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Yoga Research: How to Identify and Interpret Research Methods in Yoga Studies

As you start to find research articles that may help you see and communicate what science says about yoga, you can sprinkle in questions like the ones that follow, to stoke your curiosity and build your fluency:

What is meant by the word yoga (or meditation)? Often, journal articles don’t specify or distinguish among lineages and practice approaches nor provide a particular sequence or protocol. It’s hard to tell what form of yoga was offered.

What was the “best alternative” to yoga’s possible benefits—another intervention, comparison, or “control” condition(s)? Is it walking, stretching, reading an educational text, and/or nothing? Here’s a useful journal article on this: “Comparison Groups in Yoga Research: A Systematic Review and Critical Evaluation of the Literature” (1)

How to Recognize Yoga Research Methods

What were the research methods? Here are quick explanations of the basic menu of options. Most studies combine methods:

• Literature Review : To collect and summarize all that’s been written on a topic, usually presented in the format of a very detailed bibliography plus a narrative interpretation that synthesizes the key findings and areas for further inquiry.
• Surveys : We live in the era of surveys, whether it’s a quiz on social media, a set of questions from presidential candidates, or the number of stars we give to rate our ride to the airport. Validated survey instruments are those that have been developed and tested across populations multiple times to see if the questions and the results are dependable and can be repeated.
• Biological Data Collection : Gather body tissues and fluids, measuring physiological indicators like heart rate and pulse, using in-person visits as well as newer, take-home technologies (e.g., FitBit).
• Participant Self-Reports : The participants track, record, and communicate their observations of their own experience during the course of the study using journal formats, interviews, and other media.
• Individual Participant Interviews : Researchers interview participants at various points before, during, and after the intervention.
• Focus Groups: A group interview on a specific topic or key questions.
• Case Studies: In-depth examination or description of one or more “cases”—an individual person or event, for example—to illustrate research questions, methods, and interventions. This is a “close-up” research strategy that can’t be easily generalized but can amplify specifics.
• Researcher or Instructor Observation : A member of the research or intervention team(s) records notes on their observations of participants and the interventions.

Participant self-reports and interviews are likely to be nuanced and subjective, textured yet difficult to verify or generalize. And they are essential to understanding movement and contemplative practices. In their methods, how did the researchers tackle the first-person experience?

Unlike taking a pill versus a placebo, participants and researchers usually know which intervention is offered, for example, if you’re in the movement group or the control group that’s doing something other than movement. How did the design address that for a “blind” or “double-blind” study?

What can you learn about the researchers and their motivations, from this and other publications? What are their funding sources? Do authors and/or acknowledgments include the yoga consultants, teachers, or therapists who developed or delivered the protocols? Does the article suggest strategies for education or dissemination of findings?

Remember, principal investigators and designers of studies may not have a direct, personal understanding of the practices that they are designing into the studies. Many arrive at their work as researchers via academic, intellectual, and professional pursuits, and have not necessarily started out as avid yoga practitioners, although some may have had experiences with yoga and contemplative practices that led them to want to do research.

Lastly, you may take note of how often we see the following or similar (in)conclusive phrases and caveats, reminding us with humor and humility: “More methodologically rigorous studies are required!”

Now that we’ve covered the basic anatomy of understanding research, it’s time for a deeper dive into dissecting a journal article! For example, I did a quick search on Pubmed (“yoga and neck”) and was delighted to see an article about the effects of yoga on patients with chronic nonspecific neck pain.(2) It’s a recent (2019) systematic review! Let’s take it apart together, shall we? View the pdf file of this analysis (link below-3).

For more information, read this article for information on how to read and absorb a yoga research study and this article on how to identify quality studies on yoga and meditation.

Reprinted with permission from  Sequencewiz.org  and Rachel Lanzerotti of  Fiveriversyoga.com.

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• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4254537/
• https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
• https://sequencewiz.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/What-Does-Yoga-Research-Say-About…-A-Deeper-Dive-into-Journal-Articles-for-Discerning-Yogis.pdf

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Scientific Research on Yoga

Main research categories.

Substantial research has been done on many of the populations and parts of the body that COVID-19 preys on most. Use this section of Yoga Alliance's website to learn more about scientific research on the effects of yoga on the elderly , respiratory function , anxiety , and depression , to name a few.

Perhaps more than ever, yoga is being widely studied and evaluated for its positive effects and benefits. At Yoga Alliance, we curate the latest and most relevant research on yoga’s applications in health, wellness, and disease. We have filtered it in a digestible manner for our Registered Yoga Schools and Registered Yoga Teachers as well as for the broader yoga community.

This evidence-based research not only reveals the science of yoga, it also explains its therapeutic efficacy when used in conjunction with conventional medicine. Our goal is that this impactful content will be utilized in a way that highlights even more of yoga’s ancient, multi-faceted ability to improve lives.

Our Research Conversation

Our Director of Yoga Research Dr. Sat Bir Singh Khalsa is a renowned yoga research expert and yoga teacher who has committed his professional life to clinical research surrounding yoga’s full spectrum of healing efficacy.

View a collection of brief videos briefly summarizing yoga research on a variety of specific topics, conditions and populations. These are easy to understand for non-scientists and convey many of the scientific principles and rationale in key studies showing yoga’s benefits.

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View upcoming and previous yoga research webinars on a variety of topics hosted by Kim Weeks. Sessions include a brief lecture by Dr. Khalsa summarizing the research and evidence in easy-to-understand language followed by questions and answers from the attendees.

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Yoga research review

Affiliation.

• 1 Touch Research Institute, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, United States; Fielding Graduate University, United States. Electronic address: [email protected].
• PMID: 27502816
• DOI: 10.1016/j.ctcp.2016.06.005

This paper is a review of empirical studies, review and meta-analysis publications on yoga from the last few years. The review includes demographics/prevalence of yoga as a practice, bibliometric analyses of the yoga publications and the use of yoga for physical fitness and cognitive function. Most of the studies reviewed here involve yoga effects on psychiatric and medical conditions. These include pregnancy, prenatal and postpartum depression; stress, PTSD, anxiety, and obesity; cardiovascular conditions including hypertension; pain syndromes including arthritis, headaches and low back pain; autoimmune conditions including asthma, type II diabetes and multiple sclerosis; immune conditions including HIV and breast cancer; and aging problems including balance, osteoporosis and Parkinson's. The methods and results of those studies are briefly summarized along with their limitations and suggestions for future research. Basically yoga has been more effective than control and waitlist control conditions, although not always more effective than treatment comparison groups such as other forms of exercise. More randomized controlled studies are needed in which yoga is compared to active exercise groups. Having established the physical and mental health benefits of yoga makes it ethically questionable to assign participants to inactive control groups. Shorter sessions should be investigated for cost-effectiveness and for daily practice. Multiple physical and physiological measures need to be added to the self-report research protocols and potential underlying mechanisms need to be further explored. In the interim, the studies reviewed here highlight the therapeutic effects of yoga, a practice that could come to be called yoga therapy.

Keywords: Yoga research review.

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Publication types

• Outcome Assessment, Health Care*

Yoga Therapy Research: Why Do We Need It?

Integral Yoga Magazine (IYM): How did you get involved in Yoga research?

Sat Bir Khalsa (SBK): In the mid-1970s I set myself a goal to do Yoga research. As a first step towards this goal, I proceeded to get research training and a PhD in the field of neurophysiology and neuroscience. Despite being interested and open to doing this research I wasn’t able to begin doing Yoga research until the year 2000. As a full-time researcher, you are fully engaged in the project you are funded to carry out and it is difficult to do other research on the side. It wasn’t until 2000 that the National Center for Alternative and Complementary Medicine started funding major research grants that I was able to acquire the necessary funding to put me in 
a position to do Yoga research.

IYM: With what type of Yoga research did you start?

SBK: The project that fit my expertise was an evaluation of a Yoga intervention for insomnia. I was in a good position to apply for a research career award with my long history of Yoga practice and my research training in circadian rhythms and sleep. There is a lot of evidence that people with chronic insomnia have elevated levels of arousal. This arousal manifests in an increase in the stress hormones cortisol, adrenaline and noradrenaline. Other arousal measures have also been shown to be elevated—like body temperature and metabolic rate. It therefore makes sense to use Yoga in the treatment of chronic insomnia because Yoga has been shown to be very good at reducing arousal.

IYM: Is there a difference between doing Yoga research and being a Yoga therapist?

SBK: They are two very different approaches. In the case of insomnia, a Yoga therapist needs to apply the most appropriate treatment for different individuals with chronic insomnia. The ideal approach for people with chronic insomnia is to give them all the behavioral treatments that are already known to be effective and to add Yoga to that.

In contrast, in Yoga research for insomnia everything is ideally simplified, regimented and reproducible. I picked a practice from Kundalini Yoga, as taught by Yogi Bhajan. It is a 45-minute set of exercises: three postures, a breathing pattern that includes breath retention and meditation. The subjects receive the treatment in a training session and they practice this routine every night for eight weeks. We monitor their sleep and do overnight sleep studies to examine any improvements in sleep. The preliminary study showed statistically significant improvements over time. Since then we’ve run a randomized control trial in two groups and have shown similar improvements over time in the Yoga group again.

IYM: You teach a mind-body medicine class for Harvard medical students. Can you talk about what students learn in this class and what impact you see this having on Yoga therapies’ acceptance?

SBK: The course is on the general field of mind-body medicine. We’ve opened the course up to students from other Boston medical schools, the Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard Divinity School and others. There are 16 seminars given by research faculty who are leaders in their fields within mind-body medicine. We include lectures on the history of mind-body medicine, spirituality, placebo effect,  biofeedback, meditation, Tai Chi, Yoga and the practical aspects of delivering mind-body interventions in clinical settings.

Students have an option to take a one-hour Kundalini Yoga class that I teach after the seminar; I would say half of the students stay for the Yoga class. A lot of these students go through a transformation through the regimen of a consistent Yoga practice. The direct mind-body experience they get from Yoga changes their approach to life and potentially their future roles as healers. Although, it is gratifying to enlighten medical students directly through Yoga practice, I think research on Yoga can make a bigger impact because published research has the potential to change what is taught in medical schools.

IYM: Why do you think Yoga research is necessary?

SBK: Yoga is extremely popular; it has become a cultural icon. Yoga is becoming something that is part of being a westerner. Surveys show that 5 percent of the population is practicing Yoga and that many of these people are practicing for health reasons. However, if you look at the demographics of these surveys, the practice of Yoga is done primarily by people who are of higher education and income levels, female gender and those who are younger. This means that only a very narrow sliver of the population is practicing Yoga. Those of us who believe that there are enormous health care and wellness benefits to the practice of Yoga would like to see Yoga being practiced by the entire population.

If you really believe in the benefits of Yoga, the question is how can you get Yoga to be practiced by the full population? The answer is to link Yoga to a mechanism, or system, that already penetrates the entire demographic. The two systems in society that already do this are the education system and the health care system. This is where the research component comes in; the education and health care systems will not incorporate anything unless it has been validated scientifically. Research is necessary to convince the administrators in both of those systems that Yoga belongs.

We need to show that Yoga is a valuable adjunct to treating a variety of disorders: depression, anxiety, obesity, diabetes and insomnia—the list goes on. I believe that Yoga practices should be incorporated as an adjunct treatment, as a mind-body therapy in coordination with allopathic medicine. The same applies to the education system; we need to show that giving Yoga practices to kids in schools improves grades, performance, psychological state and concentration, while it decreases aggressiveness, anger, depression and anxiety.  If we can show this repeatedly in a number of well-controlled experiments then educators will incorporate it.

A good analogy useful for understanding the role of research is the concept of cultural hygiene. One such hygiene practice that is well established in our society is dental hygiene. It is well recognized by the medical system and it is well incorporated into the education system. If you are brought up in this culture you get exposed to it, period. If you travel, you take a tooth brush. It is part of life, of who we are as a culture. Now, when you compare this with the prevalence of what I will call “mind-body hygiene,” or the ability to maintain wellness of our mental and physical state, we are very poor at this.

We have very little in place that teaches our children how to cope with emotions, life events and stress. The education system has virtually nothing established in its curricula that focuses on stress management, physical and mental flexibility, disease resistance, anxiety, depression, trauma and stress in general. As a consequence, an enormous part of our health care system is devoted to illnesses that are the consequences of chronic unmanaged stress. We spend a lot of money treating illnesses in the adult population that are effectively behaviorally induced lifestyle diseases.

Evidence suggests that the practice of Yoga will improve emotional tolerance and stress management; it can reduce aggression, greed and suffering. We are talking about reducing our health care costs. More importantly, we are talking about improving our human experience as individuals and as a society.

IYM: Do you see any resistance to incorporating Yoga into the schools due to issues of separation of church and state?

SBK: At its core, Yoga is a physiological practice. Meditation is a very simple cognitive process. The regulation of the breath and the stretching of the body are physical activities that generate physiological responses. It is so simple. Although Yoga comes from a culture that has mantras, fancy names for asanas and is deeply spiritual, the truth is, you can teach Yoga without all of that and it is just about as effective. This is what we need to focus on for Yoga to reach the most people.

The grassroots movement of implementing Yoga in education is alive and well; many schools have after-school programs of Yoga. However, this is happening primarily in affluent school systems and in few regions of the country. It is likely you will find little Yoga practiced in schools in North Dakota farming country or in disadvantaged neighborhoods in urban southern cities. IYM: What do you think makes an effective Yoga therapist?

SBK: I believe Yoga therapists are more effective if they document more of what they do. What I mean by documentation is carefully conducted and written case studies, reports, questionnaires and interviews. It is essential that Yoga therapists report what they have done. Let me give you an example: In the 1970s, our 3HO Foundation that disseminates Kundalini Yoga as taught by Yogi Bhajan ran a state-funded drug rehabilitation program in our ashram in Tucson, Arizona. Participants lived in the ashram, did morning sadhana , Yoga, yogic diet, juice fasts and detoxification routines. Many people were really changed and transformed. However, because we did not fully document the progress and outcomes of this program on the participants, there remains little to show for the success of the program save for a number of personal anecdotes, and these anecdotes will themselves be lost in time.

IYM: Some Yoga therapists see their work as treating the whole person rather than specific diseases or disorders. Can you talk about the ongoing critique of Yoga as a therapy?

SBK: You can go back into the literature in India and see critiques about using Yoga for therapy alone. The argument is that Yoga is not just a medical intervention but rather a traditional, ancient, spiritual practice that brings the whole individual into balance. It is understood the practice of Yoga is about treating the entire individual to raise their consciousness, to become a better being. Therefore, the view has been expressed that practicing Yoga as a therapy alone for a specific disorder is demeaning to the full intent of Yoga.

When anything becomes popular it becomes diversified—that is well understood. When the car was first invented and you wanted to buy a car there was one model to buy. Now you have a choice: motorcycle, truck, sports car—what brand do you want? What color? The diversification is endless. The same is happening with Yoga. As Yoga becomes more popular it is going to diversify. We now have comprehensive Yoga styles like Integral Yoga, Kripalu Yoga and Kundalini Yoga, which are focused on the growth of the whole individual and include postures, breathing, meditation, philosophy and psychology of Yoga. We now also have what can be considered more limited styles of Yoga; in the most extreme case, Yoga whose focus is entirely on the physical practice for cosmetic purposes. It is easy for us to  look at this type of Yoga practice derisively and say, “Oh what a joke! Yoga is so much more than that! Look what these guys are doing to it!” However, even in this limited application of Yoga, people are practicing an exercise that has the potential to be a little more effective at stress management and improving well-being than the other exercise options at the gym. Perhaps some of the students who started out doing “Yoga for the abs” are going to eventually gravitate to a more comprehensive practice, yet those students may never have been attracted to a more comprehensive style of Yoga first.

IYM: Do you have any advice for those interested in researching Yoga?

SBK: For Yoga instructors and therapists interested in research, I would say that Yoga research begins at home. It all starts with documentation. One of the good habits of any clinician is documentation. A lot of therapists pride themselves on being completely intuitive; that they feel their way through sessions with people. These practitioners may feel there is no need for an analytical component to their work. However, by documenting your work you get to look back on your progress; you get to see what worked and what didn’t; you get to observe how things have changed over time. Yoga therapists need to become very good at clinical documentation.

Once you have clinical documentation you can write case reports or case series reports or your documentation can be reevaluated for quality control. For example, if you are using Yoga to treat headaches, you can look at your documentation and see, “Oh, only people doing the breathing practices are getting cured of their headaches.” You’ve learned something! Then you can increase your use of breathing practices and see if you get better results; you may prove to yourself that pranayama is the best technique for headaches. This is the power of documentation; a lot of these findings don’t come out until you fully analyze the data. If it is something subtle, the only way you are going to find it is by documenting your work. Documentation is good clinical practice no matter what you do or what system you work in. You have to treat the patient, but also make time to document your treatment and the response of the patient.

About Sat Bir Khalsa, PhD

Sat Bir Khalsa is an Assistant Professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School, where he teaches mind-body medicine. He has been conducting research on the use of Yoga in the treatment of insomnia in the Division of Sleep Medicine at Brigham and Women’s Hospital. He is currently the Director of Research for the Kundalini Research Institute, the Research Director for the Kripalu Center for Yoga and Health and advises the International Association of Yoga Therapists on research. To contact Sat Bir Khalsa e-mail him at: khalsa[at]hms.harvard.edu or to find out more about his work at the sleep clinic, visit harvard.edu .

Reprinted from Integral Yoga Magazine , Fall 2008

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Research Methodology in yoga

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11 types of yoga: a breakdown of the major styles.

Whether you want a physically demanding yoga class, or a relaxing, meditative one, there are plenty of different yoga styles to suit a variety of skill levels and needs.

Each style is a bit different from the others, plus you'll find variations depending on the teacher. That said, giving a few styles and teachers a try before settling on your favorite will enhance your overall yoga experience and challenge you to break out of your comfort zone.

Curious to learn more about each type? This guide will help you understand the basics before diving into a class .

Benefits of yoga

Yoga is an excellent way to get sweaty and centered, whether you're a total newbie or longtime pro. Plus, there are some seriously awesome health benefits of yoga that you can score from a daily practice.

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The most common types of yoga

Vinyasa yoga.

Vinyasa means "to place in a special way" and, in this case, yoga postures. Vinyasa yoga is often considered the most athletic yoga style, and was adapted from ashtanga yoga in the 1980s. Many types of yoga can also be considered "vinyasa flows," such as ashtanga, power yoga, and prana.

How to practice:

In vinyasa classes, movements are coordinated with your breath in order to flow from one pose to another. Vinyasa styles can vary depending on the teacher, and there can be many types of poses in different sequences. I personally teach an alignment-based style of vinyasa and choreograph new flows every time, but I also like to hold some of the poses a bit longer after warming up. You can find more information on specific vinyasa poses and benefits here .

The Sanskrit term "hatha" is an umbrella term for all physical postures of yoga. In the West, hatha yoga simply refers to all the other styles of yoga (ashtanga, Iyengar, etc.) that are grounded in a physical practice. However, there are other branches of yoga such as kriya, raja, and karma yoga that are separate from the physical-based yoga practice. The physical-based yoga is the most popular and has numerous styles.

Hatha yoga classes are best for beginners since they are usually paced slower than other yoga styles. Hatha classes today are a classic approach to breathing and exercises. If you are brand-new to yoga, hatha yoga is a great entry point to the practice.

Iyengar yoga

Iyengar yoga was founded by B.K.S. Iyengar and focuses on alignment as well as detailed and precise movements. In an Iyengar class, students perform a variety of postures while controlling the breath.

Generally, poses are held for a long time while adjusting the minutiae of the pose. Iyengar relies heavily on props to help students perfect their form and go deeper into poses in a safe manner. Although you won't jump around, you will definitely get a workout and feel incredibly open and relaxed after an Iyengar class. This style is really great for people with injuries who need to work slowly and methodically.

Kundalini yoga

Kundalini yoga practice is equal parts spiritual and physical. This style is all about releasing the kundalini energy in your body said to be trapped, or coiled, in the lower spine.

A kundalini class will really work your core and breath with fast-moving, invigorating postures and breath exercises. These classes are pretty intense and can involve chanting, mantra, and meditation. To learn more about this specific practice, check out our kundalini yoga explainer .

Ashtanga yoga

In Sanskrit, ashtanga is translated as "Eight Limb path." In Mysore, India, people gather to practice this form of yoga together at their own pace—if you see Mysore-led ashtanga, it's expected of you to know the series. Vinyasa yoga stems from ashtanga as the flowing style linking breath to movement. To learn more about this specific practice, check out our beginner's guide to ashtanga yoga .

Ashtanga yoga involves a very physically demanding sequence of postures, so this style of yoga is definitely not for the beginner. It takes an experienced yogi to really love it. Ashtanga starts with five sun salutation A's and five sun salutation B's and then moves into a series of standing and floor postures.

Bikram yoga

Bikram yoga is named after Bikram Choudhury and features a sequence of set poses in a sauna-like room—typically set to 105 degrees and 40% humidity. Choudhury faced sexual assault and harassment lawsuits in the U.S. and fled to Mexico in 2017. Many studios that were formerly Bikram now practice hot yoga, in an effort to disassociate with the founder. 

The sequence never changes and includes a series of 26 basic postures, with each one performed twice. Many of these poses are focused on proper alignment. If you're interested in yoga with the heat turned up, look for studios that offer hot yoga classes. 

Yin yoga is a slow-paced style of yoga with seated postures that are held for longer periods of time. Yin can also be a meditative yoga practice that helps you find inner peace.

Yin is a great class for beginners, as postures can be held anywhere from 45 seconds to 2 minutes. The classes are relaxed, as you're supposed to let gravity do most of the work. Check out our crash course on everything you need to know about yin yoga, found here .

Restorative yoga

Restorative yoga focuses on winding down after a long day and relaxing your mind. At its core, this style focuses on body relaxation. Restorative yoga also helps to cleanse and free your mind.

You'll spend more time in fewer postures throughout a restorative yoga class. Many of the poses are modified to be easier and more relaxing. Like Iyengar, many props are used and placed just right, such as blankets, bolsters, and eye pillows. All of the props are there to help you sink deeper into relaxation.

Prenatal yoga

Prenatal yoga is carefully adapted for moms-to-be, and is tailored to women in all trimesters. Many have said that prenatal is one of the best types of exercise for expectant moms because of the pelvic floor work, focus on breathing, and bonding with the growing baby. Prenatal yoga also helps mothers prepare for labor and delivery.

During this practice, you'll use props in order to modify your poses and ensure stability—in this class, it's way more about stability than flexibility.

Anusara yoga

Anusara is a modern-day version of hatha yoga, most similar to vinyasa in that it focuses on alignment, but with more emphasis on the mind-body-heart connection. It was founded by John Friend who created a unique system called the Universal Principals of Alignment. He resigned in 2012 after accusations of sexual misconduct and financial mismanagement. Friend has since partnered with Desi and Micah Springer to teach the Bowspring method.

Anusara focuses on spirals and how each body part should be moving, and it's also known for its emphasis on heart opening. Expect to stop in class and gather around a student as the instructor breaks down a pose.

Jivamukti yoga

Jivamukti was founded in 1984 by Sharon Ganon and David Life. Jivamukti is mainly vinyasa-flow-style classes infused with Hindu spiritual teachings. At its core, this style emphasizes connection to Earth as a living being, so most Jivamukti devotees follow a vegetarian philosophy.

A series of chants usually open the beginning of class, followed up by a series of poses that align with the five tenets of Jivamukti yoga and philosophy.

What are the benefits of yoga?

There are so many benefits to yoga, with some nuance depending on the style. Generally speaking, though, yoga encourages strength, mobility, flexibility, balance, focus and concentration, and overall wellbeing. Research shows the benefits of yoga range from mental to physical, with regular practitioners experiencing everything from reduced stress levels to lower blood pressure .

Naturally, the more vigorous the class, the more physical gains you'll see. But even the more relaxing, restorative classes will leave you feeling calm, loose, and refreshed.

Which style of yoga is the hardest?

Each style of yoga will have aspects that some students find challenging, while others may not. A yin class, for example, may be less physically demanding, but does require you to be still and quiet for an extended period of time, which can be a challenge in itself. Additionally, you determine how hard you push yourself in a class, so even a more physically demanding class can be "easier," if you're taking it easier.

How is yoga different from meditation?

Yoga "asanas" (AKA poses) and meditation are both parts of the larger umbrella of the yogic lifestyle, which goes far beyond solely a physical practice. In fact, asanas were designed to encourage meditation, by promoting flexibility to sit for long periods of time and the mental fortitude to handle that.

Yoga itself is also quite meditative, and can be thought of as a moving or embodied meditation. Some yoga classes will also include a meditation at the beginning or end.

Are there any risks to yoga?

Any form of physical exercise comes with risk, particularly if you're injured or recovering from an injury. Nevertheless, yoga is much easier on the body than high impact exercises, and poses can be modified to suit different skill levels. When in doubt, talk to your doctor if you have any concerns, and always let your yoga teacher know if you're dealing with any injuries.

The takeaway

Yoga comes with a host of benefits, regardless of which style you try. And with such a rich variety of options , there truly is a yoga class out there for everyone. From yin when you need to decompress, to vinyasa when you want a good workout, each style has its benefits , which is why this longstanding tradition is still around today.

• https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/2047487314562741?journalCode=cprc
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5843960/

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• v.4(2); Jul-Dec 2011

Exploring the therapeutic effects of yoga and its ability to increase quality of life

Catherine woodyard.

Department of Health, Exercise Science and Recreation Management, The University of Mississippi, The Center for Health Behavior Research, 215 Turner Center, University, MS, USA

The objective of this study is to assess the findings of selected articles regarding the therapeutic effects of yoga and to provide a comprehensive review of the benefits of regular yoga practice. As participation rates in mind-body fitness programs such as yoga continue to increase, it is important for health care professionals to be informed about the nature of yoga and the evidence of its many therapeutic effects. Thus, this manuscript provides information regarding the therapeutic effects of yoga as it has been studied in various populations concerning a multitude of different ailments and conditions. Therapeutic yoga is defined as the application of yoga postures and practice to the treatment of health conditions and involves instruction in yogic practices and teachings to prevent reduce or alleviate structural, physiological, emotional and spiritual pain, suffering or limitations. Results from this study show that yogic practices enhance muscular strength and body flexibility, promote and improve respiratory and cardiovascular function, promote recovery from and treatment of addiction, reduce stress, anxiety, depression, and chronic pain, improve sleep patterns, and enhance overall well-being and quality of life.

INTRODUCTION

A 3,000 year old tradition, yoga, is now regarded in the Western world as a holistic approach to health and is classified by the National Institutes of Health as a form of Complementary and Alternative Medicine (CAM).[ 1 ] The word “yoga” comes from a Sanskrit root “yuj” which means union, or yoke, to join, and to direct and concentrate one's attention.[ 2 , 3 ] Regular practice of yoga promotes strength, endurance, flexibility and facilitates characteristics of friendliness, compassion, and greater self-control, while cultivating a sense of calmness and well-being.[ 4 , 5 ] Sustained practice also leads to important outcomes such as changes in life perspective, self-awareness and an improved sense of energy to live life fully and with genuine enjoyment.[ 6 – 8 ] The practice of yoga produces a physiological state opposite to that of the flight-or-fight stress response and with that interruption in the stress response, a sense of balance and union between the mind and body can be achieved.[ 9 ]

Yoga is a form of mind-body fitness that involves a combination of muscular activity and an internally directed mindful focus on awareness of the self, the breath, and energy.[ 4 ] Four basic principles underlie the teachings and practices of yoga's healing system.[ 6 ] The first principle is the human body is a holistic entity comprised of various interrelated dimensions inseparable from one another and the health or illness of any one dimension affects the other dimensions. The second principle is individuals and their needs are unique and therefore must be approached in a way that acknowledges this individuality and their practice must be tailored accordingly. The third principle is yoga is self-empowering; the student is his or her own healer. Yoga engages the student in the healing process; by playing an active role in their journey toward health, the healing comes from within, instead of from an outside source and a greater sense of autonomy is achieved. The fourth principle is that the quality and state of an individuals mind is crucial to healing. When the individual has a positive mind-state healing happens more quickly, whereas if the mind-state is negative, healing may be prolonged.

Yoga philosophy and practice were first described by Patanjali in the classic text, Yoga Sutras , which is widely acknowledged as the authoritative text on yoga.[ 2 , 6 ] Today, many people identify yoga only with asana, the physical practice of yoga, but asana is just one of the many tools used for healing the individual; only three of the 196 sutras mention asana and the remainder of the text discusses the other components of yoga including conscious breathing, meditation, lifestyle and diet changes, visualization and the use of sound, among many others.[ 6 ] In Yoga Sutras , Patanjali outlines an eightfold path to awareness and enlightenment called ashtanga , which literally means “eight limbs”.[ 2 , 10 ]

The eight limbs are comprised of ethical principles for living a meaningful and purposeful life; serving as a prescription for moral and ethical conduct and self-discipline, they direct attention towards one's health while acknowledging the spiritual aspects of one's nature. Any of the eight limbs may be used separately, but within yoga philosophy the physical postures and breathing exercises prepare the mind and body for meditation and spiritual development.[ 4 , 10 ] Based on Patanjali's eight limbs, many different yogic disciplines have been developed. Each has its own technique for preventing and treating disease.[ 1 ] In the Western world, the most common aspects of yoga practiced are the physical postures and breathing practices of Hatha yoga and meditation.[ 4 ] Hatha yoga enhances the capacity of the physical body through the use of a series of body postures, movements (asanas), and breathing techniques (pranayama). The breathing techniques of Hatha yoga focus on conscious prolongation of inhalation, breath retention, and exhalation. It is through the unification of the physical body, breath, and concentration, while performing the postures and movements that blockages in the energy channels of the body are cleared and the body energy system becomes more balanced. Although numerous styles of Hatha yoga exist, the majority of studies included in this manuscript utilized the Iyengar style of yoga. The Iyengar method of Hatha yoga is based on the teachings of the yoga master B.K.S. Iyengar.[ 1 ] Iyengar yoga places an emphasis on standing poses to develop strength, stability, stamina, concentration and body alignment. Props are utilized to facilitate learning and to adjust poses and instruction is given on how to use yoga to ease various ailments and stressors.

Yoga is recognized as a form of mind-body medicine that integrates an individual's physical, mental and spiritual components to improve aspects of health, particularly stress related illnesses.[ 8 ] Evidence shows that stress contributes to the etiology of heart disease, cancer, and stroke as well as other chronic conditions and diseases.[ 11 ] Due to the fact that stress is implicated in numerous diseases, it is a priority to include a focus on stress management and reduction of negative emotional states in order to reduce the burden of disease. Viewed as a holistic stress management technique, yoga is a form of CAM that produces a physiological sequence of events in the body reducing the stress response. The scientific study of yoga has increased substantially in recent years and many clinical trials have been designed to assess its therapeutic effects and benefits.

As participation rates in mind-body fitness programs such as yoga continue to increase, it is important for health care professionals to be informed about the nature of yoga and the evidence of its many therapeutic effects. Thus, this review of the literature is timely and important and provides information regarding the therapeutic effects of yoga in various populations concerning a multitude of different ailments and conditions. Therapeutic yoga is defined as the application of yoga postures and practice to the treatment of health conditions.[ 4 ] Yoga therapy involves instruction in yogic practices and teachings to prevent reduce or alleviate structural, physiological, emotional and spiritual pain, suffering or limitations. Yogic practices enhance muscular strength and body flexibility, promote and improve respiratory and cardiovascular function, promote recovery from and treatment of addiction, reduce stress, anxiety, depression, and chronic pain, improve sleep patterns, and enhance overall well-being and quality of life.[ 4 , 6 , 12 – 17 ]

In order to locate research studies and interventions that examined the therapeutic effects of yoga, databases were searched through Google Scholar via a universities web browser. Initially, the following key words were entered into the database via the advanced search option: “yoga,” and “therapeutic effects.” This search was conducted to obtain general information regarding yoga's therapeutic effects in the existing literature. Subsequently, a second search was conducted using the following key words or exact phrases, “hatha yoga,” “therapeutic effects of yoga,” “stress,” “anxiety, “depression,” “pain,” and “chronic disease.” The following criteria were used for including studies in this review: (1) the article had to be peer reviewed, (2) published between the years 1990 and 2009, (3) the intervention had to incorporate some form of yoga and/ or meditation, and (4) effects of yoga on some outcome were measured.

In order to select the articles included in this manuscript, several steps were taken. First, the title was read. If the article appeared appropriate to the examination of the therapeutic effects of yoga, it was saved to a folder. The articles describing interventions that utilized yoga as a means to achieve some health outcome were chosen for further review. Each of the articles chosen were then thoroughly read and reviewed. The articles chosen include a broad spectrum of the benefits, application, and therapeutic effects of yoga.

Mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, stress, and insomnia are among the most common reasons for individuals to seek treatment with complementary therapies such as yoga.[ 18 ] Yoga encourages one to relax, slow the breath and focus on the present, shifting the balance from the sympathetic nervous system and the flight-or-fight response to the parasympathetic system and the relaxation response.[ 5 ] The latter is calming and restorative; it lowers breathing and heart rate, decreases blood pressure, lowers cortisol levels, and increases blood flow to the intestines and vital organs.

One of the main goals of yoga is to achieve tranquility of the mind and create a sense of well-being, feelings of relaxation, improved self-confidence, improved efficiency, increased attentiveness, lowered irritability, and an optimistic outlook on life.[ 9 ] The practice of yoga generates balanced energy which is vital to the function of the immune system.[ 9 ] Yoga leads to an inhibition of the posterior or sympathetic area of the hypothalamus. This inhibition optimizes the body's sympathetic responses to stressful stimuli and restores autonomic regulatory reflex mechanisms associated with stress. Yogic practices inhibit the areas responsible for fear, aggressiveness and rage, and stimulate the rewarding pleasure centers in the median forebrain and other areas leading to a state of bliss and pleasure. This inhibition results in lower anxiety, heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, and cardiac output in students practicing yoga and meditation.[ 6 , 13 , 19 , 20 ]

Consistent yoga practice improves depression and can lead to significant increases in serotonin levels coupled with decreases in the levels of monamine oxidase, an enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters and cortisol.[ 5 ] A range of therapeutic approaches is available for the management of depressive disorders, but many patients turn to complementary therapies due to the adverse effects of medication, lack of response or simply preference for the complementary approach. A number of studies demonstrate the potential beneficial effects of yoga interventions on depression, stress, and anxiety.[ 18 , 21 , 22 ]

Improved flexibility is one of the first and most obvious benefits of yoga.[ 5 ] With continued practice comes a gradual loosening of the muscles and connective tissues surrounding the bones and joints; this is thought to be one reason that yoga is associated with reduced aches and pains. Yoga helps to build muscle mass and/ or maintain muscle strength, which protects from conditions such as arthritis, osteoporosis and back pain.[ 6 ] During a yoga session, the joints are taken through their full range of motion, squeezing and soaking areas of cartilage not often used and bringing fresh nutrients, oxygen and blood to the area, which helps to prevent conditions like arthritis and chronic pain.[ 5 ] Without proper sustenance, neglected areas of cartilage will eventually wear out and expose the underlying bone. Numerous studies have shown that asana, meditation or a combination of the two reduced pain in people with arthritis, Carpel Tunnel syndrome, back pain and other chronic conditions.[ 5 , 6 , 17 , 23 – 25 ] Yoga also increases proprioception and improves balance.[ 5 ]

Yoga increases blood flow and levels of hemoglobin and red blood cells which allows for more oxygen to reach the body cells, enhancing their function.[ 5 ] Yoga also thins the blood which can decrease the risk of heart attack and stroke, as they are often caused by blood clots. Twisting poses wring out venous blood from internal organs and allow oxygenated blood to flow in when the twist is released. Inverted poses encourage venous blood flow from the legs and pelvis back to the heart and then pumped through the lungs where it becomes freshly oxygenated. Many studies show yoga lowers the resting heart rate, increases endurance, and can improve the maximum uptake and utilization of oxygen during exercise.[ 13 , 20 , 26 ] Consistently getting the heart rate into aerobic range lowers the risk of heart attack.[ 5 ] While not all yoga is aerobic, even yoga exercises that do not increase heart rate into the aerobic range can improve cardiovascular functioning.

While yoga is not a cure for a cancer, nor a definitive way of preventing it, yoga increases physical, emotional and spiritual wellness, and brings about a certain peace, of which many cancer patients desire.[ 27 ] Yoga, breathing exercises, and meditation can reduce stress, promote healing, and enhance quality of life for patients with cancer.[ 28 , 29 ] The growth of tumors and other cancer indicators are exacerbated by stress, thus it is especially important for people with cancer to reduce and manage stress effectively.[ 27 ] Several premises exist as rationale for applying yoga-based interventions with cancer patients. Research suggests that yoga can produce an invigorating effect on mental and physical energy that improves fitness and reduces fatigue.[ 28 ] Additionally, when practicing yoga, a fundamental emphasis is placed on accepting one's moment-to-moment experiences creating mindfulness and not forcing the body past its comfortable limits. Having this healthy sense of acceptance is especially important for individuals dealing with life-threatening illness as it decreases the stress one experiences from unpleasant symptomology. Initially, cancer patients likely benefit from the poses themselves which are designed to exercise each and every muscle, nerve and gland throughout the body.[ 27 ] The postures precisely address the tension, holding, and blockage of energy in any particular joint or organ. As this tension is released, energy flows more readily throughout the body and allows patients to experience a sense of increased well-being and strength as well as a balance of mind, body and spirit.

While stimulation is good, too much taxes the nervous system and yoga provides relief from excess stimulation and the stressors and hectic nature of modern life.[ 5 ] Restorative postures, savasana, pranayama, and meditation encourage pratyahara, a turning inward of the senses which enables downtime for the nervous system, the byproduct often being improved sleep. Pharmacological treatment of insomnia is often associated with hazardous side effects such as states of confusion, psychomotor performance deficits, nocturnal falls, dysphoric mood, impaired intellectual functioning and daytime sleepiness, especially in older adults.[ 30 ] Therefore, alternative forms of therapy for improving sleep are becoming utilized more frequently. These alternative therapeutic approaches can be generally classified into three categories: behavioral based educative methods (e.g. avoiding caffeine or other stimulants before bedtime), relaxation techniques (e.g. progressive muscular relaxation, yoga, and meditation) and formal psychotherapy. Because of its ability to increase relaxation and induce a balanced mental state, yoga has been studied to evaluate its possible effects on sleep and insomnia.[ 16 , 30 ]

In summary, stress has a negative impact on the immune system and prolonged exposure increases susceptibility to disease and leads to physical and mental health problems such as anxiety and depression.[ 9 , 19 ] Practicing yoga and meditation as a means to manage and relieve both acute and chronic stress helps individuals overcome other co-morbidities associated with diseases and leads to increased quality of life.[ 14 , 31 ] As a non-pharmacological form of treatment, yoga based interventions are an alternative option for the treatment of mood disorders. Further investigation of yoga as a therapeutic intervention in depressive disorders is needed and future studies should seek to identify which of the yoga-based interventions is most effective and what levels of severity of depression are more likely to respond to this approach.

In addition to the effects of yoga on mood disorders and stress reduction, yogic practices are shown to improve cardiorespiratory performance, psychological profile, and plasma melatonin levels and also significantly reduced systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, mean arterial pressure, and orthostatic tolerance.[ 16 , 26 ] Furthermore, yoga helps to improve the cardiovascular efficiency and homeostatic control of the body and results in improvements in autonomic balance, respiratory performance, and overall well-being. Yoga based lifestyle modifications were also shown to aid in regression of coronary lesions as well as to improve myocardial perfusion in patients with CAD.[ 32 ] Inevitably, cardiovascular parameters alter as one ages, but these age-related deteriorations in cardiovascular functions are slower in persons who practice yoga regularly as yoga practitioners had lower heart rate as well as lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure than matched controls.[ 13 ]

Numerous studies show that asana, meditation or a combination of the two can reduce pain and disability while improving flexibility and functional mobility in people with a number of conditions causing chronic pain.[ 5 , 6 , 17 , 23 – 25 ] Additionally, in some cases use of pain medication was reduced or eliminated completely. Yoga was also shown to improve gait function and reduce age-related changes in gait among a group of healthy, non-obese elders.[ 33 ]

Regarding yoga's effects for cancer patients, results show a decrease in post-chemotherapy-induced nausea frequency, nausea intensity, intensity of anticipatory nausea, and anticipatory vomiting.[ 29 ] Additionally, yoga subjects reported decreased anxiety, depression, and distressful symptoms and also showed significantly reduced toxicity scores compared to the controls. Results from another study showed patients experienced significantly lower levels of pain and fatigue, and higher levels of invigoration, acceptance and relaxation following participation in a yoga intervention.[ 28 ] Yoga, breathing exercises, and meditation can reduce stress, promote healing, increase energy, decrease adverse treatment effects, and enhance quality-of-life for patients with cancer.[ 28 , 29 ]

Yoga's ability to increase relaxation and induce a balanced mental state was studied to evaluate its effect on sleep quality and improving insomnia. Regular practice of yoga resulted in a significant decrease in the time taken to fall asleep, an increase in the total number of hours slept, and in the feeling of being rested in the morning.[ 30 ] Additionally, yoga had a positive influence on sleep patterns in individuals with lymphoma.[ 16 ] Furthermore, participation in yoga classes improved self-reported quality-of-life as well as measures of physical function among an elderly population.[ 14 ]

According to Buddhist philosophy the roots of addiction are in the mind and the practice of mindful meditation encourages addicts to accept the basic impermanence of human experience and helps them to develop a detached awareness of thoughts.[ 12 ] Yoga and meditation practices exert positive influence on addictive behaviors. Through the practice of yoga, addicts shift from self-inflicted harm and disrespect toward their bodies to more respectful, caring, and loving behaviors. Eating disorders are a specific type of addiction and yoga appears to be beneficial in improving body image disturbances and useful in the recovery from eating disorders.[ 34 ] One study found that female yoga practitioners attribute their positive feelings and sense of well-being to yoga practice and report less self-objectification, greater satisfaction with physical appearance and fewer disordered eating attitudes compared to non-yoga practitioners.[ 35 ]

The findings of the aforementioned studies examining the psychological and physical outcomes of yoga prove difficult to summarize and draw concrete conclusions due to variation in the research designs, differences in the duration and frequency of yoga classes, and differences in the specific yoga programs and populations being studied. Nonetheless, results for the included studies demonstrate many of the numerous therapeutic effects, benefits and profound healing power of yoga.

Rapidly emerging in the Western world as a discipline for integrating the mind and body into union and harmony, when adopted as a way of life, yoga improves physical, mental, intellectual and spiritual health. Yoga offers an effective method of managing and reducing stress, anxiety and depression and numerous studies demonstrate the efficacy of yoga on mood related disorders.

Currently, treatment for anxiety and depression involves mostly psychological and pharmacological interventions; however, mind-body interventions are becoming increasingly popular as a means to reduce stress in individuals. Yoga, a form of mind-body exercise, has become an increasingly widespread therapy used to maintain wellness, and alleviate a range of health problems and ailments. Yoga should be considered as a complementary therapy or alternative method for medical therapy in the treatment of stress, anxiety, depression, and other mood disorders as it has been shown to create a greater sense of well-being, increase feelings of relaxation, improve self-confidence and body image, improve efficiency, better interpersonal relationships, increase attentiveness, lower irritability, and encourage an optimistic outlook on life.

Researchers are only beginning to understand how disciplines such as yoga promote personal growth, health and well-being. By acknowledging the unity of mind, body and spirit, mind-body fitness programs (i.e. yoga) can assist people in their pursuit of peace, calmness, and greater wholeness and integration in their lives. Health care professionals, health educators and the like, need to be aware of the potential of yoga as an important component of a personal wellness plan.

While no concrete guidelines exist regarding the frequency of practice, the more you practice the more you benefit. Yoga is a personalized practice and as such, frequency and duration are personal questions with individual answers. Practice should happen with wisdom and should be modified to meet individual needs and goals. Individuals should practice as often as possible, especially in the beginning. The length of the induction phase will vary depending on an individual's initial level of fitness and health status; the more difficult yoga is for someone in the beginning the more their body needs it.

While modern medicine has the ability in many cases to heal physical diseases and alleviate psychological disorders, it is argued that a purely medical approach is far less effective in healing the emotional, intellectual, and personality layers of the human entity. The discipline of yoga offers individuals a timeless and holistic model of health and healing and although it may not result in the complete elimination of physical diseases and/ or adverse conditions from the body it offers a holistic path of healing. There exists an indisputable connection between a person's overall physical and mental health and the inner peace and well-being yoga is designed to achieve. Yoga suspends the fluctuations of the mind and by acting consciously, we live better and suffer less.

Source of Support: Nil

Conflict of Interest: None declared

OPINION article

Neurobiological basis for the application of yoga in drug addiction.

• Department of Yoga, Manipur University, Manipur, India

Introduction

Studies on neurobiology of addiction suggests that addiction is a three-stage cycle consisting of (i) binge/intoxication (ii) withdrawal/negative effect, and (iii) preoccupation/anticipation. Prolonged drug use can increase the severity of this cycle and dysregulate the brain reward system leading to (i) increased substance seeking when exposed to substance related cues (ii) decrease the sensitivity of brain reward system; increase the sensitivity of brain stress system, and (iii) decrease in executive function ( 1 ). In the initial stage of addiction, impairments can be seen in the brain reward circuitry and it gradually expands to higher order processes which controls emotions, cognition and behavior ( 2 ). This results in reduced sensitivity to motivation towards actions which are not related to drugs, increased sensitivity of the emotional circuits to stress and impaired capacity to self-regulate ( 3 ). These changes in the brain can continue for months or years after abstinence from drugs and can raise difficulties in the rehabilitation process of drug addicts. Hence, management of addiction should address the dysregulation of the brain reward circuitry, stress mechanism and inhibitory control for positive outcome.

Among non-pharmacological interventions having positive impact on the brain, yoga is emerging as an effective intervention. Yoga is a mind-body practice which involves following certain ethical principles ( Yamas and Niyamas ), practicing physical postures ( asanas ), cleansing practices ( kriyas ), breath regulation ( pranayama ), sense control ( pratyahara ), concentration ( dharana ) and meditation ( dhyana ). Since the practice of yoga involves postural control, breath regulation, maintenance of interoceptive awareness, regulation of emotion and attentional control, it is postulated that both top-down and bottom-up mechanism of interaction between the brain and peripheral tissues are involved during yoga practice. Through these mechanisms yoga can bring changes in the psychophysiology of the practitioners. Although there is scarcity of scientific literature on the effect of yoga and the neurobiology of addiction, several studies have reported the beneficial impact of yoga on brain reward system, stress management and inhibitory control.

Yoga and brain reward system

It is well documented that dopamine plays an important role in the reward circuitry as it regulates the reward value of food, drink, sex, social interaction, and substance abuse ( 4 ). In drug addiction, the rewarding effect of addictive drugs is produced by interfering with the brain’s dopamine system ( 5 ). Evidence suggests that drugs of abuse can cause transient increase in dopamine level which can result in the activation of dopamine D1 receptors leading to subjective experience of euphoria during intoxication ( 6 ). If left unchecked, drug abuse can cause reward deficits due to decrease in dopamine neuronal firing and increased stress ( 7 ). The D1 receptor is also linked with conditioning and memory mechanisms that can intensify the reinforcing effects of drugs of abuse ( 8 ). Hence, an increase in the expression of D1 receptors can play an important role in the onset and maintenance of addiction. Another important change brought by drug addiction in the dopamine system is the decreased expression of dopamine D2 receptors ( 9 – 12 ). Decrease in D2 receptors is associated with reduced activity of the orbito-frontal cortex, anterior cingulated gyrus and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in drug addicts. These regions of the brain are associated with executive functions and inhibitory control ( 13 ). Hence, a decrease in D2 receptors can contribute in increasing compulsive behavior in drug addicts.

A recent study revealed that Rajyoga meditation can bring grey matter volume changes in regions of the brain that regulates reward and happiness ( 14 ). This study compared the grey matter volume in reward processing areas of the brain between Rajyoga meditation practitioners and non-meditators. Grey matter volume in the right superior frontal gyrus and left inferior orbitofrontal cortex and bilateral precuneus was found to be higher in the Rajyoga meditation practitioners. Neuroimaging studies on drug addicts reported grey matter volume changes in these regions of the brain. A study reported positive correlation between grey matter volume in the superior frontal gyrus and duration of abstinence ( 15 ). The same study also found a positive correlation with grey matter volume in the right precuneus with duration of abstinence and a negative correlation was observed with years of substance used. A separate study reported reduced grey matter volume in the orbitofrontal cortex of cocaine addicts ( 16 ). Hence, Rajayoga meditation can improve grey matter volume changes in the regions of the brain affected by drug addiction. Apart from these structural changes, meditation is also reported to increase endogenous dopamine release ( 17 ). During yoga nidra meditation there was a 7.9% reduction in 11 C-raclopride binding in the ventral striatum indication a 65% increase in endogenous dopamine release. An increased striatal dopamine binding to D2 receptors was also observed in this study. The ventral striatum is associated with the acquisition and development of reward-based behaviors and has implications in drug addiction and drug-seeking behaviors ( 18 ). The increased dopamine binding to D2 receptors may also have implications in the management compulsive behavior and executive functions in drug addicts.

Yoga and neurobiology of stress

In the withdrawal/negative affect stage of addiction, stress functions as an important source of motivation for compulsive drug seeking and contributes largely to the transition from drug abuse to addiction stage. The withdrawal of drug act as a stressor leading to the activation of brain stress system. A growing body of evidence suggests that yoga can be effective in the reduction of stress. Studies on yoga and autonomic nervous system activity reported a shift towards vagal dominance following yoga practice indicating an increase in parasympathetic activity. This is supported by findings from the studies on yoga and heart rate variability. A study conducted on medical students assessed the effect of pranayama on heart rate variability, anxiety, memory and psychological well-being ( 19 ). The study reported that after practicing pranayama for 6 months there was a reduction in the low frequency component and an increase in the high frequency component of heart rate variability, indicating an increase in parasympathetic activity. There was also an improvement in the anxiety scores and psychological well-being of the students. A study on the effect of Zen meditation and hear rate variability of drug abusers reported an increase in time domain components of heart rate variability following the practice of Zen meditation ( 20 ). This showed that Zen meditation can increase parasympathetic activity in drug abusers. Apart from this effect on the heart rate variability yoga is also reported to reduce plasma cortisol level. A study evaluated the effect of Sudarshan Kriya yoga on the plasma cortisol and adenocorticotropic hormone levels of inpatients of alcohol dependence. The study concluded that practicing Sudarshan Kriya Yoga for two weeks can lower stress-hormone levels (plasma cortisol and adenocorticotropic hormone) in patients with alcohol dependence ( 21 ). One of the most plausible mechanism proposed for these changes in the autonomic nervous system and stress hormone following the practice of yoga is through the stimulation of respiratory vagus nerve. In 2018, Gerritsen and Band suggested a two-way model (direct and indirect) for the respiratory stimulation of the vagus nerve ( 22 ). In the direct pathway, slow and longer exhalation which is important for yoga practice ( asana , pranayama and dhyana ) is directly linked with the vagal nerve as it controls slowing of respiration and exhalation. The indirect pathway follows the physiological feedback theory where slow and restful breathing generates a physiological body pattern associated with relaxation and low threat situation. This information is projected to the central nervous system through the vagal afferents leading to the reinforcement of the rest and digest state of the body through its top-down mechanism.

Yoga and inhibitory control

In chronic drug addicts a compulsive pattern of drug seeking and uncontrolled intake is observed. This compulsive behavior is attributed to the dysregulation of the brain’s inhibitory mechanism because of prolonged drug use. In addicted individuals, dysregulation of the anterior cingulate, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and orbitofrontal cortices is reported ( 2 ). These regions of the brain are responsible for inhibitory control over reward related behavior. The practice of yoga requires maintenance of awareness about the object of attention, respiratory sensations and interoceptive feedback from body sensations and mental activity. Such interoceptive awareness helps in the inhibition of emotional and behavioral distractions ( 23 ). Studies have implicated yoga in improving emotional and cognitive control. A study compared the interference of emotional stimuli on executive task performance between yoga practitioners and controls with no experience in yoga using functional magnetic resonance imaging. The study reported that the prefrontal activation during negative emotional stimuli in the yoga practitioners was higher than the control group. This change in the prefrontal cortex was observed only while performing a cognitively demanding task suggesting that yoga practitioners were able to selectively recruit frontal executive mechanism to counter emotional distractions ( 24 ). Another study using functional near infrared spectroscopy reported an increase in oxyhemoglobin level in the prefrontal cortex during Flanker task after practicing yoga meditation (YoMed) for 15 minutes daily for 5 days ( 25 ). The study concluded that YoMed was effective in increasing inhibitory control in young adults. Increase in inhibitory control following yoga practice was also reported in a study on smokers with nicotine dependence ( 26 ). To assess inhibition, the participants performed a Go/Nogo task consisting of Smoking-Go, Smoking-Nogo, Neutral-Go, and Neutral-Nogo stimulus conditions. Event related potential (ERP) N2 and P3 amplitudes and latencies were also recorded. This study observed that a single session of yoga can increase inhibitory control in smokers with nicotine dependence. A separate study on addicted population showed improved self-control ability in emotion regulation and increased anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and prefrontal cortex (mPFC) activity after meditation ( 27 ). Apart from this, repeated practice of attentional and emotional regulations is associated with structural changes in the brain. A MRI study on 20 meditators reported higher cortical thickness in the prefrontal cortex of the meditators compared to control group ( 28 ). Hence yoga can help in improving inhibitory control in healthy and addicted individuals indicating a possible application of yoga in prevention and management of drug addiction.

Drug addiction is associated with neurobiological changes in the brain leading to dysregulation of the brain’s reward system, stress system and inhibitory mechanism. This can bring behavioral changes characterized by compulsive drug seeking and uncontrolled drug intake. The process of rehabilitation of drug addicts will be efficient if these dysregulations can be countered. Among non-pharmacological measures to manage drug addiction, yoga can be a useful intervention. Yoga has been shown to improve the brain’s reward system by bringing morphological and dopaminergic changes in the regions of the brain associated with reward circuitry. Since study on yoga and reward system of drug addicts is not available, it is not possible to conclusively claim the benefits of yoga in the reward system of drug addicts. However, findings of the studies conducted on healthy participants showed encouraging results about the effect of yoga on the brain’s reward system and can be the basis of future studies on yoga and drug addicts. Studies on the effect of yoga on stress system showed that yoga can reduce stress by improving the neurobiological determinants of stress. Few studies have shown that yoga can bring these changes in drug addicts also. Similarly, there are evidences about the effectiveness of yoga in improving inhibitory control of drug addicts by bringing functional and structural changes in the brain. Since yoga has been shown to improve brain’s reward system, stress system and inhibitory control, it can be speculated that yoga can be useful in the management of drug addiction.

Author contributions

NS: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that no financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Conflict of interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords: yoga, addiction, neurobiology, reward, stress, inhibitory control

Citation: Singh N (2024) Neurobiological basis for the application of yoga in drug addiction. Front. Psychiatry 15:1373866. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1373866

Received: 20 January 2024; Accepted: 04 April 2024; Published: 18 April 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Singh. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Nilkamal Singh, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

What is yin yoga? Everything you need to know

Calm your body, still your mind

What is yin yoga?

• What to expect
• Good for beginners?

Where there’s a yin there’s a yang, as the ancient Chinese philosophies say. And so while yang energy is light and active, yin energy is soft, passive and contemplative. You’ll find styles of yoga reflect these energies, which are counterbalancing and represent two halves of a unified whole.

In other words, you can't have one without the other. We'll dive into all things yin, including yin philosophy, what the yin yoga style looks like, benefits and how to adopt a yin yoga practice for beginners. Just grab a yoga mat and you'll be ready to go. 

Yin is everything that yang isn’t. Yang varieties of yoga are fast-paced and active like Ashtanga, Bikram, or vinyasa, and relate to muscles and blood flow, continuous movement and sometimes powerful poses. Think sun salutations, inversions, balances and flow-like sequencing.

Yin adopts a slower-paced and passive approach, often including meditation, stillness during asanas (postures) and several minutes of static stretching, like these yoga stretches for beginners . 

What to expect during a yin yoga class

During yin classes, you’ll soften your breath, close your eyes and hold a series of asanas for several minutes at a time. The practice releases muscular tension and targets the connective tissues, fascia, ligaments and joints, which respond better to slow loading.

As Kassandra Reinhardt explains to our writer who tried a week of yin yoga , it’s about “Finding your edge, holding the pose and resolving to be still.” That doesn’t mean you’ll spend a cruisey hour hanging out on your mat and having a stretch.

Yin classes are deeply challenging and you get out of them what you put in. During each pose, you’ll be asked to avoid fidgeting, moving around, or forcing yourself into anything (easier said than done) and instead, find a place you can stay for up to six minutes at a time, and breathe.

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Yoga teachers recommend using a cushion or pillow if you practice yin yoga at home, and classes will often provide blankets, bolsters and yoga blocks in-studio. You’ll then be instructed through a series of floor-based poses focused across the entire body but with a strong lower body focus around the joints, including your hips, hamstrings and spine. 

What are the benefits of yin yoga?

The benefits of yin yoga are physical and mental. Those with a regular and dedicated yin yoga practice report better flexibility and feeling stronger, calmer and less anxious. Some yogis feel an emotional release alongside deep relaxation, especially during strong hip openers like frog poses , which target the hips known as “the seat of the emotions" in yoga.

Physically, yin aims to stretch, strengthen and lengthen, building flexibility while teaching you to breathe through uncomfortable moments. From an emotional perspective, it can act like a meditation or mental strength breathing session , helping you to feel mentally strong and calm.

Although the immediate benefits of stretching — like better flexibility — are pretty short-lived, fascia responds best to longer holds and deeper releases to help break it down, release tension and help you feel more mobile.

While the benefits of yoga (as a whole) are well published, including improved flexibility and joint mobility and reduced muscle soreness, studies into yin yoga are mixed. That said, the research we know about is promising.

One study, published in the Journal of the American Pharmacists Association , found a reduction in anxiety and stress following a six-week yin yoga and meditation program. According to yoga principles, yin could improve “chi” (energy flow) in the body. 

A helpful way to think about it is to imagine each stretch overriding a built-in safety system called the stretch reflex, which prevents overstretching and potential injury. During static stretching, the goldi tendon organ (GTO) activates and inhibits your muscle spindle activity to reduce tension, which allows you to sit deeper into a stretch and hold it without injuring yourself.

Is yin yoga good for beginners?

The origins of yoga are steeped in history, and yoga beginners are often shocked at how expansive the practice is. That said, yin is completely accessible for beginners and seasoned yogis, helping people of all abilities to build flexibility and improve mobility.

As we mentioned, remember to find your edge. Move with control in and out of asanas and think of intensity in terms of minutes, not seconds. If you experience pain, stop.

If you’re unsure where to start, our editor tried a calming mindful yoga practice for the first time in years and delivered his verdict. We also love this bedtime yoga routine to help send you off to sleep better. 

You can practice yin yoga anywhere, including heated and non-heated environments and many hot yoga studios also have a yin offering. Find somewhere quiet that signals your body to relax and use props that help you sit or recline comfortably.

Remember to breathe deeply using diaphragmatic breathing, an expansive breathing technique that activates the parasympathetic nervous system (our calm state) rather than fight-or-flight or unrest. 

As you inhale, expand your stomach and imagine your torso filling like a balloon, and on every exhale, feel your naval softening toward your spine as the stomach deflates. 

More from Tom's Guide

• Forget squats — this 20-minute chair yoga routine sculpts stronger legs and core muscles without weights
• I tried stretching with StretchLab to boost flexibility and build strength all over, and wow
• Build a stronger core in just 30 minutes with this 8-move bodyweight abs workout

Sam Hopes is a level III qualified fitness trainer, level II reiki practitioner, and senior fitness writer at Future PLC, the publisher of Tom's Guide. She is also about to undertake her Yoga For Athletes training course. Having trained to work with mind and body, Sam is a big advocate of using mindfulness techniques in sport and fitness, and their impact on performance. She’s also passionate about the fundamentals of training and building sustainable training methods.  When she's not writing up her experiences with the latest fitness tech and workouts, you’ll find her writing about nutrition, sleep, recovery, and wellness.

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