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ESL Essay Writing: 7 Important Tips to Teach Students Plus Resources for Writing Lessons

“Every good story has a beginning, a middle and an end.”

This is true for a good essay, too.

An essay needs a coherent structure to successfully articulate its arguments. Strong preparation and planning is crucial to providing that structure.

Of course, essay writing can be challenging for ESL students. They must order their thoughts and construct their arguments—all in their second language.

So, here are seven ESL essay writing tips that will allow your students to weave together a coherent and persuasive essay, plus teacher resources for writing activities, prompts and lessons!

1. Build the Essay Around a Central Question

2. use the traditional 5-paragraph essay structure, 3. plan the essay carefully before writing, 4. encourage research and rewriting, 5. practice utilizing repetition, 6. aim to write a “full circle” essay, 7. edit the essay to the end, esl essay writing resources.

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Encourage your students to build all their writing around one central question.

That central question is the engine of the writing—it should drive everything!

If a word or sentence is not assisting that forward motion toward the explication of that question and its possible answers, then it needs to be reworded, rephrased or just plain cut out and discarded.

Lean writing is merciless. Focusing on a central question throughout the prewriting, writing and rewriting stages helps develop the critical faculties required to discern what to keep and what to throw away.

Providing a clear structure for the student to approach essay writing can do a lot to build their confidence. The 5-paragraph essay, or “hamburger” essay, provides that clear structure for ESL writers.

Generally, this structure employs five separate paragraphs for the entire essay. Each paragraph serves a specific purpose, melding together to form a coherent whole:

• Paragraph 1: The introductory paragraph. This includes the thesis statement, orientating the reader to the purpose of the essay.
• Paragraphs 2 to 4: The body paragraphs. These make individual points that are further backed up by various forms of evidence.
• Paragraph 5:  The conclusion paragraph. This provides a summation of the arguments and a final statement of the thesis.

While students do not need to rigidly follow this format forever, the simple structure outlined above can serve as excellent training wheels for your writers.

Using the 5-paragraph structure as outlined above makes planning clear cut.

Once they have their theses and are planning their paragraphs, share with the students the ridiculously useful acronym P.E.E. This stands for Point, Explanation and Evidence.

Each body paragraph should make a point or argument in favor of the central thesis, followed by an explanation of this point and relevant evidence to back it up.

Students can make note of all their points, explanations and evidence before they start writing them in essay form. This helps take away some of the pressure ESL writers feel when faced with a blank page.

Extol the necessity for students to constantly refer to their planning. The mind-mapping techniques popularized by Tony Buzan can be useful at the planning stage and make for easy reference points to ensure focus is maintained throughout the essay.

Having a visual reference such as this can help ensure that your student-writers see each piece of the whole as well as that elusive “bigger picture,” so it becomes a case of seeing the forest and the trees!

Just as planning is crucial, so too is research.

Often ideas or connections do not occur until the writing process has begun. This is a good thing! Essay writing is a creative act, so students can have more ideas along the way and work them in as they go.

The key is to always be able to back up these ideas. Students who have done their research on their subject will be much more confident and articulate in expressing their arguments in their writing.

One way you can help students with context and research is to show relevant video content via FluentU . This language learning program uses authentic videos made by and for native speakers to help students learn English.

You can watch videos as a class or assign them directly to students for individual viewing. Videos come equipped with interactive bilingual subtitles and other learning tools such as multimedia flashcards and personalized quizzes so you can see how each student is doing.

No matter how your students do their research, the important thing is that they explore and understand their topic area before beginning the big task of writing their essay.

Even with thorough planning and research, writing oneself into a linguistic cul-de-sac is a common error. Especially with higher-level students, unforeseen currents can pull the student-writer off course.

Sometimes abandoning such a sentence helps. Going back to the drawing board and rewriting it is often best.

Students can be creative with their sentence structures   when expressing simpler ideas and arguments. However, when it comes to more complex concepts, help them learn to use shorter sentences to break their arguments into smaller, more digestible chunks.

Essay writing falls firmly in the camp of non-fiction. However, that doesn’t mean that essay writers can’t use some of the techniques more traditionally associated with fiction, poetry and drama .

One technique that’s particularly useful in essay writing is repetition. Just as poetry relies heavily on rhythm, so too does argument. Repetition can provide that sense of rhythm.

This is because written language has its origins in oral language. Think of the great orators and demagogues and their use of repetition. Speechwriters, too, are well aware of the power of repetition.

The writing principle of the “rule of 3” states that ideas expressed in these terms are more convincing and memorable. This is true of both spoken and written words and the ideas they express. Teach your students to use this method in their essay writing.

The very structure of the 5-paragraph essay lends itself to planning for this repetition, in fact. Each idea that is explored in a body paragraph should be outlined first in the introductory paragraph.

Then, the single body paragraph devoted to the idea will explore it at greater length, supported by evidence. And the third rap of the hammer occurs in the summation of the concluding paragraph, driving the point securely and convincingly home.

As mentioned at the start of this post, every good essay has a beginning, a middle and an end.

Each point made, explained and supported by evidence is a step toward what the writing teacher Roy Peter Clark calls “closing the circle of meaning.”

In planning for the conclusion of the essay, the students should take the opportunity to reaffirm their position. By referring to the points outlined in the introduction and driving them home one last time, the student-writer is bringing the essay to a satisfying full circle.

This may be accomplished by employing various strategies: an apt quotation, referring to future consequences or attempting to inspire and mobilize the reader.

Ending with a succinct quotation has the double benefit of lending some authoritative weight to the argument while also allowing the student to select a well-written, distilled expression of their central thesis. This can make for a strong ending, particularly for ESL students.

Often the essay thesis will suggest its own ending. If the essay is structured around a problem, it’s frequently appropriate to end the essay by offering solutions to the problem and outlining potential consequences if those solutions are not followed.

In the more polemical type of essay, the student may end with a call to arms, a plea for action on the part of the reader.

The strategy chosen by the student will depend largely on what fits the central thesis of their essay best.

For the ESL student, the final edit is especially important.

It offers a final chance to check form and meaning. For all writers, this process can be daunting, but more so for language students.

Often, ESL students will use the same words over and over again due to a limited vocabulary. Encourage your students to employ a thesaurus in the final draft before submission. This will freshen up their work, making it more readable, and will also increase their active vocabulary in the long run!

Another useful strategy at this stage is to encourage students to read their work aloud before handing it in.

This can be good pronunciation practice , but it also provides an opportunity to listen for grammatical errors. Further, it helps students hear where punctuation is required in the text, helping the overall rhythm and readability of the writing.

To really help your students become master essay writers, you’ll want to provide them with plenty of opportunities to test and flex their skills.

Writing prompts and exercises are a good place to start:

Descriptive writing activities encourage students to get creative and use their five senses, literary devices and diverse vocabulary. Read on for eight descriptive writing…

https://www.fluentu.com/blog/educator-english/esl-writing-projects/ https://www.fluentu.com/blog/educator-english/esl-picture-description/

Giving good ESL writing prompts is important because inspiring prompts inspire students to write more and writing more is how they improve. Read this post to learn 50…

You’ll likely also want to teach them more about the mechanics of writing :

Are you looking for ESL writing skills to share with your ESL students? In this guide, you’ll find different ESL writing techniques, such as helping students understand…

Would you like to introduce journal writing into your ESL classes? Fantastic idea! Here are 9 essential tips to make it creative, engaging and fun.

https://www.fluentu.com/blog/educator-english/esl-writing-lessons/

Essays are a great way not only for students to learn how the language works, but also to learn about themselves.

Formulating thoughts and arguments about various subjects is good exercise for not only the students’ linguistic faculties, but also for understanding who they are and how they see the world.

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Academic Writing for ESL Students: 7 Tips and Strategies You Can Start Using Now

Many of us are under the impression that English is a global language that is spoken and written by everyone. However, only around 20% of the world’s population speaks English at all, and just 5% of the world speaks English as a native language.  1 The fact that a number of people speak English as a second language is what makes it one of the most widely used languages in the world. 2 It is the main language used in the academic and research arena around the world. Given that a large majority of researchers and academics employ multi-lingual techniques, there are multiple challenges faced by ESL authors.

If you are an ESL author or scholar you can easily understand how unnerving it can be to hand in those essays, dissertations, research papers, and other assignments in English if you are not a native English speaker. In this article, we will highlight a few ESL writing tips and strategies that you can use to improve your ESL writing skills.

ESL writing strategies

Writing for ESL students, especially in the field of academic writing is a formidable challenge. By following the ESL writing strategies listed below, you can improve your writing skills and also increase your confidence and credibility in the academic and research world.

Understand the main academic writing conventions and structures: One of the key aspects to ensure that your academic writing is effective is to follow the typical structure for academic writing which typically includes an introduction, main body and a conclusion. You can also choose to insert sub-sections to classify the content and make it easier to read. Remember, as you start your ESL writing journey, adhering to proper planning and structuring your research output goes a long way in keeping you focused.

Keep your language style professional/formal for research content: Using formal language and ensuring that you follow a professional style for your writing is very critical. In ESL writing, especially in the academic and research field, you should be always alert not to allow conversational/informal expressions or slangs to creep in. To be able to communicate ideas and observations in a clear manner, stick to using clear and short language. 

Organize your ideas and thoughts visually to create a strong outline: ESL authors need to call upon their inner artist as they break down their body of work into smaller, adaptable pieces. You can use tools like mind maps, flowcharts or concept maps as you begin to flesh out your all-important outline. For example, you can write your key research idea in the centre of the page and go on to create branches relating it to sub-topics or concepts, denoting each one with various colors or symbols.

Aim to create clear, concise, and well-structured sentences: Remember not to use complex words or unduly long sentences as you write. Focus on writing simple sentences with clarity. Aiming to sound highly academic with complex sentences can leave your reader confused.

Do not insist on perfect English in the first drafts or it may slow you down: Never aim for perfection in your early drafts as an ESL academic writer. Always work on writing your drafts by re-reading it several times and focusing on specific aspects. This process of fine tuning your writing will eventually lead to a very good English narrative as you progress.

Ensure there is coherent and logical flow between the paragraphs/sections: ESL writers should ensure that transition words and phrases like, ‘however’ or ‘therefore’ are used to connect the flow of ideas between paragraphs and sections. Weave in topic sentences to convey your idea in the paragraph with clear introductory sentences.Thoughtful editing and revision is necessary on your drafts to make it engaging and easy to understand for readers .

Use tools like Paperpal that can help you translate or improve your writing: ESL writers can benefit from using AI tools like Paperpal   that help to overcome academic writing challenges. It delivers a comprehensive English language check providing you with grammar and vocabulary corrections, rephrasing suggestions, highlighting academic writing conventions, consistency checks and offering you invaluable writing tips as well. It is no surprise therefore that over 20,000 authors use Paperpal to improve their academic writing and is trusted by leading global publishers as well.

In conclusion, the seven tips provided will serve as valuable tools to enhance your writing skills and boost your confidence. Remember that practice, perseverance, and continuous improvement are key here. By employing these strategies, you can effectively bridge language barriers and elevate the quality of your academic work.

• Top Languages of the Internet, Today and Tomorrow. Unbabel.com. https://resources.unbabel.com/blog/top-languages-of-the-internet
• What Is the Most Spoken Language in the World. Gurmentor.com. https://gurmentor.com/what-is-the-most-spoken-language-in-the-world/#:~:text=What%20percentage%20of%20the%20world,spoken%20people%20in%20the%20world

Paperpal is an AI writing assistant that help academics write better, faster with real-time suggestions for in-depth language and grammar correction. Trained on millions of research manuscripts enhanced by professional academic editors, Paperpal delivers human precision at machine speed.   

Try it for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime , which unlocks unlimited access to premium features like academic translation, paraphrasing, contextual synonyms, consistency checks, submission readiness and more. It’s like always having a professional academic editor by your side! Go beyond limitations and experience the future of academic writing. Get Paperpal Prime now at just US$12 a month!

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EFL/ESL Articles & Research Papers From The Internet TESL Journal

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Review article, studies of teaching and learning english-speaking skills: a review and bibliometric analysis.

• School of Educational Studies, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia

This study conducted a comprehensive historical review and bibliometric analysis of the literature on English-speaking (ES) education and mapped the current state of the field, trends, and emerging topics, as well as identified gaps where further research is needed. We retrieved 361 sample documents on ES teaching and learning in Scopus (2010–2021) under certain conditions and analyzed the extracted data using Excel and VOSviewer 1.6.17 from the perspectives of the number of yearly publications, countries, authors, citation numbers, and keywords. The findings show that the number of publications on ES education increased from 2010 to 2021, but there was a lack of sustained engagement with this topic by researchers. Countries with an ESL or EFL context focused more on the subject of ES, although studies from native ES countries were more influential. The research topics showed a multidimensional trend, covering communicative skills, language knowledge, assessment, teaching or learning methods, ICT-related applications, and cognitive factors, of which ICT-related applications (such as flipped classrooms, blended learning, and e-learning) and cognitive factors (such as motivation, anxiety, and affect) were the areas of focus. Students in higher institutions, rather than children, became the main research subject of ES education over the period studied.

Introduction

A considerable amount of time and money has been invested in English language education (ELE) around the world, especially in countries where English is a Foreign (EFL) or Second Language (ESL). For example, ELE in East Asian countries such as China, South Korea, and Japan has been identified as a necessary skill, which has motivated the development of various approaches and policies ( Song, 2011 ; Hu and McKay, 2012 ). There have been at least three phases of English curriculum reforms by the Malaysian Ministry of Education directed toward improving students’ English proficiency and teachers’ professional development (TPD) ( Rashid et al., 2017 ; Kummin et al., 2020 ).

Despite unremitting efforts in many countries, ELE is still facing the problem of low average English skills. For example, students’ English skills in Turkey are not as good as expected ( Coskun, 2016 ; Özmen et al., 2016 ; Umunĉ and Raw, 2017 ). The survey by Wei and Su (2015) clearly showed that the subjects’ ES proficiency was generally low.

Many terms have been used to refer to the speaking aspects of the English language, e.g., “oral English,” “spoken English,” or “English speaking.” “English speaking” is the term used in this article. Speaking is different from writing, although both are productive skills, in that it is “transient, unplanned, context-dependent, oral/aural, and dynamic” ( Hughes, 2017 ). English-speaking (ES) has been treated as an indivisible language skill for learners in the language education fields of TESOL, EFL, and ESL.

How to improve ES ability, including teaching and learning approaches, influencing factors, and other related issues, have always been a focus of researchers. Thus, in view of the profound changes in society, politics, economics, and technologies, this article aims to give an overview of the current situation and trends regarding ES studies based on Scopus from 2010 to 2021. Moreover, it seeks to provide useful information for further ES teaching and learning research through visualized data analysis using VOSviewer 1.6.17 and Micro Excel.

Thus, the research questions (RQs) of this article are as follows:

RQ1. What is the bibliometric information regarding publications about ES teaching and learning in Scopus (2010–2021), including the number of yearly publications, authors, citations, country contributions, and keywords?

RQ2. What is the status of ES teaching and learning?

RQ3. What are the most influential authors in the field of ES teaching and learning?

RQ4. What are the trends in ES teaching and learning?

RQ5. What are the gaps in ES teaching and learning from the bibliometric information?

Materials and Methods

Bibliometric analysis refers to the cross-science of quantitative analysis of all carriers of knowledge by means of mathematics and statistics ( Broadus, 1987 ). The development of bibliometric software such as VOSviewer, Citespace, and Gephi, and the foundation of the big databases for academic documents such as Scopus, Web of Science, and Taylor and Francis make bibliometric analysis more feasible and practical ( Donthu et al., 2021 ). Meanwhile, according to Rogers et al. (2020) , the recommended minimum sample size for a bibliometric analysis is 200 entries.

Article Selection and Identification

Scopus was chosen as the database for this historical review and bibliometric analysis of ES education. This is because Scopus, as one of the world’s largest databases, covers a wide range of academic journals, conference proceedings, books, and other related publications with relatively high citation indexes and quality, much like the Web of Science ( Pham et al., 2018 ; Baas et al., 2020 ). Scopus is user-friendly in the sense that information can be conveniently retrieved through string retrieval. This study replicated the methodologies used by Lázaro (2022) and Kaya and Erbay (2020) . This article was conducted around RQs after the identification of some keywords as conditions for data mining.

Thus, 23,633 sample documents were first strictly extracted under the condition [TITLE-ABS-KEY (“English speaking” OR “English-speaking” OR “oral English” OR “spoken English”)] AND (“TESOL” OR “EFL” OR “ESL”). Then, the conditions of time span and document type were added for filtering from 2010 to 2021. Then, the articles, conference papers, reviews, book chapters, and books were chosen as the target document types. The detailed conditions can be seen in Table 1 .

Table 1. Retrieval conditions.

Finally, 1,893 documents were obtained. These were exported in the form of an Excel document with citation information, bibliographic information, abstract and keywords, funding details, and other information.

After strict data cleaning through thematic analysis of the abstracts by three researchers for more than three times, 361 sample documents remained, which were classified into four types of documents: journal articles (256; 70.91%), conference papers (79; 21.88%), book chapters (16; 4.43%), and reviews (10; 2.77%), covering more than 10 subject areas, such as social sciences, computer sciences, medicine, engineering, and arts and humanities.

Research Framework and Instruments

In the data selection step, sample documents were screened for information about authors, titles, years, citations, author keywords, index keywords, publishers, document types, countries, and author affiliations from Scopus under strict conditions. The sample documents were then uploaded to Excel and VOSviewer 1.6.17 during the data-processing step. Excel and VOSviewer 1.6.17 were used to perform the visualized bibliometric analysis of the number of publications per year, contributions of authors and countries, and keywords ( Chen, 2016 ; Van Eck and Waltman, 2017 ). Finally, the current situation, developing trends, research gaps, and lessons we can learn about ES teaching were sorted. Thus, the research framework is divided into four main steps, as shown in Figure 1 .

Figure 1. The conceptual framework.

Compared with studies on English writing and reading, studies on ES education are relatively very small in scale. Although only 361 sample documents conforming to the screening conditions were identified, it was still feasible to conduct a bibliometric analysis from the perspectives of the number of yearly publications, countries, authors, citations, and keywords.

Number of Publications by Year

According to the linear trend line in Figure 2 , the overall trend of the ES education literature in Scopus was on the rise from 2010 to 2021. The number of publications in 2021 was six times more than that in 2010, indicating that ES education was gradually beginning to be taken seriously by researchers.

Figure 2. Yearly publications on English-speaking teaching and learning (2010–2021).

However, there were some tortuous changes. In 2010, only 10 studies were identified, but the percentage of the high citation index occupied 50%. From 2011 to 2018, the number of documents published in this area presented an up-and-down curve. The number of publications was slightly lower in 2012 than in 2021. This might be due to the decreased demand for ES education as a result of the economic downturn in many emerging economies such as China, South Korea, and Brazil ( Reid, 2013 ). Yearly publications in this field increased from 2012 to 2013, but decreased again from 2013 to 2015, which was again in line with the global economic situation ( Mau and Ulyukaev, 2015 ). In 2015, the number of publications was more or less the same as in 2010. The reasons for this might be that world trade reduced during the global crisis from 2014 to 2015 ( Baber, 2015 ; Xu and Carey, 2015 ) or that no new research directions were explored during that time. After 2015, there was a continuous increase until 2017. After a subtle decrease in 2018, there was a significant accumulation in the number of publications from 2018 to 2021, showing a new growth trend. Especially in 2020 and 2021, when the COVID-19 pandemic brought disaster to the whole world, publications on ES education increased, reflecting the increasing requirement for ES communication during this time of global cooperation ( Sun and Lan, 2021 ). The influence of the date on the extraction of the sample documents was not very great, as it was 12 December 2021.

Contributions and Collaborations by Country/Region

The 361 sample records extracted in Scopus from 2010 to 2021 were associated with around 40 countries, showing the global distribution of interest by country in ES education.

Figure 3 shows the top 20 countries/regions publishing articles in this field, and they were responsible for 344 ES education publications (2010–2021) (accounting for 95.29% of the total). The countries with big and bright circles were the ones with the large number of the publications. Apart from the 75 publications contributed by the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Spain, and New Zealand, the remaining 269 publications were published by 10 Asian countries, accounting for 74.52% of the total sample documents, which implied the huge demand for the improvement of the learners’ ES skills in those countries. Mainland China contributed 128 publications, accounting for 40.44% of the total, followed by the United States, with 38 documents, accounting for 10.53%.

Figure 3. Density map of the top 10 countries.

Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand, countries in South-East Asia, occupied the third, fourth, and fifth positions, with 22, 22, and 18 publications, respectively. Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, and Bangladesh began to participate in country collaborations in recent years, in contrast to countries such as the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, and Singapore where English is the native language or first language.

The citation network in Figure 4 shows only countries with more than five publications, which reflected the passive collaboration among the countries. As one of the native ES countries, home to many ELE approaches and English assessment tools such as TOFEL, the publications by the United States were cited 518 times (total link strength = 10). Meanwhile, the United Kingdom, home to IELTS, contributed 12 publications, which were cited 72 times (total link strength = 5). Malaysia, where ESL, contributed 22 publications, which were cited 90 times (total link strength = 17). Meanwhile, China, with an EFL context, ranked second with 128 publications, which were cited 395 times, and the total link strength achieved 24.

Figure 4. Country co-authorship in the field of English speaking teaching and learning.

The total citation number of the 361 sample publications was 1,828. Table 2 provides detailed information on the 15 countries that published the most cited articles. The publication and the corresponding citation rate of the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and Singapore showed huge contrasts, respectively, 12.92, 19.45, 19.5, and 13.83. The high citation rate may to a certain extent represent a high reference value, although it may also be influenced by some highly cited papers ( Schubert and Braun, 1986 ; Aksnes et al., 2012 ; Brika et al., 2021 ). Thus, it was concluded that the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and Singapore, where English was the official language, were the leading countries with high citation rates in the field of ES education studies. Similarly, native ES countries—the United Kingdom and Canada—showed relatively high citation rates of 5.83 and 6.14, respectively. Meanwhile, the citation rates of Asian countries such as China (4.73), Japan (6.35), South Korea (5.08), Vietnam (8.38), and Oman (6.75) indicated the progress and the relatively high reference value of publications on ES education studies in those countries. The non-ES European countries such as Spain received 4.57 in citation rates, which were much lower than those of the native ES countries.

Table 2. Description of the 15 countries that published the most cited articles in the field of English-speaking (ES) education studies in Scopus (2010–2021).

Co-authorship among the countries is shown in Figure 5 , which is a presentation of active collaborations. The co-authorship links among Malaysia, India, China, and the United States were linear. However, the collaboration in the map showed a tendency toward a partial focus. For instance, the United States was the main collaborating country for Indonesia, South Korea, Japan, Thailand, Canada, Australia, and Singapore. While China collaborated mainly with the United Kingdom, the Philippines, Turkey, Vietnam, and New Zealand. Thus, there was a need for an omnidirectional and multi-angle collaboration among the countries for ES teaching and learning research across the world for further studies.

Figure 5. The map of the co-authorship among the countries on English-speaking teaching and learning.

Author Contributions

Table 3 shows general information about the citations for the 361 sample documents in Scopus (2010–2021). As can be seen in Table 4 , the topics of the top 10 most frequently cited articles were concerned with the assessment of ES proficiency and fluency, teachers’ influence, lexical acquisition, and the facilitation of mobile social networks. The total citation number was 1,828. On average, each document was cited 5.06 times. An experimental study by Kang et al. (2010) that proposed suprasegmental measurement for pronunciation assessment from the perspective of accent and equipment use was the most frequently cited article, which was cited 134 times. A qualitative study by Ma (2012) was cited 66 times, ranking second among the top 10 most frequently cited. It focused on ES teaching methods and investigated the advantages and disadvantages of native and non-native ES teachers in practice. The third most frequently cited article, which analyzed the academic lexical demands and academic word list coverage for ES communications by means of corpus, was cited 61 times ( Dang and Webb, 2014 ). Obviously, most of the top 10 most frequently cited articles were published before 2016, except for the experimental studies by Sun and Lan (2021) on the application of e-learning to develop young learners’ ES competence, implying the emergence of new research topics after 2016 in ES teaching and learning studies.

Table 3. General citations of English-speaking (ES) education publications in Scopus (2010–2021).

Table 4. Top 10 frequently cited authors on English-speaking (ES) education in Scopus (2010–2021).

The top 10 authors with more than three articles in order, were Ismail, K. (6), Abdullah, M. Y. (5), Hussin, S. (5), Liu, M. (5), Habil, H. (4), Chen, Z. (3), Hasan, M. K. (3), Hwang, G. J. (3), Rao, Z. (3), and Seraj, P. M. I. (4), and the co-authorship relationships can be seen in Figure 6 . Seraj, P. M. I published four articles (one in 2020 and three in 2021) focusing on the topic of a flipped classroom. The other author with four publications was Liu M., studying the problem of Chinese EFL students’ anxiety, respectively, in 2013, 2018, 2018, and 2021. Rao Z. made three publications on the issues of native and non-native English teachers in China in 2010, 2016, and 2020.

Figure 6. Density map of the key words.

Keyword Analysis

There were 1,049 keywords among the 361 sample documents, and only 49 keywords (2.88%) appeared more than five times after merging synonyms and deleting extraneous words. This indicates that the number of high-frequency keywords was relatively small, which reflects the relatively extensive content of ES research in the field of language education. Table 5 lists the top 10 keywords ordered by the frequency of occurrence apart from the retrieval words, among which the frequency of “ES skill” was the highest, accounting for 3.43%. The remaining keywords with a frequency greater than 10 were “speech recognition” (32), “College English” (26), “e-learning” (22), “computer-aided instruction” (19), “learning system” (14), “native-English speaking teachers” (13), anxiety (13), “oral communication” (12), “virtual reality” (11), and “artificial intelligence” (10). Obviously, the gap in frequency among keywords is not very large.

Table 5. The top 10 most frequently occurring keywords on English-speaking (ES) education in Scopus (2010–2021).

The bibliometric co-occurrence analysis of keywords provided a convenient way to assess the state of the research field and spot hot issues ( Chen, 2016 ; Mutira et al., 2021 ; Sun and Lan, 2021 ). Meanwhile, importantly, keyword co-occurrence analysis can reflect the viewpoints of core academic articles and may be beneficial for researchers trying to keep up with research trends in a certain area ( Li et al., 2016 ; Shoaib et al., 2021 ). Figure 6 shows the density of keywords that appeared more than 10 times; the brightness of the color represents the heat color of the keyword studied. The more studies, the brighter the color ( Van Eck and Waltman, 2020 ). The colors of the keywords “English speaking skill,” “college English,” “computer-aided learning instruction,” and “speech recognition” were brighter than others. The other keywords, such as “speaking anxiety” and “e-learning,” were also brighter. To some extent, these brighter keywords reflected the research hotspots in the field of ES education from 2010 to 2021 in Scopus.

Keyword cluster analysis reflected the topics to some extent ( Yang et al., 2017 ). After combining synonyms (e.g., oral English and spoken English; computer-aided learning and computer-aided instruction; and native and non-native ES teacher) and the deletion of non-sense words (e.g., human, priority journal, and education), the keywords except the retrieval terms “English speaking,” “oral English,” “English-speaking,” “spoken English,” “EFL,” “TESOL,” and “ESL” were categorized into seven clusters with three main topics, as seen in Figure 7 . The keywords with red color dealt with the application of ICT in ES education, including items such as artificial intelligence, automatic speech recognition, computer-aided instruction, correlation methods, deep learning, information science, learning system, machine learning, quality control, correlation methods, corrective feedback, ES learning, oral communication, etc. Cluster 2 dealt with the cognitive factors influencing students’ ES skills or performance, such as attitude, EFL, English speaking performance, ES skill, the flipped classroom, motivation, speaking anxiety, and teaching methods, of which flipped classroom as a teaching method had the highest frequency of occurrence. Clusters 3 and 4 dealt with the application of ICT in college ES education, covering topics such as e-learning, engineering education, English speaking, learning, virtual reality, big data, college English, and educational computing. Cluster 7 dealt with the assessment of pronunciation or others.

Figure 7. The network visualization map of co-occurrence of keywords.

Keyword Changes and the Enlightenment to Research Topics

Figure 8 reveals a change in the time distribution of topics. It was obvious that most of the light-colored nodes were close to the keyword “college English,” while there were only a few around the keywords “child,” “preschool,” and “adolescent” after 2016. This shows that college students had become the main subjects of ES education studies instead of young learners.

Figure 8. The overlay visualization map of keywords according to year.

Meanwhile, studies with keywords related to the application of ICT, such as “big data,” “artificial intelligence,” “flipped classroom,” “speech recognition system,” and “virtual reality” in ES education, were emerging as a focus of research. Academic ES also began to attract researchers’ attention. Some researchers started to consider the development of twenty first-century skills during ES education. In addition, light-colored nodes of the keywords concerning teaching and learning modes (“continuous development,” “teaching method,” “EMI,” “error correction,” etc.), cognitive factors (“students’ interests,” “anxiety,” “motivation,” etc.), language skills (“ES performance,” “communicative skills,” “accuracy,” “fluency,” etc.), and language knowledge (“pronunciation,” “grammar,” etc.) remained the focus of research.

Limitations

The interpretation of the review should be very cautious due to some limitations. First, bibliometric analysis is a literature review method based on big data technology rather than synthesized thematic analysis. The data were collected and analyzed through the software. Thus, the accuracy of this analysis method is highly dependent on that of the software. The second limitation refers to the database. Though Scopus has covered the majority of the publications on ES teaching and learning worldwide, there are still some publications that were not included in the research.

This historical review and bibliometric analysis sought to better understand the current state of the research field, trends, and emerging research topics on ES education from 2010 to 2021. The results show that there was an increasing trend in the number of publications in this area from 2010 to 2021 in Scopus, indicating that ES education studies remained a necessary research topic, although the research population was not large. Countries with an ESL or EFL context, such as China, Japan, South Korea, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Saudi Arabia, paid more attention to the development of learners’ ES abilities and contributed more to ES education studies. However, the citation analysis revealed that native ES countries such as the United States, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and Canada, were the major authorities or origins of ES education studies, which can also be seen by author contributions. Country collaboration analysis showed that the United States, China, India, and Malaysia acted as hubs of contact, establishing overall relationships within the collaboration network. In addition, the analysis of author distribution and collaboration revealed that there were constantly new researchers entering this field, but the lack of authors focusing on ES education over the long term and sustained research was still a problem. Further exploration of keywords revealed that the hot research issues encompass communicative skills, language knowledge, assessment, teaching or learning methods, ICT-related applications, and cognitive factors. Rather than focusing on ES education for young and adolescent learners, researchers showed a preference for investigating ES education for college students, catering to the increasing requirements of oral international communication. Meanwhile, topics on ICT application, autonomous learning, academic ES ability, and twenty first-century learning skills are gradually becoming hot areas for the improvement of ES teaching and learning worldwide.

JW was the research designer and executor of this study, participated in and completed the data analysis, and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. RA and L-ML gave suggestions when necessary. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

JW would like to express their gratitude to RA and L-ML who participated in this project.

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Keywords : English-speaking skills, bibliometric analysis, research trends, enlightenment, research state

Citation: Wang J, Abdullah R and Leong L-M (2022) Studies of Teaching and Learning English-Speaking Skills: A Review and Bibliometric Analysis. Front. Educ. 7:880990. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.880990

Received: 22 February 2022; Accepted: 01 June 2022; Published: 06 July 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Wang, Abdullah and Leong. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Rohaya Abdullah, [email protected]

ENG101 - First-Year Composition

• ASSESSMENT 1
• Selecting Topics
• Information Cycle & Search Strategies
• Primary vs Secondary Sources
• Video & Images
• SIFT This link opens in a new window

Types of Research Essays

Pvcc english division writing rubric, pvcc eng101 handbook.

• Causal Analysis (Cause & Effect)
• Literary Analysis This link opens in a new window
• Literature Review This link opens in a new window
• Plagiarism & Copyright
• NoodleTools This link opens in a new window
• Research Basics by JSTOR This link opens in a new window
• Research eSkills This link opens in a new window
• ASSESSMENT 2

Use ONESearch to locate  articles off our many databases on any of your topics.

Search library resources for

articles, books, movies and more

There are multiple types of essays that everyone should be able to write or be familiar with and they are: analytical, argumentative (persuasive), cause & effect, compare & contrast, critical, definition & expository, descriptive, experimental research, interpretative, literary analysis, literature review,  reports, and surveys.

Analytical , the analytical research paper often begins with the student asking a question (a.k.a. a research question) on which he has taken no stance. such a paper is often an exercise in exploration and evaluation. this type of paper hopes to offer a well-supported critical analysis without necessarily persuading the reader to any particular way of thinking. , the kinds of instructions for an analytical assignment include: 'analyze', 'compare', 'contrast', 'relate', and 'examine'., example: do later school start times increase student success, argumentative (persuasive), the argumentative research paper consists of an introduction in which the writer clearly introduces the topic and informs his audience exactly which stance he intends to take. an important goal of the argumentative research paper is persuasion, which means the topic chosen should be debatable or controversial., the kinds of instructions for a persuasive assignment include: 'argue', 'evaluate', 'discuss', and 'take a position'. example: self-driving cars are dangerous and should be banned from the streets., the argumentative essay  - lois roma-deeley & john nelson, causal analysis - cause & effect  a cause is something that produces an event or condition; an effect is what results from an event or condition. the purpose of the cause-and-effect essay is to determine how various phenomena relate in terms of origins and results. sometimes the connection between cause and effect is clear, but often determining the exact relationship between the two is very difficult., causal analysis information  - lois roma-deeley & john nelson, compare & contrast, this essay is needed to analyze the differences between two subjects, authors, viewpoints, leadership styles, or other criteria and it is a common assignment for subjects such as literature, philosophy, social sciences, and many other disciplines. , writing the comparison essay  - lois roma-deeley & john nelson, critical , critical writing is common for research, postgraduate and advanced undergraduate writing. it has all the features of persuasive writing, with the added feature of at least one other point of view. while persuasive writing requires you to have your own point of view on an issue or topic, critical writing requires you to consider at least two points of view, including your own., for example, you may explain a researcher's interpretation or argument and then evaluate the merits of the argument, or give your own alternative interpretation. examples of critical writing assignments include a critique of a journal article or a literature review that identifies the strengths and weaknesses of existing research. the kinds of instructions for critical writing include: 'critique', 'debate', 'disagree' and 'evaluate'., characteristics of a critical thinker  - dr. tom butler,  it is a focused analysis of a piece of writing or a live performance. while it may contain a sentence or two of summary material, the critique will offer the reader a “considered evaluation” of the writing or performance in question., how to write a critique  - pvcc english division, definition & expository , an expository essay "exposes" the reader to a new topic; it informs the reader with descriptions or explanations of a subject. if you are writing an expository essay, your thesis statement should explain to the reader what they will learn in your essay. example: how to lead a healthy lifestyle on a tight budget., descriptive/narrative , the simplest type of academic writing is descriptive. its purpose is to provide facts or information. an example would be a summary of an article or a report of the results of an experiment. the kinds of instructions for a purely descriptive assignment include: 'identify', 'report', 'record', 'summarize' and 'define'.​, writing the descriptive/narrative essay  - lois roma-deeley & john nelson, experimental research, this essay is commonly written for biology, chemistry, physics, psychology, and sociology papers. it is used to describe an experimental research case in detail. the student conducts the experiment, shares their results and provides data evidence and sums up the case.  the paper describes your experiment with supporting data and an analysis of the experiment. experiments are aimed to explain some causation or predict a fact or reality with certain actions., interpretive,  this essay requires one to use the knowledge that he or she has gained from a particular case study situation, for example, a poem or work of art, or material from business and psychology fields. this paper requires using learned theoretical knowledge to write the paper and using supporting information for the thesis statement and findings., literary analysis, the purpose of a literary analysis essay is to carefully examine and sometimes evaluate a work of literature or an aspect of a work of literature. , literature review, a "literature review“ is a critical analysis of a segment of a published body of knowledge through summary, classification, and comparison of prior research studies, reviews of literature, and theoretical articles” (university of wisconsin writing center)., outlines the case of a study situation. as a rule, such text includes the summary of a breakdown, situation, identification of the main issue, and recommendations, which means that it is basically a logical and detailed summary of some case study situation. a report is a mere restatement of the significant elements or components of a piece of writing or a live performance. it is, primarily, a summary of the substantial elements (the who, what, where, when and how) which are embedded in a piece of writing or a live performance. .

• English Division Writing Rubric (Based on Arizona State Standardswith college-level emphasis on higher order thinking skills, research, documentation, and manuscript preparation)
• PVCC ENG101 Handbook The ENG101 Handbook was created by PVCC professors Lois Roma-Deeley and John Nelson. This was created prior to the 2009 updates to MLA; therefore, if you use them, be aware you will need to update them. However, the instructions on how to write each essay type are clear and very helpful.
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Chapter 9-4:  The APA-format Research Essay

Introduction.

A research essay examines or argues a point of view that is supported by researched material from several different sources.

Finding a Topic

A research essay aims to relate the topic to a central idea or problem . Create questions that can help narrow down the topic and make the essay more specific. 

Is white meat healthier than red meat?

What are the possible side effects of eating red meat?

Are some meats contaminated? 

Is the main idea or focus of the essay. 

Use the guiding questions created about the topic to help create a thesis statement.

The thesis should be a full sentence , not a question.

Guiding question: What are the possible side effects of eating red meat?  

Thesis: Consuming meat can have negative effects on the environment and human health.

Topic Sentence

The beginning sentence of each body paragraph.

A full sentence should give the reader an idea about what the paragraph will be about.

Sources can be from online, academic articles or journals, magazines, books or newspapers.

Complete Source Information

When citing sources, try to write down as much information as possible about the source to avoid plagiarism. 

Books, Magazines, Newspapers                          

Author's full name

Title of Book, Article, Magazine, Newspaper, Journal 

Publishing info (including the name of publisher, date and city where it was published)

Page numbers used

Title of Article and Website

Full website URL

Publisher or sponsor of the site (if not the same as the wesbite title)

Update or publication date 

Online Sources

Always carefully evaluate an online source to make sure it's credible. 

Are the information and website up to date?

Who published the information, and how well-known/reliable is the site?

Who is the author? Are they an expert or known as a reliable source in that area? Do they offer an unbiased opinion?

Is there advertising on the site? Could that affect the information posted?

Are there multiple authors stating the same information? Information is always more reliable when the same facts come from multiple credible sources. 

Citing Sources 

Every time you use information found by someone else (text, ideas, images, quotes), you must cite that source or you will be committing plagiarism .

Plagiarism is using someone else's work or ideas and passing them off as your own. This is taken extremely seriously in academic settings.

The two most common citation styles are from the Modern Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA).

MLA tends be used in the humanities field, and APA  in the science or social sciences fields. This page focus on APA Format .

When summarizing, paraphrasing, or quoting, cite the source in the body of the text and on the references page.

Sources Cited in Text: Print 

- Put the author's name in the text and the page number in parentheses. 

Morris and Maisto (2023) state that "Anti-Psychotic medications have dramatic effects" (p. 470 ).

-  Put both author's name and page number in parentheses

Anti-Psychotic medications can have dramatic effects (Morris & Maisto, 2023, p. 470).

Sources Cited in Text: Online

- Put the author's name in the text or write a short title if there is no author mentioned. 

Brody (2022) reviews the risks of women smoking: "Today, women who smoke are more likely than men who smoke to die of lung cancer." 

According to the NIH article "Bipolar Disorders," (2021) the entire body is affected: "extreme changes in energy, activity, and sleep go along with mood episodes."

- Put the name of the author or shortened title in parentheses after the sentence. 

Women should consider the consequences before starting to smoke. "Today women who smoke are more likely than men who smoke to die of lung cancer" (Brody, 2022).

The entire body is affected: "Living well with bipolar disorder requires certain adjustments" ("Bipolar Disorders," 202 1 ).

Secondary Sources

When using quotes included from other work, uas as cited in which means quoted in , with the author's name and include both sources in your reference list.

As cited in Streicher (2021), Smith (2020) states that "There are a lot of profit-motivated physicians out there."

APA "Works Cited" List

Put the references list at the end of the research essay. 

Follow the basic guidelines below:

Write " References " at the top center of the page and the page number in the top right corner. 

Sources should be listed in Alphabetical Order by the author's last name or title if there is no author.

Indent all the following lines of the entry after the first line. This is called a "hanging indent."

Everything should be double - spaced . 

Information Included in reference entries :

Author's Full Name

Last name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (if available).

Publication Date

Year of publication in parentheses.

Source Title

Italicize titles for longer works like books, magazines, websites or newspapers.

Quotations for short works like articles, book chapters, or newspaper editorials.

Container Title

Use this for shorter works like articles, book chapters and editorials from a larger source with a different title.

Other Contributors

Anyone else that contributed to the source like an editor, illustrator, narrator or adapted the work.

Edition, Version, Volume, Issue Number

List editions (4th ed., Updated Ed.)

Put the volume and issue number together (vol. 5, no. 2)

Write the full name of the publisher or the sponsor website.

Include a digital object identifier (DOI) if available. If not available, include a URL.

Sample APA " References " Page Entries 

Check out How to Cite a Book in APA Style from Scribbr to see the format and examples for APA references.

Model Research Essay Outline

It is not necessary to make a research essay outline in MLA format, but your instructor may ask for one. It is a good way to organize your thoughts and important points before starting to write.  

Thesis: Write the thesis statement as a complete sentence—even in your outline.

Energy drinks are dangerous when over consumed and have negative effects on the body. 

Body Paragraphs: Write out topic sentences in full sentences like the thesis. 

1: The stimulants in energy drinks can be dangerous when mixed with alcohol. 

-  Wake Forest University study on energy drinks and alcohol. 

-  New alcohol, energy drinks

-  Energy drinks can hide someone's intoxication level 

2: Energy drinks can increase cardiovascular issues 

-  Can raise blood pressure

-  Associated with heart disease  

3: One ingredient in energy drinks, Taurine, can have negative effects on the brain. 

-  More effect on young people's developing brains

-  Taurine can intensify alertness levels but also causes seizures

Research Essay Format

Choose an informative title that lets the reader know what the 

topic and point of view are.

Your Name (or use a cover page, in which case this format will be different)

Instructor's Name (optional)

Course (optional)

Introduction : Introduce the topic and point of view of the essay. End with a thesis statement. 

Body Paragraph 1 : Explain the first point and cite sources used. 

Body Paragraph 2 : Explain the second point and cite sources used.

Body Paragraph 3 : Explain the third point and cite sources used. Typically, standard ESL CEGEP papers are 3 body paragraphs long, but this is not a strict rule. Feel free to do more or less depending on the topic, information found, and most importantly your instructor’s instructions.

Feel free to do more or less depending on the topic, information, your professor's instructions.

Conclusion: Summarize the main ideas of the information given in the body paragraphs. End with a prediction, suggestion or quote.  

- Put the references list on a separate, final page .

- List all sources used in alphabetical order by last name or by title if no author is given.

Sample APA research essay

NOTE:   this is a sample essay. The number of words that you are required to write, or the number of ideas that you are required to express may be different for your own assignment. Refer to your assignment instructions for this information.

Maintaining this website requires alerts and feedback from the students that use it when they see a problem or have a suggestion.

ESL (English as a Second Language) Research Guide

• Writing a Research Paper
• Finding Books
• Finding Articles
• Citing & Evaluating This link opens in a new window
• Annotated Bibliography

Books Providing Research & Writing Guidelines

Research Paper Fundamentals

1.  Choose a Topic

2.  Find Information on the Topic

3.  Take Detailed Notes on Information and Sources of Information

4.  Organize the Notes

5.  Create an Outline

6.  Write a First Draft

7.  Include Footnotes or End Notes and a Bibliography

8.  Revise the First Draft

9.  Write and Proofread the Final Draft

Research & Writing Guidelines (Examples from Other Universities)

• Purdue Online Writing Lab
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English for Writing Research Papers

• Adrian Wallwork 0

English for Academics, Pisa, Italy

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

• At least two-thirds of published scientific papers are written by researchers whose first language is not English
• 20% of the comments referees make when reviewing papers for possible publication in international journals regard English language issues
• In some disciplines, acceptance rate by journals of papers originating from the US/UK is 30.4%, and is higher than all other countries
• Includes supplementary material: sn.pub/extras

Part of the book series: English for Academic Research (EAR)

297k Accesses

23 Citations

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• Table of contents

About this book

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Table of contents (20 chapters)

Front matter, writing skills, planning and preparation.

Adrian Wallwork

Structuring a Sentence: Word Order

Structuring paragraphs, breaking up long sentences, being concise and removing redundancy, avoiding ambiguity, repetition, and vague language, clarifying who did what, highlighting your findings, discussing your limitations, hedging and criticising, plagiarism and paraphrasing, sections of a paper, introduction, review of the literature.

• Research papers
• preparing and structuring a manuscript
• readability
• avoiding mistakes
• redundancy and ambiguity
• introductions
• review of the literature
• highlighting results
• prepare and structure a manuscript
• increase readability and reduce the number of mistakes you make in English by writing concisely, with no redundancy and no ambiguity
• write a title and an abstract that will attract attention and be read
• decide what to include in the various parts of the paper (Introduction, Methodology, Discussion etc)
• highlight your claims and contribution
• avoid plagiarism
• discuss the limitations of your research
• choose the correct tenses and style
• satisfy the requirements of editors and reviewers

Book Title : English for Writing Research Papers

Authors : Adrian Wallwork

Series Title : English for Academic Research

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-26094-5

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Social Sciences , Social Sciences (R0)

Copyright Information : Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

eBook ISBN : 978-3-319-26094-5 Published: 02 March 2016

Series ISSN : 2625-3445

Series E-ISSN : 2625-3453

Edition Number : 2

Number of Pages : XX, 377

Topics : English , Language Education , Popular Science in Linguistics , Grammar

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3: Research

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• Page ID 123847

• Gabriel Winer & Elizabeth Wadell
• Berkeley City College & Laney College via ASCCC Open Educational Resources Initiative (OERI)
• 3.1: Introduction
• 3.2: Sample Student Research Essay- Faculty of Color
• 3.3: Purpose of Research Writing
• 3.4: Research Process
• 3.5: Finding Your Topic and Research Question
• 3.6: Strategies for Finding Information
• 3.7: Evaluating Your Sources
• 3.8: Reading Academic Articles for Research
• 3.9: Writing an Annotated Bibliography
• 3.10: Language Toolkit
• 3.11: Takeaways
• 3.12: Answer Key- Research

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Teaching Writing to ESL/EFL Students: Tips and Activities for Any Level

• Linda D'Argenio
• August 19, 2022

Teaching writing to non-native speakers of a language presents a plethora of unique challenges and can feel overwhelming for new and seasoned teachers alike. However, teaching writing to ESL students can be dynamic and meaningful when approached with a bit of ingenuity.

If you’re new to teaching, you’ll want to get initial training and qualification with a TEFL certificate . You can explore our online TEFL courses to get started!

Why is it important to teach writing to ESL students?

In order to effectively participate as contributing members of society, individuals need to be able to communicate their thoughts in written form, whether they are using the English language as their vehicle or not.

Writing is an essential component of productive language, and ELs will need to demonstrate their ability to write in English if they hope to be competitive in a globalized world . Building competency in English-language writing supports reading comprehension, vocabulary expansion, and oral fluency , so there’s so much to be gained. And even if your students don’t plan to use the lingua franca on a regular basis, the skills gleaned from learning to write in another language transfer to all facets of life, making students more aware and more effective communicators in their native language(s) .

Teaching ESL writing aids in self-expression , which might be particularly meaningful for individuals who are hesitant to express themselves verbally. You might have the next Henry David Thoreau or Gabriel García Márquez in your class!

Why do ESL students struggle with writing?

Writing in another language is no easy feat, so it’s only natural that your ESL/ EFL students encounter difficulties when asked to do so.

First, it’s essential to recognize that writing conventions differ from one language group to another . Students from various linguistic backgrounds might declare that writing in English (particularly in an academic setting) is “boring,” something they perceive as formulaic. Often, these students come from backgrounds that value writing in a way that might seem “tangential” to native English readers.

In “Cultural thought patterns in inter-cultural education,” Robert B. Kaplan (1966) put forth a model for examining written discourse patterns, which illustrates how different thought patterns influence how speakers of other languages express themselves in written form.

You can observe that English is illustrated as being very straightforward, which aligns with the directness of spoken English. Kaplan poses here that other language groups tend to branch off in different directions in written form, pulling in supporting elements that might not be directly correlated to the main idea and that present as “off-topic” for native English speakers.

Secondly, it’s crucial to keep in mind that writing requires a vocabulary lexicon that can adequately support sharing . Often, even the most proficient English learners struggle to select the language they need to convey their point. When tackling writing instruction, make sure to consider how you’re supporting vocabulary development to support the conventions you’re teaching.

Lastly (and perhaps most importantly), writing is a form of self-expression, and self-expression through writing isn’t valued the same way in all cultures . There is a great deal of value placed on sharing one’s opinions in the U.S., for example, but this is not the reality all over the world. Some of your students might have been taught that they receive and process information, but that they are not in the position to make statements of their own or have the authority to teach others. Therefore, putting their thoughts down on paper might feel formal, high-stakes even, for your students.

What are some tips for teaching ESL writing?

Regardless of the age and proficiency level of your students, or whether you’re teaching writing in an ESL or EFL classroom, there is a myriad of strategies that you have at your disposal.

Don’t underestimate the value of conducting needs assessments

When it comes down to how to teach writing skills, even if you are teaching a group that is considered a certain proficiency level, recognize that there is always going to be a range of experience and ability present. Spend time getting to know what your students have been exposed to and in what ways before deciding on your approach. Teach to the middle to ensure no one is left behind.

Check out the following sample needs assessment to get started:

Think about how you can lower learners’ affective filters

A large portion of all successful teaching comes from relationship-building. In addition to getting a true sense of your learners’ experience and abilities, try to understand their attitudes towards writing as a process and any challenges that might be borne from those attitudes. How can you increase your students’ comfort level? How can you engage the individuals sitting in front of you?

Check out these 5 ways to build rapport with your students when teaching English.

Think about how the writing task can act as a building block for other assignments

Learning how to write in another language can be intimidating, and even more so if your students don’t enjoy writing in the first place. When wondering how to teach writing to ESL/EFL students, think about how you can integrate writing more often and more seamlessly into your lesson plans. Instead of approaching writing in isolation, teach writing skills alongside other “more engaging” activities that students tend to enjoy more. Have your students participate in role-playing and storytelling activities that require writing but don’t make writing the focus of the activity. This is your chance to be sneaky and get your students to build their writing skills without even knowing!

Present opportunities to examine authentic, written language

Providing students with examples of the target language is non-negotiable, but challenge yourself to move beyond the sample texts in your curriculum where possible. Students might feel bored by the selected works in their textbooks – they need to recognize that written language is all around them. Pull from authentic texts that cover an array of topics that you know matter to your students to keep them enticed.

Try incorporating pop culture into your ESL classroom to spice up writing activities!

Lead with function over form in instruction, and then alter your focus

Students can be discouraged to find their paper covered with red ink, highlighting their fallacies. While it is important to provide corrective feedback, consider the purpose of the assignment before marking up the composition. Was the output comprehensible? Did it touch upon everything that you asked for? Focusing on both function (the purpose of the assignment) and the accuracy in form simultaneously can feel overwhelming. Choose your objectives carefully, make them known to the learners, and provide corrective feedback accordingly .

Choose writing activities that pertain to your students’ learning goals. For example, the following clip, from a BridgeUniverse Expert Series webinar , covers how to teach Business English students to write an email in English:

Consider formative assessment and reflective strategies

Whenever possible, assess student work periodically, examining the process with various checkpoints and iterations throughout, instead of just evaluating the final product. Writing is an iterative process, and students benefit greatly when offered opportunities to reflect on their process. Create opportunities for students to participate in self- and peer-revision processes, which in turn will result in more conscientious and focused writers.

What are some ESL writing activities and lesson plans for beginners?

It can feel challenging to come up with writing activities for learners with beginner proficiency, but with proper scaffolding , writing can be inclusive and participatory.

Try group writing processes in class to get students comfortable

Writers with beginner proficiency might default to a deficit mindset, believing that writing is inaccessible for them due to a dearth of vocabulary or experience, so when you start to look at how to teach writing in the ESL/EFL classroom, your first job is to inspire confidence and get students into a growth mindset. To get them comfortable with the writing process, engage them in group writing activities.

• Choose a familiar topic (or have your students choose a topic together), and explain that you are going to “group-author” a paragraph.
• Have the students share what they know about the topic, and you, as the teacher, act as the scribe, jotting down their thoughts in a central location.
• Continue gathering their ideas until everyone has shared, remembering to emphasize that this is a process and that there is no wrong contribution.
• Examine the individual contributions and note overlap: How can a few thoughts be grouped together? In the process, ask students to elaborate on what they meant and provide examples.
• Organize these preliminary thoughts to the best of your ability, involving the students and getting them to notice organizational structures and decipher between the main idea and details.
• After celebrating what you can refer to as the “first draft,” provide specific and limited ways to improve the piece. Did they include everything they thought was relevant to the topic? Could the paragraph benefit from additional cohesive devices? Do the subjects and verbs agree? Provide ample support in the form of examples, formulas, and sentence frames alongside the piece. Invite students to examine the paragraph and seek out these common mistakes (in partners or individually).
• Create your “final draft” together, and ensure that it’s displayed prominently in the space.

By engaging them in the writing process in this way, you are instilling habits that will aid them in writing autonomously when the time comes.

Make the most of brainstorming – both individually and with others

Have you ever had students tell you that they don’t know what to write? Students, particularly those at the beginner level, need ample time to think about the content before diving into the actual writing process . Emphasize the importance of brainstorming as a way to collect their thoughts and aid them in their writing. Engage students in different kinds of brainstorming activities, going beyond “write down what comes to mind.”

Consider Think-Pair-Share as a framework for brainstorming, where students take time to think independently about the topic, share their ideas with their peers, and then share aloud to a larger group. Typically, the sharing is done orally, but you could also consider the independent writing portion of the activity as “sharing” with a larger audience, just in written form.

What are some ESL writing activities and lesson plans for intermediate and advanced students?

Facilitate a two-way journal experience with your students.

Create a way for individual students to exchange their ideas with you in an informal way with a two-way journal . Have the students maintain a writing journal that you periodically collect to write comments and ask questions. The objective of this exchange is not to formally evaluate your students’ writing, but to gather intel about your students’ progress and connect with them as individuals. Within these exchanges, not only are you building and sustaining rapport, but you are also augmenting critical thinking and meta-cognitive skills with strategies like noticing and annotation.

Cultivate peer revision routines

Learning to write in a non-native language is as much a social process as it is a cognitive process. Involving students in peer revision activities can be incredibly beneficial in that students can learn from their peers (potentially those who are stronger writers than themselves) and develop the ability to think more critically about their own writing. While getting students to effectively participate in peer revision activities requires a lot of frontloading and the establishing of routine, it is the gift that keeps on giving. If you’re interested in facilitating peer revision with your students, consider the following as general guidelines:

• Start by determining your focus for the activity. What are you asking the students to do? Make it clear to the students what you’re looking for, and provide supports that they can use in the process (e.g., a checklist or rubric).
• Demonstrate how students would use the rubric, and go through the revision process as a group.
• Provide sample pieces to examine, and engage the students in discussion around the samples.
• Make sure that students are aware of what is considered appropriate and useful feedback through modeling. Have them practice, and give them feedback on their feedback.
• Monitor the peer review sessions and jump in as needed, ensuring the quality of feedback for all involved parties.
• Reflect on the peer feedback activity in whole-group format, asking students to share what they got from reading their peers’ work, defining areas that they excelled in and areas for improvement.

Timed writing

Once your students feel comfortable with the writing process and the structure at hand, consider different contexts that they’ll be writing in. Perhaps they are planning to take the TOEFL or the Pearson Test of English (PTE) and hope to study abroad, or maybe they’re about to enter the workforce and work collaboratively with others.

In either case, your students will need to demonstrate their ability to communicate their ideas in written form while adhering to time constraints . Plan timed writing activities for your students on a variety of topics and with different parameters. In a standardized test prep context, have students write under the same conditions as the test that they’re preparing to sit for.

Take a Micro-credential course in Teaching TOEFL Test Prep or Teaching PTE Test Prep to help students ace these high-stakes exams.

In a workforce development setting, illustrate a scenario in which an email from management warrants an urgent (and polished) response. In either context, examine the output and discuss strategies that the students used. Student output from timed activities provides fertile ground for examining accuracy in form. Walk students through noticing activities, and challenge them to remember their tendencies in subsequent timed writing tasks.

Teaching writing to ESL/EFL students requires commitment and perhaps a bit of innovation on the part of the teacher, but if done well, it can prove immensely useful in a globalized world, aiding individuals in self-expression and beyond.

In addition to writing, there’s another subject that can sometimes fill teachers with dread: grammar! Here are 7 simple strategies for teaching grammar to English language learners , so you can tackle this topic with confidence .

Linda D'Argenio

Linda D'Argenio is a native of Naples, Italy. She is a world language teacher (English, Italian, and Mandarin Chinese,) translator, and writer. She has studied and worked in Italy, Germany, China, and the U.S. In 2003, Linda earned her doctoral degree in Classical Chinese Literature from Columbia University. She has taught students at both the school and college levels. Linda lives in Brooklyn, NY.

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Landmark Essays on ESL Writing

December 2001 — volume 5, number 3.

Tony Silva and Paul Kei Matsuda, Eds. (2001) New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Pp. xxv + 265 ISBN 1-8803-9318-2 (paper) U.S. $29.95

Every field reaches a point at which it has developed a body of research sufficient to permit thoughtful reflection on the research and pedagogy in its past. A compilation of seminal essays in the area is indispensable at that juncture. Such a collection enables researchers and teachers alike to reflect thoughtfully as they continue to develop effective methods in their respective areas. Silva and Matsuda’s assemblage of essays provides us with both guidance through the halls of the past and direction for the paths of the future in L2 writing. The text is designed both to reflect and inform the perceptions and expectations of specialists in first- and second-language writing scholarship and pedagogy. As a result, not only researchers and teachers, but also graduate students entering the field of second language composition, will find the volume useful.

The introduction to the volume serves as a guide to essays representing the past 40+ years of L2 composition research. It also includes numerous references, added by the editors to encourage the reader, once armed with the background provided by this volume, to search out other noteworthy articles in the field.

The essays are arranged chronologically. However, although this serves the purpose of pulling the essays together in “the early years,” a thematic organization quickly emerges. The following summaries are organized under the headings provided in the volume’s introduction. An introductory phrase identifies the focus of each essay.

The Early Years

In this section two essays deal with the place of linguistic theory and rhetoric relative to L2 composition.

Linguistic Theory : In “Structural Linguistics and Systematic Composition Teaching to Students of English as a Foreign Language,” Pincas considers the implications that structural linguistics has for EFL composition instruction and notes the need for exercises following the belief “[a]n ideal exercise is one which poses a problem for the learner in such a way that he feels stimulated and yet is led to the right solution.” (8)

Cross-Cultural Rhetoric : In his oft-cited article, “Cultural Thought Patterns in Inter-Cultural Education,” Kaplan addresses the issue of cross-cultural influence on rhetorical styles, primarily in order to support the idea that “[t]he teaching of reading and composition to foreign students does differ from the teaching of reading and composition to American students, and cultural differences in the nature of rhetoric supply the key to the difference in the teaching approach.” (11)

ESL Writing Process Research

The articles in this section report on ESL writing process, focusing on the applicability of L1 research as well as consideration of the composition processes of unskilled ESL writers.

L1 Comp Research : In “Teaching Composition in the ESL Classroom,” Zamel emphasizes the usefulness of findings in L1 composition research while stressing the need for more research in L2 composition. She notes: “We have acted as if teaching composition to ESL students is something totally unrelated to the teaching of composition in regular English classes. . . .” (27-28)

L2 Writers and Writing : In “What Unskilled ESL Students Do as They Write,” Raimes notes that unskilled writers (whether in L1 or L2) seem to follow similar steps in the composing process and suggested that certain writing skills may transfer from L1 to L2. She also addresses the relationship between linguistic proficiency and writing skill, indicating that “. . .students whose proficiency is judged as insufficient for academic course work generate language and ideas in much the same way as more proficient students. In other words, they use what they have and move on from there.” (54-55) [-1-]

Analyzing Second Language Texts

The next section in the volume presents research that addressed the analysis of texts themselves.

Text Analysis : Connor, in “Research Frontiers in Writing Analysis,” considers both sentence-based and process-centered approaches to analysis of texts. She notes that a combination of these approaches is “. . . necessary for a comprehensive theory of writing.” (87)

Reader-Writer Roles : In “Reader Versus Writer Responsibility,” Hinds provides evidence that the roles of readers and writers vary across cultures, a variation that may affect text construction and accessibility.

Purposes and Contexts

This section addresses issues related to the question of what to teach in the ESL/EFL composition classroom in the academic arena.

WAC, EAP, General Rhetoric : Spack, in “Initiating ESL Students into the Academic Discourse Community” looks at the debate over what it means to teach “academic writing.” The disciplines of WAC and EAP stand at odds with what may be thought of as traditional humanities-based composition training. Spack notes: “It is ironic that the pressure on ESL/English teachers to teach the writing of other disciplines is manifesting itself . . . when influential technological institutes . . . are funding programs to increase student exposure to the humanities . . . to produce more well-rounded, open-minded students.” (105)

Learner Goals : In “Fiction and Nonfiction in the ESL/EFL Classroom” Horowitz makes a plea for a needs-based approach in curriculum for the ESL/EFL composition classroom. Horowitz reminds us: let the learners’ goals help determine the selection of appropriate materials and activities for the classroom.

Emergence of a Field

These articles address the identification of L2 Writing as distinctive from L1 composition, the extent to which ideology is a part of the L2 writing classroom and the integration of reading and writing in the L2 comp classroom.

L1 vs. L2 Writing : Based on a review of numerous empirical studies, Silva summarizes the most noticeable differences between L1 and L2 writing in “Toward an Understanding of the Distinct Nature of L2 Writing.” He reminds us that there are fundamental differences in L1 and L2 writing that must be addressed “. . .if these [L2] writers are to be treated fairly, taught effectively, and thus, given an equal chance to succeed in their writing-related personal and academic endeavors.” (203)

Ideology : In “Ideology in Composition,” Santos considers the sociopolitical in relation to ESL composition classroom. Referring to directions taken in L1 vs. L2 pedagogy, she reminds us to be wary of the place of the sociopolitical in the latter.

Reading/Writing : In “Reciprocal Themes in ESL Reading and Writing,” Leki reviews research and teaching practices in an effort to inspire us towards the “transactional reading/writing classroom. . . [with] every promise of enhancing our ESL students’ ability to both read and write English through the cross-fertilization of reading and writing pedagogy, research, and theory.” (187) [-2-]

Understanding ESL Writers

The potential relationships between first and second language literacies are addressed in Carson’s essay.

L1>L2 literacy : Revisiting the issue of the extent to which L1 skills may transfer into or be accessible in L2, Carson, in “Becoming Biliterate,” reviews the factors that may influence the move from L1 to L2 literacy. She reminds us: “To the extent their [L2 students’] expectations do not match pedagogical practices, they are likely to be confused about the purpose and effectiveness of these methods.” (154)

Interacting with Second Language Texts

In this section, authors discuss interaction with texts through consideration of feedback and assessment.

Feedback : In her essay, “Responding to ESL Students’ Texts,” Reid reviews research on the appropriation of student texts by L2 composition instructors.

Assessment : Johns, in “Interpreting an English Competency Exam,” reviews the implications of assessment and raises questions intended to direct the design of exams that are appropriate for an increasingly diverse student population.

Assessment Design : Hamp-Lyons and Kroll, in “Issues in Writing Assessment,” remind us that it is at once highly desirable and challenging “to design a test that acknowledges on some level the writing processes that all written products depend on.” (237)

Toward a General Theory

In the final section, Matsuda’s essay presents the Dynamic Model of L2 writing, a theory to inform future ESL writing research and pedagogy.

Pedagogical Application : In his article, “Contrastive Rhetoric in Context,” Matsuda proposes a dynamic model of L2 writing that he hopes will serve as “. . . a heuristic, a tool for thinking about the dynamic nature of the context of writing and the complexity of decision-making processes that are involved in the construction of L2 text.” (252)

The breadth of topics covered by these essays will present both seasoned professionals and newcomers with inspiration for reflection. Novices can trace essential questions that have guided research over the past 40 years and will continue to inform it in the years to come. Experts can revisit ideas that may appear fresh once more, given the constantly evolving context of the field itself. Indeed, the only area that I would have liked to see covered more thoroughly is the reflection on the research process itself. Essays reviewing the design of research could have added another level to the volume. But, then, perhaps that simply reflects a gap in the field itself, one that may be soon filled by current scholarship. Overall, however, the volume does an admirable job of bringing together samples of the type of scholarship that has led us forward in the area of L2 composition research, reminding us of the need for prudent eclecticism in the selection of pedagogical approaches. And, as Horowitz noted in the early 1990s, “[I]t will be a sign of our growing maturity as a profession when new ideas–or old ones that have come calling again–are met not only with open arms but with a critical eye as well.” (115)

Andrea Word-Allbritton University of Alabama in Huntsville <[email protected]>

19 Interesting Research Projects For ESL Students

Project-based learning is an excellent means of acquiring and developing new language skills. Teachers of ESL students can use research projects to make lessons fun, interactive, and engaging. As such, interesting research projects can be used to practice the concepts that a teacher wishes to reinforce.

Research projects for ESL students should be based on relevant topics that interest them. Topics can range from creating comic strips, preparing a dish in class, dramatization, creating short podcasts, planning an itinerary, and debating significant issues.

The projects should be appropriate for the ESL student’s proficiency, whether beginner, intermediate or advanced and can be done individually or in a group.

The research project’s purpose should align with the curriculum and be clear to the students. Read on to discover some exciting research projects for the different proficiency levels of ESL students.

The Focus Of Interesting Research Projects For ESL Learners

Learning a new language can be meaningful and fun with the right teacher and lessons. However, ESL students might also be shy to speak in the presence of other students, so they must be made to feel welcome and accepted.

Additionally, if students know what the purpose of the project is, they can focus on that instead of becoming overwhelmed with other areas.

When assigning a research project to ESL students, the teacher should first assess what the students’ interests are. They will be more likely to benefit from the research project if it intrigues them or if there is an incentive.

Then, when assigning the project, the teacher should tell the students the point of the assessment, so they know what the focal point for preparation should be.

Examples of focus points or purposes of research projects can include the following:

• Dialogue or speaking practice,
• Situational terminology,
• Team communication, or

Also try: 15 Engaging Speaking Activities For Online Classes

Interesting Research Projects For Beginner ESL Students

Beginner ESL students can differ in age, ability, and maturity, so the teacher must choose the research projects wisely and adapt them accordingly.

Below are some great ideas for exciting research projects for beginner ESL students.

1. Research Your Family Tree

Students can research their family tree as far back as possible and create a presentation with pictures. In addition to the family tree, the students can add a short biography of two or more family tree members to add extra weight to the project.

2. Plant A Vegetable Garden

A research project on planting can be modified according to the age and group size of an ESL class. Students can work individually or in groups and research what vegetables they want to grow and what is needed for each plant to thrive.

The project can be done practically, and students can document the growth of their plants. As an extension activity, the vegetables can be used to make a salad or a soup for other research projects, including following recipes.

Alternatively, the students can create a business plan and market their products for another project.

3. Create A Comic Strip

Creating a comic strip can be done individually, as a group, or as a nonsense game (for practice). First, each student can create their own superhero and write a synopsis of the superhero’s powers and weaknesses.

Then, they can make a short comic strip using simple illustrations where their superhero fights a crime or saves the day.

As a fun practice activity, students can do the first strip of a comic at the top of a page. Then they can swap pages with other class members who must continue the cartoon, a row at a time. The result should be pretty hilarious and give the students some good ideas for their research project.

4. Research A Culture Or Tradition

Students can be given the task of researching a culture or tribe. At a beginner level, ESL students can work in groups to research a culture and then present their findings. They can explore different aspects of their chosen culture, for example:

• Traditions,
• Traditional foods,
• Languages spoken, and
• Where the culture lives, e.g., country or types of dwellings.

When presenting their project, the students should be encouraged to show as many examples of their findings as possible. They can even dress up and play some of that culture’s music, for example.

Recommended for you: 15 Speaking Projects For ESL Students

5. Plan A Vacation

Another fun research project for beginner ESL students is to plan a vacation. The students can pick any destination they wish to visit and plan their trip accordingly.

They can research activities they’d like to do, their mode of travel, where to stay, and what they will eat. Then, depending on the difficulty level, the teacher can give them a ‘budget’ they should stick to.

6. Real Estate Listing

In this research project, students can pretend they are an estate agent selling a property. They can create an advert and use descriptive language to describe the characteristics and selling points of the property.

7. Dramatization

Students can work in small groups and act out a short story or scene from a favorite book or movie. The teacher can suggest a fun story the class can read or watch and discuss in a lesson.

Students can then be allowed time to prepare their skits, or they can do improvisations. This activity will encourage them to memorize their cues, but they can also use cue cards.

Interesting Research Projects For Intermediate ESL Students

As ESL students advance to an intermediate level, their research projects can increase in difficulty and expectations. Again, the teacher should always inform the students of the outcomes, so they know the project’s focus. Below are some ideas for interesting research projects for intermediate ESL learners.

8. Create A Short Podcast

Podcasts are a popular way of sharing information through speaking. Thus, they make a good assessment tool for various speaking activities in the classroom. For example, the teacher can assign a topic. The students can research and record a podcast as if they were reporting for the news or other channel.

An advantage of using podcasts as a form of assessment is that the students can re-record their podcast if they have made too many mistakes before submitting it to the teacher.

9. Create A Neighborhood

Students can create a neighborhood with various characters as a group research project, much like the game Sims. Then, the students can research the characters and their roles in the community. For example, there could be a handyman, a pet sitter, a grocer, families, a librarian, and a pharmacist.

Each character can have a name and description of features. In addition, the neighborhood, streets, shops, and other community elements can also have names and descriptions.

Also try: Fun Language Games For Middle School Students

10. Research Different Types Of Sustainable Energies

Sustainable and green energy are current topics that make good research projects, as there is a lot of information on the internet. This research project can be done in a group or as individuals, and the students can present their research to the class in a PowerPoint presentation.

11. Write A Biography Of A Famous Person

For this research project, students can choose a famous person and write a biography on them. The teacher can give pointers as to what should be covered, for example:

• Why the person is famous,
• Where they were born,
• If they are still alive,
• Significant events in their life,
• Where they grew up, and
• How they have influenced the world or their community.

12. Do A Cooking Demonstration

Recipes are instructive and introduce a different type of vocabulary. Students can demonstrate a recipe or cooking lesson in class as part of a fun research project. Ideas for cooking demonstrations include making soup, baking cookies, preparing pasta, or making a salad.

Afterward, the students can enjoy a meal together after a few presentations during class. However, the teacher should determine if anyone has allergies before sharing the meals.

13. Career Research Project

Intermediate ESL students can do a research project on potential careers they’d like to pursue. Whether they choose one or more professions, the students can research what the job entails, the potential income, and the pros and cons.

Additionally, the students can explore the qualification requirements to pursue their chosen careers.

Interesting Research Projects For Advanced ESL Students

Advanced ESL students are likely to be older and more mature, so the teacher must choose topics that are not embarrassing or ‘below’ them. The students’ cultures must also be kept in mind, as some Western traditions are frowned upon by Eastern cultures.

Next are some research project ideas for advanced ESL students.

14. Make A Short Film

Making a short film can be successful if planned and managed correctly. An example could be creating a documentary or enacting a story.

Whatever the topic, it is wise to plan each filming session ahead of time. It would be an ongoing project that requires the skills of a movie-making app or a willing student who is savvy in that department.

15. Argumentative Research Paper Or Debate

In an argumentative research paper, a teacher can list controversial topics from which the students can choose. The students would then need to write an argumentative essay with the pros and cons or choose for or against the topic.

As an extension of this activity, one topic can be selected, and the class is split into two groups. Then, students on the same teams can collaborate and debate the topic in class.

16. Describing Famous Artworks

In this project, students can choose a few famous artworks created by different artists using various media. The students can research and describe each artwork and its history. This project will undoubtedly introduce them to new vocabulary and help them practice using descriptive language.

17. Critical Book Review

A critical book review project requires a student to read a suitably challenging book and write a critique on it. The ESL teacher can use a setwork book or allow the students to choose their own books. The students can discuss the characters, the plot, the author’s writing style, and their opinion of the book.

18. Creating A Business Plan

Advanced ESL students who learn English for business purposes will benefit from this interesting research project. They can write a business plan for a company or entrepreneurial venture.

In their business plan, they can set goals, projected expenses, income, ideas for growing the business, and other related topics within their plan.

19. The Apprentice – You Are Fired

Students may well have seen the television show ‘The Apprentice’ and you can replicate this process over a number of weeks with real groups of students and fun challenges.

You can come up with a series of tasks for the students to complete in or outside of class and then groups are judged by the teacher or a student.

The losing group then has to argue/defend their performance and contribution to the task with the weakest student being fired.

There is potential for so much language to be used in this series of activities so it requires some preparation to ensure that they do have the vocabulary and structures to be able to successfully participate in this process.

Classroom-based activities that work well for this include:

• Coming up with a new household product idea and diagram of it.
• Branding, logo, and a short advert of the product previously invented in the last task.
• Creation of a new family-friendly board game.
• Create and present a virtual tour around a particular holiday destination/city.
• Create an entertaining podcast for children.

There is an endless string of tasks that you could do all involving lots of language points. Ideal for advanced students.

Whether beginner, intermediate or advanced, ESL students will likely benefit from a more hands-on approach when learning a new language.

So, the teachers of ESL students can use interesting research projects to reinforce concepts taught in the class. The research projects chosen should be relevant and intriguing to the students for their benefit and enjoyment.

Recommended reading: 7 Ways To Use Newspapers To Teach Grammar

Image Credits

Broccoli Fir0002 , GFDL 1.2 , via Wikimedia Commons

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How to Write a Research Essay

Last Updated: January 12, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Michelle Golden, PhD . Michelle Golden is an English teacher in Athens, Georgia. She received her MA in Language Arts Teacher Education in 2008 and received her PhD in English from Georgia State University in 2015. There are 11 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 383,702 times.

Research essays are extremely common assignments in high school, college, and graduate school, and are not unheard of in middle school. If you are a student, chances are you will sooner or later be faced with the task of researching a topic and writing a paper about it. Knowing how to efficiently and successfully do simple research, synthesize information, and clearly present it in essay form will save you many hours and a lot of frustration.

Researching a Topic

• Be sure to stay within the guidelines you are given by your teacher or professor. For example, if you are free to choose a topic but the general theme must fall under human biology, do not write your essay on plant photosynthesis.
• Stick with topics that are not overly complicated, especially if the subject is not something you plan to continue studying. There's no need to make things harder on yourself!

• Specialty books; these can be found at your local public or school library. A book published on your topic is a great resource and will likely be one of your most reliable options for finding quality information. They also contain lists of references where you can look for more information.
• Academic journals; these are periodicals devoted to scholarly research on a specific field of study. Articles in academic journals are written by experts in that field and scrutinized by other professionals to ensure their accuracy. These are great options if you need to find detailed, sophisticated information on your topic; avoid these if you are only writing a general overview.
• Online encyclopedias; the most reliable information on the internet can be found in online encyclopedias like Encyclopedia.com and Britannica.com. While online wikis can be very helpful, they sometimes contain unverified information that you should probably not rely upon as your primary resources.
• Expert interviews; if possible, interview an expert in the subject of your research. Experts can be professionals working in the field you are studying, professors with advanced degrees in the subject of interest, etc.

• Organize your notes by sub-topic to keep them orderly and so you can easily find references when you are writing.
• If you are using books or physical copies of magazines or journals, use sticky tabs to mark pages or paragraphs where you found useful information. You might even want to number these tabs to correspond with numbers on your note sheet for easy reference.
• By keeping your notes brief and simple, you can make them easier to understand and reference while writing. Don't make your notes so long and detailed that they essentially copy what's already written in your sources, as this won't be helpful to you.

• Sometimes the objective of your research will be obvious to you before you even begin researching the topic; other times, you may have to do a bit of reading before you can determine the direction you want your essay to take.
• If you have an objective in mind from the start, you can incorporate this into online searches about your topic in order to find the most relevant resources. For example, if your objective is to outline the environmental hazards of hydraulic fracturing practices, search for that exact phrase rather than just "hydraulic fracturing."

• Avoid asking your teacher to give you a topic. Unless your topic was assigned to you in the first place, part of the assignment is for you to choose a topic relevant to the broader theme of the class or unit. By asking your teacher to do this for you, you risk admitting laziness or incompetence.
• If you have a few topics in mind but are not sure how to develop objectives for some of them, your teacher can help with this. Plan to discuss your options with your teacher and come to a decision yourself rather than having him or her choose the topic for you from several options.

Organizing your Essay

• Consider what background information is necessary to contextualize your research topic. What questions might the reader have right out of the gate? How do you want the reader to think about the topic? Answering these kinds of questions can help you figure out how to set up your argument.
• Match your paper sections to the objective(s) of your writing. For example, if you are trying to present two sides of a debate, create a section for each and then divide them up according to the aspects of each argument you want to address.

• An outline can be as detailed or general as you want, so long as it helps you figure out how to construct the essay. Some people like to include a few sentences under each heading in their outline to create a sort of "mini-essay" before they begin writing. Others find that a simple ordered list of topics is sufficient. Do whatever works best for you.
• If you have time, write your outline a day or two before you start writing and come back to it several times. This will give you an opportunity to think about how the pieces of your essay will best fit together. Rearrange things in your outline as many times as you want until you have a structure you are happy with.

• Style guides tell you exactly how to quote passages, cite references, construct works cited sections, etc. If you are assigned a specific format, you must take care to adhere to guidelines for text formatting and citations.
• Some computer programs (such as EndNote) allow you to construct a library of resources which you can then set to a specific format type; then you can automatically insert in-text citations from your library and populate a references section at the end of the document. This is an easy way to make sure your citations match your assigned style format.

• You may wish to start by simply assigning yourself a certain number of pages per day. Divide the number of pages you are required to write by the number of days you have to finish the essay; this is the number of pages (minimum) that you must complete each day in order to pace yourself evenly.
• If possible, leave a buffer of at least one day between finishing your paper and the due date. This will allow you to review your finished product and edit it for errors. This will also help in case something comes up that slows your writing progress.

Writing your Essay

• Keep your introduction relatively short. For most papers, one or two paragraphs will suffice. For really long essays, you may need to expand this.
• Don't assume your reader already knows the basics of the topic unless it truly is a matter of common knowledge. For example, you probably don't need to explain in your introduction what biology is, but you should define less general terms such as "eukaryote" or "polypeptide chain."

• You may need to include a special section at the beginning of the essay body for background information on your topic. Alternatively, you can consider moving this to the introductory section, but only if your essay is short and only minimal background discussion is needed.
• This is the part of your paper where organization and structure are most important. Arrange sections within the body so that they flow logically and the reader is introduced to ideas and sub-topics before they are discussed further.
• Depending upon the length and detail of your paper, the end of the body might contain a discussion of findings. This kind of section serves to wrap up your main findings but does not explicitly state your conclusions (which should come in the final section of the essay).
• Avoid repetition in the essay body. Keep your writing concise, yet with sufficient detail to address your objective(s) or research question(s).

• Always use quotation marks when using exact quotes from another source. If someone already said or wrote the words you are using, you must quote them this way! Place your in-text citation at the end of the quote.
• To include someone else's ideas in your essay without directly quoting them, you can restate the information in your own words; this is called paraphrasing. Although this does not require quotation marks, it should still be accompanied by an in-text citation.

• Except for very long essays, keep your conclusion short and to the point. You should aim for one or two paragraphs, if possible.
• Conclusions should directly correspond to research discussed in the essay body. In other words, make sure your conclusions logically connect to the rest of your essay and provide explanations when necessary.
• If your topic is complex and involves lots of details, you should consider including a brief summary of the main points of your research in your conclusion.

• Making changes to the discussion and conclusion sections instead of the introduction often requires a less extensive rewrite. Doing this also prevents you from removing anything from the beginning of your essay that could accidentally make subsequent portions of your writing seem out of place.
• It is okay to revise your thesis once you've finished the first draft of your essay! People's views often change once they've done research on a topic. Just make sure you don't end up straying too far from your assigned topic if you do this.
• You don't necessarily need to wait until you've finished your entire draft to do this step. In fact, it is a good idea to revisit your thesis regularly as you write. This can save you a lot of time in the end by helping you keep your essay content on track.

• Computer software such as EndNote is available for making citation organization as easy and quick as possible. You can create a reference library and link it to your document, adding in-text citations as you write; the program creates a formatted works cited section at the end of your document.
• Be aware of the formatting requirements of your chosen style guide for works cited sections and in-text citations. Reference library programs like EndNote have hundreds of pre-loaded formats to choose from.

• Create a catchy title. Waiting until you have finished your essay before choosing a title ensures that it will closely match the content of your essay. Research papers don't always take on the shape we expect them to, and it's easier to match your title to your essay than vice-versa.
• Read through your paper to identify and rework sentences or paragraphs that are confusing or unclear. Each section of your paper should have a clear focus and purpose; if any of yours seem not to meet these expectations, either rewrite or discard them.
• Review your works cited section (at the end of your essay) to ensure that it conforms to the standards of your chosen or assigned style format. You should at least make sure that the style is consistent throughout this section.
• Run a spell checker on your entire document to catch any spelling or grammar mistakes you may not have noticed during your read-through. All modern word processing programs include this function.

• Note that revising your draft is not the same as proofreading it. Revisions are done to make sure the content and substantive ideas are solid; editing is done to check for spelling and grammar errors. Revisions are arguably a more important part of writing a good paper.
• You may want to have a friend, classmate, or family member read your first draft and give you feedback. This can be immensely helpful when trying to decide how to improve upon your first version of the essay.
• Except in extreme cases, avoid a complete rewrite of your first draft. This will most likely be counterproductive and will waste a lot of time. Your first draft is probably already pretty good -- it likely just needs some tweaking before it is ready to submit.

Community Q&A

• Avoid use of the word "I" in research essay writing, even when conveying your personal opinion about a subject. This makes your writing sound biased and narrow in scope. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Even if there is a minimum number of paragraphs, always do 3 or 4 more paragraphs more than needed, so you can always get a good grade. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• Never plagiarize the work of others! Passing off others' writing as your own can land you in a lot of trouble and is usually grounds for failing an assignment or class. Thanks Helpful 12 Not Helpful 1

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/common_writing_assignments/research_papers/choosing_a_topic.html
• ↑ https://libguides.mit.edu/select-topic
• ↑ https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/research-objectives
• ↑ https://www.hunter.cuny.edu/rwc/handouts/the-writing-process-1/organization/Organizing-an-Essay
• ↑ https://www.lynchburg.edu/academics/writing-center/wilmer-writing-center-online-writing-lab/the-writing-process/organizing-your-paper/
• ↑ https://www.mla.org/MLA-Style
• ↑ http://www.apastyle.org/
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/PlanResearchPaper.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa6_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/in_text_citations_the_basics.html
• ↑ https://opentextbc.ca/writingforsuccess/chapter/chapter-12-peer-review-and-final-revisions/
• ↑ https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/wrd/back-matter/creating-a-works-cited-page/

About This Article

The best way to write a research essay is to find sources, like specialty books, academic journals, and online encyclopedias, about your topic. Take notes as you research, and make sure you note which page and book you got your notes from. Create an outline for the paper that details your argument, various sections, and primary points for each section. Then, write an introduction, build the body of the essay, and state your conclusion. Cite your sources along the way, and follow the assigned format, like APA or MLA, if applicable. To learn more from our co-author with an English Ph.D. about how to choose a thesis statement for your research paper, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 113 great research paper topics.

General Education

One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

• Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
• Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
• How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
• How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
• How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

• What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
• How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
• How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
• Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
• What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
• What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
• How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
• How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
• How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
• What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
• What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
• What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
• Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
• Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
• Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
• Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
• Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
• Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
• How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
• Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
• What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
• How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

What's Next?

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These recommendations are based solely on our knowledge and experience. If you purchase an item through one of our links, PrepScholar may receive a commission.

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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190 Best English Research Topics and Ideas

Table of Contents

What are the best English Research Topics? Do you want to write an impressive research paper on a unique English research topic? In general, when it comes to writing a research paper on English, there are numerous topics you can research about. However, out of them all, choosing an interesting topic that will help you grab the attention of the readers is challenging.

If you are confused about how to choose a good English research topic and write a brilliant English research paper, then continue reading this blog and learn how to get started. Also, explore the suggested list of the top English research paper topics and ideas for writing an A+ English assignment.

English Research Paper Topic Selection

Every student needs to know how to select a good topic for writing an academic essay or research paper. No matter whether it is an English research paper or the research papers of any other subject, whenever you are assigned a task to write a research paper by selecting a topic on your own, this is what you should do.

• First, identify the topic of your interest.
• Conduct background research and brainstorm different ideas related to your area of interest.
• Note down various keywords that will help you narrow down the essay topic.
• Finally, analyze and get different perspectives on the topic by raising questions such as what, why, who, and when.
• Based on your answers to the variety of questions, prepare an outline of how your content would look like.
• Before finalizing your research topic, keep in mind the length, and due date, and also check whether or not your topic meets all the assignment requirements shared by your instructor.

For choosing the best English research topic, you don’t need to be so focused on a specific topic. Instead, you can modify your topic and generate new interesting research ideas to deal with by analyzing the different perspectives of the topic.

Remember, the research topic you choose is said to be good only if it is interesting and exciting to you and your readers. Also, it is advisable to go with a topic you are familiar with and have a wide research scope and different reference sources. So, when generating research paper topic ideas, keep these aspects in mind and make sure to pick a unique topic that will help you earn an A+ grade.

Read More – Learn and Understand the Common English Techniques

List of English Research Topics and Ideas

As said earlier, English is a broad subject with a variety of research topics. If you are asked to write an English research paper, you can choose any topic from categories that are related to English literature, technology, drugs and alcohol, politics, culture, religion, gender discrimination, and activism.

Usually, searching and finding a good research topic consumes a lot of time and effort. Hence, to make your search process easier and to help you save time, here we have recommended a list of the top English Research Topics and Ideas.

Go through the entire list of ideas and pick a research topic that is comfortable for you to perform research and write a top-quality English research paper.

Outstanding English Research Topics

• Examine American Literature
• How have women contributed to literature?
• Advantages of studying internationally versus locally
• What is the prevalence of discrimination at work today?
• How do alcohol and drug addiction lead to suicide?
• Ways of improving race relations
• How have novels impacted political issues?
• Should corporal punishment be allowed?
• Analyze terrorism and its impact on business
• Should drug testing be mandatory for student-athletes?
• How effective is the No Child Left Behind Act?
• The effect of cell phones and texting
• The impact of tenure on teaching quality
• The impact of tariffs on domestic jobs
• The issue of accessibility of contraceptives for high school students

Amazing English Research Paper Topics

• Should people sell their organs to get money?
• Ways of reducing human trafficking in America
• The role of technology in economics
• Psychological factors that influence consumer choice
• Biblical allegories in modern literature
• The democratic political system along with its benefits and limitations
• Difference between authoritarianism, democracy, and monarchy
• Biblical hermeneutics
• Manuscripts of the New Testament
• Textual Criticism of the New Testament
• Controversies related to Euthanasia
• Describe the contributions of Indian writers to English literature.
• Explain the theme of racism in Heart of Darkness by Josef Conrad.
• The manifestation of non-standard usage of English among University Students.
• Describe the personal happiness versus societal norms in Victorian literature.

Also read: Top 12 Longest Words in the English Language

Intriguing English Research Paper Topics

• Find and compare the same characters in Japanese Myths and anime series
• How has Miguel de Cervantes ridiculed chivalrous ideals, and why is it now essential for society?
• The consequences of negativity in modern literature.
• How can hunting become a necessary means in some cases?
• Provide a detailed history of the Hundred Years’ War and its results.
• Holy Roman Empire: from successor to the Romans to a Nazi symbol.
• Liberalism in national politics: emergence and evolution.
• The history of the world is a series of conquests.
• Impact of counseling and guidance on scholars’ academic performance.
• Sexism in the media industry
• Drawbacks of a democratic political system
• The issue of feminist women being too harsh on other women who don’t support the movement
• Whether or not convicted criminals should be eligible for social welfare.
• The effects of gangs in poor urban centers
• How can the pleasure of literature lead to a dark side?

Best English Research Ideas

• The perception of how women love in the legend of La Llorona
• The importance of the digitization of medical records
• Life in London in the 18th century
• Literary Criticism of The Monk by Mathew Lewis
• Compare and contrast Dover Beach by Matthew Arnold and The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T.S Eliot.
• Discuss the theme of industrialization, corruption, and capitalism using Williams Blake’s London.
• The expectation of women in Marge Piercy’s Barbie Doll
• Criticism of gender roles in The Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw
• The theme of racism in Heart of Darkness by Josef Conrad
• How modern-day heroes shape young people
• The link between illegal immigration and terrorism
• Does modern technology for teaching affect the quality of education?
• How marriage has changed in modern society
• Celebration of Pride Month in the United Kingdom
• Cases of Mercy Killing in the United States

Informative Topics for English Research Paper

• Euthanasia – Right to Die versus Right to Life
• Use of automation in the Healthcare system
• What is the neoclassical period in English Literature?
• What is Medieval English Literature as well as the idea of the anthology?
• Explain the variations across the different dialects and speakers of English
• What is the impact of diversity on a society’s development and progress?
• Should the government control what is served in school cafeterias?
• The high school curriculum should include subjects related to real life. Discuss.
• What are the psychological effects of the Holocaust on the survivors?
• Effectiveness of the federal education system as compared to other countries’ education systems.
• Discuss the role of postsecondary educational institutions in American literacy.
• Legal consequences of plagiarism in academic writing.
• How to boost English communication skills for international students?
• Technical barriers in oral and written communication in the English language.

Interesting English Research Topics

• Pros and Cons of e-learning
• The American Dream for immigrants and marginalized group
• Are UFOS a reality or fiction?
• Write about the life of tribals.
• How has the role of women in the military and battlefield changed?
• How technology is revolutionizing terrorism
• The drawbacks of online dating apps
• How depression affects human behavior
• Violent discipline by caregivers affects a child’s mental growth
• How alternative medicine for cancer is unsafe
• Negative effects of doing the wrong exercises
• Cybercrime is the new terrorism
• European influence on fashion in the world
• The genetic link to optimism can shape attitudes. Explain
• The Impact of Bioterrorism

Captivating English Research Paper Ideas

• Effects of commercialization of sports
• Dangers of consuming organic foods
• The refugee crisis is increasing terrorism
• Analysis of the Crisis between Ukraine and Russia
• Impact of the Controversial Cartoon of Prophet Muhammad
• The recent issue on Prophet Muhammad
• The threat of Third World War
• How the English Language Has Evolved Over the Last 20 Years Due to Improvements in Technology.
• What is the difference between communicative English as well as Written English?
• Discuss the role of America in the aerospace field.
• What is psychology and Literature?
• Does beauty, in general, determine how much a person will be successful in life?
• What are some pros and cons related to plastic surgery?
• Cross-cultural influences of the English language.
• Should sports betting be regulated?
• Critical analysis of the role of the National Organization for Women (NOW)
• What other common sayings such as “an apple a day keeps the doctor away” exist in your language?
• Discuss the Importance of Grammar in English language to increase employability in developed nations
• Communism as an ideology and communism in the USSR are many different things: Explain
• Theatre artists often risk their mental health while playing the roles of killers: Explain with justification

Excellent English Research Paper Topics

• Tobacco advertising and its effects
• Dangers of weight lifting on women
• The definition of feminism has changed since the 18th century
• Should it be mandatory for parents to control their kid’s social media accounts?
• Globalization and How It Affects the Economy
• Contributions by Indian writers to English literature.
• The civil rights movement and its effects
• Shakespeare’s contribution to English literature.
• Industrialization and agricultural activities are the greatest contributors to climate change
• Is social media making it easy for models to become rich?
• The reasons for fictional languages in literature
• Female writers in English literature.
• Gender controversy in modern English.
• Challenges of learning English as a second language
• The role of women in the military.

Popular English Research Topics

• The impact of child labor on society.
• The decline or increase of divorce over the decades
• The role of affirmative action in education or work
• The COVID-19 – An Unrestricted Bio-weapon
• The Outbreak of Monkeypox
• Contribution of the World Poet Rabindranath Tagore in the field of global Literature
• Contribution of William Gaddis in the field of US literature
• Can fan fiction be considered in terms of independent literature?
• What do you mean by comedy literature?
• What is the influence of modern technology on the quality of education?
• How does depression affect human behavior?
• The effective ways to reduce bullying in learning institutions
• What has led to the reduction of unemployment today?
• Analyze crimes orchestrated by white collars and the punishments
• How prevalent are wrongful convictions?

Impressive English Research Paper Topics

• Should we legalize all immigrants without papers?
• How efficient are police borders?
• How are activism and protests criminalized?
• The modern pop musician has more influence than musicians of the 80s
• Children should be taught at school about various types of sexual orientation
• Therapy and how it can be an effective rehabilitation method for hard-core prisoners
• Is bodybuilding only for boosting ego or for health reasons?
• Dehumanization effects of colonialism in Heart of Darkness by Josef Conrad
• Sea symbolism in Dover Beach by Matthew Arnold
• Use The Monk by Matthew Lewis as a response to formal realism.
• Strange medieval family laws and their influence on society
• Golan Heights and its importance to the Israelites
• The pros and cons of legalizing prostitution
• Second-hand smoke is the major cause of lung cancer deaths
• Athletes are excelling because of their professional trainers.
• Critical analysis of the impact of religious believers and stereotypes of society
• Discuss the similarities and differences between classical music and modern music
• Analyze the relationship between social status and political power depicted in William Shakespeare’s play
• What should be actions every government needs to undertake to provide equal rights and opportunities to the people belonging to the LGBTQ+ community?
• Discuss how Europeans perceive Indians and Middle-East countries’ people

Awesome English Research Questions

• Discuss the impact of grammatical mistakes on English writing skills.
• Explain the role of poetry in learning English literature.
• Write about Modern American English Literature.
• Examine the obstacles in modern English Literature.
• Suggest digital tools to advance English fluency.
• How to search for credible resources for writing English papers?
• Discuss the role of mobile applications in advancing English verbal communication.
• Explain the impact of reading in English communication.
• Explain how to boost English communication skills for international students.
• Examine Intensive English Programs (IEPs) in the US.

Also read: Learn About Different Language Features in English

Trending English Research Paper Topics

• How obsession with healthy eating can drive more people into anorexia
• Ethical Use of Stem Cells
• What are the reasons for the fictional languages in the literature?
• Is it ethical to wear fur coats?
• Are standardized tests a good way to evaluate a student’s knowledge?
• Is random drug testing in the workplace ethical and necessary?
• Is technology affecting health management?
• If college education is made free, will it be more or less qualitative?
• Does motivation play a role in human development?
• Do pharmaceutical companies view the Ebola vaccine as unprofitable?
• Should the use of marijuana be regulated?
• Have the effects of religious cults changed today as compared to those in ancient society?
• Caricature and Nigger – An Anti-Black Imagery
• Effect of systemic diseases on olfactory functioning among coronavirus infected patients
• Which practices of the Native Americans helped them to protect nature?
• Discuss the way music listening practices changed during the last three decades
• Analyze the negative impacts of social media networking sites on face-to-face or physical communications
• What should be strategies every government needs to undertake to ensure equal access to technology, health, and education?
• Compare and contrast the philosophy of African culture and European culture

Final Words

From the list of English research topics and ideas suggested in this blog post, you can use any topic of your choice and come up with an excellent, top-scoring English research paper. If you still find it difficult to choose an impressive English research paper topic, then you can use our English Assignment Help service without hesitation.

We are well-known for offering reliable essay writing and research paper writing services to our customers by connecting them with well-experienced academic writers in various fields of study. So, without any second thought, just avail of our USA assignment help & writing service to enjoy the necessary academic benefits at a reasonable rate.

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Teaching ESL, Research Paper Example

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Teachers must possess expert knowledge and understanding of the English language in order to be able to provide English Language Learners with the tools and resources that are required to learn the language properly, including integration of the key principles that govern the language. In accordance with Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), there are a number of key principles that must be considered when teachers develop a strategy to address the specific requirements of English language proficiency and utilization throughout daily living. The Principles of Language Acquisitions enable teachers of the English language to master the knowledge that is required to educate others regarding this practice and to be cognizant of these principles in providing instruction effectively (TESOL, 2006). These principles will now be addressed in the following paragraphs.

The first principle notes language as functional, and this process encourages individuals to examine language and whether or not it is utilized properly as a communicative tool with a positive result (TESOL, 2006). In this context, language as a form of communication and individual expression must be considered, as this provides a means of examining the skill and aptitude level of the ELL learner. This principle offer summary of the common themes that are relevant in daily living in regards to communication and whether or not an individual learner is able to communicate and share his or her thoughts and ideas in an expressive manner in this setting (TESOL, 2006).  One example the teacher might implement is to provide photographs in the form of handouts that depict common themes or objects that are witnessed throughout daily life, such as different types of food, automobiles, various forms of clothing, objects in the kitchen or other rooms of the house, and other items that might be commonly encountered that could lead to one or more forms of communicative expression throughout daily experiences. Another example that teachers may provide is to associate words with different objects that are commonly observed in the classroom environment that could trigger communication in the form of ideas and different types of emotions or other forms of expression. A student will associate the object with the word and will begin to recognize these words in daily living and gain a greater sense of comfort in sharing an idea with someone else. A final example of this principle is to identify a scenario or simulation in which a student must share an idea or a series of ideas with another student, using an open dialogue that is basic in nature yet powerful in its message. With the guidance of the teacher, this simple interaction might be used as a beginning to instill confidence in students regarding their early level of communication in the English language.

The second principle established by TESOL is that language is highly variable, and that for each person, language is differentiated by unique sounds, perspectives, and approaches to the words that are spoke or written (TESOL, 2006). In addition, each individual has his or her own way of sharing information with others, and this may be simplistic to begin with but it eventually evolves in its level of complexity. Furthermore, there are considerable differences in language as related to specific cultures and how these impact individual learners, including whether or not students are able to adapt to English within the context of their own customs and core values. One example the teacher might implement is to enable students to share some of their own customs and values in their language of origin in the classroom environment. Simply because students are learning English for the first time, this does not mean that they should ignore their native language and they should not be afraid to use it or to refer to it in limited ways. This encourages students to be creative and to recognize patterns that may also be useful in adapting to the English learning process.  Another example that teachers may provide is to enable students to express themselves in a controlled environment using a role-playing strategy, as this will enable them to better understand how their language and customs might fit into different roles and situations so as not to feel isolated and singled out from the rest of their peers.

A final example of this principle is to provide students with examples of different approaches to writing using basic English, as this will enable them to improve their understanding of how writing is observed in different styles within the language in a variety of communication styles, both verbal and written.

The third principle identifies language learning as cultural leaning, and it supports the ability of language to be reflective of specific cultural values, norms, beliefs, and expectations (TESOL, 2006). In this context, it is known that “Language is a uniquely human gift. When we study language, we are uncovering in part what makes us human, getting a peek at the very nature of human nature. As we uncover how languages and their speakers differ from one another, we discover that human natures too can differ dramatically, depending on the languages we speak” (Boroditsky, 2010). Therefore, it is important to identify methods in which culture is a critical part of language and the ability of an individual to interpret words and ideas based upon differences in language. One example the teacher might implement is to enable students to develop a cultural identity that will enable them to be respectful and supportive of their native language. They could write down words from their culture that accompany specific emotions or customs within that culture which has contributed to their own identity. Another example that teachers may provide is to explore the many different types of languages that are prevalent within the United States and to further examine how persons in different parts of the country possess their own dialects. A final example of this principle is to examine the melting pot that is the United States and how each individual is from one or more cultures that overlap each other in different ways.

The fourth principle is the belief that acquiring language is a long-term process, one that requires many years to fully understand and acknowledge (TESOL, 2006). Language is a complex phenomenon, regardless of the dialect or culture that is under examination; therefore, these principles must be addressed in accordance with the needs and expectations of the language itself. Acquiring any type of language typically requires five to ten years of study in order to master it to the level of full academic language proficiency (TESOL, 2006). One example the teacher might implement is to require students to learn interpersonal skills as part of the language acquisition process to promote greater cognitive proficiency of the language itself. Another example that teachers may provide is to enable students to work towards a common yet required goal that will support greater proficiency within the language, and this is accomplished by writing down words that are commonly used in an academic context. A final example of this principle is to examine the level of motivation of the ELL learner and to determine how to best approach these circumstances in order to achieve the desired proficiency results for these students.

The fifth principle is that language acquisition transpires with meaningful interaction and a high degree of challenging content (TESOL, 2006). The use of the English language must also coincide with practical yet meaningful interpretations of the language for students. One example the teacher might implement is to enable students to communicate directly with each other with some degree of flexibility in order to enhance their communication skills more effectively. Another example that teachers may provide is to pair students together, one of whom has mastery in the English language, in order to educate the other student in an environment that is free of distractions and judgments so that students may learn properly. A final example of this principle is to enable students to examine higher level material, as this will provide a greater focus on the areas where additional work is required. Nonetheless, this should not be an exercise in futility and should enable students to express their frustrations effectively in the context of the learning environment.

The sixth principle is that language processes are established on an interdependent basis and do not occur individually from each other (TESOL, 2006). This demonstrates that many different aspects of a given language must be learned concurrently, as this supports greater acquisition and retention of the language and greater proficiency. One example the teacher might implement is to enable students to identify their own proficiency through speaking and listening (TESOL, 2006). This encourages a verbal dialogue in conjunction with the written words. Another example that teachers may provide is to utilize technology-based solutions to ensure that there are sufficient opportunities to achieve greater proficiency of the English language. A final example of this principle is to examine how students interact with their responses to questions so that all learners gain from these experiences.

The seventh principle is that native language proficiency is a key contributor to second language acquisition (TESOL, 2006). In this context, a person’s native language will provide a basis for acquiring skills and knowledge in the English language (TESOL, 2005). This tool is associated with First Language Theories and supports the use of the native language in learning English more effectively. One example the teacher might implement is for students to utilize their native language, which provides a framework for learning and adapting to the English language. Another example that teachers may provide is to compare words in the native language and in English on paper in order to evaluate both sets of words and to correlate their meaning effectively. A final example of this principle is to examine the use of words in the native language and the target language through popular culture, such as books or television shows, as this will support positive associations among words and to the material.

The eighth principle is that bilingualism is both an individual and a societal asset that will remain with an individual throughout the life span (TESOL, 2006). The ability to demonstrate bilingualism is an important step in achieving successful language proficiency, along with improvements in academic achievement. One example the teacher might implement is to enable students to present material in a hybrid format using both their native language and the English language to promote comport and familiarity with the material. Another example that teachers may provide is to support student learning of new languages in a universal context in order to promote effective outcomes for all students, including positive academic achievement. A final example of this principle is to recognize the importance of enabling students to use both languages from time to time, and a controlled environment such as the classroom is a positive means of addressing this requirement.

Different models of ESL construction must also be considered as a means of examining language and context in different ways to improve education regarding language acquisition (Snow). For example, a model such as immersion education engages students fully in the language learning process and is designed to enable them to take the appropriate steps to achieve language proficiency in the classroom setting. Snow also indicates that immersion models may take on several different forms, such as middle or delayed in order to accommodate other student-based needs. The model incorporates content and language in such a way that it supports the ability of students to properly complete all required assignments, using the English language in the process.

A model known as content-enriched foreign language in the elementary school provides a basis for examining student learning across several subject areas and how this coincides with student learning within the ELL classroom setting (Snow). The model incorporates content and language through an organized approach to managing all lessons concurrently so that ELL studies support other lessons effectively.

The sheltered model distinguishes between second language students from native students in regards to content instruction (Snow). The model incorporates content and language by supporting a greater focus on ELL students in a classroom that is separate from the others in a purposeful manner.

The adjunct model enables students to be concurrently enrolled in language and content courses (Snow). In this context, ELL and content course are organized concurrently to support both aims. The model incorporates content and language to facilitate a collaborative approach to learning that involves support on both sides of the educational framework.

The content-enriched model is most appropriate for learning in the ELL classroom because it supports a greater understanding of cooperative learning and how both types of coursework rely on each other to create mutually beneficial outcomes. The immersion model, the second choice, supports a period of acceptance of the English language as the primary choice, rather than to rely on the native language too frequently. The adjacent model also supports and encourages learners to receive specific language instruction, along with content instruction, on an individual basis, yet supportive of the missions of both types to optimize student benefits.

Fair and balanced assessments are critical for English Language Learners because it enables students to gain a higher level of confidence and strength in the work that they are performing in order to learn and master the English language. Assessments must be comprehensive in nature and provide a basis for examining the entire picture, but also in consideration of the level of language proficiency that is observed at the time of the assessment. Therefore, diversity must be addressed, yet assessments should not be biased in any way so as not to judge students based on their performance in speaking and writing the English language.

Boroditsky, L. (2010). Lost in translation. Retrieved from http://online.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703467304575383131592767868

Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL). (2006). PreK-12 English language proficiency standards . Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.

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Learning and teaching.

Whether you already know what kind of books or screenplays you wish to write or are still searching for the best form in which to express your creativity, we offer the chance to try your hand in a range of genres, and to benefit from feedback tailored to your writing needs.

A programme of visiting speakers takes place throughout the academic year with writers, publishers and agents coming to talk to students about the next steps in their careers. The roll call changes every year to reflect both our students’ interests and new trends. Recent guest lecturers have included the Booker prize winning novelist Hilary Mantel; the Commonwealth Writers’ Prize-winning novelist Hisham Matar; the Pulitzer Prize winning US Poet Laureate Natasha Trethewey; the writer, editor and publisher Richard Cohen, and many others.

Our MA can be taken over one-year full time, or two years part time. During your studies, you will build a portfolio of creative work for possible publication, including a dissertation in your chosen genre. You will also be able to take a range of optional modules and explore literary genres and forms with a mutually supportive, like-minded group of fellow writers.

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Exeter’s Creative Writing staff practise and publish in a range of literary genres. Their experience of the literary world is not limited to writing and teaching. They also worked – and continue to work - as editors, publishers, agents, radio producers, and journalists. This wealth of experience is reflected in the vibrancy and diversity of our workshops and tutorials.

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Dedicated research centres and groupings within our department include:

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You will join a vibrant postgraduate and research community. All our staff belong to one or more research group which plan and develop research initiatives across the Faculty of Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences.

Whether your ambition is to become a full-time writer, a teacher of writing, or to develop a creative career which includes writing in one of its many forms, we have a strong track record of supporting our students through to publication and doctoral level work.

While at Exeter, our MA students publish their creative work in RIPTIDE and in the postgraduate journal EXCLAMATION. The Creative Writing Society also run a journal called Enigma .

In addition, our industry connections within publishing, literary journalism and broadcasting, book festivals and prizes open many opportunities to establish the contacts necessary for successful publication.

Former University of Exeter students who have gone on to develop a writing career include poets such as Luke Kennard, Abi Curtis, Eleanor Rees, Izzy Galleymore, Jaime Robles, Jos Smith, Sally Flint, and Samuel Tongue; novelists Virginia Baily, Lucy Wood, and Ruth Gilligan; and non-fiction writers such as Miriam Darlington.

Many of our former students now work in film, broadcasting, advertising, journalism, PR, publishing, teaching – including the teaching of creative writing – as well as other careers in the growing number of fields where good writing is an asset.

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While studying at Exeter you can also access a range of activities, advice and practical help to give you the best chance of following your chosen career path. For more information visit our   Careers pages .

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About half of americans say public k-12 education is going in the wrong direction.

About half of U.S. adults (51%) say the country’s public K-12 education system is generally going in the wrong direction. A far smaller share (16%) say it’s going in the right direction, and about a third (32%) are not sure, according to a Pew Research Center survey conducted in November 2023.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to understand how Americans view the K-12 public education system. We surveyed 5,029 U.S. adults from Nov. 9 to Nov. 16, 2023.

The survey was conducted by Ipsos for Pew Research Center on the Ipsos KnowledgePanel Omnibus. The KnowledgePanel is a probability-based web panel recruited primarily through national, random sampling of residential addresses. The survey is weighted by gender, age, race, ethnicity, education, income and other categories.

Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and the survey methodology .

A majority of those who say it’s headed in the wrong direction say a major reason is that schools are not spending enough time on core academic subjects.

These findings come amid debates about what is taught in schools , as well as concerns about school budget cuts and students falling behind academically.

Related: Race and LGBTQ Issues in K-12 Schools

Republicans are more likely than Democrats to say the public K-12 education system is going in the wrong direction. About two-thirds of Republicans and Republican-leaning independents (65%) say this, compared with 40% of Democrats and Democratic leaners. In turn, 23% of Democrats and 10% of Republicans say it’s headed in the right direction.

Among Republicans, conservatives are the most likely to say public education is headed in the wrong direction: 75% say this, compared with 52% of moderate or liberal Republicans. There are no significant differences among Democrats by ideology.

Similar shares of K-12 parents and adults who don’t have a child in K-12 schools say the system is going in the wrong direction.

A separate Center survey of public K-12 teachers found that 82% think the overall state of public K-12 education has gotten worse in the past five years. And many teachers are pessimistic about the future.

Related: What’s It Like To Be A Teacher in America Today?

Why do Americans think public K-12 education is going in the wrong direction?

We asked adults who say the public education system is going in the wrong direction why that might be. About half or more say the following are major reasons:

• Schools not spending enough time on core academic subjects, like reading, math, science and social studies (69%)
• Teachers bringing their personal political and social views into the classroom (54%)
• Schools not having the funding and resources they need (52%)

About a quarter (26%) say a major reason is that parents have too much influence in decisions about what schools are teaching.

How views vary by party

Americans in each party point to different reasons why public education is headed in the wrong direction.

Republicans are more likely than Democrats to say major reasons are:

• A lack of focus on core academic subjects (79% vs. 55%)
• Teachers bringing their personal views into the classroom (76% vs. 23%)

In turn, Democrats are more likely than Republicans to point to:

• Insufficient school funding and resources (78% vs. 33%)
• Parents having too much say in what schools are teaching (46% vs. 13%)

Views also vary within each party by ideology.

Among Republicans, conservatives are particularly likely to cite a lack of focus on core academic subjects and teachers bringing their personal views into the classroom.

Among Democrats, liberals are especially likely to cite schools lacking resources and parents having too much say in the curriculum.

Note: Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and the survey methodology .

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About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

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USF research reveals language barriers limit effectiveness of cybersecurity resources

• April 1, 2024

Research and Innovation

By: John Dudley , University Communications & Marketing

The idea for Fawn Ngo’s latest research came from a television interview.

Ngo, a University of South Florida criminologist, had spoken with a Vietnamese language network in California about her interest in better understanding how people become victims of cybercrime.

Afterward, she began receiving phone calls from viewers recounting their own experiences of victimization.

Fawn Ngo, associate professor in the USF College of Behavioral and Community Sciences

“Some of the stories were unfortunate and heartbreaking,” said Ngo, an associate professor in the USF College of Behavioral and Community Sciences. “They made me wonder about the availability and accessibility of cybersecurity information and resources for non-English speakers. Upon investigating further, I discovered that such information and resources were either limited or nonexistent.”

The result is what’s believed to be the first study to explore the links among demographic characteristics, cyber hygiene practices and cyber victimization using a sample of limited English proficiency internet users.

Ngo is the lead author of an article, “Cyber Hygiene and Cyber Victimization Among Limited English Proficiency (LEP) Internet Users: A Mixed-Method Study,” which just published in the journal Victims & Offenders. The article’s co-authors are Katherine Holman, a USF graduate student and former Georgia state prosecutor, and Anurag Agarwal, professor of information systems, analytics and supply chain at Florida Gulf Coast University. 

Their research, which focused on Spanish and Vietnamese speakers, led to two closely connected main takeaways:

• LEP internet users share the same concern about cyber threats and the same desire for online safety as any other individual. However, they are constrained by a lack of culturally and linguistically appropriate resources, which also hampers accurate collection of cyber victimization data among vulnerable populations.
• Online guidance that provides the most effective educational tools and reporting forms is only available in English. The most notable example is the website for the Internet Crime Complaint Center, which serves as the FBI’s primary apparatus for combatting cybercrime.

As a result, the study showed that many well-intentioned LEP users still engage in such risky online behaviors as using unsecured networks and sharing passwords. For example, only 29 percent of the study’s focus group participants avoided using public Wi-Fi over the previous 12 months, and only 17 percent said they had antivirus software installed on their digital devices.

Previous research cited in Ngo’s paper has shown that underserved populations exhibit poorer cybersecurity knowledge and outcomes, most commonly in the form of computer viruses and hacked accounts, including social media accounts. Often, it’s because they lack awareness and understanding and isn’t a result of disinterest, Ngo said.

“According to cybersecurity experts, humans are the weakest link in the chain of cybersecurity,” Ngo said. “If we want to secure our digital borders, we must ensure that every member in society, regardless of their language skills, is well-informed about the risks inherent in the cyber world.”

The study’s findings point to a need for providing cyber hygiene information and resources in multiple formats, including visual aids and audio guides, to accommodate diverse literacy levels within LEP communities, Ngo said. She added that further research is needed to address the current security gap and ensure equitable access to cybersecurity resources for all internet users.

In the meantime, Ngo is working to create a website that will include cybersecurity information and resources in different languages and a link to report victimization.

“It’s my hope that cybersecurity information and resources will become as readily accessible in other languages as other vital information, such as information related to health and safety,” Ngo said. “I also want LEP victims to be included in national data and statistics on cybercrime and their experiences accurately represented and addressed in cybersecurity initiatives.” 

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Exploring generative ai at harvard.

Jessica McCann

Harvard Correspondent

Leaders weigh in on where we are and what’s next

The explosion of generative AI technology over the past year and a half is raising big questions about how these tools will impact higher education. Across Harvard, members of the community have been exploring how GenAI will change the ways we teach, learn, research, and work.

As part of this effort, the Office of the Provost has convened three working groups . They will discuss questions, share innovations, and evolve guidance and community resources. They are:

• The Teaching and Learning Group , chaired by Bharat Anand , vice provost for advances in learning and the Henry R. Byers Professor of Business Administration at Harvard Business School. This group seeks to share resources, identify emerging best practices, guide policies, and support the development of tools to address common challenges among faculty and students.
• The Research and Scholarship Group , chaired by John Shaw , vice provost for research, Harry C. Dudley Professor of Structural and Economic Geology in the Earth and Planetary Sciences Department, and professor of environmental science and engineering in the Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Science. It focuses on how to enable, and support the integrity of, scholarly activities with generative AI tools.
• T he Administration and Operations Group , chaired by Klara Jelinkova , vice president and University chief information officer. It is charged with addressing information security, data privacy, procurement, and administration and organizational efficiencies.

Klara Jelinkova, Bharat Anand, and John Shaw.

Photos by Kris Snibbe/Harvard Staff Photographer; Evgenia Eliseeva; and courtesy of John Shaw

The Gazette spoke with Anand, Shaw, and Jelinkova to understand more about the work of these groups and what’s next in generative AI at Harvard.

When generative AI tools first emerged, we saw universities respond in a variety of ways — from encouraging experimentation to prohibiting their use. What was Harvard’s overall approach?

Shaw: From the outset, Harvard has embraced the prospective benefits that GenAI offers to teaching, research, and administration across the University, while being mindful of the potential pitfalls. As a University, our mission is to help enable discovery and innovation, so we had a mandate to actively engage. We set some initial, broad policies that helped guide us, and have worked directly with groups across the institution to provide tools and resources to inspire exploration.

Jelinkova: The rapid emergence of these tools meant the University needed to react quickly, to provide both tools for innovation and experimentation and guidelines to ensure their responsible use. We rapidly built an AI Sandbox to enable faculty, students, and staff to experiment with multiple large language models in a secure environment. We also worked with external vendors to acquire enterprise licenses for a variety of tools to meet many different use cases. Through working groups, we were able to learn, aggregate and collate use cases for AI in teaching, learning, administration, and research. This coordinated, collective, and strategic approach has put Harvard ahead of many peers in higher education.

Anand: Teaching and learning are fundamentally decentralized activities. So our approach was to ask: First, how can we ensure that local experimentation by faculty and staff is enabled as much as possible; and second, how can we ensure that it’s consistent with University policies on IP, copyright, and security? We also wanted to ensure that novel emerging practices were shared across Schools, rather than remaining siloed.

What do these tools mean for faculty, in terms of the challenges they pose or the opportunities they offer? Is there anything you’re particularly excited about?

Anand: Let’s start with some salient challenges. How do we first sift through the hype that’s accompanied GenAI? How can we make it easy for faculty to use GenAI tools in their classrooms without overburdening them with yet another technology? How can one address real concerns about GenAI’s impact?

While we’re still early in this journey, many compelling opportunities — and more importantly, some systematic ways of thinking about them — are emerging. Various Harvard faculty have leaned into experimenting with LLMs in their classrooms. Our team has now interviewed over 30 colleagues across Harvard and curated short videos that capture their learnings. I encourage everyone to view these materials on the new GenAI site; they are remarkable in their depth and breadth of insight.

Here’s a sample: While LLMs are commonly used for Q&A, our faculty have creatively used them for a broader variety of tasks, such as simulating tutors that guide learning by asking questions, simulating instructional designers to provide active learning tips, and simulating student voices to predict how a class discussion might flow, thus aiding in lesson preparation. Others demonstrate how more sophisticated prompts or “prompt engineering” are often necessary to yield more sophisticated LLM responses, and how LLMs can extend well beyond text-based responses to visuals, simulations, coding, and games. And several faculty show how LLMs can help overcome subtle yet important learning frictions like skill gaps in coding, language literacy, or math.

Do these tools offer students an opportunity to support or expand upon their learning?

Anand: Yes. GenAI represents a unique area of innovation where students and faculty are working together. Many colleagues are incorporating student feedback into the GenAI portions of their curriculum or making their own GenAI tools available to students. Since GenAI is new, the pedagogical path is not yet well defined; students have an opportunity to make their voices heard, as co-creators, on what they think the future of their learning should look like.

Beyond this, we’re starting to see other learning benefits. Importantly, GenAI can reach beyond a lecture hall. Thoughtful prompt engineering can turn even publicly available GenAI tools into tutorbots that generate interactive practice problems, act as expert conversational aids for material review, or increase TA teams’ capacity. That means both that the classroom is expanding and that more of it is in students’ hands. There’s also evidence that these bots field more questions than teaching teams can normally address and can be more comfortable and accessible for some students.

Of course, we need to identify and counter harmful patterns. There is a risk, in this early and enthusiastic period, of sparking over-reliance on GenAI. Students must critically evaluate how and where they use it, given its possibility of inaccurate or inappropriate responses, and should heed the areas where their style of cognition outperforms AI. One other thing to watch out for is user divide: Some students will graduate with vastly better prompt engineering skills than others, an inequality that will only magnify in the workforce.

What are the main questions your group has been tackling?

Anand: Our group divided its work into three subgroups focused on policy, tools, and resources. We’ve helped guide initial policies to ensure safe and responsible use; begun curating resources for faculty in a One Harvard repository ; and are exploring which tools the University should invest in or develop to ensure that educators and researchers can continue to advance their work.

In the fall, we focused on supporting and guiding HUIT’s development of the AI Sandbox. The Harvard Initiative for Learning and Teaching’s annual conference , which focused exclusively on GenAI, had its highest participation in 10 years. Recently, we’ve been working with the research group to inform the development of tools that promise broad, generalizable use for faculty (e.g., tutorbots).

What has your group focused on in discussions so far about generative AI tools’ use in research?

Shaw: Our group has some incredible strength in researchers who are at the cutting edge of GenAI development and applications, but also includes voices that help us understand the real barriers to faculty and students starting to use these tools in their own research and scholarship. Working with the other teams, we have focused on supporting development and use of the GenAI sandbox, examining IP and security issues, and learning from different groups across campus how they are using these tools to innovate.

Are there key areas of focus for your group in the coming months?

Shaw: We are focused on establishing programs — such as the new GenAI Milton Fund track — to help support innovation in the application of these tools across the wide range of scholarship on our campus. We are also working with the College to develop new programs to help support students who wish to engage with faculty on GenAI-enabled projects. We aim to find ways to convene students and scholars to share their experiences and build a stronger community of practitioners across campus.

What types of administration and operations questions are your group is exploring, and what type of opportunities do you see in this space?

Jelinkova: By using the group to share learnings from across Schools and units, we can better provide technologies to meet the community’s needs while ensuring the most responsible and sustainable use of the University’s financial resources. The connections within this group also inform the guidelines that we provide; by learning how generative AI is being used in different contexts, we can develop best practices and stay alert to emerging risks. There are new tools becoming available almost every day, and many exciting experiments and pilots happening across Harvard, so it’s important to regularly review and update the guidance we provide to our community.

Can you talk a bit about what has come out of these discussions, or other exciting things to come?

Jelinkova: Because this technology is rapidly evolving, we are continually tracking the release of new tools and working with our vendors as well as open-source efforts to ensure we are best supporting the University’s needs. We’re developing more guidance and hosting information sessions on helping people to understand the AI landscape and how to choose the right tool for their task. Beyond tools, we’re also working to build connections across Harvard to support collaboration, including a recently launched AI community of practice . We are capturing valuable findings from emerging technology pilot programs in HUIT , the EVP area , and across Schools. And we are now thinking about how those findings can inform guiding principles and best practices to better support staff.

While the GenAI groups are investigating these questions, Harvard faculty and scholars are also on the forefront of research in this space. Can you talk a bit about some of the interesting research happening across the University in AI more broadly ?

Shaw: Harvard has made deep investments in the development and application of AI across our campus, in our Schools, initiatives, and institutes — such as the Kempner Institute and Harvard Data Science Initiative. In addition, there is a critical role for us to play in examining and guiding the ethics of AI applications — and our strengths in the Safra and Berkman Klein centers, as examples, can be leading voices in this area.

What would be your advice for members of our community who are interested in learning more about generative AI tools?

Anand: I’d encourage our community to view the resources available on the new Generative AI @ Harvard website , to better understand how GenAI tools might benefit you.

There’s also no substitute for experimentation with these tools to learn what works, what does not, and how to tailor them for maximal benefit for your particular needs. And of course, please know and respect University policies around copyright and security.

We’re in the early stages of this journey at Harvard, but it’s exciting.

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English Department to Launch New Writing, Rhetoric, and Literacy Studies Concentration for Fall 2024

The Department of English will continue the rollout of its new undergraduate curriculum in fall 2024, highlighted by a new concentration in Writing, Rhetoric, and Literacy Studies (WRLS) for English majors and a revamped Letter of Specialization for non-majors. This exciting new curriculum prepares students to enter a variety of professional fields, including publishing, education, legal studies, writing for nonprofit organizations, digital content strategy, and more.

The WRLS concentration leads students through a sequence of five introductory, intermediate and advanced courses taught by leading scholars of writing, rhetoric and literacy studies. Students develop skills in public writing, community research, drafting and revision, editing and publication, audience analysis, digital rhetoric, and multimodal composition. WRLS students can choose from among a variety of electives to design their own course path in pursuit of a wide range of careers or graduate programs.

Through this program, students will gain experience analyzing and crafting writing for different audiences and with a view to the public good. They will practice writing across a range of genres, from grant proposals and policy statements to digital essays. This curriculum equips students with valuable skills in verbal and written communication, qualities prized among employers across professions and applicable in any career.

“The English Department at UMass Amherst has long been known for its strengths in composition and rhetoric, providing leadership for the university’s groundbreaking College Writing and Junior Year Writing courses since 1980,” said David Fleming, professor of English, who teaches courses in rhetoric. “But in the last decade or so, we’ve seen a growing demand from students for more courses in writing. We’re excited to now unveil this new five-course concentration within the English major in Writing, Rhetoric, and Literacy Studies , as well as a letter of specialization for non-majors. With a new 200-level introductory course and a more encompassing view of the field of writing studies, the new program brings together an exciting range of scholarly, practical, and professional topics. It also recognizes one of the fastest growing and most vibrant areas of study within English studies–both nationally and here at UMass.” 

The concentration has been approved by the UMass Faculty Senate, and students can begin enrolling for courses for the 2024-25 academic year. A listing of fall 2024 courses counting toward the concentration and specialization is available on the Department of English website .

For more information, contact Dr. Janine Solberg, director of the Writing, Rhetoric, and Literacy Studies (WRLS) Concentration: jlsolber [at] english [dot] umass [dot] edu (jlsolber[at]english[dot]umass[dot]edu) . 

Students wishing to add English with a WRLS concentration as a second major should contact the English Undergraduate Advising Office (E345 South College, email  cstoddard [at] english [dot] umass [dot] edu ( cstoddard[at]english[dot]umass[dot]edu ) ).  

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• How to write an argumentative essay | Examples & tips

How to Write an Argumentative Essay | Examples & Tips

Published on July 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An argumentative essay expresses an extended argument for a particular thesis statement . The author takes a clearly defined stance on their subject and builds up an evidence-based case for it.

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When do you write an argumentative essay, approaches to argumentative essays, introducing your argument, the body: developing your argument, concluding your argument, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about argumentative essays.

You might be assigned an argumentative essay as a writing exercise in high school or in a composition class. The prompt will often ask you to argue for one of two positions, and may include terms like “argue” or “argument.” It will frequently take the form of a question.

The prompt may also be more open-ended in terms of the possible arguments you could make.

Argumentative writing at college level

At university, the vast majority of essays or papers you write will involve some form of argumentation. For example, both rhetorical analysis and literary analysis essays involve making arguments about texts.

In this context, you won’t necessarily be told to write an argumentative essay—but making an evidence-based argument is an essential goal of most academic writing, and this should be your default approach unless you’re told otherwise.

Examples of argumentative essay prompts

At a university level, all the prompts below imply an argumentative essay as the appropriate response.

Your research should lead you to develop a specific position on the topic. The essay then argues for that position and aims to convince the reader by presenting your evidence, evaluation and analysis.

• Don’t just list all the effects you can think of.
• Do develop a focused argument about the overall effect and why it matters, backed up by evidence from sources.
• Don’t just provide a selection of data on the measures’ effectiveness.
• Do build up your own argument about which kinds of measures have been most or least effective, and why.
• Don’t just analyze a random selection of doppelgänger characters.
• Do form an argument about specific texts, comparing and contrasting how they express their thematic concerns through doppelgänger characters.

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An argumentative essay should be objective in its approach; your arguments should rely on logic and evidence, not on exaggeration or appeals to emotion.

There are many possible approaches to argumentative essays, but there are two common models that can help you start outlining your arguments: The Toulmin model and the Rogerian model.

Toulmin arguments

The Toulmin model consists of four steps, which may be repeated as many times as necessary for the argument:

• Make a claim
• Provide the grounds (evidence) for the claim
• Explain the warrant (how the grounds support the claim)
• Discuss possible rebuttals to the claim, identifying the limits of the argument and showing that you have considered alternative perspectives

The Toulmin model is a common approach in academic essays. You don’t have to use these specific terms (grounds, warrants, rebuttals), but establishing a clear connection between your claims and the evidence supporting them is crucial in an argumentative essay.

Say you’re making an argument about the effectiveness of workplace anti-discrimination measures. You might:

• Claim that unconscious bias training does not have the desired results, and resources would be better spent on other approaches
• Cite data to support your claim
• Explain how the data indicates that the method is ineffective
• Anticipate objections to your claim based on other data, indicating whether these objections are valid, and if not, why not.

Rogerian arguments

The Rogerian model also consists of four steps you might repeat throughout your essay:

• Discuss what the opposing position gets right and why people might hold this position
• Highlight the problems with this position
• Present your own position , showing how it addresses these problems
• Suggest a possible compromise —what elements of your position would proponents of the opposing position benefit from adopting?

This model builds up a clear picture of both sides of an argument and seeks a compromise. It is particularly useful when people tend to disagree strongly on the issue discussed, allowing you to approach opposing arguments in good faith.

Say you want to argue that the internet has had a positive impact on education. You might:

• Acknowledge that students rely too much on websites like Wikipedia
• Argue that teachers view Wikipedia as more unreliable than it really is
• Suggest that Wikipedia’s system of citations can actually teach students about referencing
• Suggest critical engagement with Wikipedia as a possible assignment for teachers who are skeptical of its usefulness.

You don’t necessarily have to pick one of these models—you may even use elements of both in different parts of your essay—but it’s worth considering them if you struggle to structure your arguments.

Regardless of which approach you take, your essay should always be structured using an introduction , a body , and a conclusion .

Like other academic essays, an argumentative essay begins with an introduction . The introduction serves to capture the reader’s interest, provide background information, present your thesis statement , and (in longer essays) to summarize the structure of the body.

Hover over different parts of the example below to see how a typical introduction works.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

The body of an argumentative essay is where you develop your arguments in detail. Here you’ll present evidence, analysis, and reasoning to convince the reader that your thesis statement is true.

In the standard five-paragraph format for short essays, the body takes up three of your five paragraphs. In longer essays, it will be more paragraphs, and might be divided into sections with headings.

Each paragraph covers its own topic, introduced with a topic sentence . Each of these topics must contribute to your overall argument; don’t include irrelevant information.

This example paragraph takes a Rogerian approach: It first acknowledges the merits of the opposing position and then highlights problems with that position.

Hover over different parts of the example to see how a body paragraph is constructed.

A common frustration for teachers is students’ use of Wikipedia as a source in their writing. Its prevalence among students is not exaggerated; a survey found that the vast majority of the students surveyed used Wikipedia (Head & Eisenberg, 2010). An article in The Guardian stresses a common objection to its use: “a reliance on Wikipedia can discourage students from engaging with genuine academic writing” (Coomer, 2013). Teachers are clearly not mistaken in viewing Wikipedia usage as ubiquitous among their students; but the claim that it discourages engagement with academic sources requires further investigation. This point is treated as self-evident by many teachers, but Wikipedia itself explicitly encourages students to look into other sources. Its articles often provide references to academic publications and include warning notes where citations are missing; the site’s own guidelines for research make clear that it should be used as a starting point, emphasizing that users should always “read the references and check whether they really do support what the article says” (“Wikipedia:Researching with Wikipedia,” 2020). Indeed, for many students, Wikipedia is their first encounter with the concepts of citation and referencing. The use of Wikipedia therefore has a positive side that merits deeper consideration than it often receives.

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An argumentative essay ends with a conclusion that summarizes and reflects on the arguments made in the body.

No new arguments or evidence appear here, but in longer essays you may discuss the strengths and weaknesses of your argument and suggest topics for future research. In all conclusions, you should stress the relevance and importance of your argument.

Hover over the following example to see the typical elements of a conclusion.

The internet has had a major positive impact on the world of education; occasional pitfalls aside, its value is evident in numerous applications. The future of teaching lies in the possibilities the internet opens up for communication, research, and interactivity. As the popularity of distance learning shows, students value the flexibility and accessibility offered by digital education, and educators should fully embrace these advantages. The internet’s dangers, real and imaginary, have been documented exhaustively by skeptics, but the internet is here to stay; it is time to focus seriously on its potential for good.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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An argumentative essay tends to be a longer essay involving independent research, and aims to make an original argument about a topic. Its thesis statement makes a contentious claim that must be supported in an objective, evidence-based way.

An expository essay also aims to be objective, but it doesn’t have to make an original argument. Rather, it aims to explain something (e.g., a process or idea) in a clear, concise way. Expository essays are often shorter assignments and rely less on research.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

The majority of the essays written at university are some sort of argumentative essay . Unless otherwise specified, you can assume that the goal of any essay you’re asked to write is argumentative: To convince the reader of your position using evidence and reasoning.

In composition classes you might be given assignments that specifically test your ability to write an argumentative essay. Look out for prompts including instructions like “argue,” “assess,” or “discuss” to see if this is the goal.

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