy, the leader recognizes this change in behavior as a potential sign of discomfort or an underlying issue.

The Necessity of Addressing Emotions

Recognizing the emotional undertow isn't enough. Influential leaders must acknowledge it and determine whether they must take additional steps to address it.

For example, the leader in our earlier scenario could set up a safe space for a one-on-one conversation with the team member whose behavior changed.

During this conversation, the leader must practice active listening and pay close attention to what the team member says. The pauses, sighs, and nonverbal expressions often speak louder than words.

Suppose the leader discovers the team member is experiencing cultural misunderstandings with colleagues. She feels her ideas need to be adequately understood and valued.

With this insight, the leader could carefully foster a more inclusive team dynamic to nurture a culture that encourages the team to become more sensitive to each other’s experiences and perspectives.

Stakes of the Interaction: The Emotional Investment

Individuals always bring their emotions to professional interactions. A leader's ability to identify and value these emotional investments can create a compelling link between individual aspirations and the collective mission.

Know What Motivates Each Team Member

Recognizing and honoring what drives each team member fosters a shared dedication to the organization's success.

For example, suppose you observe that one of your team members has uncharacteristically lacked enthusiasm for work in recent weeks. This change coincides with a new initiative that doesn't directly align with the team member’s known passion for community engagement and social responsibility.

As a leader attuned to your team's emotional contexts, you open a dialogue to understand the root of the disengagement. You discover that while committed to the team's success, he struggles to find personal resonance with the project's direction.

Acknowledging this emotional disconnect, you propose integrating a community-focused aspect into the project, such as a feature that benefits a local charity or a social impact goal tied to the initiative's success. This suggestion instantly rekindles the team member’s passion, as it harmonizes his values with professional work.

Align Individual Emotions with Collective Aims

Influential leaders understand how to combine individual emotions with collective aims, leading to a shared purpose. They facilitate a dialogue in which the emotional tone matches the objectives, helping to turn individual motivation into a unified effort.

As a leader, you want to create a culture where the entire team is emotionally invested and motivated to achieve the goals.

You work to ensure the team’s work embodies the values that resonate with creating a shared sense of pride and purpose.

How to Develop Emotional Contextual Awareness

Integrating a few critical practices into your leadership can enhance your emotional intelligence and foster an emotionally intelligent and responsive organizational culture.

Practice Self-reflection

Your first step is to carve out time in your schedule for self-reflection, which will increase your self-awareness, a critical component of emotional intelligence.

You might want to keep a journal to record your feelings and reactions to various situations. This practice not only aids in identifying patterns in your emotional responses but fosters greater self-insight.

Seek Diverse Perspectives

Pursue diverse perspectives within your organization to cultivate heightened emotional awareness.

By engaging with team members from different departments, backgrounds, and levels of the organization, you can challenge your assumptions and broaden your understanding of the emotional landscape of your workplace.

Encourage a Culture of Emotional Expression

Facilitating an environment that promotes open emotional expression is fundamental to nurturing emotional intelligence within a team.

You can set the tone by sharing your experiences and vulnerabilities in appropriate settings, legitimizing emotional expression. Regular check-ins and designated 'safe to speak' meetings can reinforce a culture where team members feel valued and heard.

In the era of remote work and digital interactions, the nuances of communication often require a different kind of attentiveness. Without physical cues, you must become adept at interpreting the subtleties of language used in emails, the tone in voice calls, and the expressions in video conferences.

The most profound steps in the dance of leadership are found in the graceful art of understanding and connecting with your team's emotional rhythms.

When tuned to these subtle beats, you transform from a mere overseer of workflow to a choreogrpher of human connection. Your influence lies not in spreadsheets and schedules but in the heartsand minds of those you lead.

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Enhancing Therapeutic Relationships in Nursing Essay (Critical Writing)

Introduction, therapeutic relationships, unconditional positive regard, containment, self-awareness, emotional intelligence, reference list.

The relations between a patient and the nurse have been described as crucial to achieving better health. Nurses are advised to adopt unconditional positive regard because it enhances respect. The perspective ensures that the healthcare provider is cognizant of the impact of viewing patients as human beings. Acceptance and respect for all sick people are essential in enhancing therapeutic relationships. Self-awareness is another aspect that can enhance the development of a nurse. The ability to be aware of how to respond to situations creates increased possibilities for effective service. This paper will evaluate the concepts of therapeutic relationships, unconditional positive regard, containment, self-awareness, and emotional intelligence.

A therapeutic relationship can be defined as a purposeful, goal-oriented relationship that is focused on achieving the best outcome for the patient. They are viewed as the foundation of the nursing practice (McKinnon, 2016). This is because the relationship between client and nurse can become the primary intervention that can aid awareness and help work through difficulties. In areas such as the intensive care unit, therapeutic relationships may manifest in the form of the provision of comfort, support, and care to patients (Böhmer and Krüger, 2019). One of the components of therapeutic relationships is professional intimacy, which can involve the psychological, spiritual, and social aspects identified in the plan of care (McKinnon, 2016). Activities such as access to the patient’s personal information and bathing a patient contribute to the development of professional intimacy.

Another significant component is respect, which means the need to recognize the dignity, worth, and uniqueness of every individual during the process of care. Nurses should not be affected by socioeconomic status, personal attributes, and the nature of the patient’s problem when reacting to all situations (McKinnon, 2016). Trust is the other significant aspect as it may be difficult to re-establish trust once it has been broken. Nurses need to ensure that they follow through when they promise to help a patient (McCance, McCormack, and Dewing, 2011). Empathy refers to understanding the healthcare experience from the perspective of the client. This can be expressed in the form of maintaining objectivity when responding to the patient (Norcross and Lambert, 2018). The last component is power which addresses the aspect of authority and influence in the client-nurse relationship. The healthcare provider has more power than the patient and should ensure that it is utilized for the benefit of the client.

Unconditional positive regard can be defined as caring for the client as a separate person, with permission to have their feelings and experiences. Rogers viewed unconditional positive regard as an attitude that nurses, therapists, and counselors needed to develop (Rogers and Freiberg, 2005). This is because unconditional positive regard ensures the creation of trust between the client and the healthcare provider. The idea does not involve the nurse or therapist agreeing to and accepting everything the patient has done (Farber, Suzuki, and Lynch, 2018). The concept involves respecting the patient as a human being who possesses their own free will and operates under the inclination that they are doing the best they can (Rogers and Freiberg, 2005). Unconditional positive regard from a nurse or therapist can be a substitute for the regard that the client did not receive during their childhood.

The concept is based on the assumption that when a nurse or therapist respects the client’s need for self-determination and adopts a similar attitude, the client is likely to move towards socially constructive behavior. Nurses and therapists have to lay aside their views and values and approach the patient without prejudice (Murphy et al., 2020). Unconditional positive regard requires the practitioner to be self-aware because it is possible to adopt the perspective of the patient. The concept was developed for therapists and counselors but has been applied in different fields. This is because it enhances respect and empathy when dealing with people.

Containment can be viewed as a pattern of communicating mental experiences. Individuals undergo difficult and traumatic experiences that result in overwhelming emotions (Gibson, Till, and Adshead, 2019). The inability to contain these feelings can result in challenges in integrating with people. containment is a concept that arises from early childhood in the relationship between the child and the mother. The child is taught to handle difficult emotions by the mother through different actions and experiences. Containment is also present during therapy and occurs when the therapist listens to the distressing inner experiences of the patient and provides feedback that fosters growth and understanding.

The process of containment starts with the patient sharing their experiences with the practitioner. This sets the stage for the therapist to listen and generate appropriate feedback for the client. The emphasis is on empathy because it enhances respect and trust between the client and therapist. Most people still hold the fantasy that difficult feelings can only be dealt with using avoidance (Casement, 2014). For containment to occur the individual must accept the unmanageable feelings (Adimando, 2018). This allows the patient to share with the practitioner, which enhances the recovery process. Therapists should ensure that they have insight into the issues that are being re-enacted with them during the process.

Self-awareness is a crucial aspect for all healthcare providers. The concept can be described as the cognitive exploration of own thoughts, beliefs, feelings, values, and feedback from others. The Johari window was developed in the 50s and can be used to develop self-awareness. The system focuses on four forms of the self, which are the public self, the private hidden self, the blind self, and the undiscovered self (Rasheed, 2015). The goal of therapy is to increase the size of the open area (public self) by reducing the blind space. This is because the blind self represents what is known about a person by others but is unknown by the individual.

Self-awareness is essential because it enables nurses to create an environment that fosters therapeutic relationships with patients. This is beneficial because these relations can aid the recovery process. Another advantage is that self-awareness helps nurses engage in healthy behaviors, which results in better client care (Taylor, LeBlanc, and Nosik, 2019). Enhancing self-awareness can also help nurses to improve their communication with patients (Howe, 2011). The nurses can direct the message toward the needs of the patient, which can create a therapeutic environment (Carpenter et al., 2017). The use of a reflective diary can ensure the development of self-awareness. This is because reflections provide the opportunity to look back and analyze the events for growth and development (Reljić, Pajnkihar, and Fekonja, 2019). Therefore, self-awareness is important in ensuring that patients receive the best care.

Emotional intelligence can be described as the ability of an individual to understand and manage their emotions and recognize the feelings of others. In the nursing practice, emotional intelligence is required because of the different situations that happen (Raeissi et al., 2022). One of the first components of emotional intelligence is self-awareness, which indicates the ability to recognize own emotions and feelings. This is considered integral because the emotions of nurses can impact their delivery of care. Another important component is self-regulation, which is the ability to manage emotions and behaviors that result from them. People have to develop self-awareness first before understanding how to regulate their feelings (Raghubir, 2018). Nurses should not be affected by feelings such as anger when dealing with patients.

Motivation is another crucial aspect and involves the processes that stimulate and direct someone toward achieving their objectives. Motivation is crucial in healthcare because it allows the practitioner sot persevere during challenging times (White and Grason, 2019). Healthcare providers who are motivated can enhance the client relationship by focusing on person-centered care (McCance and McCormack, 2017). Empathy is another essential component, which focuses on understanding the feelings of other people. Identifying the feelings of patients without asking them can foster trust and respect, which can enhance the therapeutic relationship (Strachan, 2017). The last aspect is social skills, which deals with the ability to relate to others. Nurses need enhanced social skills because the delivery of care involves interacting with other people.

In summary, therapeutic relationships between the client and the healthcare provider are essential as they foster recovery. Nurses and therapists can adopt the unconditional positive regard model to create trust and respect with patients. Developing self-awareness and emotional intelligence can enhance the delivery of care. Healthcare practitioners can also benefit through better and more effective communication with clients.

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Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Enhancing Therapeutic Relationships in Nursing." April 28, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/enhancing-therapeutic-relationships-in-nursing/.

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