essay about human geography

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Here is a compilation of essays on the ‘Approaches to Human Geography’ for class 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on the ‘Approaches to Human Geography’ especially written for school and college students.

Approaches to Human Geography

Essay Contents:

• Essay on Radical Geography

Essay # 1. Humanistic Geography:

It is an approach in human geography, distinguished by the central and active role it gives to human awareness and human agency, human consciousness and human creativity. It is an attempt at understanding meaning, value and the human significance of life events. The revival of humanism in geography in the 1970s owed much to a deep dissatisfaction with the more mechanistic models developed during the quantitative/spatial science revolution.

For this reason, its early steps were taken alongside behavioural geography. But the two soon parted company and humanistic geography came to recognise the essential ‘subjectivity’ of both the investigator and the investigated in ways which departed from the formal structures of behaviourism.

Indeed, humanistic geography shared in the more general critique of positivism’s claim to ‘objectivity’ (in which behavioural geography was itself inculcated). It came to be represented as a form of criticism through which geographers can be made more aware and cognizant of many of the hidden assumptions and implications of their methods and research, rather than as a coherent and robust methodology for the ‘post-behavioural revolution’ in geography. But humanism was intended to be more than just a critical philosophy.

Anne Buttimer (1978) attempted to bring forward the tradition of Vidal de la Blache, and argued that historical and geographical studies go together. She emphasised the need to understand each region and its inhabitants from the ‘inside’ (that is, on the basis of local perspective) and not from the perspective of the researching ‘outsider’. There undoubtedly are affinities between the French School of la geographie humaine and humanistic geography.

Idealist Approach:

Leonard Guelke (1981) advocated an idealist approach, and expressed his ideas to historical geographers, as a counter to the arguments that they should adopt the approaches and techniques of positivism. He points out, ‘it is obvious that quantitative techniques will often be useful, but statistical methods put in harness with positivist philosophy is a dangerous combination.

Historical geographers need to rethink not their techniques but their philosophy. This can be best achieved by moving from problem-solving contemporary applied geography, towards the idealist approach widely accepted by historians’. A well-verified idealist explanation will be one in which a pattern of behaviour can be shown to be consistent with certain underlying ideas.

The idealist philosophy combines two positions, according to Guelke:

(a) A metaphysical argument that mental activity has a life of its own which is not controlled by material things and processes; and

(b) An epistemological argument that the world can only be known indirectly through ideas, and all knowledge is ultimately based on an individual’s subjective experience of the world, and comprises mental constructs and ideas. There is no ‘real’ world that can be known independently of the mind. Positivist spatial science is thus criticised because it believes in the existence of a real world, the nature of which it seeks to explain via general laws of behaviour.

Behavioural geography was equally criticised, not for its response to perceived images and subjective evaluation, but because of two assumptions within this field that:

(a) Identifiable environmental images exist which can be measured accurately; and that

(b) There are strong relationships between revealed images and preferences and actual (real world) behaviour.

Such an approach, according to Bunting and Guelke, puts human geography into a single-cause model, much like the earlier environmental determinism, and if one accepted this model, research in behavioural geography has failed to validate it. They argue for an idealist approach, which focuses on overt behaviour and its interpretation—in searching for the truth a scholar conducts a critical dialogue with his evidence and in due course he puts the results before his colleagues for their appraisal.

Guelke considered that geographers should attempt to discover what the decision-maker believed and not why he believed it. Thus, the human geographer does not need to develop theories, since the relevant theories which led to the action under study already existed in the minds of the decision-makers.

Hays (1979) points out the inherent weaknesses in the idealist approach that it ignores the possibility of either unconscious or sub-conscious behaviour. He further points out that the objective facts must influence behavioural outcomes, in addition to the thoughts of the actors. To him, idealism acts as a reductionist, but the world is more than a large number of independent decision-makers.

Mabogunje also criticises the idealist approach of Guelke, and argues that such a retreat from objective theory formulations as a means of seeking explanation to certain events would exclude from our consideration the exploration of the consequences of social actions.

Instead of retreating to a focus of particular cases, seeking special explanation for each situation in which a different value system can be shown to be operative, the geographers should attempt to build better theories encompassing these differences in value systems. Some scholars have expressed doubts as to how an idealist interpretation could be verified.

Hermeneutic Approach:

Idealism implies one type of Hermeneutic Approach, which is the theory of interpretation and clarification of meaning. It took its place in the German tradition of ‘Geisteswissenchaften’, the human sciences.

Its arguments were then developed to embrace the reader (or interpreter) as well. The dialectic between the subject and the object leads on to what has been called ‘double hermeneutics’. In geography, hermeneutics has been formally employed in a similarly general fashion to contest the epistemology of positivism and hence to reject the exclusive claims of spatial science.

The critical impulse which hermeneutics entails has been generalised through claims for a presuppositional approach in human geography capable of giving direction to its emerging social conscience.

However, hermeneutics has much to offer to regional geography. On the one hand, it can provide the epistemology for a self-reflective, historical, geographical science of the region. On the other hand, it has specific contribution to make concerning the characteristics of the Earth, space and place, culture and especially, language, and thus it could be a means of reconstructing regional geography.

Phenomenological Approach:

Phenomenology has attracted more attention among human geographers than idealism. The term was first used by Sauer as early as 1925, but it had only become widely known during 1970s. It was Relph who first attempted to introduce a phenomenological approach, when he pointed out that the basic aim of phenomenology is to present an alternative methodology to the hypothesis-testing and theory building of positivism, an alternative grounded in humankind’s ‘lived’ world of experience.

Phenomenologists argue that there is no objective world independent of man’s existence—all knowledge proceeds from the world of experience and cannot be independent of that world – ‘Idealism’, on the other hand, accepts that there is a real world outside the individual’s consciousness.

Kirk (1963) recognised two separate, but not independent environments:

(a) ‘Phenomenal environment’, which is the totality of the Earth’s surface, and

(b) ‘Behavioural environment’, which is the perceived and interpreted portion of the phenomenal environment.

Phenomenology in human geography is somewhat concerned with the phenomenal environment. The contents of that environment are unique to every individual, for each of its elements is the result of an act of intentionality; it is given meaning by the individual, without which it does not exist, but with which it influences behaviour. Phenomenology is the study of how such meanings are defined. It involves the researcher seeking to identify how the individual structures the environment in an entirely subjective way.

One of the well-known phenomenologists was Yi-Fu Tuan (1971), to whom geography is the mirror of man and reveals the essence of human existence and striving. To know the world is to know oneself, just as careful analysis of a house reveals much about both the designer and the occupant.

The study of landscapes is the study of the essence of the societies which mould them in just the same way as the study of literature and art reveals much of human life. Such study is clearly based in the humanities rather than in the social or physical sciences.

According to him, ‘Humanistic geography achieves an understanding of the human world by studying people’s relation with nature, their geographical behaviour as well as their feelings and ideas with regard to space and place. Scientific approaches to the study of man tend to minimise the role of human awareness and knowledge. Humanistic geography, in contrast, specifically tries to understand how geographical activities and phenomena reveal the quality of human awareness’.

There are five basic themes in Tuan’s humanistic geography:

(1) The nature of geographical knowledge and its role in human survival;

(2) The role of territory in human behaviour and the creation of place identities;

(3) The interrelationships between crowding and privacy, as mediated by culture;

(4) The role of knowledge as an influence on livelihood; and

(5) The influence of religion on human activity. Such concerns are best developed in historical and in regional geography; their value to human welfare is that they clarify the nature of the experience. ‘The model for the regional geographers of humanistic leaning is … the Victorian novelist who strives to achieve a synthesis of the subjective and the objective’.

Buttimer (1976, 282) also favoured phenomenology, as a path to understanding, on which informed planning can be built. ‘It could elicit a clearer grasp of value issues surrounding one’s normal way of life, and an appreciation of the kinds of education and socialization which might be appropriate for persons whose lives may weave through several mileux.’

Berry (1973) also supported the phenomenological orientation, calling for a view of the world from the vantage of process metageography. By metageography is meant that part of geographic speculation which deals with the principles lying behind perceptions of reality, and transcending them, including such concepts as essence, cause and identity.

Entrikin argues that ‘the humanistic approach is best understood as a form of criticism’. Whereas the positivist/quantitative movement was characterised by a great numerical superiority of practitioners over preachers, the phenomenological movement (like the idealist) has been characterised by the converse—much preaching and little practice.

However, humanistic geography has moved far from the position defined by Entrikin. It has moved from its early attack on positivism to make an assault on structuralism, and at the same time, it has developed a much more incisive methodology for empirical investigation.

Johnston (1986) distinguishes two basic streams of work. The first stream is characterised by a self-conscious drive to connect with that special body of knowledge, reflection and substance about human experience and human expression, about what it means to be a human being on this Earth, namely, the humanities.

The second stream is, perhaps, more self-consciously theoretical—in fact one of its central concerns is to clarify the ‘theoretical attitude’ itself. It draws on a range of constraints derived from the human and social sciences, most usually from existentialism and phenomenology, and from ethnomethodology and symbolic interactionism.

Humanistic geography, therefore, appears to be concerned either with the study of individuals and their construction of phenomenal environments, or with the analysis of landscapes as repositories of human beings. As such, it may be considered separate from the subject matter of such human geography, notably behavioural geography, and its investigation of everyday activity within environments (most of them man-made). The phenomenological perspective has been adapted to such work, in the writing of Schultz on what he terms the ‘taken for granted’ world.

Much of everyday behaviour is unconsidered, in that it involves no original encounters. The behaviour is habitual, because all of the stimuli encouraged are processed as examples of particular types. Those types are not externally defined for the individual, but are created by him.

The phenomenology of the ‘taken for granted’ world is the study of those individually-defined typifications of the unconsidered ‘world of social reality’ rather than ‘a fictional non-existing world’ constructed by the scientific observer.

It may be that interactions within communities lead to common typifications. Quantitative methods may be used to identify the common elements, but as descriptive tools only. Quantification is not tied to positivism except when it is used to suggest laws and other generalisations.

Humanistic geography is based on a profound critique of positivist work, both that which makes major assumptions about the nature of decision­ making and that which seeks inductive laws of human behaviour which can be scientifically verified.

Its argument is for an understanding of man as a ‘living, acting, thinking being’. It is contended that the human condition can only be indicated by humanistic endeavour, for attitudes, impressions and subjective relation to places, and the sense of place, cannot be revealed by positivist research.

Essay # 2. Behavioural Geography:

In contrast to humanistic geography, Behavioural Geography may be seen as a developing criticism, from within the ‘quantitative’ movement, starting from disillusionment with theories based upon the concept of ‘economic man’.

It is an approach to human geography, and in particular to the processes responsible for human spatial behaviour, which especially draw on behaviouralism, or on cognition, as a key to understanding human spatial behaviour.

Behavioural geography treats man as a responder to stimuli. It seeks to identify how different individuals respond to particular stimuli (and also how the same individual responds to the same stimulus in different situations) to isolate the correlates of those varying responses to build models that can predict the probable impact of certain stimuli. The end-product is the input to processes aimed at either providing environments to which people respond in a preferred way or at changing the stimuli.

Behavioural geography has maintained strong ties with the positivist/spatial science tradition. Data are collected from individuals, but there almost all are concerned with the conscious elements in action; they are usually aggregated in order to allow statistically substantive and significant generalisations to be made about spatial behaviour, almost certainly in the context of the normative model of the spatial science school.

Though it was once assumed to be a ‘behavioural backlash’ to a conventional spatial science, behavioural geography was really a ‘logical outgrowth’ of the commitment to positivism enshrined in the quantitative revolution.

Kates (1962) was a major exponent of the behaviouristic approach. In his study of the flood-plain management, he said, ‘the way men view the ranks and opportunities of their uncertain environments plays a significant role in their decisions as a resource management’. Kates developed a scheme which seemed to have relevance to a wide range of behaviours.

His scheme was based on four assumptions:

1. Men are rational while taking decision:

Such a decision may be either prescriptive—describing how men should behave—or the descriptive of actual behaviour. The latter appears to be the most fruitful, both for understanding past decisions and for predicting those yet to be made. Decisions are made on a rational basis, but in relation to the environment as it is perceived by the decision-maker, which may be quite different from either ‘objective reality’ or the world as seen by the researcher.

2. Men make choices:

Many decisions are either trivial or are habitual so that they are accorded little or no thought immediately before they are made. Some major decisions regarding environment and its use may also be habitual, but such behaviour usually develops only after a series of conscious choices has been made. This leads to a stereotyped response to similar situation in the future.

3. Choices are made on the basis of knowledge:

Only very rarely can a decision-maker bring together all the information relevant to his task, and frequently he is unable to assimilate and use all that he has.

4. Information is evaluated to pre-determined criteria:

In habitual choice, the criterion is what was done before, but in conscious choice the information must be weighed according to certain rules.

Kates’ study aimed at understanding why people choose to live in areas which are prone to flooding. Their information was based on their knowledge and experience, and they could be scaled according to the certainty of their perceptions regarding further floods. In justifying their decisions, most were boundedly rational, and had made conscious choices in order to satisfy certain objectives.

It was Julian Wolpert who introduced many human geographers to the behaviourist alternative to the normative approaches then quite popular. In his paper, entitled ‘ The decision process in spatial context’, published in the Annals of the Association of American Geographers (1964), he compared actual and potential labour productivity on farms in Central Sweden. He observed that the sample farm population did not achieve profit maximisation, nor were its goals solely directed to that objective. The farmers were ‘spatial satisfiers’ rather than ‘economic men’.

Wolpert further continued this theme with studies of migration, aiming to model the decision-making which is behind the patterns of migration reported in census volumes and analysed by spatial scientists. He found the gravity model inadequate as a representation of such flow patterns.

To him, such individual has an action space—the set of place utilities which the individual perceives and to which he responds—whose contents may deviate considerably from that portion of the ‘real world’ which it purports to represent. Once the first decision—to migrate—has been made, then the action space may be changed as the potential mover searches through it for potential satisfactory destination If necessary, he extends the space if no suitable solution to the research can be found.

Undoubtedly, Wolpert’s papers heralded the development of behavioural geography. His behavioural approach has focused on topics related to decision-making in spatial contexts. Wolpert and his associates also prepared pioneering papers, related to political decision-making, applying the approach he set forth in his first work. Regarding the distribution of certain artefacts in the landscape, Wolpert pointed out that the location of a public facility, for example in an urban area, frequently is the product of policy compromise.

The aim in behavioural geography has been to derive alternative theories to those based on economic man. These theories are ‘more concerned with understanding why certain activities take place rather than what patterns they produce in space’.

Here the researcher uses the real world from a perspective of those individuals whose decisions affect locational or distributional pattern. He tries ‘to derive sets of empirically and theoretically sound statements about individual, small group, or mass behaviour’. Man is considered an active decision-maker, not a reactor to particular institutionally-created stimuli.

It may be noted that the initial interest in resource management was followed by an extension from environmental perception and decision-making into aspects of attitudes and motivation. These were applied to studies of migration, the diffusion of innovations, political behaviour (especially voting), perception, choice behaviour, and spatial search and learning.

‘By studying behavioural processes in these contexts, the aspiration was to increase geographer’s understanding of how spatial patterns evolve, thereby complementing their existing ability to describe such pattern. Morphological laws and systems are insufficient of themselves for understanding; the amalgamation of concepts about decision-making taken from other social sciences with geography’s spatial variable would allow development of process theories that could account for the morphologies observed’.

One aspect of behavioural geography has been the concept of mental map. This refers to the images of place, ‘mentally stored by individuals and drawn upon as resources in their interpretation of spatial desirability, their organisation of spatial routines, and their decision-making transaction as satisficing agents. Mental maps are an amalgam of information and interpretation reflecting not only what an agent knows about places but also how he or she feels about them’.

Mental maps are important to geographers not only as a means of examining an individual’s areas of spatial preference, but also as an insight into the processes whereby decisions are made, opportunities perceived and goals determined and satisfied.

‘If we grant that spatial behaviour is our concern, then the mental images that men hold of the space around them may provide a key to some of the structures, patterns and processes of man’s work on the face of the Earth’. Such maps are useful, it is believed, not only in the analysis of spatial behaviour, but also in the planning of the social investment.

According to Downs (1970), there may be two other approaches to the study of environmental images:

(a) The ‘structural approach’ which inquiries into the nature of the spatial information stored in people’s minds and which they use in their day- to-day affairs; and

(b) The ‘evaluative approach’ in which the question is, what factors do people consider important about their environment, and having estimated the relative importance of these factors, how do they employ them in their decision-making activities. With this evaluative approach, geographers moved into the wider field of cognitive mapping.

On the methods in behavioural geography, Johnston points out, ‘The behaviouristic approach is an inductive one, with the aim being to build general statements out of observations of ongoing processes…. In terms of the accepted route to scientific explanation … behavioural geography involved moving outside the accepted cycle procedure to input new sets of observations on which superior theories might be based. In doing this, the behaviourists did not really move far from the spatial-science ethos. Indeed many of their methods were those of their predecessors; Gould’s mental map studies, for example, used the same technical apparatus as the factorial ecologies’.

However, Pred presented an alternative to theory building based on ‘economic man’ in his two-volume work Behaviour and Location (1969), and proposed the use of a behavioural matrix to provide a framework in which locational decision­ making could be analysed.

Axes of behavioural matrix are quantity and quality of information available and the ability to use that information; economic man is located in the bottom right-hand corner. Because of the nature and importance of information flows, the position on the axis depends in part on the decision-maker’s spatial location.

His position would reflect aspiration levels, experience and norms of any groups to which he belonged. Different people in different positions in the matrix would vary in their decisions; therefore two at the same position may act on different bases and in different ways. Individuals do not stay at the same position in the matrix, and spatial patterns are not static.

In the second volume of the book, Pred introduced a dynamic element by shifting individuals through the matrix. As they shift, and change their decisions, so the environment changes for others. As people learn, they both acquire better information, and become more skilled in its use.

They shift towards the bottom right-hand corner of the matrix, some of them in advance of others, who benefit from the activities of the ‘decision leaders’. The unsuccessful are gradually eliminated, so that with time a concentration of good decision ­makers close to the economic man position evolves.

But changes in the external environment produce parametric shocks, which result in decision-­makers becoming less informed and less certain; as a consequence they are shifted back towards the upper left-hand corner, and another learning cycle begins. As long as parametric shocks occur more frequently than the learning experience takes, an optimal location pattern will never emerge, except perhaps by chance.

Harvey (1969) criticised the model of the behavioural matrix, finding it ambiguous, unoperational and an over-simplification of the complex nature of behaviour. He also expressed scepticism about the viability of a behavioural location theory. Instead, Harvey suggested two alternatives to behavioural location theory— further development of normative theory and the construction of a stochastic location theory.

To him, both these approaches offered more immediate pay­offs in terms of understanding spatial patterns than did behavioural efforts, because of the conceptual and measurement problems of the latter. Curry (1967) favoured the stochastic approach, while Weber (1972) attempted to model locational approaches.

The behavioural approach has not brought about a revolution away from the spatial science paradigm; in effect it has become an attachment to it. Behavioural geography is now widely accepted within the positivist orientation.

It seeks to account for spatial pattern within the environment (both man-made and natural) by establishing generalisations about man-environment interrelationships, and then using these as a basis for change through environmental planning activities that ‘modify the stimuli which affect the spatial behaviour of ourselves and others’.

The behavioural approach, therefore, is based on four major assumptions, according to Gold (1980):

1. The environment in which an individual acts is that which he perceives, which may well differ markedly from the true nature of the real world.

2. Individuals interact with their environments, responding to them and reshaping them.

3. The focus of study is the individual, not the group.

4. Behavioural geography is multi-disciplinary.

The behaviourist approach appears to consist of two approaches:

(a) The first is based on the study of overt behaviour using the traditional positivist formulation of dependent variables influenced by independent variables. This approach has involved the widespread application of statistical techniques,

(b) The second approach is based on attempts to identify the mental constructs that lie behind overt behaviour. However, little has been achieved in the second approach, i.e. linking cognitive schemata to behaviour, and thus extending the predictive models of the first approach.

‘In the early 1960s and 1970s, therefore, behavioural studies in geography typically examined the ways in which information is (selectively) abstracted, structured and stored in mental maps; fed into and channeled through decision-making systems, as individuals or corporations make diagonal moves through a notional behavioural matrix at movements in a recursive learning process; and disclosed in patterns of spatial behaviour through the analysis of revealed spatial preference and the reconstruction of individual- action-space’.

Essay # 3. Time-Space Geography:

Related to the behaviouralist tradition, and somewhat also to the humanistic heritage, is Hagerstrand’s Time-Space Geography. It may be seen as a critique, not so much of the ‘quantitative movement’ of the important aspects of social research in general.

It conceives of time and space as providers of ‘room (rum) for ‘collateral processes’. Time-space geography emphasises the importance of continuity and connectivity for sequences of events which necessarily take place in ‘situations bounded in time and space and whose outcomes are mutually modified by their common localization’.

An important aspect of time-space geography is that time and space are both regarded as resources which constrain activity. Any behaviour which requires movement involves the individual or group traversing a path through space and time. Movements along the horizontal axis indicate spatial traverses while those along the vertical axis mark the passage of time. Any journey, termed a lifeline by Hagerstrand, thus involves movement along both axes simultaneously.

Time-space geography is based upon four basic assumptions:

1. Space and time are resources on which individuals have to draw in order to realise particular projects.

2. The realisation of any project is subject to three constraints:

(a) ‘Capability constraints’, which restrict the activities of individuals through their own physical capabilities. They derive large measures from the individuals’ livelihood position,

(b) ‘Coupling constraints’, which operate to require certain individuals and groups to be in particular places at stated times. Such constraints define space- time boundaries,

(c) ‘Authority or steering constraints’, which impose certain conditions of access to and modes of conduct within particular space-time domain. Together, these three define the time-space prism (Fig. 15.1) which contains all the available lifeline paths for an individual starting at a certain location and needing to return there at a given time.

3. These constraints are interactive rather than additive and together they delineate a series of possibility boundaries which mark out the paths available for individuals to fulfil particular projects. These boundaries correspond to an underlying and evolving logic or structure whose disclosure requires a way of dealing with projects in space-time terms of considerable conceptual precision.

4. Within these structural templates, competition between projects for free paths and open space- times is the central problem for analysis and is mediated by specific institutions which seek to maintain an essential space-time coherence.

Time-space geography is often described as a ‘situational ecology’ concerned to incorporate certain essential biotic and ecological predicates within human geography and social theory. It has the potential for throwing new light on some of the very different kinds of questions customarily posed by ‘old-fashioned’ regional and historical geographers, as well as ‘modern’ human geographers.

Time-space geography is a challenge to turn to the ‘choreography’ of individual and collective existence—to reject the excesses of inter- and intra-disciplinary specialisation for a concern with collateral processes. It provides a method of mapping spatial behaviour and at the same time represents a reorientation of scale, away from aggregate data towards studies of individual behaviour. Hagerstrand’s time-space geography appears to be essentially humanistic, aimed to provide insight into what is especially human in man’s nature, and elucidates the specific human situation.

Human Ecology:

One aspect of the critical revolution in the mid- 1960s was the revival of Human Ecology, the application of ecological concepts to the study of the relations between people and their physical and social environment. It was a logical extension of the system of thought and the techniques of investigation developed in the study of man.

Reacting to the contention of Eyre and Jones (1966) that human ecology was aimed to launch a deliberate assault on the quantitative revolution, Stoddard attempted to remove and/or reconcile the confusion by his translation of human ecology into systems analysis.

It is this focus on the location of people within the wider ecosystem that has characterised most recent studies in geography. However, Chorley (1973) finds the traditional ecological model inadequate, because human geography is no simple extension of biogeography. To him, the ecological model may fail as a supposed key to the general understanding of the relations between modern society and nature, because it casts social man in too subordinate and ineffectual a role.

It is because of time-space geography of Hagerstrand that human ecology received explicit recognition in the contemporary geographic studies. He defined his theoretical system as ‘space-time ecology’. His so-called ‘web model’ of space-time interaction should, in principle, be applicable to all aspects of biology from plants to animals to people. Its central subject matter, in fact, is to incorporate certain essential biotic and ecological predicates within human geography and to bridge the gap between biological and human ecology.

Holt-Jenson (1981) argues that those who describe geography as human ecology have often defined the concept too narrowly and have presented studies of man’s relationships to his environment as if it only encompasses man’s relationship with nature and not to his total physical and social environment.

Kirk (1963) described the geographical environment in terms which may possibly provide a useful starting point for a discussion of systems in which both ecological and social science theories and concepts may be relevant.

Essay # 4. Welfare Geography:

One of the distinct consequences of the ‘critical revolution’ in the contemporary human geography was the emergence/development of Welfare Geography in the 1970s. It is an approach to human geography that stresses on questions of inequality.

The welfare approach emerged from the radical reaction to the quantitative and model-building emphasis of the 1960s, which was thought to be insufficiently concerned with contemporary problems. It was developed as a possible reaction to the positivist/spatial science tradition.

During the 1960s, a lot of research was reported, under the general title of factorial ecologies, but only in the 1970s was the factorial ecology set of procedures adapted to the task of mapping social welfare on any significant scale.

A movement towards the welfare approach in the contemporary human geography was in fact heralded by D. M. Smith and P. L. Knox. Smith’s work, The Geography of Social Well-being in the United States (1973) was prepared in the light of American social indication movement and the growing belief there that gross national product (GNP) and national income are not necessarily direct measures of the quality of life in its broadest sense.

His aim was to initiate the collection and dissemination of territorial social indication, to point out the extent of discrimination by place of residence which occurs in the United States. Knox (1975) stated that it was a fundamental objective for geography to map social and spatial variations in the quality of life, both as an input to planning procedures and as a means of monitoring policies aimed at improving welfare.

Smith and Knox set forth the tradition of the welfare approach in geography in an organised manner. As Chisholm stated, their works represented the geographer as a ‘delver’ and ‘dovetailer’, as a provider of information on which more equitable social planning could be based.

A number of such works, suggesting spatial policies for social improvements, were done in the 1970s. These works carried forward human geography towards ‘welfare’ issues such as poverty, hunger, discrimination, crime, medical care, racial tension and access to social services. This corresponded to a major shift in societal concern, from narrow economic criteria of development to broader aspects of the quality of life.

The basis of the welfare approach is in ‘who gets what, where and how’. The present states of society, with respect to ‘who gets what and where’ may be represented by extension of the abstract formulation of welfare economics, and the practical objective is to give it empirical substance. The welfare approach in geography requires the development of social indication for the empirical identification of social inequality and injustice in territorial distribution.

This may combine particular elements of social well-being in a composite measure. The method in welfare geography essentially appears to be descriptive, because descriptive research provides a basis for evaluation of social well-being. However, the early preoccupation with descriptive research in welfare geography has now given way to more process-oriented work on the question of how inequality arises.

Although originally proposed as an alternative framework for human geography, the welfare approach has now been merged with other lines of inquiry within geography directed towards the fundamental problems of inequality.

Implicit in welfare approach is a recognition that the issues in question extend beyond the limits of single discipline, and in fact render-disciplinary boundaries increasingly irrelevant. The welfare approach logically requires a holistic social perspective. Welfare geography attempts to make human geography more relevant to contemporary social problem.

Essay # 5. Radical Geography:

‘Whereas welfare geography works in principle within the framework of existing economic and social system, radical geography which has been established more recently, calls for both revolutionary theory and revolutionary practice’.

Radical geography appears to be an outcome of a ‘new critical revolution’ in the contemporary human geography, which seemed to have occurred largely as a result of the critiques of positivist/spatial science tradition in human geography.

As a holistic, revolutionary science, Marxism provides a film theoretical base for the radical movement in geography. Marxism offers an opportunity to develop an integrated comprehension of reality as a whole. To Harvey (1973), Marxist theory provides the key to understanding capitalist production from the position of those not in controls of the means of production—an enormous threat to the power structure of the capitalist structure. It not only provides an understanding of the origin of the present system, with its many-faceted inequalities, but also propounds alternative practices which would avoid such inequalities.

The Marxist theory renounced that the scientific laws of society are eternal. This view sharply contrasted with the claim of positivist science that scientific laws are universal in space and time. Economic laws are not eternal laws of nature, but historical laws appear and disappear. Society has inbuilt conflicts in it which tend to resolve themselves by change both in practice and in theory.

Science and scientific development, according to the Marxist theory, must be understood in relation to social reality, To Harvey (1973), the essential difference between positivism and Marxism is that positivism simply seeks to understand the world, whereas Marxism seeks to change it.

For Peet (1977), the Marxist science begins with a material analysis of society, proceeds through a critique of capitalist control of the material base of society and proposes solutions in terms of social ownership of that material base.

The growing disillusionment in the American society, partly as a result of the Vietnam War, social inequalities and injustice, racial tension, and the unresponsive attitude of the authority to the needs of the under-privileged, on the one hand, and the Marxist theory, on the other hand, formed a broad symbiosis for radical geography.

However, according to Peet (1977), radical geography developed largely as a negative reaction to the established disciplines, a reaction which was initially formulated within existing methods of positivism. By the early 1970s, the critique however, had developed a strong Marxist base, aiming to create a radical science, which seeks to explain not only what is happening, but also to prescribe revolutionary change. A journal of radical geography—Antipode was launched in 1969 at Clark University.

The first step in the development of a mature radical practice of geography was the emergence of a liberal viewpoint. This was an attempt to find more socially appropriate uses for the existing techniques and theories, and yet to maintain the basic ideas and values of the social system. When geographers began to question the ideology underlying the existing geographic models, they moved into the critique stage of development. Next came the extraction of elements-problems.

Failure on the part of the liberal geographers to offer meaningful solutions to the major socio­economic crisis in the United States prompted Harvey (1973) to offer a revolutionary theory, thereby overthrowing the current paradigm.

The immediate task, according to him, is nothing more than the self-conscious and aware construction of a new paradigm for social geographic thought through a deep and profound critique of our existing analytical constructs. The new paradigm would be built on a Marxist base, and it would achieve social reforms through the education process. The benefit of Marxist theory was that it can handle two crucial issues that positivist theory cannot—increase injustice, and heightened economic and social instability.

However, Peet (1977) has argued that the early ‘radical’ work by geographers in the late 1960s was liberal in its attitude. David Harvey in his book Social Justice and the City (1973) made a major contribution to the case for a Marxist- inspired, materialist theory development within geography. Peet also moved to a Marxist position replacing his earlier paper on poverty by a Marxist interpretation, based on the assumption that inequality is inherent in the capitalist mode of production.

As a mode of analysis, Marxism is a variant of the philosophy of structuralism which identifies three levels of analysis:

(a) The level of appearance or the super-structure;

(b) The level of processes, or the infrastructure; and

(c) The level of imperatives, or the deep structure.

Marxism has a materialist base. It argues that the infrastructure comprises a set of economic processes and most Marxist work concentrates on the processes operating within the capitalist mode of production. Marxist analysis seeks to identify the processes operating in the infrastructure and to relate them to the pattern in the super-structure. In human geography, this means deriving general theories of historical materialism that will account for particular patterns.

Marxist structuralism can also be presented as a variant of the realist philosophy of science which seeks to relate the contents of an empirical world to a set of infrastructural determinants—economic processes.

The Marxist/radical approach in geography has four basic components:

(1) The first is the critique of positivist spatial science and behavioural geography, and of humanistic geography.

(2) The second is to provide general theoretical frameworks, within which empirical work can be set.

(3) Thirdly, there is work that seeks to establish how individuals act within the structural imperative.

(4) And finally, there is detailed empirical work that seeks to understand particular aspects of the subject matter of human geography within the structuralist framework.

The radical geographers, with their concern for social values and political action, have rejected the traditional concept of geography. Although the radicals generally remain interested in the human/ environmental and spatial relationships, they spurn the systems of theory and methodology that are viewed as providing only partial accounts of reality and as serving the interests of a select social group or class.

Most radical geographers accept geography as a legitimate field of study and feel that it has much to offer in finding solution to the world problems. The radical geographer’s aim is the alteration of the operating societal processes by changing the relations of production.

Since radical geography is purely an American enterprise, it had no academic recognition in the former Soviet Union where its desirability and viability was doubted for not having a good understanding of Marxist-Leninist thought.

Though critical revolution in geography occurred side by side with the quantitative revolution in the 1960s and the early 1970s, as a possible reaction to the positivist spatial science tradition, but recent studies in humanistic geography, behavioural geography, time space geography, human ecology, welfare geography and radical geography reveal that there are some attempts towards some ‘revaluation’ of the positivist approach.

It is equally important to note that in geography, paradigms or rather schools of thought have not succeeded each other as Kuhn’s model suggests, but, to a large extent, continue to exist in parallel, whilst the new schools slowly absorb the older ones leaving some former contradiction to linger on within the new structure.

There is little evidence either of large-scale disciplinary consensus for any length of time about the merits of a particular approach or any of the revolutions that have been entirely consummated. Certainly the quantitative and theoretical developments followed by the critical and neo-critical revolutions have had a major impact, but there were many residuals of earlier paradigms. The failure to fit Kuhn’s model to contemporary trends in human geography leads to the conclusion that the model is irrelevant to this social science and perhaps to social science in general.

Related Articles:

• Dichotomy Between Physical Geography and Human Geography
• Principles of Humanism and Themes in Humanistic Geography
• Essay on Biogeography | Geography
• The Quantitative and Behavioural Revolutions in Geography

Approaches , Approaches in Human Geography , Geography , Human Geography

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How to Write Geography Essay: Topics and Examples

Table of contents

• 1 What Is Geography Essay
• 2 Choosing a Topic
• 3 Research and Data Collection
• 4 Planning the Essay
• 5 Writing the Essay
• 6 Examples of Geography Essays
• 7 Unlocking the World: Key Insights from Our Geographic Exploration

Welcome to the dynamic world of geography essays, where understanding the Earth’s surface becomes an enlightening journey. This article serves as a comprehensive guide to writing a geography essay, starting with the crucial step of selecting a captivating topic. We’ll navigate through various popular topics, emphasizing the importance of effective research and data collection.

In this article, we’ll cover:

• How to select engaging and relevant geography essay topics.
• The importance of thorough research and effective data collection methods.
• Strategies for planning and organizing your geography essay for clarity and impact.
• Tips for writing a compelling geography essay, including structuring and presenting arguments.
• Analyzing examples of successful geography essays to guide and inspire your work.

As we transition into the details, prepare to enhance your understanding and skills in geography essay writing.

What Is Geography Essay

As we delve into the essence of a geography essay, it’s important to understand that it meticulously examines Earth’s landscapes and human activities. Furthermore, it aims to analyze how these two aspects interact, focusing on spatial relationships and patterns. Transitioning into the specifics, such essays often delve into particular geographic issues, aiming to broaden our comprehension of the world.

Moreover, when writing a geography essay, one must include accurate geographical data. This data, encompassing maps, statistics, and case studies, is crucial for a well-grounded analysis. Consequently, the essay should present facts and interpret them, offering fresh insights into the discussed topic.

Additionally, it’s noteworthy that an essay on geography stands out from others due to its unique subject matter approach. It demands a keen eye for detail and a profound understanding of the world’s physical and human dimensions. This requirement makes crafting such an essay a challenging yet fulfilling endeavor.

Lastly, the primary goal of a geography essay is to enlighten and inform. It persuades readers to view the world through a geographical lens, grasping the complex interplay between humans and their environment. This type of essay transcends mere academic exercise, serving as a means to foster a deeper appreciation for our world and its complex dynamics.

Choosing a Topic

The crucial point for a successful geography essay is selecting an engaging and appropriate topic. To choose a topic that resonates, consider current events, your interests, and the scope of your assignment. A good topic should captivate your interest and offer sufficient scope for in-depth study and analysis.

Popular geography essay topics often revolve around climate change , urban development, and cultural landscapes. These topics provide a rich ground for exploration and allow for diverse perspectives and interpretations. For example, a thematic essay on geography could focus on how urbanization affects local ecosystems or how cultural practices shape landscape use.

• Analyzing the Direct Impact of Climate Change on the Amazon Rainforest’s Biodiversity
• Urbanization in Mega Cities: Environmental Consequences and Sustainable Solutions
• Wind and Solar Power: Pioneers of Sustainable Energy Landscape
• Managing Water Scarcity in the Middle East: Strategies and Challenges
• The Amazon Deforestation Crisis: Causes, Impacts, and Global Responses
• Spatial Inequality: A Detailed Look at Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa
• The Dynamics of Population Growth and Overconsumption in Asia
• Cultural Preservation of Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon Basin
• Earthquakes in Japan: Analyzing Causes, Effects, and Preparedness Strategies
• Geography’s Role in the Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire
• Implementing Sustainable Agricultural Practices in India for Food Security
• The Kashmir Conflict: A Geopolitical Analysis of Border Disputes
• The Growing Crisis of Climate Refugees in the Pacific Islands
• The Importance of Urban Green Spaces in New York City’s Environmental Health
• The Impact of Globalization on Maori Culture in New Zealand
• Ecotourism in Costa Rica: Balancing Economic Benefits and Environmental Preservation
• Addressing Ocean Plastic Pollution: Case Studies from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch
• The Nile River Conflict: Water Politics in a Changing Climate
• Preventing Desertification in the Sahel: Strategies and International Cooperation
• GIS in Disaster Management: Case Studies of Earthquake Response and Recovery
• Measuring the Effects of Glacial Melting on Greenland’s Coastal Communities
• Tracing the Economic Geography of the Silk Road in the 21st Century
• The Health Impacts of Air Pollution in Beijing: Urban Policies and Challenges
• Vulnerable Communities: Assessing the Socioeconomic Impacts of Climate Change in Bangladesh
• The New Face of Migration: Syrian Refugees and European Response
• The Critical Role of Metropolitan Areas in Combating Global Warming
• Saving Madagascar’s Rainforest: Conservation Strategies and Challenges
• The Transition to Renewable Energy in Germany: A Model for the World?
• Satellite Imagery in Land Use Changes: A Study of the Brazilian Amazon
• Arctic Sovereignty: The Geopolitical Implications of Melting Ice Caps for Global Powers

To guide and inspire your topic selection, you can use geography essay examples. These examples showcase a range of topics and approaches, helping you understand what makes a topic both engaging and feasible for study. Remember, a well-chosen topic is the first step toward a compelling and insightful geography essay.

Research and Data Collection

To talk about thorough research, it is the backbone of any geography study, providing the factual and theoretical foundation to understand complex geographical phenomena. To explain why the study of geography is important, one must delve into diverse and reliable sources that offer insights into how geographical factors shape our world and affect our lives. This research underpins the type of geography being studied, whether physical, human, or environmental.

Collecting geographical data can be done through various methods. Firstly, fieldwork is essential, especially for physical geography, as it allows for the direct observation and measurement of geographical features and processes. For human geography, surveys and interviews can yield valuable data on human behaviors and social patterns. Moreover, a thorough literature review also helps understand existing research and theories, providing a critical context for new findings.

Furthermore, evaluating sources for their credibility and relevance is vital. This involves checking the qualifications of the authors, the rigor of their methodologies, and the recency of their findings. Reliable sources are peer-reviewed and come from reputable academic or scientific institutions. What is more, ensuring the credibility of sources strengthens the arguments made in a geography essay and enhances the overall understanding of the topic.

In summary, comprehensive research and careful data collection are fundamental in geography. They enable a deeper understanding of how geographical aspects shape our environment and lives, which is central to the discipline.

Planning the Essay

When you start planning a geography essay, it begins with creating an outline to organize thoughts and research. This step is crucial as it helps structure the essay logically, ensuring a smooth flow of ideas. Start by listing major points and supporting evidence. This framework guides the writing process and maintains focus on the chosen topic. Planning involves outlining the essay and crafting a compelling thesis. Planning involves outlining the essay and crafting a compelling thesis. This process ensures the essay remains focused and coherent, addressing the chosen geography topic. By establishing a clear roadmap for the essay, writers can navigate their arguments and evidence with precision, avoiding common pitfalls such as digression or ambiguity. Now, with our plan in place, let’s transition to examining the structure more closely, exploring how to effectively organize our thoughts and research into a well-structured essay that engages and informs the reader.

Writing the Essay

When you finally start writing, a geographical essay involves several key steps, each demanding attention to detail and a balance between descriptive and analytical writing. This balance is crucial in creating an essay about geography that informs, engages, and persuades.

The introduction sets the stage. Start with a hook that grabs the reader’s attention, followed by background information that provides context to the topic. This section should conclude with a clear and concise thesis statement that guides the rest of the essay.

In the body, organize paragraphs thematically or chronologically , depending on the essay’s focus. Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence that relates to the thesis. Following this, present your arguments and support them with geographical theories and data. This is where you incorporate detailed information from your research, including statistics, case studies, and examples. Make sure to explain how this data supports your arguments. A geography research paper demands precision in presenting data and clarity in its interpretation.

When discussing geographical theories, link them directly to your topic. This shows your understanding of the subject and how these theories apply to real-world scenarios. Remember, each paragraph should have a smooth transition to the next, maintaining a coherent flow of ideas.

In the conclusion, summarize the key points of your essay. Restate the thesis in light of the arguments and evidence presented. The conclusion should not introduce new information but encapsulate what the essay has covered. It’s also an opportunity to emphasize the importance of the topic, suggesting potential areas for future research or implications of your findings.

Throughout the essay, maintain a balance between descriptive and analytical writing . Descriptive writing helps paint a picture for the reader, making the data and theories more relatable. Analytical writing, on the other hand, demonstrates your ability to think critically about the topic, evaluating and interpreting the information in a meaningful way.

Examples of Geography Essays

Diversity in style and approach marks the essence of geography writing. A popular method is the comparative approach, contrasting different geographical phenomena. This method often appears in works comparing landscapes or urban vs. rural areas. Another common technique is the case study, focusing on a specific location or event for in-depth analysis of a particular issue.

Thematic approaches cover broader topics like climate change, globalization, or human migration, weaving together various theories and data for a comprehensive view. Additionally, argumentative compositions present a thesis supported by geographical evidence, frequently seen in discussions about environmental policies or land use conflicts.

Each style offers unique insights, providing varied ways to explore and understand geographical concepts and issues. For an in-depth exploration and diverse perspectives on these topics, consider reviewing geography essay examples. This resource can enrich your understanding and offer a broad spectrum of approaches to geographical analysis, from case studies on environmental conservation to essays on urban development and spatial inequalities.

• Geography Unveiled: Costa Rica’s Absolute Location Revealed
• Geography Unveiled: Navigating Earth’s Spatial Tapestry through Five Themes
• The Ever-Changing Canvas of New England Weather
• The Mystique and Marvels of the Desert Biome
• The Impact of Geography on the Development of Egypt

Unlocking the World: Key Insights from Our Geographic Exploration

This journey through the realm of geography reveals the field’s depth and complexity. From initial planning to diverse writing methods, the main insight stands out: geography compositions are more than maps and data; they are about comprehending our world’s rich tapestry. They balance descriptive narrative and critical analysis, backed by meticulous research and credible sources.

Whether exploring climate change impacts, urban developments, or cultural landscapes, these works offer a lens to see and understand the world anew. They prompt critical thinking about our environment and our place in it. Navigating various geographic topics brings not just academic insights but also life lessons in appreciating our world’s complexity and beauty.

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How to Write a Geography Essay that Transcends Borders

Have you ever found yourself floating effortlessly in the Dead Sea, that magical stretch of water between Israel and Jordan? It's the saltiest lake globally, turning you into a buoyant bobber without much effort. Now, just as geography unveils such fascinating quirks about our planet, writing an essay on this subject can be an equally intriguing venture.

Let's take a stroll through the world of geography essays together. We'll start by figuring out what exactly makes up a geography essay definition and then dive into the secrets of writing a great one. Along the way, we'll share some helpful tips, break down the important parts, and talk about why geography matters in today's world. Whether you're a student trying to do well in your geography class or just curious about why geography is important, this article is here for you. Let's get started!

Ready to Turn Your Passion for Places into an Epic Essay?

Geography geek or not, we've got your back. Let us craft your custom essay that's as intriguing as it is insightful!

Essential Factors When Writing a Geography Essay

A great essay comes from a good understanding of the topic. Let's share some tips to help you create an impressive essay.

• Stick to What You Know : Pick geography topics that you're familiar with.
• Think Global : Show how your chosen topic connects to bigger issues like climate change or cultural diversity.
• Grab Attention : Choose a topic that interests you and your readers.
• Show with Examples : Use real examples to explain geography concepts in your essay.
• Stay on Track : Make sure everything in your essay relates to the main message.
• Use Sources : Share your thoughts based on what reliable sources say.
• Make it Real : Describe landscapes in a way that brings them to life for your readers.

In the next parts, our skilled writers, who you can buy essay from, will share a simple guide to help you write essays successfully!

Exploring What Is a Geography Essay

In simple terms, a geography essay is a well-organized explanation of geographic topics and ideas. It's more than just listing facts—it's a chance for you to showcase what you understand about geographical principles, processes, and their real-world impacts.

• Keep it Focused : Your essay should revolve around a specific topic or question in geography. This focus helps you stay on track and make your writing clear and relevant.
• Grasp the Concepts : Geography essays should include important geographical ideas like spatial relationships, scale, location, and interactions. These concepts give you the tools to understand and explain the world.
• Use Data : Geography relies on data and evidence. Bring in facts, maps, visuals, and statistics to support your points and show geographical patterns.
• Think Critically : A good essay doesn't just share information; it digs into the details. Explore the nuances, root causes, and broader impacts to give a deeper insight. ‍
• Connect to Reality: These essays often link theory with real-world issues. Whether you're talking about global warming, urbanization, cultural landscapes, or geopolitical shifts, these essays show why geography matters in our interconnected world.

How to Start a Geography Essay

Starting your essay in the right way not only grabs your readers' attention but also sets the stage for a well-organized and interesting exploration of your selected geography research paper topics .

• Establish the Geography : Kick-off by placing your topic in a geographic context. Explain where and why this topic matters, considering both local and global perspectives.
• Spark Interest : Draw your readers in by asking a thought-provoking question or sharing a surprising statistic related to your geography essay topics.
• Give Background Info : Provide a quick overview of the subject to make sure your readers have the basic knowledge needed to follow your arguments.
• Include a Quote : Think about using a fitting quote from a well-known geographer, researcher, or historical figure to add depth and credibility to your introduction.
• Set the Tone : Decide on the tone of your essay—whether it's informative, analytical, or persuasive—and let that tone shine through in your introductory language and style.

Select a Subject You're Comfortable Discussing

Picking the right research paper topic in geography is a big deal—it can really shape how the whole writing journey goes. One smart move to kick off your research paper well is to go for a subject you genuinely feel comfortable talking about. Here's why it matters:

• Expertise Shines : When your research paper topic matches what you already know and enjoy, your expertise shines through. You can use what you know to analyze and explain the subject better.
• Stay Motivated : Choosing a topic that genuinely interests you, like doing a geography essay about earthquakes, can be a great source of motivation. This inner drive helps you stay engaged during the whole research and writing process, leading to a better end result.
• Research Efficiency : Knowing your topic makes the research process smoother. You know where to find good sources, what keywords to use, and how to tell if information is reliable.
• Confident Analysis : Understanding your topic well, say, when dealing with a geography essay about global warming, gives you confidence. This confidence comes through in your analysis, making it more convincing.
• Boosted Creativity : Being comfortable with your topic can boost your creativity. You're more likely to come up with new ideas and unique perspectives when you're discussing something you're familiar with.

Let's explore a range of research topics that provide plenty of chances for thorough investigation and analysis. Feel free to choose the one that aligns with your interests and fits the particular focus of your research.

• Microclimates in Urban Spaces: Analyzing Local Community Impacts
• Geopolitics of Water Scarcity: Transboundary Water Conflict Case Study
• Ecotourism in Unexplored Territories: Balancing Conservation and Development
• Digital Cartography's Influence on Public Perception of Geographic Information
• Role of Indigenous Knowledge in Sustainable Resource Management
• Urban Heat Islands: Assessing Heat-Related Risks in Growing Cities
• Climate Change Impact on Traditional Agricultural Practices in Vulnerable Regions
• Geography of Infectious Diseases: Spatial Analysis of Disease Spread
• Patterns of Renewable Energy Adoption: A Global Comparative Study
• Cultural Landscapes in Transition: Globalization's Impact on Local Identities

Geography Essay Example

For a closer look at how to structure and compose an effective geography essay, we've put together a compelling example for your review. As you go through it, you'll discover the essential elements that contribute to making an essay both informative and engaging.

Exploring the Impact of River Dams on Ecosystems

Introduction:

Rivers are the lifeblood of many ecosystems, shaping landscapes and sustaining diverse forms of life. This essay delves into the intricate relationship between river dams and ecosystems, aiming to unravel the multifaceted consequences that altering natural watercourses can bring. By examining case studies and ecological principles, we seek to shed light on the complex web of interactions that define the impact of river dams on the environment.

River dams significantly modify the natural flow of water, creating reservoirs and altering the hydrological patterns downstream. This transformation often leads to changes in habitat availability for aquatic species. Case studies from various dam projects will be explored to illustrate the tangible effects on biodiversity and ecosystem structure.

Furthermore, many fish species rely on river systems for migration and spawning. Dams can present barriers to these natural processes, affecting fish populations and, consequently, the predators and prey in the broader food web. This section will examine how dams disrupt fish migration and explore potential mitigation strategies to minimize ecological consequences.

What's more, the alteration of river flow caused by dams influences water quality and sediment transport downstream. Sediment accumulation in reservoirs can have cascading effects on aquatic ecosystems. This part of the essay will delve into scientific studies highlighting changes in water quality and sedimentation patterns due to dam construction.

Beyond the ecological realm, the construction of river dams often has social and economic repercussions. Local communities dependent on rivers for their livelihoods may face challenges due to altered water regimes. Investigating case studies, we will explore the human dimension of the impact of river dams on communities and economies.

Conclusion:

In summary, the complex interplay between river dams and ecosystems demands thoughtful reflection. This essay has offered a glimpse into the diverse outcomes that come with changing natural watercourses, underscoring the importance of a comprehensive grasp of the ecological, social, and economic aspects at play. By delving into the intricate realm of river dam impacts, we acquire valuable insights into the nuanced equilibrium between human progress and environmental sustainability.

How to Write a Geography Essay: Insights and Pointers

When it comes to writing geography essays, it's not just about throwing out facts and figures. It's about digging deeper into geographical ideas, understanding how things relate, and sharing your findings in a way that makes sense. Our paper writing service experts are here to give you some handy tips:

• Dig Deep with Research: Start by really getting into your topic. Collect data, look at maps, and read up on what others have to say about it.
• Sort Your Thoughts: Organize your essay so it's easy to follow. That usually means having an intro, some main parts, and a wrap-up at the end. Keep it logical.
• Think and Talk Analysis: Get into the nitty-gritty of your analysis. Use geography ideas to explain your data and give your own take on things.
• Show Your Proof: Back up what you're saying with proof. Throw in maps, charts, or stories to make your points and show patterns.
• Question Everything: Think hard about different opinions and what your findings might mean in the big picture. Don't be afraid to question things and see where it takes you.

Breaking Down the Geography Essay Structure

A well-formatted geography essay structure is like a well-organized map – it guides readers through your analysis with clarity and purpose. To effectively break down the structure, consider the following key insights:

• Geographical Essence: Always consider the geographical context when framing your essay format . How does the landscape influence the subject, and in turn, how does it fit into the broader global narrative?
• Tailored Tone for Audience: Reflect on your audience. Are you speaking to geography enthusiasts, educators, policymakers, or the general public? Adjust your language and explanations to match their level of familiarity and interest.
• Conciseness and Wordplay: Maintain clarity by adhering to word limits and embracing conciseness. Focus on delivering pertinent information with a touch of engaging wordplay to captivate your readers.
• Innovative Perspectives: Aim for innovation in your analysis. While leveraging existing research, offer a fresh viewpoint or a unique twist on the topic to keep your essay from blending into the background.
• Ethical Dimensions: If your research involves human subjects, sensitive data, or fieldwork, be conscientious of ethical considerations. Seek necessary approvals, ensuring that your research adheres to ethical standards.
• Geographic Fluency: Demonstrate a keen grasp of geographic fluency in your essay. Showcase not just knowledge of concepts but an understanding of the interconnectedness of regions, adding depth to your exploration.
• Visual Appeal: Consider incorporating visual elements such as maps, charts, or images to enhance your essay's visual appeal. A well-chosen visual can often communicate complex geographical information more effectively.
• Future Implications: Extend your analysis to contemplate the future implications of the geographical factors you're discussing. How might current trends shape future landscapes, and what role does your topic play in this evolving narrative?

Geography Essay Introduction

The introductory paragraph is the starting point of your essay, where you contextualize, captivate your audience, and introduce your central thesis statement.

For instance, if your essay explores the effects of rising sea levels on coastal communities, your introduction could commence with a striking observation: ' In the coastal realms, where communities have thrived for generations, the encroaching rise of sea levels is transforming the very landscapes that have long shaped human existence. This unsettling shift is a direct consequence of global warming, a phenomenon casting profound implications across the globe .'

The core section of your essay, the main body, encompasses several paragraphs that house your analysis, arguments, evidence, and illustrations.

Within a segment examining the consequences of industrial pollution on river ecosystems, you might assert: ' Industrial effluents discharged into rivers represent a significant contributor to pollution. As evidenced by studies [cite], the toxic chemicals and pollutants released into water bodies pose severe threats to aquatic life, disrupting ecosystems and endangering the delicate balance of river environments. '

Geography Essay Summing Up

When wondering how to write a conclusion for an essay , remember that it acts as the final chapter, summarizing crucial findings, reiterating your thesis, and offering concluding insights or implications.

In a conclusion addressing the impact of desertification on agricultural communities, you might recapitulate: ' Surveying the intricate interplay between environmental degradation and agricultural sustainability in regions affected by desertification reveals a nuanced narrative. Despite the adversities posed, there exists an imperative for innovative solutions and adaptive strategies to ensure the resilience of agricultural communities in the face of advancing desertification. '

More Tips for Writing a Geography Essay

Here are some special tips on writing a geography essay that can enhance the depth and sophistication of your entire piece, showcasing a thorough grasp of geographic concepts and methods.

• Embrace diverse viewpoints – consider cultural, economic, and environmental angles for a richer analysis.
• Use geospatial tools like maps and satellite imagery to visually enhance your essay and emphasize spatial relationships.
• Bolster your arguments with real case studies to illustrate the practical application of your geographical analysis.
• Integrate recent global events into your essay to showcase relevance and stay aligned with the dynamic nature of geography.
• Explore intersections with other disciplines, providing a more comprehensive understanding of your topic.
• Highlight how local phenomena contribute to broader global narratives, emphasizing interconnectedness.
• If you're writing a cause and effect essay , compare urbanization trends in different cities to show the reasons and outcomes.

Why Geography Matters as a Subject of Study

Geography goes way beyond just maps and names of places; it's a lively and important field that helps us make sense of the world. Here's why geography matters:

• Knowing Spaces: It helps us understand how places, regions, and landscapes connect. This understanding is crucial for making smart choices about things like where to put resources, plan cities, and handle emergencies.
• Being a Global Citizen: It encourages us to appreciate different cultures and how we're all connected. It helps us see how big events, like climate change or pandemics, affect countries locally and globally.
• Taking Care of Nature: This subject gives us insights into environmental problems and solutions. It teaches us about issues like cutting down forests, losing habitats, and climate change so we can make choices that help our planet.
• Thinking Smart: Geography makes us think critically. It involves looking at complex information, considering different opinions, and drawing smart conclusions. These skills are handy in lots of jobs.
• Fixing Real Problems: What we learn in geography helps us solve actual problems – from designing better roads to managing water wisely and dealing with natural disasters.
• Making Rules and Plans: It has a say in making rules and plans. It guides decisions about how to use land, build things, and take care of resources.
• Loving Different Cultures: Geography helps us appreciate all kinds of cultures and how they relate to the environment. It lets us understand why places are important and how their histories have shaped them.

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Let our expert writers be your guides on this geographical voyage and map out your academic success together!

To sum it up, geography gives you the knowledge and skills to navigate our complex and connected world. Writing a geography essay helps you make smart choices, promote sustainability, and face global challenges. Whether you're exploring local landscapes or looking at global issues, geography lays the groundwork for understanding our planet and its diverse inhabitants through the art of essay writing.

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A short definition for Human Geography

The study of the interrelationships between people, place, and environment, and how these vary spatially and temporally across and between locations. Whereas physical geography concentrates on spatial and environmental processes that shape the natural world and tends to draw on the natural and physical sciences for its scientific underpinnings and methods of investigation, human geography concentrates on the spatial organization and processes shaping the lives and activities of people, and their interactions with places and nature. Human geography is more allied with the social sciences and humanities, sharing their philosophical approaches and methods ( see physical geography for a discussion on the relationship between human and physical geography; environmental geography ).

Human geography consists of a number of sub-disciplinary fields that focus on different elements of human activity and organization, for example, cultural geography , economic geography , health geography , historical geography , political geography , population geography , rural geography , social geography , transport geography , and urban geography . What distinguishes human geography from other related disciplines, such as development, economics, politics, and sociology, are the application of a set of core geographical concepts to the phenomena under investigation, including space , place , scale , landscape , mobility , and nature . These concepts foreground the notion that the world operates spatially and temporally, and that social relations do not operate independently of place and environment, but are thoroughly grounded in and through them. With respect to methods, human geography uses the full sweep of quantitative and qualitative methods from across the social sciences and humanities, mindful of using them to provide a thorough geographic analysis. It also places emphasis on fieldwork and mapping ( see cartography ), and has made a number of contributions to developing new methods and techniques, notably in the areas of spatial analysis , spatial statistics , and GIScience . The long-term development of human geography has progressed in tandem with that of the discipline more generally ( see geography ). Since the Quantitative Revolution in the 1950s and 1960s, the philosophy underpinning human geography research has diversified enormously. The 1970s saw the introduction of behavioural geography , radical geography , and humanistic geography . These were followed in the 1980s by a turn to political economy , the development of feminist geography , and the introduction of critical social theory underpinning the cultural turn . Together these approaches formed the basis for the growth of critical geography , and the introduction of postmodern and post-structural thinking into the discipline in the 1990s. These various developments did not fully replace the theoretical approaches developed in earlier periods, but rather led to further diversification of geographic thought. For example, quantitative geography continues to be a vibrant area of geographical scholarship, especially through the growth of GIScience. The result is that geographical thinking is presently highly pluralist in nature, with no one approach dominating.

Castree, N., Kitchin, R., & Rogers, A. (2013). " Human geography ." In A Dictionary of Human Geography . Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 Jan. 2022  

Pages under the Human Geography guide include: Cultural geography ; Economic geography ; Feminist geography ; Geopolitics ; Migration studies ; Political geography ; Population studies ; Travel & Tourism ; and Urban geography .

In the Library's collection

Although Human Geography is scattered throughout the collections, there is a main section or call number range for the subject. That is GF . You can browse in that section of the stacks, Berry Level 4 , to see what's there.

Below is the subject search in the online catalog.

• human geography This is the main subject heading for searching the catalog.

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Journal titles & articles

Articles and other writings about Human Geography can be found in many publications. Our collection includes several journals which look at Human Geography. A short list follows. You can also use the search box at the top of the page to find relevant articles.

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• Last Updated: Apr 12, 2024 10:28 AM
• URL: https://researchguides.dartmouth.edu/human_geography

Human Geography: Urbanization Essay

Urbanization refers to the development of urban areas. It involves population growth as well as physical development in such areas. Many global south countries like India, Brazil and Nigeria have high rates of urbanization than northern countries like England, Canada and Japan.

This can be attributed to the natural increase in population of these areas through birth or migration of people from rural areas to urban areas. Most of these countries are developing countries. They have potential for industrialization and people migrate from rural areas to urban areas to offer labor to the growing industries.

There is also rapid development of rural areas in these areas that transforms them into urban centers. On the other hand, in developed countries, there is little migration to urban areas due to decentralization of the countries’ economies. This gives the rural people favorable conditions to stay there. There is also reduced natural population increase through birth than in most of the southern countries.

People move to cities for various reasons. Cities provide employment opportunities to people because of the growth of industries that takes place in them. Most cities also offer people better social facilities and services like entertainment and health care. There are also better economic and market opportunities in cities than can be found in most rural areas of most countries.

People therefore migrate to cities so as to come closer to these opportunities and exploit them for improving their economic status and living standards (Knox, Marston & Nash, 2007). Most rural family farms also produce hardly enough to support their family members with the required food and other basic needs. As a result, some members of such families move to cities and work hard to earn extra income which they send back home to support the needs of their family members.

Most of the rural population in most countries depends on agricultural production in order to survive. Therefore, the importation of similar low priced food materials as those produced in these countries lead to general reduction in the crops’ prices. This leads to low benefit for the farmers. Such farmers in most cases abandon their farms and move to urban areas where they look for jobs mostly in the industrial areas. Population increase in rural areas is another factor that leads to rural- urban migrations.

Increasing population in most cities of the world comes with many problems associated with settlement, infrastructure, environmental issues and service delivery. The urban poor stay in slums where there are poor infrastructure especially housing and other associated services like electricity, running water, sewage system, and roads. To make these cities livable, some of these situations and services have to be improved. The cities of the world should address issues of urban planning, urban development and urban governance.

If these three aspects are well addressed in the cities, then they will be comfortable places to stay in. Urban planning should involve proper laying out of water distribution patterns and networks in the cities, planning sanitation systems and methods of waste management, transport network as well as health systems. Each city should also develop urban development strategies that adequately address the circumstances surrounding its regions.

Urban governance is also important as it directs the way the city is administered and directs the service delivery within the city. The city governance is responsible for urban development and planning and ensures that the residents live in a sound environment by providing them with essential services like rubbish collection and disposal. The city governance should be able to transform the city slums into legitimate residential areas and improve the living standards of its urban poor.

There is lack of food security in most countries of the world. Despite enough production of foodstuffs in many parts of the world, still there are high levels of food insecurity even in countries that produce more than they need. According to UN’s FAO and USDA, a country is food secure when all its citizens have physical and economic access to enough, safe and nutritious food at all times to meet their needs and provide them with a healthy life.

Through this, we understand that in order for a country or a region to be food secure, there must be enough quantity of food, high quality of food, food access for all people and food use by the people. Over 920 million in the world are starving while a good percentage of people in some countries like the United States, United Kingdom and Australia are facing obesity epidemics.

Various stakeholders in food issues react differently and contribute to this problem either positively or negatively. These stakeholders include food producers, markets and trade unions and blocks, governments, non-governmental organizations, various policy makers and food users.

Food producers ensure that there is enough production of food to feed the population of a country and there is surplus for export. Agricultural mechanization in many countries has made it possible to produce large volumes of food substances with little labor requirements. However, cheap foreign imports of food lead to low prices of food products in the local markets making farmers in some countries to put their land to other uses like cash crop production.

This leads to reduction in local production, which can lead to high levels of starvation in these countries. The low farm produce prices discourage some people; consequently, they abandon their farms and move to urban areas to look for other jobs. Even though this is the case, there is generally high food production in the world enough to feed its population.

Individual consumers also play an important role in this scenario. The economic status of individuals determines whether they access food when it is available. Those individuals with enough money are able to buy food in the quantity and quality they desire while those who are limited financially are unable to buy what they need and end up depending on relief food. The high prices of food in some regions of the world make most of the people to starve.

Most of the people in developed countries like in US, UK, Canada and Australia are well endowed financially and get access to food in high quantities. Their high consumption rate leads to many cases of obesity. High rates of food wastage by individuals also contribute to food scarcity, which in the end lead to starvation of some people.

Individual countries’ governments also play an important role in distributing food to their citizens. They also set important policies that govern imports and exports of food. Importation of low price food commodities may lead to reduction of local food production. The governments are also responsible for food distribution to its citizens. If there is poor food distribution, then there is a likelihood of increased starvation in the country.

The governments also offer services of educating its people on the appropriate use of food so as to avoid wastage and disorders associated with food misuse. Various Non-governmental organizations and international organizations such as the UN, FAO, World Bank, and WHO also help in educating people on appropriate food use as well as aiding in their distribution to the needy. In addition, they give financial assistance to other organizations to distribute food to people.

In conclusion, people generally move to urban centers where they seek for better living conditions and increased economic and social gain. This migration may constrain the infrastructure and facilities available in the towns. The migration also deprives the rural areas of farm labor, which is important for food production. Low food productivity and distribution to all parts of the world lead to starvation of a number of people. Food wastage and misuse also aggravates this problem and creates other problems such as the rising cases of obesity in the world.

Reference List

Knox, P. L., Marston, S. A. & Nash, A. E. (2007). Human Geography: places and regions in global context . Toronto: Pearson Prentice Hall.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2019, August 12). Human Geography: Urbanization . https://ivypanda.com/essays/human-geography/

"Human Geography: Urbanization ." IvyPanda , 12 Aug. 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/human-geography/.

IvyPanda . (2019) 'Human Geography: Urbanization '. 12 August.

IvyPanda . 2019. "Human Geography: Urbanization ." August 12, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/human-geography/.

1. IvyPanda . "Human Geography: Urbanization ." August 12, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/human-geography/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Human Geography: Urbanization ." August 12, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/human-geography/.

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Introduction to Human Geography - 2nd Edition

(5 reviews)

David Dorrell, Georgia Gwinnett College

Joseph P. Henderson, Georgia Gwinnett College

Copyright Year: 2018

Last Update: 2019

Publisher: University of North Georgia Press

Language: English

Formats Available

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Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Patrick Kennelly, GIS Program Director, Central Oregon Community College on 9/8/22

This is a comprehensive textbook that covers the topics typical to a course in Human Geography at the college level. It is organized into the following chapters: 1. Population and Health 2. Migration 3. Folk Culture and Popular... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This is a comprehensive textbook that covers the topics typical to a course in Human Geography at the college level. It is organized into the following chapters: 1. Population and Health 2. Migration 3. Folk Culture and Popular Culture 4. Geography of Language 5. Religion 6. Ethnicity and Race 7. Political Geography 8. Development and Wealth 9. Industry 10. Human Settlements 11. Environment and Resources These also follow the typical topics covered in Advanced Placement Human Geography and college courses in Cultural Geography. Comparing it to non-OER resources, this book groups Agriculture and Rural Landscapes and Urban Geography into the Human Settlements chapter, and touches on Globalization in the Industry and Development and Wealth chapters. Each chapter is further subdivided into sections for more detailed organization, and these sections appear in a clickable Table of Content at the beginning of the book for quick reference.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

I found the content accurate and free of errors, but I have not yet used this textbook for teaching a course.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

It seems like the text is written in such a way as to make updates relatively easy and straightforward. The big topics here seem to be consistent in most human geography textbooks over the years, and they serve as the foundation for this book. Supporting materials including text examples, maps, diagrams, etc. should be relatively straightforward to revise with future revisions.

Clarity rating: 5

I found the materials to be clearly written. I like that the authors bold new terminology on first use and associate these bolded terms with a clear explanation or definition. They also have a section called “Key Terms Defined” at the end of chapters to further reinforce the terminology that students studying human geography will need to use.

Consistency rating: 4

I found the materials to be consistent and useful. Chapters begin with a list of student learning outcomes followed by a chapter outline that is presented as a numbered list with the chapter number before the decimal, and the section after the decimal. For example: CHAPTER 2 OUTLINE 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Thinking About Population 2.3 Population and Development 2.4 Population is Dynamic 2.5 The Demographic Transition 2.6 Measuring the Impact of Population 2.7 Future Population 2.8 Geography of Health 2.9 Summary 2.10 Key Terms Defined 2.11 Works Consulted and Further Reading 2.12 Endnotes These are good for quick reference, and to assess the relative weight the authors assign various topics, such as population versus health in this case. As indicated in the outline, chapters end with a summary, glossary of terms defined in the chapter, works consulted/further readings and endnotes. The only of these that was a bit inconsistent was the summary section, which in some chapters goes by “conclusions” but in other chapters is not included at all.

Modularity rating: 5

With well-organized chapters and sections within chapters, I think this book allows instructors to easily divide out portions based on their needs. Each chapter also seems to stand up pretty easily on its own for instructors wishing to present the material in a different order when compared to the chapter sequence in this book.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

I thought that topics were presented in a logical and clear fashion. For example, the chapter on Political Geography begins by explaining how politics is organized spatially, discusses how states cooperate, stresses the importance of boundaries and the types of disputes that arise, and talks about the election process as a geographic phenomenon. This seems like a logical flow of discussion that touches on the most important points of political geography.

Interface rating: 5

The textbook can be downloaded from this URL https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/geo-textbooks/2/ (also given above). It can be saved as a 57 Mb PDF file and used as a traditional textbook. Additionally, the authors have provided a MS Word file, sample questions, exercises, Powerpoint slide decks for each chapter, and the 1st edition of the book for download.

Inside the book the authors provide internal links from the Table of Contents into each chapter and section. Additionally, hyperlinks are included in the PDF to external websites, and most but not all of the links I checked worked. There are some especially good links in the endnotes for students or instructors especially interested in a topic.

The authors also include a nicely formatted and consistent “Author | Source | License” citation for their graphs, images, maps etc. It’s nice to see that many of these are licensed with the Creative Commons or in the public domain. I would have liked the “Source” to also be a clickable link so that readers can further explore such images, graphs or maps as they work through the book.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

I didn’t notice any grammatical errors for the portions of this book that I read in detail.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

I didn’t find anything culturally insensitive or offensive in this book, and thought that the authors made good efforts to include examples from underrepresented cultures.

Reviewed by Serena St. Clair, Adjunct Faculty (formerly full time faculty-retired), Rogue Community College on 1/2/22

Human Geography is a dynamic subject because of the changes the world experiences in culture, climate, communication, and politics. As someone who has been teaching this course for several decades and used at least six different texts (including... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Human Geography is a dynamic subject because of the changes the world experiences in culture, climate, communication, and politics. As someone who has been teaching this course for several decades and used at least six different texts (including subsequent editions), the topics in this course continue to evolve. Intro to Human Geography provides all the traditional topics typically covered in textbooks for this subject/course. It is a challenge to keep all the material relevant and current.

There is an omission of "Gender" in Chapter Seven that has become a standard in most texts when discussing Identity: Ethnicity and Race. Chapter 12: Human Settlements addresses Urban topics but does not address Urban Planning with a more comprehensive foundation for students who may choose land use or urban planning for further study or careers. Chapter Ten: Agriculture discusses many aspects of food access to communities but did not mention in the chapter or under "Key Terms Defined" the idea of a "food desert" which is an important concept to understand as a Geographer.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

Dorrell et. al, text was accurate in that it leads the reader through all the important topics that make up the basics in the study of Human Geography. They cover the basic concepts consistent with the subject. The chapters are all relatively short (20-25 pages of content) therefore the depth of ideas is not present in the text. The information provided was accurate and learning outcomes are consistent with other HG textbooks.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

I think the challenge for writing a textbook in this subject is the ever changing nature of the human-environment experience. The world, from a geographical standpoint, is a dynamic system. This textbook covers the basic framework for HG which hasn't changed for several decades, however, the living examples of geographical concepts will need to be illustrated by accompanying lessons, assignments, instructor lectures, and current event/media.

The last chapter on the environment was the only chapter that was sorely inadequate in what it introduced. It was half the length of every other chapter in the book. While not a physical geography course, all human-environment interaction (one of the five themes of Human Geography) has an impact and relationship with the planet. This was a missed opportunity to put into context the physical implications from the twelve chapters prior.

This textbook is written with a combined matter-of-fact and conversational style. I found the book to be very accessible and think for an introductory class it has a good tone to engage students with this subject.

Each textbook chapter follows the same format listing: Student Learning Outcomes, Chapter Outline, and then numbered subtopics under the main focus of the chapter. At the conclusion of each chapter, they provide a Summary, Key Terms Defined, Works Consulted and Further Reading and Endnotes. The chapters are all about the same length with the exception of the final chapter (13) titled "Environment and Resources". This chapter was eleven pages of content for a topic that is critical to this academic study.

Each chapter ends with a section "Key Terms Defined". There was inconsistency on the length and scope of these key terms. Some chapters had as few as a half page, while others had 2-3 pages of terms. It appeared as if the author was indicating that key terms were left out of the text but still relevant to the chapter topic.

The book was well organized. The chapters are relatively short and cover key concepts to this subject. The consistency of "Key Terms" and "Works Consulted and Further Reading" could be a launch point for students to do research and go deeper in their learning process.

This textbook is very consistent in its sequence of topics with other Human Geography textbooks I've used over the past two decades. There were maps presented in each chapter to illustrate the topic. However, there were not many images/pictures which help engage students in the seeing the topic of the chapter in real life. I understand copyright access can limit these options when developing an OER, therefore it offers the instructors of this course the job of finding other ways to create these connections

None noted.

Grammatical Errors rating: 3

I found a handful of grammatical, format, and spelling errors in the book which could easily be corrected.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

There are several ways to assess this book's cultural competence. All the chapter topics were approached in a relatively unbiased presentation. There were occasional informal comments from the author but not as commentary on cultural bias. The chapters that directly addressed culture (Chapters 3,4,6,7,12) provided basic structures of how these topics are viewed through the perspective of geographers. There were a few places in these book chapters where there could have been more forthright discussion about the cultural conflicts and shifts that have been happening in different places in the world and our country, e.g Chapter 3: Migration: More discussion needed on influence of migration on local/regional cultures; Chapter 7: Civil Rights/Black Lives Matter, Indigenous -Reservation Issues, could have been used as examples of the role of place, resource access, political boundaries; Ch. 6, section 6.4 "Religious Conflict" could emphasize the role of "Place and Location" in the situations they only briefly mention.

As a Human Geography professor who is using this book for an online class, I think this book offers me and the students an excellent opportunity to learn together and apply the concepts presented in real time context. The book covers the basics of this subject, and it challenges me to build learning activities that bring them to life in the current world. I believe that the primary learning outcome for Human Geography is to support the development of "systems thinkers". To me, that means that for every chapter/topic we read about, I want students to "SEE" how this looks right now on the planet. I use current events, videos such as: YouTube, Ted Talks, documentaries, News Publications, and other Library resources to have students interpret world events through the newly acquired lens of a geographer. I often use the following quote to frame our learning in this class. "Everything is related to everything else. But near things are more related than distant things." This is considered "the first law of Geography" and was introduced by Waldo R. Tobler in 1969. I believe you can apply this idea to almost anything we study in this course knowing that the meaning of this statement will change over time.

Reviewed by Margaret Stephens, Associate Professor, Community College of Philadelphia on 6/24/21

The book provides comprehensive coverage suitable for an introductory human/cultural geography course. The Student Learning Outcomes, Chapter Outlines, maps, tables and graphs are useful guides for reading online or in print. The supplemental... read more

The book provides comprehensive coverage suitable for an introductory human/cultural geography course. The Student Learning Outcomes, Chapter Outlines, maps, tables and graphs are useful guides for reading online or in print. The supplemental resources/further reading sections (Works Consulted and Further Reading) are helpful for students or instructors who want to delve more deeply. At the end of each chapter, Key Terms Defined offers easy reference and a good way for students to build vocabulary and facility with terminology. It would be helpful to include a comprehensive glossary at the end of the book, along with a full index. Sample Questions, exercises and slides accompany each chapter. Instructors can use them as they are or revise as they see fit.

The content is accurate and avoids value judgments and bias.

The content is relevant and up to date. It includes a sufficient amount of comparative information from a broad spectrum of regions and cultures, something that many texts do not provide. The organizational structure facilitates incorporating new and timely information without requiring major revision to the text. Research, data and examples from current events can be added as appropriate.

The text is clear, concise, free of unnecessary jargon and suitable for an introductory course. Terminology from the discipline is defined and introduced in context, often using illustrative examples. The language is not complicated, overly academic or excessively wordy. For courses that are more rigorous are for majors, instructors may wish to provide additional readings from research or professional publications.

Consistency rating: 5

The chapters are consistent in language, structure, organization and flow. It appears to be edited well for internal consistency.

The sequence of topics and chapter structure readily allow for course material to be presented in different order or modular units. The text avoids excessive self-references. While the text illuminates connections among fundamental geographic concepts, the information in each chapter is presented so that it does not require reading in sequence.

The topic sequence is logical. Further, it can be adapted easily for courses that present information in a different order or thematic arrangement.

I did not encounter any interface or navigation issues of concern. As one would expect, there may be slight differences in page numbers and display of graphics depending on the format selected (e.g. PDF vs Word, online or print).

No obvious grammatical errors were detected.

The text presents information in a culturally sensitive way. It does not convey value judgment or questionable cultural comparisons. It offers a variety of examples featuring different races, ethnicities and backgrounds. The text could include links to supplementary resources to expand these further.

Overall, this is a sound, suitable choice for introductory human geography courses. It presents the basic information that instructors can supplement easily if they choose to cover specific topics in more depth. A few areas that might be included or expanded as the materials are revised: gender and identity; examples or features about research methods, current research and careers related to geography; references to multimedia on geographic topics.

Reviewed by Dimitar Dimitrov, Geography Instructor, Portland Community College on 6/16/21

The text provides a comprehensive introduction to the traditional topics in human geography and covers all areas and concepts appropriately. Each chapter starts with Student Learning Outcomes and Chapter Outline sections, and ends up with two very... read more

The text provides a comprehensive introduction to the traditional topics in human geography and covers all areas and concepts appropriately. Each chapter starts with Student Learning Outcomes and Chapter Outline sections, and ends up with two very helpful to the students sections – Key Terms Defined and Works Consulted and Further Reading. Most of the chapters have also Summary sections. The text is illustrated with maps, tables and figures, but the use of these illustrative materials should be more balanced between the chapters. Chapter 5 The Geography of Language for example, contains only one map, whereas in the following chapter (about religions) the reading material is supported with 13 maps. Some of the maps are from 2015 and need updating.

I didn’t find any inaccurate information. The text is unbiased.

The textbook is up to date. Due to the constantly changing subject matter of human geography the examples, the maps, and the figures in all of the chapters should be updated every three or four years.

The textbook is clearly written and easily understandable even for students who are encountering the basics of human geography for the first time.

The textbook is consistent in terms of structure, terminology and framework.

The chapters are arranged by topics, and each chapter is organized into smaller reading sections that can be easily assigned for individual or group work. Most of the chapters include short introductions.

The textbook is organized in 13 chapters, each one covering a specific topic. The flow is traditional for human geography texts.

I didn’t find any interface issues. Also, the textbook is easy to navigate.

I found no grammatical errors when reviewing the book.

I didn’t find any offensive language or culturally insensitive issues. All of the races, ethnicities, and cultural backgrounds are addressed with respect.

This textbook entirely meets my expectations for an OER in the field of human geography.

Reviewed by TUBA KAYAARASI, INSTRUCTOR, Portland Community College on 6/13/21

There are thirteen chapters. Each chapter focuses on a subdiscipline of human geography. However the chapters are not as comprehensive as a regular human geography textbook. Most of the relevant theory for each subdiscipline of human geography is... read more

There are thirteen chapters. Each chapter focuses on a subdiscipline of human geography. However the chapters are not as comprehensive as a regular human geography textbook. Most of the relevant theory for each subdiscipline of human geography is covered, but postmodern geographic theory is missing.

There are no major errors that I noticed. It looks unbias. It presents multiple perspectives. However it does not use enough information from different sources.

Most data that is used for each chapter is up-to-date. The text can be easily updated as the editions change. However it might be difficult to update maps and images.

The text is written with a clear language. It is easy to follow the content. Even if English is not the first language of a student, the theory and concepts can be understood easily.

Each chapter is arranged in a way that is consistent. Chapters are introduced with chapter outlines and student learning outcomes.

The book is divided into various chapters. Each chapter has subtitles with small reading sections.

The structure of the book is very well organized. The order of the chapters are logical, follows one another. It helps connect one topic to another.

There is good amount of images inserted in to the text. Images are small but easy to read. Images make content easy to understand.

English is my second language. It is hard for me to evaluate the grammatical mistakes. I have noticed no grammatical errors.

Most chapters are written with great cultural sensitivity. Examples that are provided are inclusive of a variety of backgrounds. However the book could include a chapter on cultural geography that focuses on issues of identity, such as gender and sexuality. Also there could be more cultural examples from various parts of the world. Most of the examples that are provided are from North America.

It is an average quality textbook for an open resource. The book is formatted in a way that it is easy to read for first year college course. The content is easy to follow for students who do not have prior knowledge on the topic.

Table of Contents

• Chapter 1: Introduction to Geography
• Chapter 2: Population and Health
• Chapter 3: Migration
• Chapter 4: Folk Culture and Popular Culture
• Chapter 5: The Geography of Language
• Chapter 6: Religion
• Chapter 7: Ethnicity and Race
• Chapter 8: Political Geography
• Chapter 9: Development and Wealth
• Chapter 10: Agriculture and Food
• Chapter 11: Industry
• Chapter 12: Human Settlements
• Chapter 13: Environment and Resources

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Geography is a diverse discipline that has some sort of connection to most every other academic discipline. This connection is the spatial perspective, which essentially means if a phenomenon can be mapped, it has some kind of relationship to geography. Studying the entire world is a fascinating subject, and geographical knowledge is fundamental to a competent understanding of our world. In this chapter, you will learn what geography is as well as some of the fundamental concepts that underpin the discipline. These fundamental terms and concepts will be interwoven throughout the text, so a sound understanding of these topics is critical as you delve deeper into the chapters that follow. 

About the Contributors

David Dorrell

Joseph P. Henderson

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58 Human Geography Examples (Terms & Concepts)

Human geography studies the relationship between human societies and spaces and places.

It is a branch of the social sciences that concerns itself with our relationships with place, how we move through spaces, and the politics of space, place, and nationhood.

Students who study human geography will examine patterns of migration, how humans are nourished by the earth, how we use (and abuse) the earth, and how we can live more sustainably on our planet.

According to the Advanced Placement Human Geography course, there are five themes of human geography :

1. Location Location holds fundamental importance in human geography as it pertains to the ways in which we shape and are shaped by the spaces in which we inhabit. So, human geography might explore how our location affects our lives (e.g. if we live in a food desert), or how our proximity to the city affects our job prospects. 

2. Place The theme of Place encompasses physical characteristics (natural environment or landscape) and human aspects (structures and cultural influence ) that make one place different from another (Marston, 2013). It also pertains to the concept of ‘sense of place’, explaining how place becomes a part of our cultures and identities.

3. Human-Environmental Interactions Human-Environmental Interactions involve how humans adapt to, modify, and affect nature, for example, building a dam to control a river’s flow (Peet, Robbins, & Watts, 2011). In the era of the Anthropocene, it’s believed human actions are able to impact the entire global ecosystem, such as through human-induced climate change.

4. Movement The theme of Movement concerns the continuous interaction among people, places, and environments that facilitates exchange, along the pathways of transportation routes, communication networks, or economic associations (Knox, Marston & Imort, 2015). It also examines how and why people migrate, and the impacts that has on both migratory and host populations.

5. Region Region refers to an area distinguished by particular physical and human characteristics, that includes formal regions (countries or climate zones), functional regions (based on interaction), and perceptual regions (associated with cultural identity or mindset) (Cresswell, 2010). People living within regions tend to have a strong impact on one another due to their interdependence for food and resources, and the fact they tend to share resources.

While above I’ve presented five broad themes, below are summaries of some of the most important terms and concepts in human geography. You would need to familiarize yourself with these as a human geography student.

Human Geography Examples

Absolute Location This term refers to a point on the Earth’s surface defined with precision using geographic coordinates such as latitude and longitude; it provides a unique numerical identity for each location.

Anthropocene This term proposes a new geological epoch characterized by the significant global impact of human activities on the Earth’s ecosystems, including biodiversity loss, climate change, pollution, and land use changes; its usage reflects the recognition of human influence on the planet’s health. 

Balkanization This is a geopolitical process where a region or state fractures into smaller autonomous entities due to ethnic, social, political, or economic divisions; it represents the conflict and disintegration often driven by ethnic enmity.

Carrying Capacity This concept signifies the maximum population of a species that an environment can sustain indefinitely given available resources like food, water and habitat; it showcases the balance between resource availability and consumption.

Contagious Diffusion This notion relates to the rapid, widespread dispersion of a characteristic, idea, innovation, or disease throughout a population by contact from person to person; it demonstrates how phenomena can spread organically across regions.

Cultural Appropriation This term delineates the adoption or borrowing of elements from a culture by individuals from a different culture, usually dominant ones, without understanding, respect, or proper acknowledgment; it often unveils sensitive issues related to power dynamics and fairness.

Cultural Assimilation This term signifies the process in which members of a minority group adapt or adopt dominant social norms, traditions, and behaviors, merging into the prevalent culture; it highlights important aspects of cultural integration and homogeneity.

Cultural Diffusion This is a sociocultural process where a new cultural idea, material, or practice spreads from its place of origin to other locales, fostering cultural interconnectedness; it forms an integral part of cultural evolution, often leading to cultural diversity.

Cultural Globalization This concept relates to the transmission of ideas, meanings, and values around the world in such a way as to extend and intensify social relations, often leading to the mingling or confluence of cultures; it shows the dynamic interplay between global and local cultures.

Cultural Heterogeneity This indicates the diversity of human societies or cultures in a specific region, or in the world as a whole; it underscores the dynamic interplay of cultural variations and similarities.

Cultural Homogenization This refers to the reduction in cultural diversity through the popular spread of certain languages, practices, or values across regions, often due to globalization; it signals the growing similarity among cultures.

Cultural Landscapes These are natural landscapes that have been altered by human societies, reflecting the cultural imprint on the environment through buildings, agriculture, or other modifications; they embody the intertwined relationship between people and their environments.

Cultural Syncretism This denotes the fusion of different cultural beliefs, practices, or expressions to create new combined forms; it illustrates the dynamism and pluralism within cultures.

Demographic Transition This term outlines the shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates that typically occurs as a country develops economically; it offers a macro view of population change over time.

Demography This is the statistical and scientific study of population dynamics, including size, structure, movement, birth, death, and migratory trends; it provides vital insights into societal characteristics and trends.

Diaspora This represents a scattered population outside their original geographic homeland, maintaining cultural connections to it; it unveils the complexities of migration and cultural identity.

Economic Globalization This term designates an interconnected world economy where countries are economically dependent on each other through trade, investment, and capital flows; it underscores the integrated nature of the modern global economy.

Environmental Justice This term emphasizes fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people in environmental policymaking, implementation, and enforcement, regardless of race, color, national origin, or income; it draws attention to social justice aspects of environmental issues.

Ethnocentrism This is the belief in the superiority of one’s own ethnic group or culture and viewing other cultures from that perspective; it underscores bias and prejudice in understanding and valuing other cultures.

Expansion Diffusion This denotes a type of cultural diffusion where an idea or innovation spreads outward from its hearth, maintaining its influence there while being adopted elsewhere; it indicates the spread and uptake of cultural trends.

Food Deserts These are urban or rural areas with limited access to affordable and nutritious food, often due to systemic socioeconomic barriers; they depict disparities in food access tied to social and economic inequities.

Formal Region A formal region is an area characterized by a certain degree of homogeneity in one or more phenomena; such as climate, soil, vegetation or human activity such as religion or language.

Functional Region This term pertains to a region defined by the particular set of activities or interactions that occur within it; it usually consists of a central place or hub and the surrounding places affected by it.

Gentrification This is an urban development trend characterized by the influx of wealthier individuals into deteriorating urban neighborhoods leading to increased property values and the displacement of lower-income residents; it raises concerns about social inequality and housing justice.

Globalization This term signifies an ongoing process that involves increasing interaction and integration among people, governments, and companies worldwide; it’s often driven by international trade, investment, and aided by information technology.

Heartland Theory This geopolitical theory postulates that the landlocked Eurasian “heartland,” due to its huge resource base and inaccessibility, is the key to global domination; it sought to explain political power dynamics in the first half of the 20th century.

Hierarchical Diffusion In this form of diffusion, an idea or innovation spreads by trickling down from larger to smaller adoption units, often with the help of opinion leaders; it explains the different stages of adoption in a social system.

Human Impacts on Climate Change This refers to the significant anthropogenic contributions to global climate change, primarily through greenhouse gas emissions from burning fossil fuels; it illustrates the critical influence of human activity on the planet’s climate.

Human-Wildlife Conflict This involves any intersection of human and wildlife where interactions result in negative effects on human social, economic or cultural life, or on the conservation of wildlife populations; it spotlights the challenges of coexistence in shared habitats.

Intensive Agriculture This system of agriculture involves greater inputs of labor and capital relative to land area for increased agricultural output; it involves practices like terracing, agroforestry, and multi-cropping.

Megalopolis This term is employed for cities with a total population in excess of 10 million inhabitants; these urban agglomerations, often setting trends in culture, politics, and economics, grapple with challenges of congestion, pollution, and social disparity.

Migration This denotes the act of moving from one geographical area to another, often for reasons such as employment, education, or escape from adverse conditions; it impacts the social, economic, and political strategies of the departed and destination places.

Multiculturalism This signifies the coexistence of diverse cultures where each maintains their identities within a larger society; it signifies a societal approach advocating for diversity, pluralism, mutual respect, and integration (see also: pluralism in sociology ).

Nation-State This term refers to a form of political entity in which a nation (a group of people sharing common elements of culture, such as language or history) coincides with a political state; it represents an ideal wherein cultural boundaries match up with political ones.

Political Geography This is a subfield of geography that studies the spatial distribution of political phenomena and processes, inclusive of boundaries, divisions, and resources; it underscores how political structures and actions influence and are influenced by the spatial layout.

Political Globalization This refers to the intensification and expansion of political interrelations across the globe, marked by international treaties, global regulations, and the emergence of international organizations; this phenomenon highlights how nation-states navigate within an increasingly interconnected global political landscape.

Postindustrial Society This term denotes a stage of society’s development when the service sector generates more income than the manufacturing sector; it showcases a societal transition towards information- and service-based economies.

Primary Sector of the Economy This component of the economy involves industries involved in the extraction and collection of natural resources, such as mining, agriculture, or forestry; it represents the foundation of all economic activity.

Pull Factors These are conditions that attract people to a new area, including job opportunities, political stability, or better services; they play a significant role in patterns of human migration.

Push Factors This term refers to the reasons that compel people to leave their areas of residence, including war, economic hardship, or natural disasters; understanding push factors helps explain migratory trends.

Quaternary Sector of the Economy This economic sector encompasses knowledge-based services like information technology, consultation, education, research and development, and financial planning; it underlines the increasing importance of intellectual capabilities in contemporary economies.

Quinary Sector of the Economy This segment of economy includes the highest levels of decision-making in a society or economy, including top executives or officials in government, science, universities, nonprofits, healthcare, culture, and the media; it reflects the highest levels of societal influence and decision-making power.

Relative Location This term refers to the location of a place in relation to other places, such as “west of the park” or “south of the city”; it provides a frame of reference that helps depict spatial relationships.

Relocation Diffusion This type of diffusion happens when individuals migrate from one place to another, taking their cultural ideas, practices, or innovations with them; it demonstrates the transmission of cultural traits through human motion.

Rimland Theory This geopolitical hypothesis proposes control of the maritime fringes of a landmass (rimland), and not the landlocked center (heartland), as the key to global power; it provided a counterpoint to the Heartland theory in the mid-20th century.

Rural Depopulation This phenomenon involves a reduction in rural population, usually because of migration to urban areas for better economic opportunities or living conditions; it displays the urban-rural dynamic in population distribution.

Secondary Sector of the Economy This term pertains to industries that produce goods using the raw materials provided by the primary sector, encompassing activities like manufacturing, processing, and construction; it highlights the value-added aspect of the economy.

Social Geography This is a branch of human geography focusing on social patterns as expressed in space, exploring dimensions like distribution, identity, behavior, and interaction of diverse social groups; it illuminates the spatial manifestations of social phenomena.

Stimulus Diffusion In this form of diffusion, a concept, idea or innovation spreads to new places, but is then changed by those who adopt it to better suit their culture or environment; it highlights the adaptive nature of cultural exchange.

Subsistence Agriculture This form of agriculture is characterized by self-sufficiency where the farmers focus on growing enough food to feed themselves and their families; it displays a traditional approach to farming, centered on basic survival.

Supranationalism This signifies a type of alliance where nations surrender some degree of sovereignty to a higher entity for mutual benefits or for pursuing common objectives, like in case of the European Union; it underscores trends towards greater global governance.

Sustainable Development This development strategy integrates economic progress, social development, and environmental protection to meet the needs of the present without compromising the future generations’ ability to meet theirs; it embodies a holistic, long-term perspective on global development.

Technological Globalization This concept refers to the proliferation and integration of technology across national and cultural borders, facilitating increased connectivity, interaction, and exchange; it underscores the role of technology in creating a globally connected ecosystem.

Tertiary Sector of the Economy This sector, also known as the service sector, covers all jobs that involve providing a service to individuals and other businesses, including healthcare, education, retail, and entertainment; it signifies a dominant part of most developed economies.

Transnational Corporation This refers to a corporation that operates in more than one country, driving its efficiencies or gains from utilizing resources or markets across nations; it typifies large-scale business operations in a globally interconnected economy.

Urban Sprawl This term refers to the uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into the adjacent rural lands often resulting in increased dependence on cars and reduced walkability; it underscores a significant planning challenge associated with rapid urban growth.

Urbanization This describes the growth and expansion of urban areas, typically involving the migration from rural to urban regions, and corresponding increase in their population and economic activities; it represents a dominant demographic trend in the contemporary world.

Vernacular Region This term pertains to areas that people define by their collective mental map of the world’s regions based on perceptions or an accumulation of descriptive facts; it demonstrates how place identities can vary based on personal or collective interpretations.

Human geography helps us to explore the complexity and interconnectedness of the world. The discipline explores spatial relationships, environments, cultural relations to place, and socio-economic systems, providing us with the tools to decipher our shared and unique experiences on this planet. The study of human geography reminds us how interconnected we are, as well as the scope and impact of our actions in shaping the cultural, socio-political, and economic landscapes.

Cresswell, T. (2010). Towards a politics of mobility . Environment and Planning D: Society and Space.

Knox, P. L., Marston, S. A., & Imort, M. (2015). Human geography: places and regions in a global context . Los Angeles: Pearson.

Marston, A. (2013). Geography. New York: Reference Reviews.

Peet, R., Robbins, P., & Watts, M. (2011). Global political ecology . London: Routledge.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, the complete guide to ap human geography frqs.

Advanced Placement (AP)

The free-response section is the hardest part of any AP test. Although AP Human Geography is much more straightforward than some other humanities AP exams, if you don't have your stuff down, the free-response section can still hit you where it hurts.

In this article, we'll go through the structure of the free-response section, some helpful tips for answering AP Human Geography FRQs , examples of what these free-response questions look like, and a few places where you can find the best practice materials.

AP Human Geography Free Response Section Format

There are three questions on the free-response section, each worth 7 raw points. You'll get one hour and 15 minutes to answer all three questions, or about 25 minutes per question. Your free-response score accounts for half your AP Human Geography test score (the other half comes from your multiple-choice section score).

Here's what you must do for each question, according to the College Board :

• Describe, explain, apply geographic situation or scenario (no stimulus)
• Describe, explain, apply geographic data using data, image, or map (one quantitative or qualitative source)
• Describe, explain, apply geographic data using data, image, and/or map (two sources, qualitative and/or quantitative)

Note that a "stimulus" is a quantitative or qualitative source , such as a chart or table. As you can see above, you'll get no source for question 1, one for question 2, and two for question 3.

How to Answer AP Human Geography FRQs: 4-Step Guide

Before we get into examples with answer explanations, let's go over the essential steps you must take in order to effectively answer these types of questions .

AP Human Geography free-response questions are typically pretty straightforward so you can attack them in a methodical fashion. Here's a sample question from the 2020 Course and Exam Description that I'll use as a reference so you can see how the different steps apply:

Step 1: Read the Introductory Statement

Before you start in on the first part of the question, be sure to read the short introductory blurb. It sets up the topic you'll be analyzing and gives you firmer ground to stand on when addressing the rest of the question.

In the sample question above, the introductory statement makes it clear that the question will deal with states, national governments, and tensions between the two.

Reading all the introductory statements for the three free-response questions in the section before you start answering any of the individual parts can help you decide where to begin. If you see a topic that is especially familiar, you might go for that question first as you'll be able to answer it the fastest.

Step 2: Identify the Task Verb (and Understand What It Means)

In each part of the question (A-G), it's a good idea to underline the specific task verb at play, that is, what it's asking you to do. This should help you keep yourself on track when responding to the question. Identifying these verbs will also get you in the habit of paying closer attention to the differences between each of the tasks.

Here are the most commonly used task verbs on the exam, according to the College Board :

Compare: Provide a description or explanation of similarities and/or differences.

Define: Provide a specific meaning for a word or concept.

Describe: Provide the relevant characteristics of a specified topic.

Explain: Provide information about how or why a relationship, process, pattern, position, or outcome occurs, using evidence and/or reasoning.

Identify: Indicate or provide information about a specified topic, without elaboration or explanation.

For example, a question that asks you to "identify" something will merit a much more succinct answer than one that asks you to "describe" it.

In part A of the sample question, the key command is "define," meaning you could just give a one-sentence answer that clearly outlines what a multinational state is. In part E, the task verb is "describe," which denotes a longer answer that elaborates on an example of a centripetal force that governments use.

Finally, parts B, C, D, F, and G all use the command verb "explain," which means you will really have to go into detail to earn a point for each part of the question.

Ultimately, you'll save time and earn points if you're careful to make these distinctions among task verbs!

Step 3: Reread and Double-Check Your Answer

Once you've finished writing your answer, reread the question and your response to make sure you've done everything it asked you to do . If you're satisfied, move on to the next part of the question, and repeat the process of identifying task verbs and trying to get the full point offered at each part of the question (always labeled A-G).

After you finish the last part of a particular free-response question, check over all your answers for that question one last time to ensure that everything is the way you want it to be. Then you can move on to the next free-response question.

Step 4: Pace Yourself

This is more of a general tip for the AP Human Geography test, but as you work through the three free-response questions, make sure that you're keeping track of time and pacing yourself .

As a reminder, you'll have one hour and 15 minutes to complete three FRQs. This means you'll get about 25 minutes per question; however, it'll be better for you to try to complete each question within 20 minutes . This way you'll have some extra time at the end to go back and look over your answers and tweak them if needed.

Review your answers with a second, more critical eye. I think this picture is photoshopped, but I don't know for sure because I don't feel like Googling, "Can you have two pupil/iris combos within one eyeball?" Just kidding, I did Google it, and it's probably not a thing, but not even the internet knows for sure . OoOoOoOo.

AP Human Geography FRQ Example + Answers

In this section, we'll go through the answer to a sample free-response question from the 2020 AP Human Geography Course and Exam Description .

This question is an example of question 3 on the Human Geography exam. As you can see, there are two stimuli (a table and a photograph) and seven parts (A-G), each worth 1 point .

In order to earn full credit, here is what you'd need to write down as your answer, per the official scoring guidelines . (Note that there are multiple possible answers you could put down for A-G.) As always, pay careful attention to the task verbs being used!

(A) Answer Options

• Delhi is classified as a megacity because it has a total population greater than 10 million.
• From 1991 to 2011, Delhi's total population grew to over 10 million.

(B) Answer Options

Many people move to Delhi from rural areas and smaller cities ...

• in search of employment opportunities.
• in the hopes of improving their income or quality of life.
• to join family members or friends already living in Delhi.
• to have better access to services, health care, or education.

(C) Answer Options

• The city's center increases in the size, height, and/or number of large apartment buildings and condominium that attract a growing population of middle-class workers in the country's capital.
• Infilling occurs where open space presents an economic opportunity for landowners to build small multi-family housing units, placing more people into existing city blocks.
• The government is increasing its provision of public housing in apartment blocks within the city, which provide larger buildings with multi-family housing units.

(D) Answer Options

• A need for additional public transportation lines and/or added capacity on existing transit systems.
• A need for improved sanitation, water supply, waste disposal, or wastewater treatment facilities.
• A need for more housing, especially for lower-income residents.
• A need for improved communication or electric utility infrastructure.
• A need for additional public schools, colleges, universities, and/or libraries.

(E) Answer Options

Increased number of vehicles on the roadways results in visible air pollution, fog, smog, and/or airborne chemicals that lead to ...

• health problems.
• transportation accidents.
• diverting potential economic investment in the city.

(F) Answer Options

• India is a less developed country which has limited government funding to pay for pollution abatement programs (such as alternative fuels) or large investments in public transit.
• India has a growing industrial sector which has limited environmental regulations such as controls on air pollution. Industrial air emissions contribute to the city's air pollution levels.
• India has a large rural population and urban poor population who are dependent on burning wood for home heating and cooking. The smoke increases the city's air pollution levels.
• During the dry season, farmers in northern India will burn the dead vegetation in their fields (following the harvest) to improve soil nutrients. The smoke can increase the city's air pollution levels.
• As India's economy grows, more people can afford to own cars or buy trucks for their businesses. The additional vehicle increases the total amount of air pollution.

(G) Answer Options

• Transportation-oriented development of new housing, industrial and retailing areas. Or, laws requiring new developments be constructed with bus lanes, train lines, and stations.
• Vehicle restrictions, high-occupancy requirements, tolls, or congestion pricing to limit the number of vehicles on the roads.
• Smart-growth policies, slow-growth, or zoning policies that restrict the amount of land that can be developed or create a development boundary or greenbelt around the city.
• Alternative electrical energy and/or alternative fuel programs that are cleaner-burning or have zero emissions.
• New Urbanism or mixed land-use developments where workers live, shop, and work within walkable distances.

How to Practice AP Human Geography FRQs

You can find plenty of AP Human Geography free-response questions (and their corresponding answer guidelines) online.

The College Board maintains a collection of real free-response exam questions that were administered between 2001 and 2021 with sample responses and scoring guidelines. This is the best resource for FRQs because you can rest assured that they're accurate representations of what you'll see on the exam in terms of content and difficulty level.

While there's nothing wrong with using free-response questions crafted by test-prep companies for preliminary practice, you should always incorporate official questions into your studying at frequent intervals.

Other free options include high-quality, unofficial practice tests . Check out our guide to all AP Human Geography practice tests you can use for tips on what to prioritize in your prep.

What's Next?

Want an overview of the whole AP Human Geography exam with examples of both multiple-choice and free-response questions? Then take a look at our expert guide to Human Geography .

Looking for more resources to use in preparing for this tricky AP test? Check out my ultimate study guide for AP Human Geography !

If you want more free-response practice, then you might consider getting an AP review book to supplement the online resources listed in this article . Here is a list of the best review books for AP Human Geography .

Samantha is a blog content writer for PrepScholar. Her goal is to help students adopt a less stressful view of standardized testing and other academic challenges through her articles. Samantha is also passionate about art and graduated with honors from Dartmouth College as a Studio Art major in 2014. In high school, she earned a 2400 on the SAT, 5's on all seven of her AP tests, and was named a National Merit Scholar.

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