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Case Interview: The Free Preparation Guide (2024)

The case interview is a challenging interview format that simulates the job of a management consultant , testing candidates across a wide range of problem-solving dimensions.

McKinsey, BCG and Bain – along with other top consulting firms – use the case interview because it’s a statistically proven predictor of how well a candidate will perform in the role. The format is not only used by management consulting firms. Other types of organizations – like tech companies, financial services institutions, and non-profits – often use case interviews to assess candidates who are interviewing for roles focused on shaping strategic initiatives.

If you’re preparing to face a case interview, you may be feeling a little apprehensive. The format is notoriously demanding and unlike any other type of recruitment assessment you may have experienced before. However, with the right preparation and investment of time and effort, it is possible to master.

In this guide, we break down everything you need to know about the case interview, outlining exactly what you need to do to prepare effectively and ace the case.

Key takeaways

• The classic case interview format follows the same steps that a management consultant would encounter on a client project. The interview is a little like a role-play where the interviewer plays the role of a client and the candidate plays the part of the consultant hired to solve the problem.
• Some firms occasionally deviate from the classic case interview format. Popular alternatives include written case studies – which require candidates to review paper documents and then prepare and deliver a presentation – and market sizing case interviews, which require candidates to estimate a number.
• Case interviews test candidates against a set of six problem-solving dimensions: structuring, math, judgment and insights, creativity, synthesis, and case leadership. The interviewer uses a scorecard to assess the candidate’s performance in each of these areas.
• Case interview questions can be about almost any type of challenge or opportunity. However, our research indicates that there are 10 types of questions that are asked most frequently at top consulting firms. These include questions on profit improvement, revenue growth, and market entry.
• To do well in a case interview, it’s vital to create custom interview structures that meet the conditions of the ‘AIM’ test. It helps to have a good working knowledge of key case interview frameworks, but this alone is not sufficient.
• A strong grasp of case math is also crucial when it comes to case interview performance. While only high-school level math skills are required, it’s an aspect of the case interview that many candidates find challenging.
• Successful candidates are able to summarize their findings effectively. They also demonstrate strong case leadership by progressing through the case proactively and remaining focused on its overarching objectives.
• To prepare for a case interview, it’s essential to learn every problem-solving skill that will be assessed. We teach all of these skills in the Case Interview Prep Course, provided as a part of our Consulting Interview Prep Toolkit which contains all the online courses, sample interviews, case material, and practice tools you’ll need to ace any case interview.
• Most candidates who go on to receive an offer from a top consulting firm like McKinsey, BCG or Bain complete at least 25 live practice sessions with a partner before their interview. You’ll find over 100 high-quality cases in our Case Library and a diverse community of candidates available for practice in our Practice Room .
• Some candidates choose to supplement their preparation by working with a coach who has been an interviewer at a top consulting firm. Here at CaseCoach, our coaches have all been handpicked from the alumni of top firms such as McKinsey, BCG and Bain.
• Although the world’s top consulting firms all test candidates using similar methods, none of them approach the interview process in exactly the same way. If you’re preparing to interview at a top consulting firm, it’s important to do your research and find out what you can expect.

An introduction to the case interview

The case interview format, the classic case interview.

The vast majority of case interviews follow the same steps that management consultants encounter on real client projects.

• Brief: The interviewer gives the candidate a brief for the case. They explain the context in which the client is operating, and outline the challenge they’re facing.
• Clarification: The candidate then has the chance to ask clarifying questions. They might do this to ensure they’ve understood the context of the problem correctly or to confirm the client’s goals.
• Reflection: The candidate takes 60 to 90 seconds or so to reflect and lay out a structured approach to solving the case.
• Analysis: The candidate and interviewer then work through the case together, carrying out analyses and moving toward a recommendation. This is the part of the case where you’ll be handling numerical questions, reviewing exhibits, coming up with creative ideas, and so on. It comprises the vast majority of the time you’ll spend on the case.
• Synthesis: The case concludes with the candidate synthesizing their findings and making an overall recommendation to the client.

So what does this unique interview format look and feel like? In reality, a consulting case interview is a little like a role-play. The interviewer plays the role of a manager or client, and the candidate plays the part of the consultant hired to solve the problem. However, a case interview shouldn’t feel like a performance. The most successful candidates treat it as a natural conversation between two professional people.

In the video below you can see an example of exceptional case interview performance in action. The candidate and interviewer in the video are both former McKinsey interviewers.

Interviewer-led vs candidate-led cases

Although the classic case interview has an established format and assesses a specific set of skills, cases can be delivered in different ways. Some are more candidate-led, while others are more interviewer-led

In a candidate-led case, the candidate is in the driver’s seat and is free to explore different aspects of the problem. Interviewers don’t tell candidates what to focus on next. Instead, they provide additional information – like an exhibit or a new fact – when asked. The candidate then analyzes the information and suggests next steps to get to the answer.

In an interviewer-led case, the interviewer may interrupt the candidate and ask them to either perform a specific investigation or focus on a different aspect of the problem. This doesn’t mean the interview is going badly; the interviewer is simply following a script. As a result, in an interviewer-led case, candidates are less likely to take the wrong path.

It’s difficult to predict which style of case you’ll receive. Some firms are known for using one style of interview more frequently than another. However, in practice, most interviews fall somewhere between the two extremes, depending on the style of the interviewer and the case material they’re using. You should therefore always be ready to suggest next steps and have a view about how to get to the answer.

Other case interview formats

While the classic case interview is most common, there are a couple of other interview formats that top consulting firms use from time to time:

The written case study

Some management consulting firms use written case studies to simulate the experience of carrying out consulting work even more accurately than the classic, verbal case interview. In some locations, BCG and Bain have been known to adopt this approach for a small minority of candidates.

In written cases, candidates review a series of paper documents and then structure the problem, run some numbers, generate ideas and, finally, deliver a short presentation. You can learn more in our article on how to crack written case studies .

Market sizing case interviews

Management consulting firms and other employers sometimes use market sizing questions – also known as estimation questions – as a standalone interview format to assess candidates on a wide range of problem-solving dimensions.

In a market sizing interview, you’ll be asked to estimate a number. This might be something like the revenue of a sandwich store or how many ATMs there are in a certain city. The ability to size a market is also a skill required for solving many case interview questions. You can learn more in our article on how to nail market sizing case interviews .

Some key differences to expect

While case interviews are highly codified, it’s important to remember that every interview is unique.

In the final round of interviews, for example, cases may feel less scripted than they did in the first stage. Partners – who are part of the interviewing group in the final round – often use the same case for years at a time. This means they can deliver it without a script and, as a result, tend to give candidates more room to take the lead. You can learn more in our article on the differences between a first and final-round interview at McKinsey, BCG and Bain .

In addition, each firm or office might bring their own nuance or style to the classic case interview format. It’s important to do your research and find out what you can expect from the interview experience at your target firm or office. You can learn more in our article on how the interviews at McKinsey, BCG and Bain differ .

The skills assessed in case interviews

Case interviews are primarily about testing a set of problem-solving skills. The interviewer uses a scorecard to assess a candidate’s performance in the following dimensions:

• Structuring: This is the ability to break problems down into logical drivers. It’s most obviously required at the beginning of a case, where you can pause and take a moment to come up with an approach. But it’s also tested each time you have to consider a new aspect of the problem.
• Math: Most cases contain a quantitative component, such as estimation questions, break-even questions, or other calculations. To do well in this dimension, you need to lay out a clear and efficient approach, run calculations quickly and accurately, and then state their implications for the case.
• Judgment and insights: This dimension is about extracting insights from data, usually by interpreting information in a chart. Performing well in this area involves processing new information quickly, prioritizing what’s important, and connecting your findings to develop sound recommendations.
• Creativity: Cases often have a creative thinking component. Sharing numerous, varied and sound ideas – ideally in a structured way – can help you succeed here.
• Synthesis: This is all about wrapping up the case with a clear and practical recommendation, and delivering it convincingly.
• Case leadership: This dimension is about progressing through the case efficiently and staying focused on its objectives. Case leadership involves gathering facts effectively and building on new findings to develop a recommendation. It’s a particularly important dimension in candidate-led cases.

Questions to expect

If you’re preparing to interview at a top management consulting firm like McKinsey, BCG or Bain, you’re probably curious about the kind of case interview questions you can expect to receive.

To identify the most common case interview questions , we surveyed CaseCoach users who interviewed at either McKinsey, BCG or Bain for a generalist role in 2023. We found that of the 260+ case interviews reported by respondents:

• 20% focused on profit improvement
• 15% focused on revenue growth
• 12% focused on market entry
• 10% focused on cost cutting
• 9% focused on process optimization

These topics align with the typical challenges and opportunities faced by CEOs. Because the job of a management consultant is to help CEOs find solutions to these problems, it’s vital for candidates to demonstrate that they understand the issues behind these questions.

However, while there are some recurring topics, the context and nuances of each individual case mean that no two case questions are the same. Increasingly, firms are testing candidates on questions that fall outside of these recurring topics. One way they’re doing this is by focusing on non-traditional areas, like the public sector. If you’re interviewing for a generalist management consulting role, it’s therefore important to be ready for almost any type of case question.

If you’re interviewing for a role that’s focused on a specific industry or function, like financial services , you’ll likely be given a case focused on that particular area.

How to ace the case

Case interviews require you to think on your feet to solve a complex problem that you’ve never seen before, while being assessed against a number of problem-solving dimensions. Here’s what you need to do to rise to the challenge and ace the case:

1. Create case interview structures that meet the AIM test

Of all the case interview assessment dimensions, structuring is perhaps the most challenging, particularly for those who are just starting out. It requires candidates to propose a prioritized and insightful approach to the case that’s composed of a comprehensive set of independent drivers. Structuring plays a foundational role in the interview, setting the course for the entire conversation.

So, what does good case structuring look like? An effective structure should meet the conditions of the ‘AIM’ test. ‘AIM’ stands for:

• Answer-focused: The structure should identify the client’s goal and the question to solve. It should also provide an approach to answering that question.
• Insightful: The structure should be tailored to the specifics of the client or to the problem in question. You shouldn’t be able to apply it to another case of the same type.
• MECE: This is a well-known acronym among consultants. It stands for ‘mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive’. In plain English, if a structure is ‘MECE’ it has been broken down into an exhaustive set of independent drivers.

2. Know key case interview frameworks

In a case interview, you’ll be asked to structure a variety of problems. There are a number of frameworks that can help you do this, whether the problem you’re structuring corresponds to a common case question or a different topic entirely:

Business frameworks

You can use established business frameworks to craft custom structures for the most common types of case questions. These include frameworks for mastering profitability questions , answering revenue growth questions and nailing market sizing questions .

Academic frameworks

For unusual case questions that don’t relate to an obvious business framework, it can be helpful to draw on an academic framework like supply and demand, ‘the three Cs’, or Porter’s Five Forces. You can learn more about all of these in our ultimate guide to case interview frameworks . The article includes other business and academic frameworks that you can use to craft custom structures for case questions.

Logical frameworks

Finally, logical frameworks can help you look at the big picture in order to structure your approach. These options can be particularly useful when you’re faced with an unusual case question that doesn’t lend itself to a business or academic framework. Some examples of logical frameworks include:

• Structuring with equations: This approach is most helpful for quantitative case questions. Listen out for introductions that focus on a number. These cases can often be broken down into an equation and then structured along its variables.
• Structuring based on hypotheses: This approach is most helpful for structuring qualitative cases. It involves laying out what you most need to believe in order to validate a specific recommendation. These beliefs form your set of key hypotheses, which you then test as you progress through the case.
• Structuring with root causes: This approach works well for structuring cases that require identifying the reasons for a problem. It involves laying out its potential causes in a way that is mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive (i.e. MECE).

How to apply these frameworks

While business, academic, and logical frameworks can be helpful when it comes to structuring a problem, learning how to use them correctly is a skill in itself. Simply applying a framework to a case interview question in a ‘cookie-cutter’ fashion is not enough. To impress your interviewer and pass the AIM test, your structure will need to be heavily tailored to the situation at hand. In fact, many case questions can be best answered by combining different frameworks.

Ultimately, interviewers want to understand how your mind works and see you think on your feet. You’ll therefore need to demonstrate that you can propose a custom case interview structure to any question.

3. Be comfortable with simple math

Management consulting firms expect you to navigate mathematical problems confidently and reliably in case interviews. Regardless of your academic background or past experience, you’ll need to be able to set an approach to solve the problem, perform calculations quickly and accurately, and state the implications of your solution.

The good news is that you’ll only be required to demonstrate a high-school level of math skills in case interviews. However, with no calculators allowed and an interviewer looking over your shoulder, it’s natural to find this aspect of the experience a little intimidating.

So, what can you expect from case math? The problems you’ll be asked to solve may take the form of straight calculations, exhibits that require calculations, word problems, and estimation questions.

To do well in this part of the case interview, you’ll need to have a strong understanding of:

• The four operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division
• Key math concepts such as fractions, percentages, and weighted averages
• Business math concepts such as income statements, investments, and valuations

To stand out to your interviewer, you’ll also need to work through math problems confidently and efficiently. Here are our top tips for doing this:

• Keep track of zeros: Case questions often involve large numbers, sometimes in the millions or even billions. Keeping close track of your zeros is therefore crucial. We recommend either counting the zeros in your calculation, using scientific notation, or assigning letter units to zeros.
• Simplify your calculations: This will help you work through problems quickly and efficiently while reducing the potential for mistakes. One way of simplifying calculations is by rounding numbers up or down to make them more ‘friendly’.
• Memorize frequently-used fractions: Some fraction values are used so frequently in case math that knowing them – along with their percentage value and decimal conversions – can save you significant time. We recommend memorizing the fraction and corresponding percentage and decimal values of 1/2, 1/3, all the way through to 1/10.

You can learn more in our guide to mastering case interview math .

4. Summarize your findings

Synthesis is a key skill assessed by interviewers, predominantly at the end of a case interview. You need to provide a clear and sound recommendation that answers the overall question convincingly. You must also describe the key supporting points that informed your recommendation and then outline any further steps you would advise the client to take.

When it comes to concluding cases effectively, this four-step framework can be extremely helpful:

• Quickly play the case question back to your interviewer.
• Answer the question directly and briefly by distilling your response into a single sentence, if possible.
• List the points that support your conclusion.
• Outline the next steps that you recommend to the client.

You can learn more in our article on how to conclude a case study interview .

5. Bring it all together with strong case leadership

Case leadership, more than any other dimension, will give your interviewer an indication of how independently you could handle your workstream as a consultant. It’s a particularly important skill in candidate-led cases, where you’ll set the course of the discussion without the interviewer steering you in a particular direction.

Demonstrating strong case leadership means progressing the case efficiently and staying focused on its overarching objectives. Using a ‘tracker page’ to capture your structure and organize your notes throughout the case will help you in this regard.

Another aspect of case leadership is gathering facts effectively. This includes making reasonable assumptions, requesting missing information, and asking probing questions.

Finally, you’ll be expected to build on new findings to develop your recommendation, adapt your approach, and suggest next steps.

Effective case leadership is all about showing your interviewer that you have a strong command of the problem-solving process. After investigating each key driver in your structure, you need to be able to articulate where you are in your overall approach to solving the problem, and what the next steps should be.

To do this, we recommend using a five-step process to handle every kind of analysis you conduct during the case, whether you’re responding to a numerical question, the data in an exhibit, or something else.

Here’s what that five-step process looks like:

• Set your approach. Define what you’re going to do upfront. It’s particularly important to be explicit here, especially if the analysis is in any way complex or ambiguous.
• Conduct your analysis. Your approach here will vary according to the kind of question you’re working through.
• State your findings. You may also want to make a note of your findings on your tracker page.
• State the implications of your findings. Explain how they impact both your answer to the question and the client’s broader goal.
• Suggest next steps. Your findings will sometimes change how you want to approach the rest of the case. This may mean altering your initial structure and editing it on your tracker page.

6. Be your best on the day

When the day of your interview comes around, you’ll want to be at your very best. But what exactly does this mean?

First, you should present yourself in a professional manner. It goes without saying that you should arrive on time but, ideally, you should plan to arrive early. You should also come equipped with the right material: a pen, squared A4 or letter-size paper pad, and copies of your resume. It’s also vital to dress appropriately for the occasion. Usually, this means wearing formal business dress, but this means different attires in different locations. We recommend doing some research to find out what consultants wear at your target firm and office.

To be at your best on the day of your interview, you must be well rested. Sadly, tiredness is one of the most common reasons for underperformance in consulting interviews. The day before is not the time to cram in further preparation. Instead, aim to have a quiet day and to get plenty of sleep at night.

Ultimately, consulting firms want to hire people who can represent the firm and interact with clients at every level, from the shop floor to the C-suite. Successful candidates treat the case interview as an opportunity to play the role of a management consultant advising a client (i.e. the interviewer). This means exhibiting a great deal of confidence and credibility, together with effective communication and an engaging attitude. It’s vital to stay focused on the overall problem and to drive the resolution of the case while being receptive to the interviewer’s input.

There are a lot of balls to juggle in a case interview, with the added pressure of a potentially life-changing outcome, but successful candidates don’t let their nerves get the better of them. We’ve provided some helpful hints and tips in our article on handling the stress of consulting interviews .

Being your best on the day of your interview requires extensive preparation. It means mastering each dimension of the case interview scorecard to the extent that the skills become second nature to you. It also means completing sufficient case practice to be able to focus on the big picture of the case you’re solving, rather than on simply demonstrating a set of skills.

How to prepare for case interview success

Delivering a standard of performance worthy of an offer from a top firm requires extensive case interview prep. In our experience, most successful candidates invest around 60 hours – or 10 hours each week over a six-week period – in their preparation. Failing to put this effort in is among the most common reasons why many candidates are unsuccessful.

Here’s what effective case interview preparation involves:

Learning the skills

In a case interview, your performance is assessed against a set of common problem-solving dimensions. To recap, these are structuring, math, judgment and insights, creativity, synthesis, and case leadership. It’s important to:

• gain a precise understanding of the expectations on each of these skills
• learn the techniques that will allow you to meet these expectations
• practice until your performance meets the required standard

We teach all these skills in the Case Interview Prep Course, included in our Consulting Interview Prep Toolkit . In our bite-sized video classes, we map out each of the key skills assessed in a case, and explain what you need to know to demonstrate each skill. We also share our tips on how to improve in each dimension, going above and beyond the advice we’ve included in this article.

In addition, our Case Interview Prep Course includes many more sample interviews that show real candidates – who went on to join top consulting firms – solving cases. Former consulting interviewers explain what the candidates did well on each dimension and where they could have improved.

Math is a critical prerequisite to handling cases and is something you should be comfortable with before you begin practicing. Our Case Math Course – provided as part of the Consulting Interview Prep Toolkit – will help you brush up your skills. It contains 21 video classes that cover everything you need to know, including the four operations, key math concepts, our pro tips, and business math.

After watching all the classes in our Case Interview Prep Course and Case Math Course, we recommend heading to the ‘Drills’ area of CaseCoach, where you can start practicing specific skills. Drills are interactive exercises that pose rapid-fire questions and provide instant feedback. They help you build your skills and confidence in specific case dimensions quickly, allowing you to make the most of your live case practice with partners. Our Consulting Interview Prep Toolkit includes a comprehensive set of drills in four key areas: structuring, calculation, case math and chart interpretation.

When it comes to succeeding in a case interview, nothing beats live practice with a partner. Most candidates who go on to receive an offer from a top consulting firm like McKinsey, BCG or Bain complete at least 25 live practice sessions before their interview.

To practice live cases with a partner, you’ll need access to both case material and practice partners. In our Case Library , you’ll find over 100 cases – complete with solutions – developed by former management consultants. You can download eight of these cases right away by creating a free CaseCoach account. You’ll find a diverse community of fellow candidates who are all available for case interview practice in our Practice Room , where we facilitate over 3,000 practice sessions a week.

You can learn more in our article on how to practice case interviews .

Working with a coach

Some candidates choose to supplement their preparations by working with a consulting interview coach who has been an interviewer at a top firm.

These coaches have the skills and experience to gauge your level of performance and help you identify your areas of strength and weakness. They can also provide you with accurate and helpful feedback on your case-solving skills. This insight can help you accelerate your preparation and improve your performance. Getting used to interviewing with a professional should also help to reduce the stress of the consulting interview experience.

Here at CaseCoach, our coaches are all former consultants and interviewers who have been handpicked from the alumni of top firms such as McKinsey, BCG and Bain.

Do your research

Although employers who use case interviews all test candidates using similar methods, none of them approach the interview process in exactly the same way.

For instance, if you expect to interview with McKinsey, Bain or BCG, it’s helpful to know that these firms all give cases of similar complexity. However, there are some key differences. For example:

• Bain has been known to use estimation questions, such as market sizing, in interviews for its most junior (i.e. Associate Consultant level) roles.
• BCG and Bain occasionally use written cases.
• When it comes to the ‘fit’ interview, McKinsey uses its Personal Experience Interview format, while most Bain offices now use a ‘behavioral interview’ . Only BCG consistently uses the classic fit interview format .

Other differences include the number of rounds of interviews each firm conducts, and their preference for using interviewer-led or candidate-led cases. Wherever you interview, it’s vital to do your research and find out what you might be able to expect.

When it comes to getting ready for the case interview, knowing what you will be assessed on, learning how to succeed, and having access to the best practice resources can all go a long way. Now, you need to put in the hard work and prepare! Good luck.

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1. The key to landing your consulting job.

A case interview is a core element of the consulting recruitment process at top firms like McKinsey, Bain, and BCG (the “MBB” firms). During a case interview, you will be asked to solve a business case study , which challenges you to think critically and strategically, just like a real consultant. Beyond MBB, firms like LEK, Kearney, Oliver Wyman, and the Big Four (PwC, Deloitte, EY, KPMG) also use case study interviews as a major component of their hiring process.

Why Case Interviews Are Essential

If your goal is to land a role at one of these prestigious consulting firms, you’ll need to master multiple case interviews . These interviews test your ability to think on your feet, structure complex problems, and provide actionable business solutions. Successfully cracking a consulting case interview is a critical step in consulting interview preparation .

The Rise of Online Case Interviews

In addition to traditional face-to-face case interviews , firms are increasingly adopting online case interview formats . Many candidates now face AI-driven case studies or cases delivered by chatbots. These assessments might occur before the actual interview or in tandem with first-round consulting interviews . Knowing how to approach these online assessments is key to staying competitive in today’s consulting interview process .

Why You Need to Prepare Thoroughly for Case Interviews

It’s important to note that case interviews are not something you can approach casually or "wing." Consulting firms explicitly expect candidates to be well-prepared , and many of your competitors will have been practicing for months. Lack of preparation is a major reason why candidates fail. That’s where MCC is here to guide you every step of the way !

What This Guide Will Cover

This guide provides a comprehensive overview of consulting case interviews . You’ll learn everything from how to approach case studies like a consultant to mastering the emerging online case formats . Along the way, we’ll direct you to more detailed articles and resources that let you dive deeper into key aspects of the consulting interview process .

If you prefer a video guide, you can watch the video below:

Key Topics Covered:

• What is the standard format of a case interview?
• What skills are firms like McKinsey, Bain, and BCG looking for?
• How are candidates assessed in case interviews?
• What strategies can you use to ace a consulting case study?

With these insights, you’ll have a clear understanding of what to expect and how to excel in your consulting case interviews . Let’s get started!

Professional help

Before we go any further, if this feels overwhelming, don’t worry — we’re here to help! Whether you need guidance to refine your preparation or prefer an experienced consultant to guide you through the entire selection process, we’ve got you covered. Explore our tailored coaching packages below.

2. What is a Case Interview?

A case interview simulates real consulting work by having you solve a business case study in conversation with your interviewer. You’ll be tasked with advising a client (an imaginary business or organization) on how to solve a problem or make a decision. Your job is to analyze the provided information and make a final recommendation.

While some business problems may seem straightforward, consulting firms focus on solving complex, unique issues that require creative, non-standard solutions.

Examples of case questions include:

• How much would you pay for a banking license in Ghana?
• Estimate the potential value of the electric vehicle market in Germany.
• How much gas storage capacity should a UK domestic energy supplier build?

Consulting firms seek bright minds to work on these challenging, real-world problems. You’ll need to think outside the box and be prepared for novel solutions during your interview.

2.1. Where Are Case Interviews in the Consulting Selection Process?

Not everyone who applies to a consulting firm will make it to a case interview. In fact, firms eliminate up to 80% of candidates before the interview stage. This is because case interviews are expensive and time-consuming, requiring firms to pull consultants from active projects.

Most candidates are cut based on their resumes and performance in aptitude tests. For example, McKinsey uses its Solve assessment and resumes to eliminate over 70% of applicants before interviews.

Getting to a case interview with a top firm is already an achievement. You’ll need to get through the resume screen, aptitude tests, and possibly other assessments to reach the interview stage.

Let’s take a closer look at the selection process, including application screens, aptitude tests, and interview rounds.

2.1.1. Application Screen

A large portion of candidates are eliminated at the application stage. Resumes and cover letters are often reviewed by a combination of AI tools, recruitment staff, and consulting staff.

To improve your chances, make sure your resume and cover letter are top-notch. Check out our free resume guide and cover letter guide , or consider getting help with editing .

2.1.2. Aptitude Tests and Online Cases

The selection process has been evolving quickly, with firms increasingly using sophisticated online case studies in addition to traditional aptitude tests.

McKinsey now uses an online case as part of its Solve assessment, while BCG’s Casey chatbot directly replaces a live first-round interview. We expect these online cases to become more prevalent in the future, but they are still just simulations of live case interviews.

Whether you’re dealing with an online case or a live interview, your preparation will remain the same. You’ll still need to learn how to solve cases effectively.

2.1.3. Rounds of Interviews

Despite the rise of AI and online cases, live case interviews are still central to consulting selection. Firms will always require live interviews due to the client-facing nature of consulting.

To secure an offer from McKinsey, Bain, BCG, or a similar firm, you’ll need to complete four to six case interviews , typically split across two rounds. Each interview will last approximately 50-60 minutes.

First-round interviews usually consist of two or three case interviews, sometimes accompanied by an online case. If you perform well in the first round, you’ll be invited to a second, more challenging round. After successfully completing up to six case interviews, you may receive an offer.

2.2. Differences between first and second round interviews

Despite case interviews in the first and second round following the same format, second/final round interviews will be significantly more intense . The seniority of the interviewer, time pressure (with up to three interviews back-to-back), and the sheer value of the job at stake will likely make a second round consulting case interview one of the most challenging moments of your professional life.

There are three key differences between the two rounds:

• Time Pressure : Final round case interviews test your ability to perform under pressure, with as many as three interviews in a row and often only very small breaks between them.
• Focus : Since second round interviewers tend to be more senior (usually partners with 12+ years experience) and will be more interested in your personality and ability to handle challenges independently. Some partners will drill down into your experiences and achievements to the extreme. They want to understand how you react to challenges and your ability to identify and learn from past mistakes.
• Psychological Pressure: While case interviews in the first round are usually more focused on you simply cracking the case, second round interviewers often employ a "bad cop" strategy to test the way you react to challenges and uncertainty.

2.3. What skills do case interviews assess?

Reliably impressing your interviewers means knowing what they are looking for. This means understanding the skills you are being assessed against in some detail.

Overall, it’s important always to remember that, with case studies, there are no strict right or wrong answers. What really matters is how you think problems through, how confident you are with your conclusions and how quick you are with the back of the envelope arithmetic.

The objective of this kind of interview isn’t to get to one particular solution, but to assess your skillset. This is even true of modern online cases, where sophisticated AI algorithms score how you work as well as the solutions you generate.

If you visit McKinsey , Bain and BCG web pages on case interviews, you will find that the three firms look for very similar traits, and the same will be true of other top consultancies.

Broadly speaking, your interviewer will be evaluating you across five key areas:

2.1.1.One: Probing mind

Showing intellectual curiosity by asking relevant and insightful questions that demonstrate critical thinking and a proactive nature. For instance, if we are told that revenues for a leading supermarket chain have been declining over the last ten years, a successful candidate would ask:

“ We know revenues have declined. This could be due to price or volume. Do we know how they changed over the same period? ”

This is as opposed to a laundry list of questions like:

• Did customers change their preferences?
• Which segment has shown the decline in volume?
• Is there a price war in the industry?

2.1.2. Structure

Structure in this context means structuring a problem. This, in turn, means creating a framework - that is, a series of clear, sequential steps in order to get to a solution.

As with the case interview in general, the focus with case study structures isn’t on reaching a solution, but on how you get there.

This is the trickiest part of the case interview and the single most common reason candidates fail.

We discuss how to properly structure a case in more detail in section three. In terms of what your interviewer is looking for at high level, though, key pieces of your structure should be:

• Proper understanding of the objective of the case - Ask yourself: "What is the single crucial piece of advice that the client absolutely needs?"
• Identification of the drivers - Ask yourself: "What are the key forces that play a role in defining the outcome?"

Our Problem Driven Structure method, discussed in section three, bakes this approach in at a fundamental level. This is as opposed to the framework-based approach you will find in older case-solving

Focus on going through memorised sequences of steps too-often means failing to develop a full understanding of the case and the real key drivers.

At this link, we run through a case to illustrate the difference between a standard framework-based approach and our Problem Driven Structure method.

2.1.3. Problem Solving

You’ll be tested on your ability to identify problems and drivers, isolate causes and effects, demonstrate creativity and prioritise issues. In particular, the interviewer will look for the following skills:

• Prioritisation - Can you distinguish relevant and irrelevant facts?
• Connecting the dots - Can you connect new facts and evidence to the big picture?
• Establishing conclusions - Can you establish correct conclusions without rushing to inferences not supported by evidence?

2.1.4. Numerical Agility

In case interviews, you are expected to be quick and confident with both precise and approximated numbers. This translates to:

• Performing simple calculations quickly - Essential to solve cases quickly and impress clients with quick estimates and preliminary conclusions.
• Analysing data - Extract data from graphs and charts, elaborate and draw insightful conclusions.
• Solving business problems - Translate a real world case to a mathematical problem and solve it.

Our article on consulting math is a great resource here, though the extensive math content in our MCC Academy is the best and most comprehensive material available.

2.1.5. Communication

Real consulting work isn’t just about the raw analysis to come up with a recommendation - this then needs to be sold to the client as the right course of action.

Similarly, in a case interview, you must be able to turn your answer into a compelling recommendation. This is just as essential to impressing your interviewer as your structure and analysis.

Consultants already comment on how difficult it is to find candidates with the right communication skills. Add to this the current direction of travel, where AI will be able to automate more and more of the routine analytic side of consulting, and communication becomes a bigger and bigger part of what consultants are being paid for.

So, how do you make sure that your recommendations are relevant, smart, and engaging? The answer is to master what is known as CEO-level communication .

This art of speaking like a CEO can be quite challenging, as it often involves presenting information in effectively the opposite way to how you might normally.

To get it right, there are three key areas to focus on in your communications:

• Top down : A CEO wants to hear the key message first. They will only ask for more details if they think that will actually be useful. Always consider what is absolutely critical for the CEO to know, and start with that. You can read more in our article on the Pyramid Principle .
• Concise : This is not the time for "boiling the ocean" or listing an endless number possible solutions. CEOs, and thus consultants, want a structured, quick and concise recommendation for their business problem, that they can implement immediately.
• Fact-based : Consultants share CEOs' hatred of opinions based on gut feel rather than facts. They want recommendations based on facts to make sure they are actually in control. Always go on to back up your conclusions with the relevant facts.

Being concise and to the point is key in many areas, networking being one for them. For more detail on all this, check out our full article on delivering recommendations .

Prep the right way

3. types of case interview.

While most case interviews share a similar structure, firms will have some differences in the particular ways they like to do things in terms of both the case study and the fit component.

As we’ll see, these differences aren’t hugely impactful in terms of how you prepare. That said, it's always good to know as much as possible about what you will be going up against.

3.1. Different case objectives

A guiding thread throughout this article and our approach in general will be to treat each case as a self-contained problem and not try to pigeonhole it into a certain category. Having said that, there are of course similarities between cases and we can identify certain parameters and objectives.

Broadly speaking, cases can be divided into issue-based cases and strategic decision cases. In the former you will be asked to solve a certain issue, such as declining profits, or low productivity whereas in the latter you will be ask whether your client should or should not do something, such as enter a specific market or acquire another company. The chart below is a good breakdown of these different objectives:

3.2. How do interviewers craft cases

While interviewers will very likely be given a case bank to choose from by their company, a good number of them will also choose to adapt the cases they would currently be working on to a case interview setting. The difference is that the latter cases will be harder to pigeonhole and apply standard frameworks to, so a tailored approach will be paramount.

If you’ve applied for a specific practice or type of consulting - such as operational consulting, for example - it’s very likely that you will receive a case geared towards that particular area alongside a ‘generalist’ consulting case (however, if that’s the case, you will generally be notified). The other main distinction when it comes to case interviews is between interviewer-led and candidate-led.

3.3. Candidate-led cases

Most consulting case interview questions test your ability to crack a broad problem, with a case prompt often going something like:

" How much would you pay to secure the rights to run a restaurant in the British Museum? "

You, as a candidate, are then expected to identify your path to solve the case (that is, provide a structure), leveraging your interviewer to collect the data and test your assumptions.

This is known as a “candidate-led” case interview and is used by Bain, BCG and other firms. From a structuring perspective, it’s easier to lose direction in a candidate-led case as there are no sign-posts along the way. As such, you need to come up with an approach that is both broad enough to cover all of the potential drivers in a case but also tailored enough to the problem you are asked to solve. It’s also up to you to figure out when you need to delve deeper into a certain branch of the case, brainstorm or ask for data. The following case from Bain is an excellent example on how to navigate a candidate-led case.

3.4. Interviewer-led cases

This type of case - employed most famously by McKinsey - is slightly different, with the interviewer controlling the pace and direction of the conversation much more than with other case interviews.

At McKinsey, your interviewer will ask you a set of pre-determined questions, regardless of your initial structure. For each question, you will have to understand the problem, come up with a mini structure, ask for additional data (if necessary) and come to the conclusion that answers the question. This more structured format of case also shows up in online cases by other firms - notably including BCG’s Casey chatbot (with the amusing result that practising McKinsey-style cases can be a great addition when prepping for BCG).

Essentially, these interviewer-led case studies are large cases made up of lots of mini-cases. You still use basically the same method as you would for standard (or candidate-led) cases - the main difference is simply that, instead of using that method to solve one big case, you are solving several mini-cases sequentially. These cases are easier to follow as the interviewer will guide you in the right direction. However, this doesn’t mean you should pay less attention to structure and deliver a generic framework! Also, usually (but not always!) the first question will ask you to map your approach and is the equivalent of the structuring question in candidate-led cases. Sometimes, if you’re missing key elements, the interviewer might prompt you in the right direction - so make sure to take those prompts seriously as they are there to help you get back on track (ask for 30 seconds to think on the prompt and structure your approach). Other times - and this is a less fortunate scenario - the interviewer might say nothing and simply move on to the next question. This is why you should put just as much thought (if not more) into the framework you build for interviewer-led cases , as you may be penalized if you produce something too generic or that doesn’t encompass all the issues of the case.

3.5. Case and fit

The standard case interview can be thought of as splitting into two standalone sub-interviews. Thus “case interviews” can be divided into the case study itself and a “fit interview” section, where culture fit questions are asked.

This can lead to a bit of confusion, as the actual case interview component might take up as little as half of your scheduled “case interview”. You need to make sure you are ready for both aspects.

To illustrate, here is the typical case interview timeline:

• First 15-30 minutes: Fit Interview - with questions assessing your motivation to be a consultant in that specific firm and your traits around leadership and teamwork. Learn more about the fit interview in our in-depth article here .
• Next 30-40 minutes: Case Interview - solving a case study
• Last 5 minutes: Fit Interview again - this time focussing on your questions for your interviewer.

Both the Case and Fit interviews play crucial roles in the finial hiring decision. There is no “average” taken between case and fit interviews: if your performance is not up to scratch in either of the two, you will not be able to move on to the next interview round or get an offer.

NB: No case without fit

Note that, even if you have only been told you are having a case interview or otherwise are just doing a case study, always be prepared to answer fit questions. At most firms, it is standard practice to include some fit questions in all case interviews, even if there are also separate explicit fit interviews, and interviewers will almost invariably include some of these questions around your case. This is perfectly natural - imagine how odd and artificial it would be to show up to an interview, simply do a case and leave again, without talking about anything else with the interviewer before or after.

3.5.2. The McKinsey PEI

McKinsey brands its fit aspect of interviews as the Personal Experience Interview or PEI. Despite the different name, this is really much the same interview you will be going up against in Bain, BCG and any similar firms.

McKinsey does have a reputation for pushing candidates a little harder with fit or PEI questions , focusing on one story per interview and drilling down further into the specific details each time. We discuss this tendency more in our fit interview article . However, no top end firm is going to go easy on you and you should absolutely be ready for the same level of grilling at Bain, BCG and others. Thus any difference isn’t hugely salient in terms of prep.

3.6. What is different in 2024?

For the foreseeable future, you are going to have to go through multiple live case interviews to secure any decent consulting job. These might increasingly happen via Zoom rather than in person, but they should remain largely the same otherwise.

However, things are changing and the rise of AI in recent months seems pretty much guaranteed to accelerate existing trends.

Even before the explosive development of AI chatbots like ChatGPT we have seen in recent months, automation was already starting to change the recruitment process.

As we mentioned, case interviews are expensive and inconvenient for firms to run . Ideally, then, firms will try to reduce the number of interviews required for recruitment as far as possible. For many years, tests of various kinds served to cut down the applicant pool and thus the number of interviews. However, these tests had a limited capacity to assess candidates against the full consulting skillset in the way that case interviews do so well.

More recently, though, the development of online testing has allowed for more and more advanced assessments. Top consulting firms have been leveraging screening tests that better and better capture the same skillset as case interviews. Eventually this is converging on automated case studies. We see this very clearly with the addition of the Redrock case to McKinsey’s Solve assessment.

As these digital cases become closer to the real thing, the line between test and case interview blurs. Online cases don’t just reduce the number of candidates to case interview, but start directly replacing them.

Case in point here is BCG’s Casey chatbot . Previously, BCG had deployed less advanced online cases and similar tests to weed out some candidates before live case interviews began. Now, though, Casey actually replaces one first round case interview .

Casey, at time of writing, is still a relatively “basic” chatbot, basically running through a pre-set script. The Whatsapp-like interface does a lot of work to make it feel like one is chatting to a “real person” - the chatbot itself, though, cannot provide feedback or nudges to candidates as would a human interviewer.

We fully expect that, as soon as BCG and other firms can train a truer AI, these online cases will become more widespread and start replacing more live interviews.

We discuss the likely impacts of advanced AI on consulting recruitment and the industry more broadly in our blog.

Here, though, the real message is that you should expect to run into digital cases as well as traditional case interviews .

Luckily, despite any changes in specific case interview format, you will still need to master the same fundamental skills and prepare in much the same way.

We’ll cover a few ways to help prepare for chatbot cases in section four. Ultimately, though, firms are looking for the same problem solving ability and mindset as a real interviewer. Especially as chatbots get better at mimicking a real interviewer, candidates who are well prepared for case cracking in general should have no problem with AI-administered cases.

3.6.1. Automated fit interviews

Analogous to online cases, in recent years there has been a trend towards automated, “one way” fit interviews, with these typically being administered for consultancies by specialist contractors like HireVue or SparkHire.

These are kind of like Zoom interviews, but if the interviewer didn’t show up. Instead you will be given fit questions to answer and must record your answer in your computer webcam. Your response will then go on to be assessed by an algorithm, scoring both what you say and how you say it.

Again, with advances in AI, it is easy to imagine these automated case interviews going from fully scripted interactions, where all candidates are asked the same list of questions, to a more interactive experience. Thus, we might soon arrive at a point where you are being grilled on the details of your stories - McKinsey PEI style - but by a bot rather than a human.

We include some tips on this kind of “one way” fit interview in section six here.

4. How to solve cases with the Problem-Driven Structure?

If you look around online for material on how to solve case studies, a lot of what you find will set out framework-based approaches. However, as we have mentioned, these frameworks tend to break down with more complex, unique cases - with these being exactly the kind of tough case studies you can expect to be given in your case interviews.

To address this problem, the MyConsultingCoach team has synthesized a new approach to case cracking that replicates how top management consultants approach actual engagements.

MyConsultingCoach’s Problem Driven Structure approach is a universal problem solving method that can be applied to any business problem , irrespective of its nature.

As opposed to just selecting a generic framework for each case interview, the Problem Driven Structure approach works by generating a bespoke structure for each individual question and is a simplified version of the roadmap McKinsey consultants use when working on engagements.

The canonical seven steps from McKinsey on real projects are simplified to four for case interview questions, as the analysis required for a six-month engagement is somewhat less than that needed for a 45-minute case study. However, the underlying flow is the same (see the method in action in the video below)

Let's zoom in to see how our method actually works in more detail:

4.1. Identify the problem

Identifying the problem means properly understanding the prompt/question you are given, so you get to the actual point of the case.

This might sound simple, but cases are often very tricky, and many candidates irretrievably mess things up within the first few minutes of starting. Often, they won’t notice this has happened until they are getting to the end of their analysis. Then, they suddenly realise that they have misunderstood the case prompt - and have effectively been answering the wrong question all along!

With no time to go back and start again, there is nothing to do. Even if there were time, making such a silly mistake early on will make a terrible impression on their interviewer, who might well have written them off already. The interview is scuppered and all the candidate’s preparation has been for nothing.

This error is so galling as it is so readily avoidable.

Our method prevents this problem by placing huge emphasis on a full understanding of the case prompt. This lays the foundations for success as, once we have identified the fundamental, underlying problem our client is facing, we focus our whole analysis around finding solutions to this specific issue.

Now, some case interview prompts are easy to digest. For example, “Our client, a supermarket, has seen a decline in profits. How can we bring them up?”. However, many of the prompts given in interviews for top firms are much more difficult and might refer to unfamiliar business areas or industries. For example, “How much would you pay for a banking license in Ghana?” or “What would be your key areas of concern be when setting up an NGO?”

Don’t worry if you have no idea how you might go about tackling some of these prompts!

In our article on identifying the problem and in our full lesson on the subject in our MCC Academy course, we teach a systematic, four step approach to identifying the problem , as well as running through common errors to ensure you start off on the right foot every time!

This is summarised here:

Following this method lets you excel where your competitors mess up and get off to a great start in impressing your interviewer!

4.2. Build your problem driven structure

After you have properly understood the problem, the next step is to successfully crack a case is to draw up a bespoke structure that captures all the unique features of the case.

This is what will guide your analysis through the rest of the case study and is precisely the same method used by real consultants working on real engagements.

Of course, it might be easier here to simply roll out one an old-fashioned framework, and a lot of candidates will do so. This is likely to be faster at this stage and requires a lot less thought than our problem-driven structure approach.

However, whilst our problem driven structure approach requires more work from you, our method has the advantage of actually working in the kind of complex case studies where generic frameworks fail - that is exactly the kind of cases you can expect at an MBB interview .

Since we effectively start from first principles every time, we can tackle any case with the same overarching method. Simple or complex, every case is the same to you and you don’t have to gamble a job on whether a framework will actually work

4.2.1 Issue trees

Issue trees break down the overall problem into a set of smaller problems that you can then solve individually. Representing this on a diagram also makes it easy for both you and your interviewer to keep track of your analysis.

To see how this is done, let’s look at the issue tree below breaking down the revenues of an airline:

These revenues can be segmented as the number of customers multiplied by the average ticket price. The number of customers can be further broken down into a number of flights multiplied by the number of seats, times average occupancy rate. The node corresponding to the average ticket price can then be segmented further.

4.2.2 Hypothesis trees

Hypothesis trees are similar, the only difference being that rather than just trying to break up the issue into smaller issues you are assuming that the problem can be solved and you are formulating solutions.

In the example above, you would assume revenues can be increased by either increasing the average ticket price or the number of customers . You can then hypothesize that you can increase the average occupancy rate in three ways: align the schedule of short and long haul flights, run a promotion to boost occupancy in off-peak times, or offer early bird discounts.

4.2.3 Other structures:structured lists

Structured lists are simply subcategories of a problem into which you can fit similar elements. This McKinsey case answer starts off by identifying several buckets such as retailer response, competitor response, current capabilities and brand image and then proceeds to consider what could fit into these categories.

Buckets can be a good way to start the structure of a complex case but when using them it can be very difficult to be MECE and consistent, so you should always aim to then re-organize them into either an issue or a hypothesis tree.

It is worth noting that the same problem can be structured in multiple valid ways by choosing different means to segment the key issues. Ultimately all these lists are methods to set out a logical hierachy among elements.

4.2.4 Structures in practice

That said, not all valid structures are equally useful in solving the underlying problem. A good structure fulfils several requirements - including MECE-ness , level consistency, materiality, simplicity, and actionability. It’s important to put in the time to master segmentation, so you can choose a scheme isn’t only valid, but actually useful in addressing the problem.

After taking the effort to identify the problem properly, an advantage of our method is that it will help ensure you stay focused on that same fundamental problem throughout. This might not sound like much, but many candidates end up getting lost in their own analysis, veering off on huge tangents and returning with an answer to a question they weren’t asked.

Another frequent issue - particularly with certain frameworks - is that candidates finish their analysis and, even if they have successfully stuck to the initial question, they have not actually reached a definite solution. Instead, they might simply have generated a laundry list of pros and cons, with no clear single recommendation for action.

Clients employ consultants for actionable answers, and this is what is expected in the case interview. The problem driven structure excels in ensuring that everything you do is clearly related back to the key question in a way that will generate a definitive answer. Thus, the problem driven structure builds in the hypothesis driven approach so characteristic of real consulting practice.

You can learn how to set out your own problem driven structures in our article here and in our full lesson in the MCC Academy course.

4.2. Lead the analysis

A problem driven structure might ensure we reach a proper solution eventually, but how do we actually get there?

We call this step " leading the analysis ", and it is the process whereby you systematically navigate through your structure, identifying the key factors driving the issue you are addressing.

Generally, this will mean continuing to grow your tree diagram, further segmenting what you identify as the most salient end nodes and thus drilling down into the most crucial factors causing the client’s central problem.

Once you have gotten right down into the detail of what is actually causing the company’s issues, solutions can then be generated quite straightforwardly.

To see this process in action, we can return to our airline revenue example:

Let’s say we discover the average ticket price to be a key issue in the airline’s problems. Looking closer at the drivers of average ticket price, we find that the problem lies with economy class ticket prices. We can then further segment that price into the base fare and additional items such as food.

Having broken down the issue to such a fine-grained level and considering the 80/20 rule(see below), solutions occur quite naturally. In this case, we can suggest incentivising the crew to increase onboard sales, improving assortment in the plane, or offering discounts for online purchases.

Our article on leading the analysis is a great primer on the subject, with our video lesson in the MCC Academy providing the most comprehensive guide available.

4.4. Provide recommendations

So you have a solution - but you aren’t finished yet!

Now, you need to deliver your solution as a final recommendation.

This should be done as if you are briefing a busy CEO and thus should be a one minute, top-down, concise, structured, clear, and fact-based account of your findings.

The brevity of the final recommendation belies its importance. In real life consulting, the recommendation is what the client has potentially paid millions for - from their point of view, it is the only thing that matters.

In a case interview, your performance in this final summing up of your case is going to significantly colour your interviewer’s parting impression of you - and thus your chances of getting hired!

So, how do we do it right?

Barbara Minto's Pyramid Principle elegantly sums up almost everything required for a perfect recommendation. The answer comes first , as this is what is most important. This is then supported by a few key arguments , which are in turn buttressed by supporting facts .

Across the whole recommendation, the goal isn’t to just summarise what you have done. Instead, you are aiming to synthesize your findings to extract the key "so what?" insight that is useful to the client going forward.

All this might seem like common sense, but it is actually the opposite of how we relay results in academia and other fields. There, we typically move from data, through arguments and eventually to conclusions. As such, making good recommendations is a skill that takes practice to master.

We can see the Pyramid Principle illustrated in the diagram below:

To supplement the basic Pyramid Principle scheme, we suggest candidates add a few brief remarks on potential risks and suggested next steps . This helps demonstrate the ability for critical self-reflection and lets your interviewer see you going the extra mile.

The combination of logical rigour and communication skills that is so definitive of consulting is particularly on display in the final recommendation.

Despite it only lasting 60 seconds, you will need to leverage a full set of key consulting skills to deliver a really excellent recommendation and leave your interviewer with a good final impression of your case solving abilities.

Our specific article on final recommendations and the specific video lesson on the same topic within our MCC Academy are great, comprehensive resources. Beyond those, our lesson on consulting thinking and our articles on MECE and the Pyramid Principle are also very useful.

4.5. What if I get stuck?

Naturally with case interviews being difficult problems there may be times where you’re unsure what to do or which direction to take. The most common scenario is that you will get stuck midway through the case and there are essentially two things that you should do:

• 1. Go back to your structure
• 2. Ask the interviewer for clarification

Your structure should always be your best friend - after all, this is why you put so much thought and effort into it: if it’s MECE it will point you in the right direction. This may seem abstract but let’s take the very simple example of a profitability case interview: if you’ve started your analysis by segmenting profit into revenue minus costs and you’ve seen that the cost side of the analysis is leading you nowhere, you can be certain that the declining profit is due to a decline in revenue.

Similarly, when you’re stuck on the quantitative section of the case interview, make sure that your framework for calculations is set up correctly (you can confirm this with the interviewer) and see what it is you’re trying to solve for: for example if you’re trying to find what price the client should sell their new t-shirt in order to break even on their investment, you should realize that what you’re trying to find is the break even point, so you can start by calculating either the costs or the revenues. You have all the data for the costs side and you know they’re trying to sell 10.000 pairs so you can simply set up the equation with x being the price.

As we’ve emphasised on several occasions, your case interview will be a dialogue. As such, if you don’t know what to do next or don’t understand something, make sure to ask the interviewer (and as a general rule always follow their prompts as they are trying to help, not trick you). This is especially true for the quantitative questions, where you should really understand what data you’re looking at before you jump into any calculations. Ideally you should ask your questions before you take time to formulate your approach but don’t be afraid to ask for further clarification if you really can’t make sense of what’s going on. It’s always good to walk your interviewer through your approach before you start doing the calculations and it’s no mistake to make sure that you both have the same understanding of the data. For example when confronted with the chart below, you might ask what GW (in this case gigawatt) means from the get-go and ask to confirm the different metrics (i.e. whether 1 GW = 1000 megawatts). You will never be penalised for asking a question like that.

5. Inside the Consultant’s Mind: Tools to Crack Consulting Cases

If you’re new to case cracking, it’s easy to feel overwhelmed when faced with a complex case question, unsure of where to begin.

Fortunately, like chess, the basic rules of solving cases are straightforward. Our problem-driven structure provides a clear, high-level framework to guide you. However, just like becoming a chess master, true proficiency in case interviews comes from understanding the nuances and building your skills through time and practice.

Beyond the approach, there are additional strategies and insights that consultants use, which can give you an edge. In this section, we’ll provide an overview of the core concepts you need to know, while linking to in-depth resources that will help you dive deeper into each topic.

5.1. An overall clear structure

Consultants thrive on structure, and this is one of the most important aspects to keep in mind during case interviews. Not only is it a key evaluation criterion, but it’s also the greatest tool at your disposal for tackling complex cases. Let’s break down the areas where a clear structure will make all the difference.

5.1.1 Structured notes

Every case interview begins with a prompt, and your ability to take clear, concise, and structured notes is crucial. These notes should help you repeat the case back to the interviewer, without including unnecessary information.

A good approach is to divide your notes into sections for:

• The case brief
• Follow-up questions and answers
• Numerical data
• Case structure (crucial for solving the case)
• Scrap work (usually for calculations)

As you work through the case, keep feeding and integrating your structure to maintain a high-level view of the case and avoid losing focus. This is especially important in interviewer-led cases, where you might want separate sheets for each question.

5.1.2 Structured communication

There are three main types of communication in case interviews:

• 1. Asking and answering questions
• 2. Walking the interviewer through your structure
• 3. Delivering your recommendation

When asking questions, always take a moment to organize your thoughts. Numbering your questions and answers helps ensure clarity. The same goes for walking the interviewer through your structure—use a numbering system to outline your approach clearly.

Finally, when delivering your recommendation, use a top-down approach. Circle or mark key facts throughout the case so they’re easily accessible when needed.

5.1.3 Structured framework

Having a systematic approach or framework for every case is essential. There’s a key difference between applying a problem-solving framework and forcing a case into a predetermined one. The former is necessary, while the latter can be harmful.

Whether using buckets or issue trees, ensure your framework is clearly outlined. Keeping it on a separate sheet or alongside the case prompt helps you stay organized and focused on the solution.

5.1.4 Structured calculations

When you encounter numerical data, take your time and plan your calculations before diving in. Interviewers value your logic and approach more than raw speed. Before starting, write down the steps you need to perform the calculation. Here’s an example:

• 1. Calculate current profits: Profits = Revenues - (Variable costs + Fixed costs)
• 2. Calculate the reduction in variable costs: Variable costs x 0.9
• 3. Calculate new profits: New profits = Revenues - (New variable costs + Fixed costs)

Make sure to demonstrate a structured approach before executing the calculations on a scrap sheet, then fill in the final results.

5.2. Common business knowledge and formulas

Although some consulting firms claim they don’t evaluate candidates based on their business knowledge, familiarity with basic business concepts and formulae is very useful in terms of understanding the case studies you are given in the first instance and drawing inspiration for structuring and brainstorming.

If you are coming from a business undergrad, an MBA or are an experienced hire, you might well have this covered already. For those coming from a different background, it may be useful to cover some.

Luckily, you don’t need a degree-level understanding of business to crack case interviews , and a lot of the information you will pick up by osmosis as you read through articles like this and go through cases.

However, some things you will just need to sit down and learn. We cover everything you need to know in some detail in our Case Academy Course course. However, some examples here of things you need to learn are:

• Basic accounting (particularly how to understand all the elements of a balance sheet)
• Basic economics
• Basic marketing
• Basic strategy

Below we include a few elementary concepts and formulae so you can hit the ground running in solving cases. We should note that you should not memorise these and indeed a good portion of them can be worked out logically, but you should have at least some idea of what to expect as this will make you faster and will free up much of your mental computing power. In what follows we’ll tackle concepts that you will encounter in the private business sector as well as some situations that come up in cases that feature clients from the NGO or governmental sector.

5.2.1 Business sector concepts

These concepts are the bread and butter of almost any business case so you need to make sure you have them down. Naturally, there will be specificities and differences between cases but for the most part here is a breakdown of each of them.

5.2.1.1. Revenue

The revenue is the money that the company brings in and is usually equal to the number of products they sell multiplied to the price per item and can be expressed with the following equation:

Revenue = Volume x Price

Companies may have various sources of revenue or indeed multiple types of products, all priced differently which is something you will need to account for in your case interview. Let’s consider some situations. A clothing company such as Nike will derive most of their revenue from the number of products they sell times the average price per item. Conversely, for a retail bank revenue is measured as the volume of loans multiplied by the interest rate at which the loans are given out. As we’ll see below, we might consider primary revenues and ancillary revenues: in the case of a football club, we might calculate primary revenues by multiplying the number of tickets sold by the average ticket price, and ancillary revenues those coming from sales of merchandise (similarly, let’s say average t-shirt price times the number of t-shirts sold), tv rights and sponsorships.

These are but a few examples and another reminder that you should always aim to ask questions and understand the precise revenue structure of the companies you encounter in cases.

5.2.1.2. Costs

The costs are the expenses that a company incurs during its operations. Generally, they can be broken down into fixed and variable costs :

Costs = Fixed Costs + Variable Costs

As their name implies, fixed costs do not change based on the number of units produced or sold. For example, if you produce shoes and are renting the space for your factory, you will have to pay the rent regardless of whether you produce one pair or 100. On the other hand, variable costs depend on the level of activity, so in our shoe factory example they would be equivalent to the materials used to produce each pair of shoes and would increase the more we produce.

These concepts are of course guidelines used in order to simplify the analysis in cases, and you should be aware that in reality often the situation can be more complicated. However, this should be enough for case interviews. Costs can also be quasi-fixed, in that they increase marginally with volume. Take the example of a restaurant which has a regular staff, incurring a fixed cost but during very busy hours or periods they also employ some part-time workers. This cost is not exactly variable (as it doesn’t increase with the quantity of food produced) but also not entirely fixed, as the number of extra hands will depend on how busy the restaurant is. Fixed costs can also be non-linear in nature. Let’s consider the rent in the same restaurant: we would normally pay a fixed amount every month, but if the restaurant becomes very popular we might need to rent out some extra space so the cost will increase. Again, this is not always relevant for case interviews.

5.2.1.3. Profit and profit margin

The profit is the amount of money a company is left with after it has paid all of its expenses and can be expressed as follows:

Profit = Revenue - Costs

It’s very likely that you will encounter a profitability issue in one of your case interviews, namely you will be asked to increase a company’s profit. There are two main ways of doing this: increasing revenues and reducing costs , so these will be the two main areas you will have to investigate. This may seem simple but what you will really need to understand in a case are the key drivers of a business (and this should be done through clarifying questions to the interviewer - just as a real consultant would question their client).

For example, if your client is an airline you can assume that the main source of revenue is sales of tickets, but you should inquire how many types of ticket the specific airline sells. You may naturally consider economy and business class tickets, but you may find out that there is a more premium option - such as first class - and several in-between options. Similarly to our football club example, there may be ancillary revenues from selling of food and beverage as well as advertising certain products or services on flights.

You may also come across the profit margin in case interviews. This is simply the percentage of profit compared to the revenue and can be expressed as follows:

Profit margin = Profit/Revenue x 100

5.2.1.4. Break-even point

An ancillary concept to profit, the break-even point is the moment where revenues equal costs making the profit zero and can be expressed as the following equation:

Revenues = Costs (Fixed costs + Variable costs)

This formula will be useful when you are asked questions such as ‘What is the minimum price I should sell product X?’ or ‘What quantity do I need to sell in order to recoup my investment?’. Let’s say in a case interview an owner of a sandwich store asks us to figure out how many salami and cheese salami sandwiches she needs to sell in order to break even. She’s spending $4 on salami and $2 for cheese and lettuce per sandwich, and believes she can sell the sandwiches at around $7. The cost of utilities and personnel is around $5000 per month. We could lay this all out in the break-even equation:

7 x Q ( quantity ) = (4+2) x Q + 5000 ( variable + fixed costs )

In a different scenario, we may be asked to calculate the break-even price . Let’s consider our sandwich example and say our owner knows she has enough ingredients for about 5000 sandwiches per month but is not sure how much to sell them for. In that case, if we know our break-even equation, we can simply make the following changes:

P ( price ) x 5000 = (4+2) x 5000 + 5000

By solving the equation we get to the price of $7 per sandwich.

5.2.1.5. Market share and market size

We can also consider the market closely with profit, as in fact the company’s performance in the market is what drives profits. The market size is the total number of potential customers for a certain business or product, whereas the market share is the percentage of that market that your business controls (or could control, depending on the case).

There is a good chance you will have to estimate the market size in one of your case interviews and we get into more details on how to do that below. You may be asked to estimate this in either number of potential customers or total value . The latter simply refers to the number of customers multiplied by the average value of the product or service.

To calculate the market share you will have to divide the company’s share by the total market size and multiply by 100:

Note, though, that learning the very basics of business is the beginning rather than the end of your journey. Once you are able to “speak business” at a rudimentary level, you should try to “become fluent” and immerse yourself in reading/viewing/listening to as wide a variety of business material as possible, getting a feel for all kinds of companies and industries - and especially the kinds of problems that can come up in each context and how they are solved. The material put out by the consulting firms themselves is a great place to start, but you should also follow the business news and find out about different companies and sectors as much as possible between now and interviews. Remember, if you’re going to be a consultant, this should be fun rather than a chore!

5.3 Public sector and NGO concepts

As we mentioned, there will be some cases (see section 6.6 for a more detailed example) where the key performance indicators (or KPIs in short) will not be connected to profit. The most common ones will involve the government of a country or an NGO, but they can be way more diverse and require more thought and application of first principles. We have laid out a couple of the key concepts or KPIs that come up below

5.3.1 Quantifiability

In many such scenarios you will be asked to make an important strategic decision of some kind or to optimise a process. Of course these are not restricted to non-private sector cases but this is where they really come into their own as there can be great variation in the type of decision and the types of field.

While there may be no familiar business concepts to anchor yourself onto, a concept that is essential is quantifiability . This means, however qualitative the decision might seem, consultants rely on data so you should always aim to have aspects of a decision that can be quantified, even if the data doesn’t present itself in a straightforward manner.

Let’s take a practical example. Your younger sibling asks you to help them decide which university they should choose if they want to study engineering. One way to structure your approach would be to segment the problem into factors affecting your sibling’s experience at university and experience post-university. Within the ‘at uni’ category you might think about the following:

• Financials : How much are tuition costs and accommodation costs?
• Quality of teaching and research : How are possible universities ranked in the QS guide based on teaching and research?
• Quality of resources : How well stocked is their library, are the labs well equipped etc.?
• Subject ranking : How is engineering at different unis ranked?
• Life on campus and the city : What are the living costs in the city where the university is based? What are the extracurricular opportunities and would your sibling like to live in that specific city based on them?

Within the ‘out of uni’ category you might think about:

• Exit options : What are the fields in which your sibling could be employed and how long does it take the average student of that university to find a job?
• Alumni network : What percentage of alumni are employed by major companies?
• Signal : What percentage of applicants from the university get an interview in major engineering companies and related technical fields?

You will perhaps notice that all the buckets discussed pose quantifiable questions meant to provide us with data necessary to make a decision. It’s no point to ask ‘Which university has the nicest teaching staff?’ as that can be a very subjective metric.

5.3.1 Impact

Another key concept to consider when dealing with sectors other than the private one is how impactful a decision or a line of inquiry is on the overarching issue , or whether all our branches in our issue tree have a similar impact. This can often come in the form of impact on lives, such as in McKinsey’s conservation case discussed below, namely how many species can we save with our choice of habitat.

5.4 Common consulting concepts

Consultants use basic logic business on an every day basis, as they help them articulate their frameworks to problems. However, they also use some consulting specific logical principles to quality check their analysis and perform in the most efficient way possible. These principles can be applied to all aspects of a consultant’s work, but for brevity we can say they mostly impact a consultant’s systematic approach and communication - two very important things that are also tested in case interviews. Therefore, it’s imperative that you not only get to know them, but learn how and when to use them as they are at the very core of good casing. They are MECE-ness, the Pareto Principle and the Pyramid principle and are explained briefly below - you should, however, go on to study them in-depth in their respective articles.

Perhaps the central pillar of all consulting work and an invaluable tool to solve cases, MECE stands for Mutually Exclusive and Collectively Exhaustive . It can refer to any and every aspect in a case but is most often used when talking about structure. We have a detailed article explaining the concept here , but the short version is that MECE-ness ensures that there is no overlap between elements of a structure (i.e. the Mutually Exclusive component) and that it covers all the drivers or areas of a problem (Collectively Exhaustive). It is a concept that can be applied to any segmentation when dividing a set into subsets that include it wholly but do not overlap.

Let’s take a simple example and then a case framework example. In simple terms, when we are asked to break down the set ‘cars’ into subsets, dividing cars into ‘red cars’ and ‘sports cars’ is neither mutually exclusive (as there are indeed red sports cars) nor exhaustive of the whole set (i.e. there are also yellow non-sports cars that are not covered by this segmentation). A MECE way to segment would be ‘cars produced before 2000’ and ‘cars produced after 2000’ as this segmentation allows for no overlap and covers all the cars in existence.

Dividing cars can be simple, but how can we ensure MECEness in a case-interview a.k.a. a business situation. While the same principles apply, a good tip to ensure that your structure is MECE is to think about all the stakeholders - i.e. those whom a specific venture involves.

Let’s consider that our client is a soda manufacturer who wants to move from a business-to-business strategy, i.e. selling to large chains of stores and supermarkets, to a business-to-consumer strategy where it sells directly to consumers. In doing so they would like to retrain part of their account managers as direct salespeople and need to know what factors to consider.

A stakeholder-driven approach would be to consider the workforce and customers and move further down the issue tree, thinking about individual issues that might affect them. In the case of the workforce, we might consider how the shift would affect their workload and whether it takes their skillset into account. As for the customers, we might wonder whether existing customers would be satisfied with this move: will the remaining B2B account managers be able to provide for the needs of all their clients and will the fact that the company is selling directly to consumers now not cannibalise their businesses? We see how by taking a stakeholder-centred approach we can ensure that every single perspective and potential issue arising from it is fully covered.

5.4.2 The Pareto Principle

Also known as the 80/20 rule, this principle is important when gauging the impact of a decision or a factor in your analysis. It simply states that in business (but not only) 80% of outcomes come from 20% of causes. What this means is you can make a few significant changes that will impact most of your business organisation, sales model, cost structure etc.

Let’s have a look at 3 quick examples to illustrate this:

• 80% of all accidents are caused by 20% of drivers
• 20% of a company’s products account for 80% of the sales
• 80% of all results in a company are driven by 20% of its employees

The 80/20 rule will be a very good guide line in real engagements as well as case interviews, as it will essentially point to the easiest and most straightforward way of doing things. Let’s say one of the questions in a case is asking you to come up with an approach to understand the appeal of a new beard trimmer. Obviously you can’t interview the whole male population so you might think about setting up a webpage and asking people to comment their thoughts. But what you would get would be a laundry list of difficult to sift through data.

Using an 80/20 approach you would segment the population based on critical factors (age groups, grooming habits etc.) and then approach a significant sample size of each (e.g. 20), analysing the data and reaching a conclusion.

5.4.3 The Pyramid Principle

This principle refers to organising your communication in a top-down , efficient manner. While this is generally applicable, the pyramid principle will most often be employed when delivering the final recommendation to your client. This means - as is implicit in the name - that you would organise your recommendation (and communication in general) as a pyramid, stating the conclusion or most important element at the top then go down the pyramid listing 3 supporting arguments and then further (ideally also 3) supporting arguments for those supporting arguments.

Let’s look at this in practice in a case interview context: your client is a German air-conditioning unit manufacturer who was looking to expand into the French market. However, after your analysis you’ve determined that the market share they were looking to capture would not be feasible. A final recommendation using the Pyramid Principle would sound something like this: ‘I recommend that we do not enter the German market for the following three reasons. Firstly, the market is too small for our ambitions of $50 million. Secondly the market is heavily concentrated, being controlled by three major players and our 5 year goal would amount to controlling 25% of the market, a share larger than that of any of the players. Thirdly, the alternative of going into the corporate market would not be feasible, as it has high barriers to entry.Then, if needed, we could delve deeper into each of our categories

6. Building blocks

As we mentioned before, in your case interview preparation you will undoubtedly find preparation resources that claim that there are several standard types of cases and that there is a general framework that can be applied to each type of case. While there are indeed cases that are straightforward at least in appearance and seemingly invite the application of such frameworks, the reality is never that simple and cases often involve multiple or more complicated components that cannot be fitted into a simple framework.

At MCC we don’t want you to get into the habit of trying to identify which case type you’re dealing with and pull out a framework, but we do recognize that there are recurring elements in frameworks that are useful - such as the profitability of a venture (with its revenues and costs), the valuation of a business, estimating and segmenting a market and pricing a product.

We call these building blocks because they can be used to build case frameworks but are not a framework in and of themselves, and they can be shuffled around and rearranged in any way necessary to be tailored to our case. Hence, our approach is not to make you think in terms of case types but work from first principles and use these building blocks to build your own framework. Let’s take two case prompts to illustrate our point.

Bain Case Study Example

The first is from the Bain website, where the candidate is asked whether they think it’s a good idea for their friend to open a coffee shop in Cambridge UK (see the case here ). The answer framework provided here is a very straightforward profitability analysis framework, examining the potential revenues and potential costs of the venture:

While this is a good point to start for your case interview (especially taken together with the clarifying questions), we will notice that this approach will need more tailoring to the case - for example the quantity of coffee will be determined by the market for coffee drinkers in Cambridge, which we have to determine based on preference. We are in England so a lot of people will be drinking tea but we are in a university town so perhaps more people than average are drinking coffee as it provides a better boost when studying. All these are some much needed case-tailored hypotheses that we can make based on the initial approach.

Just by looking at this case we might be tempted to say that we can just take a profitability case and apply it without any issues. However, this generic framework is just a starting point and in reality we would need to tailor it much further in the way we had started to do in order to get to a satisfactory answer. For example, the framework for this specific case interview doesn’t cover aspects such as the customer’s expertise: does the friend have any knowledge of the coffee business, such as where to source coffee and how to prepare it? Also, we could argue there may be some legal factors to consider here, such as any approvals that they might need from the city council to run a coffee shop on site, or some specific trade licences that are not really covered in the basic profitability framework.

McKinsey Case Study Example

Let’s take a different case , however, from the McKinsey website. In this scenario, the candidate is being asked to identify some factors in order to choose where to focus the client’s conservation efforts. Immediately we can realise that this case doesn’t lend itself to any pre-packaged framework and we will need to come up with something from scratch - and take a look at McKinsey’s answer of the areas to focus on:

We notice immediately that this framework is 100% tailored to the case - of course there are elements which we encounter in other cases, such as costs and risks but again these are applied in an organic way. It’s pretty clear that while no standard framework would work in this case, the aforementioned concepts - costs and risks - and the way to approach them (a.k.a building blocks ) are fundamentally similar throughout cases (with the obvious specificities of each case).

In what follows, we’ll give a brief description of each building block starting from the Bain example discussed previously, in order to give you a general idea of what they are and their adaptability, but you should make sure to follow the link to the in-depth articles to learn all their ins and outs.

6.1 Estimates and segmentation

This building block will come into play mostly when you’re thinking about the market for a certain product (but make sure to read the full article for more details). Let’s take our Bain Cambridge coffee example. As we mentioned under the quantity bucket we need to understand what the market size for coffee in Cambridge would be - so we can make an estimation based on segmentation .

The key to a good estimation is the ability to logically break down the problem into more manageable pieces. This will generally mean segmenting a wider population to find a particular target group. We can start off with the population of Cambridge - which we estimate at 100.000. In reality the population is closer to 150.000 but that doesn’t matter - the estimation has to be reasonable and not accurate , so unless the interviewer gives you a reason to reconsider you can follow your instinct. We can divide that into people who do and don’t drink coffee. Given our arguments before, we can conclude that 80% of those, so 80.000 drink coffee. Then we can further segment into those who drink regularly - let’s say every day - and those who drink occasionally - let’s say once a week. Based on the assumptions before about the student population needing coffee to function, and with Cambridge having a high student population, we can assume that 80% of those drinking coffee are regular drinkers, so that would be 64.000 regular drinkers and 16.000 occasional drinkers. We can then decide whom we want to target what our strategy needs to be:

This type of estimation and segmentation can be applied to any case specifics - hence why it is a building block.

6.2 Profitability

We had several looks at this building block so far (see an in-depth look here ) as it will show up in most case interivew scenarios, since profit is a key element in any company’s strategy. As we have seen, the starting point to this analysis is to consider both the costs and revenues of a company, and try to determine whether revenues need to be improved or whether costs need to be lowered. In the coffee example, the revenues are dictated by the average price per coffe x the number of coffees sold , whereas costs can be split into fixed and variable .

Some examples of fixed costs would be the rent for the stores and the cost of the personnel and utilities, while the most obvious variable costs would be the coffee beans used and the takeaway containers (when needed). We may further split revenues in this case into Main revenues - i.e. the sales of coffee - and Ancillary revenues , which can be divided into Sales of food products (sales of pastries, sandwiches etc., each with the same price x quantity schema) and Revenues from events - i.e renting out the coffee shop to events and catering for the events themselves. Bear in mind that revenues will be heavily influenced by the penetration rate , i.e. the share of the market which we can capture.

6.3 Pricing

Helping a company determine how much they should charge for their goods or services is another theme that comes up frequently in cases. While it may seem less complicated than the other building blocks, we assure you it’s not - you will have to understand and consider several factors, such as the costs a company is incurring, their general strategic positioning, availability, market trends as well as the customers’ willingness to pay (or WTP in short) - so make sure to check out our in-depth guide here .

In our example, we may determine that the cost per cup (coffee beans, staff, rent) is £1. We want to be student friendly so we should consider how much students would want to pay for a coffee as well as how much are competitors are charging. Based on those factors, it would be reasonable to charge on average £2 per cup of coffee. It’s true that our competitors are charging £3 but they are targeting mostly the adult market, whose willingness to pay is higher, so their pricing model takes that into account as well as the lower volume of customers in that demographic.

6.4. Valuation

A variant of the pricing building block, a valuation problem generally asks the candidate to determine how much a client should pay for a specific company (the target of an acquisition) as well as what other factors to consider. The two most important factors (but not the only ones - for a comprehensive review see our Valuation article ) to consider are the net present value (in consulting interviews usually in perpetuity) and the synergies .

In short, the net present value of a company is how much profit it currently brings in, divided by how much that cash flow will depreciate in the future and can be represented with the equation below:

The synergies refer to what could be achieved should the companies operate as one, and can be divided into cost and revenue synergies .

Let’s expand our coffee example a bit to understand these. Imagine that our friend manages to open a chain of coffee shops in Cambridge and in the future considers acquiring a chain of take-out restaurants. The most straightforward example of revenue synergies would be cross-selling, in this case selling coffee in the restaurants as well as in the dedicated stores, and thus getting an immediate boost in market share by using the existing customers of the restaurant chain. A cost synergy would be merging the delivery services of the two businesses to deliver both food and coffee, thus avoiding redundancies and reducing costs associated with twice the number of drivers and vehicles.

6.5. Competitive interaction

This component of cases deals with situations where the market in which a company is operating changes and the company must decide what to do. These changes often have to do with a new player entering the market (again for more details make sure to dive into the Competitive Interaction article ).

Let’s assume that our Cambridge coffee shop has now become a chain and has flagged up to other competitors that Cambridge is a blooming market for coffee. As such, Starbucks has decided to open a few stores in Cambridge themselves, to test this market. The question which might be posed to a candidate is what should our coffee chain do. One way (and a MECE one) to approach the problem is to decide between doing something and doing nothing . We might consider merging with another coffee chain and pooling our resources or playing to our strengths and repositioning ourselves as ‘your student-friendly, shop around the corner’. Just as easily we may just wait the situation out and see whether indeed Starbucks is cutting into our market share - after all, the advantages of our product and services might speak for themselves and Starbucks might end up tanking. Both of these are viable options if argued right and depending on the further specifics of the case.

6.6. Special cases

Most cases deal with private sectors, where the overarching objective entails profit in some form. However, as hinted before, there are cases which deal with other sectors where there are other KPIs in place . The former will usually contain one or several of these building blocks whereas the latter will very likely have neither. This latter category is arguably the one that will stretch your analytical and organisational skills to the limit, since there will be very little familiarity that you can fall back on (McKinsey famously employs such cases in their interview process).

So how do we tackle the structure for such cases? The short answer would be starting from first principles and using the problem driven structure outlined above, but let’s look at a quick example in the form of a McKinsey case :

The first question addressed to the candidate is the following:

This is in fact asking us to build a structure for the case. So what should we have in mind here? Most importantly, we should start with a structure that is MECE and we should remember to do that by considering all the stakeholders . They are on the one hand the government and affiliated institutions and on the other the population. We might then consider which issues might arise for each shareholder and what the benefits for them would be, as well as the risks. This approach is illustrated in the answer McKinsey provides as well:

More than anything, this type of case shows us how important it is to practise and build different types of structures, and think about MECE ways of segmenting the problem.

7. How Do I prepare for case interviews

In consulting fashion, the overall preparation can be structured into theoretical preparation and practical preparation , with each category then being subdivided into individual prep and prep with a partner .

As a general rule, the level and intensity of the preparation will differ based on your background - naturally if you have a business background (and have been part of a consulting club or something similar) your preparation will be less intensive than if you’re starting from scratch. The way we suggest you go about it is to start with theoretical preparation , which means learning about case interviews, business and basic consulting concepts (you can do this using free resources - such as the ones we provide - or if you want a more through preparation you can consider joining our Case Academy as well).

You can then move on to the practical preparation which should start with doing solo cases and focusing on areas of improvement, and then move on to preparation with a partner , which should be another candidate or - ideally - an ex-consultant.

Let’s go into more details with respect to each type of preparation.

7.1. Solo practice

The two most important areas of focus in sole preparation are:

• Mental math

As we mentioned briefly, the best use of your time is to focus on solving cases. You can start with cases listed on MBB sites since they are clearly stated and have worked solutions as well (e.g. Bain is a good place to start) and then move to more complex cases (our Case Library also offers a range of cases of different complexities). To build your confidence, start out on easier case questions, work through with the solutions, and don't worry about time. As you get better, you can move on to more difficult cases and try to get through them more quickly. You should practice around eight case studies on your own to build your confidence.

Another important area of practice is your mental mathematics as this skill will considerably increase your confidence and is neglected by many applicants - much to their immediate regret in the case interview. Find our mental math tool here or in our course, and practice at least ten minutes per day, from day one until the day before the interview.

7.2. Preparation with a partner

There are aspects of a case interview - such as asking clarifying questions - which you cannot do alone and this is why, after you feel comfortable, you should move on to practice with another person. There are two options here:

• Practicing with a peer
• Practicing with an ex-consultant

In theory they can be complementary - especially if you’re peer is also preparing for consulting interviews - and each have advantages and disadvantages. A peer is likely to practice with you for free for longer, however you may end up reinforcing some bad habits or unable to get actionable feedback. A consultant will be able to provide you the latter but having their help for the same number of hours as a peer will come at a higher cost. Let’s look at each option in more detail.

7.2.1. Peer preparation

Once you have worked through eight cases solo, you should be ready to simulate the case interview more closely and start working with another person.

Here, many candidates turn to peer practice - that is, doing mock case interviews with friends, classmates or others also applying to consulting. If you’re in university, and especially in business school, there will very likely be a consulting club for you to join and do lots of case practice with. If you don’t have anyone to practice, though, or if you just want to get a bit more volume in with others, our free meeting board lets you find fellow applicants from around the world with whom to practice. We recommend practicing around 10 to 15 ‘live’ cases to really get to a point where you feel comfortable.

7.2.2. Preparation with a consultant

You can do a lot practising by yourself and with peers. However, nothing will bring up your skills so quickly and profoundly as working with a real consultant.

Perhaps think about it like boxing. You can practice drills and work on punch bags all you want, but at some point you need to get into the ring and do some actual sparring if you ever want to be ready to fight.

Practicing with an ex consultant is essentialy a simulation of a case interview. Of course, it isn’t possible to secure the time of experienced top-tier consultants for free. However, when considering whether you should invest to boost your chances of success, it is worth considering the difference in your salary over even just a few years between getting into a top-tier firm versus a second-tier one. In the light of thousands in increased annual earnings (easily accumulating into millions over multiple years), it becomes clear that getting expert interview help really is one of the best investments you can make in your own future.

Should you decide to make this step, MyConsultingCoach can help, offering bespoke mentoring programmes , where you are paired with a 5+ year experienced, ex-MBB mentor of your choosing, who will then oversee your whole case interview preparation from start to finish - giving you your best possible chance of landing a job!

7.3. Practice for online interviews

Standard preparation for interview case studies will carry directly over to online cases.

However, if you want to do some more specific prep, you can work through cases solo to a timer and using a calculator and/or Excel (online cases generally allow calculators and second computers to help you, whilst these are banned in live case interviews).

Older PST-style questions also make great prep, but a particularly good simulation is the self-assessment tests included in our Case Academy course . These multiple choice business questions conducted with a strict time limit are great preparation for the current crop of online cases.

7.4. Fit interviews

As we’ve noted, even something billed as a case interview is very likely to contain a fit interview as a subset.

We have an article on fit interviews and also include a full set of lessons on how to answer fit questions properly as a subset of our comprehensive Case Academy course .

Here though, the important thing to convey is that you take preparing for fit questions every bit as seriously as you do case prep.

Since they sound the same as you might encounter when interviewing for other industries, the temptation is to regard these as “just normal interview questions”.

However, consulting firms take your answers to these questions a good deal more seriously than elsewhere.

This isn’t just for fluffy “corporate culture” reasons. The long hours and close teamwork, as well as the client-facing nature of management consulting, mean that your personality and ability to get on with others is going to be a big part of making you a tolerable and effective co-worker.

If you know you’ll have to spend 14+ hour working days with someone you hire and that your annual bonus depends on them not alienating clients, you better believe you’ll pay attention to their character in interview.

There are also hard-nosed financial reasons for the likes of McKinsey, Bain and BCG to drill down so hard on your answers.

In particular, top consultancies have huge issues with staff retention. The average management consultant only stays with these firms for around two years before they have moved on to a new industry.

In some cases, consultants bail out because they can’t keep up with the arduous consulting lifestyle of long hours and endless travel. In many instances, though, departing consultants are lured away by exit opportunities - such as the well trodden paths towards internal strategy roles, private equity or becoming a start-up founder.

Indeed, many individuals will intentionally use a two year stint in consulting as something like an MBA they are getting paid for - giving them accelerated exposure to the business world and letting them pivot into something new.

Consulting firms want to get a decent return on investment for training new recruits. Thus, they want hires who not only intend to stick with consulting longer-term, but also have a temperament that makes this feasible and an overall career trajectory where it just makes sense for them to stay put.

This should hammer home the point that, if you want to get an offer, you need to be fully prepared to answer fit questions - and to do so excellently - any time you have a case interview.

8. Interview day - what to expect, with tips

Of course, all this theory is well and good, but a lot of readers might be concerned about what exactly to expect in real life . It’s perfectly reasonable to want to get as clear a picture as possible here - we all want to know what we are going up against when we face a new challenge!

Indeed, it is important to think about your interview in more holistic terms, rather than just focusing on small aspects of analysis. Getting everything exactly correct is less important than the overall approach you take to reasoning and how you communicate - and candidates often lose sight of this fact.

In this section, then, we’ll run through the case interview experience from start to finish, directing you to resources with more details where appropriate. As a supplement to this, the following video from Bain is excellent. It portrays an abridged version of a case interview, but is very useful as a guide to what to expect - not just from Bain, but from McKinsey, BCG and any other high-level consulting firm.

8.1. Getting started

Though you might be shown through to the office by a staff member, usually your interviewer will come and collect you from a waiting area. Either way, when you first encounter them, you should greet your interviewer with a warm smile and a handshake (unless they do not offer their hand). Be confident without verging into arrogance. You will be asked to take a seat in the interviewer’s office, where the case interview can then begin.

8.1.1. First impressions

In reality, your assessment begins before you even sit down at your interviewer’s desk. Whether at a conscious level or not, the impression you make within the first few seconds of meeting your interviewer is likely to significantly inform the final hiring decision (again, whether consciously or not).

Your presentation and how you hold yourself and behave are all important . If this seems strange, consider that, if hired, you will be personally responsible for many clients’ impressions of the firm. These things are part of the job! Much of material on the fit interview is useful here, whilst we also cover first impressions and presentation generally in our article on what to wear to interview .

As we have noted above, your interview might start with a fit segment - that is, with the interviewer asking questions about your experiences, your soft skills, and motivation to want to join consulting generally and that firm in particular. In short, the kinds of things a case study can’t tell them about you. We have a fit interview article and course to get you up to speed here.

8.1.2. Down to business

Following an initial conversation, your interviewer will introduce your case study , providing a prompt for the question you have to answer. You will have a pen and paper in front of you and should (neatly) note down the salient pieces of information (keep this up throughout the interview).

It is crucial here that you don’t delve into analysis or calculations straight away . Case prompts can be tricky and easy to misunderstand, especially when you are under pressure. Rather, ask any questions you need to fully understand the case question and then validate that understanding with the interviewer before you kick off any analysis. Better to eliminate mistakes now than experience that sinking feeling of realising you have gotten the whole thing wrong halfway through your case!

This process is covered in our article on identifying the problem and in greater detail in our Case Academy lesson on that subject.

8.1.3. Analysis

Once you understand the problem, you should take a few seconds to set your thoughts in order and draw up an initial structure for how you want to proceed. You might benefit from utilising one or more of our building blocks here to make a strong start. Present this to your interviewer and get their approval before you get into the nuts and bolts of analysis.

We cover the mechanics of how to structure your problem and lead the analysis in our articles here and here and more thoroughly in the MCC Case Academy . What it is important to convey here, though, is that your case interview is supposed to be a conversation rather than a written exam . Your interviewer takes a role closer to a co-worker than an invigilator and you should be conversing with them throughout.

Indeed, how you communicate with your interviewer and explain your rationale is a crucial element of how you will be assessed. Case questions in general, are not posed to see if you can produce the correct answer, but rather to see how you think . Your interviewer wants to see you approach the case in a structured, rational fashion. The only way they are going to know your thought processes, though, is if you tell them!

To demonstrate this point, here is another excellent video from Bain, where candidates are compared.

Note that multiple different answers to each question are considered acceptable and that Bain is primarily concerned with the thought processes of the candidate’s exhibit .

Another reason why communication is absolutely essential to case interview success is the simple reason that you will not have all the facts you need to complete your analysis at the outset. Rather, you will usually have to ask the interviewer for additional data throughout the case to allow you to proceed .

NB: Don't be let down by your math!

Your ability to quickly and accurately interpret these charts and other figures under pressure is one of the skills that is being assessed. You will also need to make any calculations with the same speed and accuracy (without a calculator!). As such, be sure that you are up to speed on your consulting math .

8.1.4. Recommendation

Finally, you will be asked to present a recommendation. This should be delivered in a brief, top-down "elevator pitch" format , as if you are speaking to a time-pressured CEO. Again here, how you communicate will be just as important as the details of what you say, and you should aim to speak clearly and with confidence.

For more detail on how to give the perfect recommendation, take a look at our articles on the Pyramid Principle and providing recommendations , as well the relevant lesson within MCC Academy .

8.1.5. Wrapping up

After your case is complete, there might be a few more fit questions - including a chance for you to ask some questions of the interviewer . This is your opportunity to make a good parting impression.

We deal with the details in our fit interview resources. However, it is always worth bearing in mind just how many candidates your interviewers are going to see giving similar answers to the same questions in the same office. A pretty obvious pre-requisite to being considered for a job is that your interviewer remembers you in the first place. Whilst you shouldn't do something stupid just to be noticed, asking interesting parting questions is a good way to be remembered.

Now, with the interview wrapped up, it’s time to shake hands, thank the interviewer for their time and leave the room .

You might have other case interviews or tests that day or you might be heading home. Either way, if know that you did all you could to prepare, you can leave content in the knowledge that you have the best possible chance of receiving an email with a job offer. This is our mission at MCC - to provide all the resources you need to realise your full potential and land your dream consulting job!

8.2. Remote and one-way interview tips

Zoom case interviews and “one-way” automated fit interviews are becoming more common as selection processes are increasingly remote, with these new formats being accompanied by their own unique challenges.

Obviously you won’t have to worry about lobbies and shaking hands for a video interview. However, a lot remains the same. You still need to do the same prep in terms of getting good at case cracking and expressing your fit answers. The specific considerations around remote case interviews are, in effect, around making sure you come across as effectively as you would in person.

8.2.1. Connection

It sounds trivial, but a successful video case interview of any kind presupposes a functioning computer with a stable and sufficient internet connection.

Absolutely don’t forget to have your laptop plugged in, as your battery will definitely let you down mid-interview. Similarly, make sure any housemates or family know not to use the microwave, vacuum cleaner or anything else that makes wifi cut out (or makes a lot of noise, obviously)

If you have to connect on a platform you don’t use much (for example, if it’s on Teams and you’re used to Zoom), make sure you have the up to date version of the app in advance, rather than having to wait for an obligatory download and end up late to join. Whilst you’re at it, make sure you’re familiar with the controls etc. At the risk of being made fun of, don’t be afraid to have a practice call with a friend.

8.2.2. Dress

You might get guidance on a slightly more relaxed dress code for a Zoom interview. However, if in doubt, dress as you would for the real thing (see our article here ).

Either way, always remember that presentation is part of what you are being assessed on - the firm needs to know you can be presentable for clients. Taking this stuff seriously also shows respect for your interviewer and their time in interviewing you.

8.2.3. Lighting

An aspect of presentation that you have to devote some thought to for a Zoom case interview is your lighting.

Hopefully, you long ago nailed a lighting set-up during the Covid lockdowns. However, make sure to check your lighting in advance with your webcam - bearing in mind what time if day your case interview actually is. If your case interview is late afternoon, don’t just check in the morning. Make sure you aren’t going to be blinded from light coming in a window behind your screen, or that you end up with the weird shadow stripes from blinds all over your face.

Natural light is always best, but if there won’t be much of that during your interview, you’ll likely want to experiment with moving some lamps around.

8.2.4. Clarity

The actual stories you tell in an automated “one-way” fit interview will be the same as for a live equivalent. If anything, things should be easier, as you can rattle off a practised monologue without an interviewer interrupting you to ask for clarifications.

You can probably also assume that the algorithm assessing your performance is sufficiently capable that it will be observing you at much the same level as a human interviewer. However, it is probably still worth speaking as clearly as possible with these kinds of interviews and paying extra attention to your lighting to ensure that your face is clearly visible.

No doubt the AIs scoring these interviews are improving all the time, but you still want to make their job as easy as possible. Just think about the same things as you would with a live Zoom case interview, but more so.

9. How we can help

There are lots of great free resources on this site to get you started with preparation, from all our articles on case solving and consulting skills to our free case library and peer practice meeting board .

To step your preparation up a notch, though, our Case Academy course will give you everything you need to know to solve the most complex of cases - whether those are in live case interviews, with chatbots, written tests or any other format.

Whatever kind of case you end up facing, nothing will bring up your skillset faster than the kind of acute, actionable feedback you can get from a mock case interview a real, MBB consultant. Whilst it's possible to get by without this kind of coaching, it does tend to be the biggest single difference maker for successful candidates. From one to one practice to personalised preparation plan, our tailored coaching packages will help you achieve your objectives.

You can find out more on our coaching page:

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A Comprehensive Guide to Case Interview Prep [tips updated 2024]

• Last Updated June, 2024

Rebecca Smith-Allen

Former McKinsey Engagement Manager

What Are the Best Ways to Prepare for Management Consulting Interviews?

Congratulations!

If you’re on this page, you’re probably considering a career in management consulting or are already in the middle of the interview process.

We’re here to help.

We’re a team of more than 20 former McKinsey, Bain, and BCG consultants and recruiters (our average time in consulting is 13 years each) and we put together this guide to help you prepare for getting your consulting offer.

After reading this, we hope “congratulations” is also what you’ll hear when you leave your second round interviews.

Management Consulting Jobs Are in High Demand

Management consulting jobs are among the most sought-after positions in on-campus recruiting, whether you’re applying as an undergraduate or from a business school. 

Consulting firm recruits also include law school students, Ph.D. program candidates and people who’ve already started their professional careers in other industries.

Management consulting firms are filled with smart, driven people working to solve hard business problems. 

This work is a great launching pad for your career. 

Top consultancies offer competitive salaries and also invest significantly in employee development. A job at a management consulting firm will expose you to multiple different industries and types of business problems. 

There’s a lot to like about a career in consulting!

Competition for Jobs with Top Consulting Firms Is Fierce

But attractive jobs are usually highly competitive, and that’s definitely the case in management consulting. 

Top firms typically make offers to only about 1% of the people who apply. It’s not impossible to get a job with firms like McKinsey, Bain, and BCG (also known as the MBB firms), but it requires preparation.

In particular, successful candidates know that consulting firms use a particular type of interview question — the case study interview — and they know what recruiters are looking for in answers. 

In this article, we’ll help you prepare for management consulting interviews by answering the following questions:

• What is a case interview?
• How do I answer a case question?
• What is the best approach for case prep?

We’ll also provide tips and tricks that will help you to ace your case.  

Whether you’re aiming for a job at one of the MBB firms (McKinsey, Bain, or BCG), with other consultancies such as AT Kearney, L.E.K. or Oliver Wyman, or with the consulting arms of the large accounting firms such as Deloitte, Accenture, PwC, Ernst & Young, or KPMG, we can help you get there.  

What Is a Consulting Case Study Interview (also known as the “Case Interview”)?

A Case Study Interview is a real-time problem-solving test used to screen candidates for their ability to succeed in consulting. 

The case is presented as an open-ended question, often a problem that a specific type of business is facing, that an interviewer asks a candidate to solve.

Sample Case Interview Questions

Sales of drinks in Coffee Bean cafes are decreasing. What is causing the sales decrease?

Turnover of store employees at Burgers R’ Us restaurants has increased over prior years. What would you advise the company to do?

Donations to Caring Hands are decreasing, straining the non-profit’s ability to help the families it targets. What should the organization do to turn this around?

Case Interview 101 – The Basics for Beginners

You don’t need an MBA or an undergraduate degree in economics to land a job in consulting. But you will need to learn some business basics to be able to crack case interviews.

This section covers the concepts non-business students need to become familiar with, such as:

• The income statement – an overview
• Common formulas used in case interviews
• Business concepts you need to know
• Common types of case interviews

Case Interview 101, Part 1: The Income Statement

To solve cases, you first need to understand broadly how companies make money. For any specific case, you’ll want to make sure you understand how that company makes money. 

The most common way companies make money is by selling a product or service for more than it costs to produce, thereby earning a profit . 

Companies use three major financial statements to monitor and report their financial performance: 

(1) The income statement (2) The balance sheet (3) The cash flow statement 

An income statement (or profit and loss statement or statement of revenue and expenses) is a record of a company’s profit or loss over a specific period of time . The profit or loss is calculated by taking the revenues generated and subtracting the expenses incurred over the same period of time. The income statement has 3 major categories: Revenue, Expenses, and Profit or Loss .

Revenue is the total amount of money generated by a company from selling its products or services. It is also referred to as gross sales or “top line” as it sits at the top of the income statement. 

Costs are expenses incurred by a company to make its products or services. In the income statement there are three types of costs: 

• Costs of goods sold (COGS) or cost of sales are the direct costs of making products or providing a service. For a burger restaurant, for example, the COGS would include things like the meat, bun, and hourly labor of cooks, cashiers, and shift supervisors.
• Operating expenses are costs that are indirectly tied to the making of products or services. These include selling, general, and administrative (SGA) expenses, management salaries, depreciation, and amortization. Depreciation and amortization are non-cash expenses that reflect the value of big assets like machinery or buildings going down over time. For example, if our burger restaurant buys a grill to cook burgers on for $1,000 and expects it to last for 10 years, it would spread out the cost over that period, $100 per year. Other operating expenses for our burger restaurant would include things like advertising, the rent on the company’s headquarters, and the salary of the CEO.
• Costs incurred from non-operating activities such as interest paid on loans. These costs are rarely part of case interviews.

Profit or Loss :

Income statements generally show 3 levels of profit (loss) or earnings: Gross Profit; Earnings Before Interest, Tax, Depreciation and Amortization (EBITDA); and Net Profit.

Gross profit or loss

This is calculated by subtracting COGS or the cost of sales from the total revenue generated. If the costs are higher than the revenue generated, then the company has made a loss.

EBITDA and EBIT

EBITDA is calculated by subtracting operating expenses from the gross profit. EBIT is calculated by subtracting depreciation and amortization from EBITDA. 

As mentioned above, depreciation and amortization are non-cash expenses. So if the amount of cash generated by selling a product or service is important to your analysis, you should look at EBITDA. If looking at a more fully loaded cost is the focus of your analysis, use EBIT.

Net Profit or Loss

This is calculated by subtracting interest and tax from EBIT. It is also known as Net Income and refers to the profit (or loss) for the period. This is also known as the “bottom line” as it sits at the bottom of the income statement. This is the ultimate measure of whether a company’s activities are profitable during a certain time period when all costs are considered.  

Case Interview 101, Part 2: Common Formulas Used in Case Interviews

Here is a look at common formulas used in case interviews.

Profitability formula:

The profitability formula is used in profit (or loss) related cases. The profit or loss can be calculated using the following formula:

             Profit (or Loss) = Revenue – Costs

As mentioned above:

• Revenue is the money generated from selling a product or service. It can be broken down into price per unit and number of units sold . 
• Costs are the expenses incurred to make the product or service and can be broken down into cost per unit and number of units sold . 

The formula can further be broken down into:

            Profit (or Loss) = (price per unit x number of units sold) – (cost per unit x number of units sold)

There are other ways to break down revenue and cost depending on the case question.

• Revenue can be broken down by product or service line, customer type, or geographic region (e.g., North American, Europe, Asia)
• Costs can be broken into fixed costs and variable costs, or components such as overhead, salary, etc.

It is often helpful to break costs down into fixed and variable to solve consulting cases, and understanding the difference is important. Fixed costs, like rent for a store or the cost of equipment, are incurred regardless of how many units a company sells; whereas variable costs are only incurred with the production of each additional unit. Because of this, it can be helpful to sell incremental units even at a loss for a short period of time if it helps cover fixed costs.

So the profitability formula can also be written as:

            Profit (or Loss) = (price per unit x number of units sold) – (fixed + variable costs)

P rofitability example:

Your client, a manufacturer, is facing a decline in profits. Your client wants your help solving this problem. We’ll use this example to demonstrate all the formulas in this section.

The first step you could take is to calculate the past year’s profit given the following information:

• Number of units sold = 1 million
• Price per unit = $10
• Cost per unit = $8

          Profit (or Loss) = ($10 x 1 million) – ($8 x 1 million)

          Profit = $2 million

Profit margin formula:

Profit margin indicates how many cents of profit the company generated for each dollar of sale. It’s typically used to measure the financial health of a company . 

You can compare the profit margin of a company against its historical margins to evaluate whether its current performance is better or worse than past performance. You can also compare it against companies in the same industry to evaluate whether its financial performance is stronger or weaker.

Profit margin can be calculated using the formula:

          Profit margin = (Profit / Revenue ) *100%

Profit margin example:

To calculate the profit margin, first, you need to calculate company revenues as follows:

            Revenue = 1 million x $10

           Revenue = $ 10 million

You can now calculate the profit margin as follows:

            Profit margin = ($2 million / $10 million) x 100%

           Profit margin = 20%

Note you can combine both the formulas for faster calculation.

Market share formula:

Market share is the size of the company in relation to the size of the industry in which it operates, where size is typically measured in annual revenues. It is used to compare the size of a company to its competitors and the industry as a whole. It can be used in market entry cases because industries with a lot of small competitors are generally easier to enter than ones with only a few big competitors. It’s also used in profitability cases because, in general, companies with a large market share also have more market power to do things like set prices.

Market share can be calculated using the following formula:

            Market share (%) =total company revenue / total industry revenue  

Market share example:

Using the example from above, say you decide to determine the company’s market share as part of your analysis. In this example, the industry has annual revenues of $ 200 million.

            Market share (%) = $ 10 million / $ 200 million

           Market share = 5%

Growth Rate Formula:

This refers to the specific change of a variable within a specific period of time. Growth rates can be used in assessing the financial performance of a company over time. For example, high revenue growth rates would likely be a sign of strong financial performance. High cost growth rates may be a sign that a company is having financial trouble.

The growth rate is calculated using the formula:

            Growth rate (%) = (New – Old) / Old

Growth rate example:

To calculate the manufacturer’s revenue growth rate. Last year’s revenue was $ 9.5 million therefore the revenue growth rate is:

            Revenue growth rate = ($10 million – $9.5 million) / $9.5 million

            Revenue growth rate =5%

You can assess whether a company’s growth rate is strong by comparing it to other growth rates such as:

• The company’s growth in the prior year.
• The growth of the market or of competitors.
• The rate of inflation.

Mature companies are likely to see single-digit growth rates unless they launch a very successful new product or they acquire a company. On the other hand, startup investors typically expect double- or triple-digit annual growth during a company’s early years.

Return on investment formula:

Return on investment (ROI) is a profitability metric that indicates how well an investment performed (or will perform). It can be used to compare the profitability or efficiency of an investment or decide which of alternative investments to make. 

ROI is calculated using the following formula:

            ROI (%) = Profit / Cost of investment

ROI example:

Suppose our manufacturer mentions that they purchased state-of-the-art machinery to make their product. It cost $8 million. You decide to calculate the ROI on this investment. 

            ROI  = $2 million / $8 million

           ROI=25%

Break-even formula:

Break-even is the point at which the total revenue and total costs are equal, meaning there is no loss or profit at that point. Break-even is typically used to help companies determine the minimum number of units that need to be sold to cover all the costs used to produce those units. 

An executive might want to know that they could break even at 100,000 units sold because if she thought they could sell more than that, it would be profitable to enter the market. If she thought they’d sell less, they wouldn’t enter the market.

Break-even can be calculated using the following formula:

              Breakeven (units) = Fixed costs  / (sales price – variable cost per unit)

Break-even example:

If a product required a $50,000 investment in equipment (a fixed cost), sold for $5, and cost $4 per unit in variable costs, its breakeven would be: 

              Breakeven (units) = $50,000  / ($5 – $4)

              Breakeven= 50,000 units

Payback period formula:

Managers may also look at the payback period on an investment or, in other words, how long it would take to earn back the cash required to enter a new business. This investment could be a new piece of equipment or a marketing campaign needed to create customer awareness of a new product. This is a different way of looking at the same question that the breakeven formula asks: is it worth my while to make this investment?

The payback period can be calculated using the following formula:

              Payback (years) = Investment cost / annual profit

Payback years example:

Using the same example, you decided to calculate the payback years of the new state-of-art machinery

            Payback (years)= $8 million / $2 million

           Payback = 4 years

Capacity of equipment:

The capacity of equipment is the maximum output or units a piece of equipment can produce with the available resources over a set period of time.

Capacity can be calculated using the following formula:

            Capacity (units) =Total capacity / Capacity required to make one unit

Capacity example:

To calculate the capacity of our manufacturer’s machinery, we’d need to know that it can produce a unit every 10 minutes and that the client operates 12-hour shifts.

              Capacity (units) = 12 hours x (60 minutes per hour) / 10 minutes

             Capacity = 72 units / day

The utilization rate of equipment:

Utilization rate is the percent of available time the equipment or machinery is actually used. It measures efficiency and can be used by companies to make informed decisions on timelines and inventory, or whether additional equipment is needed.

The utilization rate of equipment can be calculated by the following formula:

              Utilization rate (%) =Actual output / Maximum output

Utilization rate example:

Using the same example, imagine that the management tells you that in a 12-hour shift, the machine produces 50 units and there are two 45-minute breaks.

First, you would need to calculate the potential output.

               Actual hours of operation = 12 hours – 1.5 hours = 10.5 hours

               Potential output = (10.5 hours / 12 hours) x 72 units

               Potential output = 63 units

Then, calculate the utilization rate.

                Utilization rate = 50 units / 63 units

                Utilization rate = 79%

Utilization rates raise interesting issues in a case. It raises questions such as:

• If potential output is 63 units, why are only 50 being produced (e.g., machine downtime, worker errors), and what can be done to solve these problems?
• Could the company stagger employee breaks to get potential output up to 72 units from 63?

Case Interview 101, Part 3: Business Concepts You Need to Know

Here are some common business concepts that you need to know as you prepare for your interview.

Process : This is a set of actions or operations that lead to results (products or services).

This typically describes how a company makes its products or services. The steps can be performed by workers, equipment, or computers. In a case, this is mostly used in situations where a client would like to make their processes more efficient. For example, a client who is in logistics would like to reduce the cost of its operations by improving the efficiency of its processes, such as by reducing equipment downtime or scheduling deliveries according to time-saving routes. 

Best practices: Best practices are methods or techniques that are considered to be the working standards and guides in a given situation. 

In a business situation, best practices are used to benchmark companies against the standard and can serve as a roadmap on how to improve the efficiency of their operations.

Hypotheses: Tentative answers to a problem or an assumption based on some evidence. 

The hypothesis-driven approach is a common approach to solving problems in the consulting world because consultants don’t want to waste time fully researching all possible solutions. They want to move quickly to the most likely answer and then test whether it is or is not the best answer. This approach can be used to solve case interview questions where you first assume an answer to the case problem and check whether this is true or not through analysis. If it is not true, you revise your hypothesis.

Issue tree: This is a common approach in consulting used to solve complex problems.

An issue tree is used to break down complex problems into key components in a structured manner. In a case interview, you can use the issue tree to break down the client’s problem into manageable chunks or to break down a formula such as the profitability formula into key components.

Read our article for more information on Issue Trees .

MECE: MECE stands for mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive . 

It is a way of bucketing problems, ideas, or solutions with no overlapping between the buckets and with each item having a place in one bucket only (mutually exclusive), and with the buckets including all possible items relevant to the context (collectively exhaustive). In a case interview, you can use MECE with the issue tree when breaking down problems or when identifying solutions for the client. MECE issue trees are considered the gold standard for problem-solving so this concept is very good to know. 

You can also use the concept of MECE when segmenting a market – for example, if you are sizing a market and intend to lay out different purchasing behavior assumptions for different customer segments. For example:

Customer segment                         Purchase frequency for items from coffee shops

Women under 30                             4 times per week, purchase includes food item plus beverage Men under 30                                     2 times per week, purchase includes only beverage Women 31 and over                         4 times per month, purchase includes only beverage Men 31 and over                                 3 times per month, purchase includes only beverage

Note how in this example, everyone would fall into one customer segment and only one customer segment. Read our article for more about MECE problem-solving .

Root causes: This is the core issue or main reason for a problem . It is used in problem-solving to identify solutions that appropriately address the problem. 

The term root cause is used to distinguish between symptoms of a problem, which may be obvious, and the underlying issue that needs to be solved, which may not be obvious. For example, a decline in sales volume is a symptom. The root cause could be high prices, poor product quality, product unavailability, or any number of other issues. You can’t fix the symptom of declining sales volume until you identify the root cause behind the problem. 

In a case interview, you’ll need to identify possible causes of the client’s problem and then ask questions and do analysis to identify the root cause. Once you do, you can make the most appropriate recommendations for the client.

Break-even analysis: This is the calculation used to determine the point at which the total revenue and total costs are equal meaning there is no loss or profit. 

In business situations, it helps determine at which point the business, investment, or new product or service will become profitable. In case interviews, you can use the break-even analysis to determine whether a client should make a certain investment, say in machinery or a new product line, based on how likely it is that they’ll exceed the break-even threshold.

Case Interview 101, Part 4: Common Types of Case Interviews

In this section, we will review 4 common types of case interviews.

Market-sizing Questions

Market-sizing questions typically appear in cases where clients want to grow or expand their business such as market entry or profitability cases. The client either wants to understand the market size of the current business or of a potential new product line or geography or customer group to understand whether it is big enough to be interesting. 

Sample case questions

“How many cups of coffee does Starbucks sell in a day?” “Estimate the fleet size of Delta Airlines.” “Estimate market size for air-conditioners in New York.”  “Estimate market size for an anti-smoking pill in the U.S.”

You are not expected to know the exact answer to market-sizing questions. Instead, the interviewer wants to see that you can use simple math and logical deduction to build out an answer. For these questions, it is good to memorize a few facts that will help you make assumptions. For example, a good place to start is the population of the U.S. or the population of a U.S. city (or country and city that you live in). 

For more information and examples, read our article on Market-sizing Cases .

Revenue Growth Case Interviews

In revenue growth cases, the client typically wants to grow their business. This can be done by increasing revenue of the current product/service line, by adding a new product/service line, or by selling to a new type of customer or in a new geography. 

They could do this by building a new offering, buying another company, or partnering (joint venture) with another company that already offers what they want to sell. 

“A manufacturer sees its revenue stagnating. It wants to know whether raising price or selling more units is a better path to growing revenue, and how to pursue it.”

“A local theater house thinks there is an opportunity to expand their current offerings to the very loyal client base. What new product or service could they offer their customers? What would be the impact on revenue from expanding their offerings?”

“A regional fast-food chain, serving hamburgers and fries, is experiencing increasing demand outside of its main regions of operation and wants to expand. What regions would have the biggest impact on its revenue?”

You should remember that there are multiple ways to achieve revenue growth. One thing to consider is the client and industry context when tackling revenue growth questions. For example, does the client have a good market size in the industry? Does the client have the capability to offer new products/services? Is the industry highly competitive?

For more information, read our article on Revenue Growth Cases .

Market Entry Case Interviews

In market entry cases, the client wants to know if they can enter a market and be profitable. For example, entering a different geography, new demography, or new product/service line. (Note, there can be overlap between revenue growth cases and market entry cases.)

“A U.S.-based consumer electronics manufacturer is thinking of expanding into emerging markets. What is the potential revenue growth if they choose to expand into India?”

“A telecom operator is looking to diversify their presence in the U.S. and wants to enter the video streaming market. How can they capture a significant market share?”

“A renewable energy company that specializes in large equipment such as windmills wants to enter the retail market and sell smaller equipment directly to individual homes. They would like to know if this is a good idea.”

There are a number of frameworks you can build off of to tackle a market-entry case. For example, Porter’s Five Forces, Business Situation Framework or 3C&P (customer, competition, company, and product), and Supply & Demand among others. It is key to consider the “new” market context as well as the client context to enter this market. 

To find out more on this, read our article on The Market Entry Framework .

Cost Optimization Case Interviews

Cost optimization cases or questions can be part of a profitability case where a client is experiencing declining profitability or when a client wants to improve efficiency.

“A national hotel chain has seen its operational costs significantly increase over the last year and would like you to figure out why.”

“A juice manufacturer has been experiencing a steady increase in revenue over the past 5 years however their cost has been increasing at a faster rate, meaning the profits have not grown as expected. What is the root cause of the significant increase in cost?”

“A tour company would like to reduce their costs due to the falling number of tourists over the past few years. What ways would you recommend for them to reduce their costs?’

For cost optimization cases, remember to break down the cost components. For example, you can break them down into fixed and variable costs or cost of goods sold and operational costs and then brainstorm the categories of each that will likely apply to the company at hand. This will make it easier to identify what costs should be reduced or eliminated.

Check out Types of Case Interviews article for more detail on these types of cases and more.

Why Do Top Consulting Firms Use Case Interview Questions?

Management consultancies are not the only types of firms that use case interview questions to evaluate candidates. 

Investment banks, consumer marketing companies, and others use the case interview structure in their interview process.

Because case interviews show how a candidate would problem solve in real time. 

Solving complex, ambiguous problems is at the heart at what consultants do every day.

This type of interview question mimics the analytic process a consultant might go through in a 3-month project, but it does it in 30 minutes, the time allowed in a typical interview. 

The interviewer can probe whether a candidate’s approach is well-structured, creative, and displays good business sense.

How Do Consulting Recruiters Evaluate Candidates?

The main thing that recruiters are looking for in case study interviews is whether or not they’d feel comfortable putting a candidate in front of a client. To assess that, they ask themselves these questions:

• Is this person able to do the job? Do they have the analytic skills to solve tough business problems?
• Is this person client-ready? Are they knowledgeable, professional, and confident enough to work effectively with client staff and leaders?
• Is this someone I’d want to work with? This interview question is sometimes referred to as the airport test. It comes down to, “Would I want to be stuck in an airport with this person if the weather was bad and our flight was delayed?” It assesses whether an individual is smart, fun and passionate about the projects they take on.
• Is this person coachable? No one expects a recruit to know the answer to every thorny business issue right out of undergrad, or even right out of business school, but they do want someone who is willing and able to take suggestions and improve their analysis. Show you are coachable by listening for feedback as you answer a case study interview question and using suggestions to steer you toward the right solution.

Nail the case & fit interview with strategies from former MBB Interviewers that have helped 89.6% of our clients pass the case interview.

Consulting Case Prep Takes Time – Start Early

If you walk into your first consulting interview without having practiced case study interviews beforehand, you’re in for a painful experience. Case questions can cover any industry and multiple different types of business problems, so you’re unlikely to get lucky and know the answer.

We suggest your start your consulting case prep a few weeks before your interview. Starting with more lead time is even better. This will allow you to watch/read through a few consulting cases to get a sense for what to expect (continue to our case videos below for one example!) It will also give you time to find a couple friends or classmates who are also applying to top consulting firms. You can give each other mock case interviews and be even more prepared.

Learn How to Case Quickly by Mastering Each Part of the Case

When you’re starting your consulting interview prep, it’s important to remember that the “right answer” is not simply a conclusion, but the methodical, the well-structured process used to reach the conclusion. 

To answer a case question correctly, you must:

Step 1: Understand the question you are being asked.

After your interviewer describes the client this case interview will involve and the problem they face, you should repeat this information back to them in your own words. 

This can feel awkward when you practice your first case, but it will help you in the long run.

If you don’t have the client and their problem straight, you could spend a lot of time answering the wrong question. If that happens you will not be moving forward to second round interviews no matter how elegant your analysis is.

Example: Our client is a fast-food retailer that has seen decreasing sales revenue over the past couple of years. They want your help in understanding what they can do to improve sales.

Step 2: Take time to think through all the key aspects of the problem.

Ask for a moment to consider your approach to solving the client’s problem. During this time, write down what you want to learn about the client’s situation before you answer the interview question.

Your approach can lean on business frameworks you’re familiar with during your case interview preparation. 

For instance, in the example of a fast-food chain with declining sales, you should break sales down into price and unit volume to understand whether the client is not selling enough units of their products or whether prices have fallen (or both!)

But you don’t need to use familiar frameworks. In fact, it’s best to develop your own structure for breaking down the problem as it shows you can solve a case without forcing a standard framework on the problem.

For more information on business frameworks, you might want to become familiar with during your case study preparation, see  Case Interview Frameworks .

Step 3: Ask pertinent questions and use the answers to form hypotheses.

After you brainstorm key aspects of the case problem and structure your approach to solving it, share your approach with your interviewer.

If the interviewer suggests a place to start your analysis, follow their lead.

Otherwise, suggest the best place to start digging into the case.

Make sure the questions you ask the interviewer touch on all the key aspects of the problem you identified including the client’s internal organization, the market for their product, and their competition.

Step 4: Summarize your case interview with a persuasive conclusion. 

Once you’re confident you have enough information to understand the case and what needs to be done to solve the client’s business problem, you’ll conclude the interview with a logical summary outlining the problem, key conclusions you’ve reached, and providing a persuasive recommendation on how you’d help the client resolve it.

Below, we’ll go into more depth on how to address each of these 4 points in a case.

Questions to Ask Yourself Before Diving Deeper into Case Prep

Right now, you may be thinking to yourself that consulting interviews sound impossibly difficult. Or you may think that they sound like interesting business problems that you’d enjoy solving. 

Perhaps you’re not sure.

If you think that answering case interviews is not something that would come naturally to you, don’t worry, you’re not alone! 

Getting good at consulting interviews requires a lot of preparation.

Before you commit to putting in the time required to prepare for the management consulting interview process, you should ask yourself if a career in management consulting is right for you.

Key Questions to Ask Yourself Before Pursuing a Career in Consulting

• Do you enjoy solving the types of business problems asked in case interviews?
• Do you have a background in business principles or are you willing to invest the time it will take to develop one?
• Are you passionate about pursuing consulting as a career?

Management consulting jobs might pay well and provide the opportunity to pursue attractive careers, but if you don’t like solving business problems, you probably won’t like the work you’ll do as a consultant. If you don’t enjoy analyzing business cases, save yourself a lot of preparation time and frustration. 

Focus on career options that better meet your interests.

Or, perhaps solving business problems with smart, driven professionals sounds like it’s your dream job. 

If so, move onto the deeper dive into case prep below! 

Case Interview Prep – Diving Deeper

If you’re here, we’re assuming you’re serious about investing time in preparing for a career in management consulting. 

The best way to get smarter about  answering case interview questions is to master this four-part approach.

How to Answer a Consulting Case Interview –  a 4 Part Approach

The 4 parts to answering a case interview are:

• Opening  – This is where you make sure you understand the client’s problem.
• Structure  – This is where you brainstorm all factors relevant to the problem and organize them to ensure you address them in a complete and logical manner.
• Analysis  – This is where you gather data to identify which of the factors related to the business case are the most important. You’ll use this data to create a recommendation for your client.
• Conclusion  – Here, you present your recommendation to “the client” (your interviewer), in a well-structured and persuasive manner.

Case Interview Prep Part 1: The Opening

As we saw in the video above, the opening of a case question is a description of a client and the problem they’re facing. Davis repeated back to the interviewer the type of business the client was in and and their business problem.

Remember, this clarification is an important step in the process.

If you did not remember that the client was a top-three beverage producer and answered the question as if the client was a start-up, your answer would ignore the manufacturing and distribution infrastructure the company already had in place to launch its new product.

That would make your answer completely wrong.

During this portion of the interview, you can ask any clarifying questions you need to. If something is not clear—the client’s product or industry, or the problem they want to solve —ask !

Nailing the opening is probably the easiest part of case prep. Get this right, and you’ll start each case off strong.

Case Interview Prep Part 2: Structure

Once Davis clarified the problem, he asked for a moment to prepare her response. In the structure phase of the case interview, there’s silence for several moments.

As with clarifying the question, this can feel awkward.

But asking for this time will show the interviewer that you’re carefully structuring your problem-solving approach.

It will also ensure that you are not quickly addressing a couple of aspects of the business problem but ignoring others, potentially ones that are critical to solving the client’s problem.

Some quick brainstorming is useful here, but also take a step back to maker sure you consider all aspects of the client’s business, its customer demand, and the competition. 

Organize your questions into a comprehensive approach to address all key aspects of the problem.

Mastering the structure phase of the interview is not as easy as the opening, but it’s critical to ensure you have the structured problem-solving approach that will lead you to the right answer to the case.

Focus on this aspect of case interview preparation until you can structure almost every case right.

Case Interview Prep Part 3: Analysis

In the third part of the case study interview, you’ll dig in and analyze the problem.

After Davis outlined his problem-solving approach, the interviewer told him that the client wanted to understand the beverage market and customer preferences to assess the potential success of the product launch.

The interviewer then provided a chart with helpful data.

This part of the interview is important because gives you the data that will help you close down aspects of the case that aren’t at the heart of the problem you need to solve and to better understand key drivers that will point to the solution.

But you’ll also need to do some consulting math .

You should also refer back to the problem-solving structure you laid-out earlier in the interview to make sure your analysis is comprehensive. You don’t want to get lost down one rabbit hole and ignore other important aspects of the problem.

During this portion of the interview, you’ll be assessed on whether you asked relevant questions, have well-reasoned insights into the client problem, and whether you could lead a case like this if you were hired by the firm.

Many consulting candidates find that the analysis phase of the interview is the toughest of the 4 parts.

You need to balance doing consulting math calculations with interpreting data and make sure you cover all aspects of the problem you identified in the structure phase of the case. 

Stick with this aspect of case preparation until you’re an expert at it–it will pay off in your interviews. 

Case Interview Prep Part 4: Conclusion

Davis concluded the case with a direct answer to the case study interview question as it was initially asked.

This answer should be both persuasive and logical based on all the information gathered over the course of the interview. Your answer should also include the next steps your client should undertake.

During the conclusion, you’ll be assessed on whether you present a well thought-out solution based on the relevant facts of the case.

Like the opening, mastering the conclusion is not difficult. Take you time to nail this aspect of case prep anyway as leaving your interviewer with a strong impression of your casing capabilities is important.

Effective Case Interview Prep: The Bottom Line

The case study interview is not as complex as it seems if you break it into 4 parts.

Practicing each part of the case on its own will make your consulting interview preparation both more efficient and more effective.

Now that you’re familiar with the 4-part approach to a case interview, the next thing to learn is the 4 different formats case interviews can take.

4 Formats for Case Interviews

There are four formats a case interview can take:

• Interviewer-led – In this case interview format, a candidate will still be expected to identify and structure the key elements of  a thorny business issue, and then present them to the interviewer. But after they do, the interviewer will direct them to first address a particular aspect of the case. This interview format is typically used in McKinsey cases.
• Written interview – This is not a common interview format but can be common for particular companies and offices. You will be given a packet of PowerPoint slides and time to review them. During this time, you’ll prepare a presentation using the slides you choose from the ones provided as well as others you create, and you’ll then present it to a panel of interviewers. Written interviews are frequently used by boutique consulting firms and regional offices of larger firms such as Bain’s China offices. For more information, see this article on written case interview.
• Group interview – Multiple candidates are brought in to discuss a case together and then present their solution to an interviewer. The group case is also not a frequently used interview format. For more information, see this article on group case interview.

While the candidate-led consulting interview is the most frequently used format, you’ll probably see more of the interview-led interview format in McKinsey interviews.

You should also be aware of the written and group interview formats so that if you get one during the case interview process, you’re not caught by surprise. But don’t spend a lot of time on preparation for that type of interview unless you’re informed you’ll have one.

Congratulations! 

You’ve made it to the end of our crash course on case interview prep. By reading this article, you now have a strong understanding of:

• What a consulting case interview is,
• How to answer case studies using the 4-part approach, and
• What the 4 different formats for case interviews are.

You are well on your way toward preparing for your first case interview and entering the exciting field of management consulting. 

Still have questions?

If you still have questions on case interview prep, leave them in the comments below. We’ll ask our My Consulting Offer coaches and get back to you with answers.

Also, we have tons of other resources to ensure you get an offer from a top management consulting firm. Check out these topics:

• Case Interview Workshop Video
• Case Interview Examples
• Case Interview Practice

Help with Case Prep

Thanks for turning to My Consulting Offer for advice on case prep. My Consulting Offer has helped almost 89.6% of the people we’ve worked with get a job in management consulting. For example, here is how Brenda was able to get a BCG offer when she only had 1 week to prepare.

8 thoughts on “A Comprehensive Guide to Case Interview Prep [updated 2024]”

In the math calculations of the analysis portion, why was it that there were 8 cans per gallon? Where did that number come from?

Hey, Tonia! Thanks for your question.

In the case, we’re given that the size of the market for US sports drinks is 8 billion gallons. Electrolyte drinks are 5% of this total or .4 billion gallons which equals 400 million gallons.

We’re also given that the product size for drinks in this market are 16 ounces. And in our breakeven analysis, we find out we need to sell 400 million bottles (or cans) to break even. We need to do a conversion to compare our breakeven point of 400 million bottles to the 400 million gallon market size to see what market share we would have to achieve to break even.

Conversion: 1 US gallon = 128 ounces. 128 ounces/ gallon divided by 16 ounces/ bottle = 8. We can fill 8 bottles for each gallon of electrolyte drink we produce. So 1 gallon is 8 bottles (or cans) manufactured by our client.

We divide the 400 million bottle (or can) breakeven point by 8 to get to 50 million gallons. We compare the 50 million gallon breakeven point to the 400 million gallon market size to see that we need to capture 12.5% market share.

Note: In answering this question, I noticed that a UK gallon = 160 ounces, so if you are using UK gallons you will get a different answer!

I hope that helps! Sorry about the confusion between US ounces/gallon and UK ounces/gallon!

Hi, what resources are you typically allowed to use during (virtual) case interviews? Such as a pen, paper, calculator etc.

You’re typically allowed a pen and paper in a virtual case interview but NOT a calculator. Part of what your interviewer is testing for is your quantitative skills, so they want to see that you can do calculations in your head or on paper. See our article on virtual case interviews , for more info. Also, we have an article on practicing your case interview math .

Best of luck!

Can you please explain the ROI formula? I do not understand why (2m-8m)/8m = 25%. That calculation gets a result of -75%

Shouldn’t the formula just be (net profit)/(cost of investment)?

George, thanks for pointing this out! The formula was incorrect, and should be Profit/cost of investment. The correct answer is 25%.

All the best, MCO

thanks for information

great information

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Case Interview Preparation

Perform at your best during your case interview., bcgers share their case study interview tips., follow these dos and don ’ ts to ace your case prep:, test your case interview skills with these interactive quizzes., set out a climate strategy for a client., restore client satisfaction at a digital bank., test your it strategy and architecture skills..

Secrets to a successful case-study interview

January 9, 2023

Prepping for (and maybe fretting) the case-study interview?

While this kind of interview may appear intimidating, consider this: The interviewer really wants you to do well.

So, shake off the nerves, relax and have fun.

Tips for standing out in the case-study interview: 

• Take your time; don't rush it.  Talk through the problem. If you can't make sense of it, take a moment and allow yourself some time to process what you've been missing. If you get stuck, get creative. Don't let yourself get bogged down; rely on your ingenuity. 
• Ask questions.  You can always ask your interviewer to define an acronym or to repeat or confirm details. If the interviewer asks, “How do we achieve success?”, don’t be afraid to ask, “What does ‘success’ mean to you? Is it turning a profit? Raising the company’s profile?” When you work on a client project, you need to ask questions to figure out what the problems might be, and the same applies here. The interviewer is your biggest asset in the room. They have the information you need to “solve the case” successfully. Use them wisely!
• Be flexible.  The focus of a case-study interview may vary. So, be prepared to participate in whatever discussion the interviewer has in mind. They may spend the first half of the interview asking about your previous experience, or they may dive right into the case study at the start. The bottom line: Be flexible, and be ready to discuss the work you do and how you do it.
• Use visual aids.  Don’t be afraid to use pen and paper, sketch out your thoughts, and talk through the problem at hand if it helps you get your ideas across. What matters most is demonstrating that you can solve problems.
• Focus on impact.  Inventory the information you have, and then dive in where you can have the most impact. Don’t forget to discuss your thought process and explain your assumptions.
• Tell a story.  Your experience has helped you progress in your career and education; use that experience. For example, in a business case study, you could bring your experience as a traveler to a case about a hypothetical airline. Your individuality is important. Your unique insights will serve you well when you’re interviewing.
• Pay attention to cues.  If the interviewer says something, it probably means something. Don’t dismiss seemingly extraneous details. For example, the interviewer might say, “The case is about a retailer who wants to increase the value of a company it purchased, and the owner loved the brand when growing up.” The purpose of that detail is to indicate that turning around and selling the asset is not an option for making it profitable, because the owner is attached to it.

Preparing for the job you want can take time, but it’s a worthwhile investment—especially when you receive an offer.

Your ideas, ingenuity and determination make a difference. 

Find your fit  with Accenture. 

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What Is a Case Study?

What is a case study interview, how to prep for a case study interview, case study interview example questions, during the case study interview.

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Table of Contents

A case study interview isn’t your average interview. While most interviews ask you to give examples of how you use your skills on the job, in a case study interview, you’ll use those skills in front of the interviewer to solve a real-life problem.

It’s like auditioning for the school play. But instead of showing you can sing and dance, you’re using a case interview to show how you provide innovative solutions to pressing business problems. Not sure how to get ready for this kind of interview? We’ve got you covered. This guide explains how to prep for a case study interview.

Case studies are used across a variety of industries — everything from business to medicine. They are an in-depth examination, analysis, and critique of a real-world scenario the company experienced. People discuss the situation and explore what they learned while forming new solutions to try when they face a similar situation in the future and hope to improve their performance.

For example, doctors and nurses use case studies to improve how they diagnose and treat patients. Using real patient information, the medical team analyzes the case to see what the team may have missed and why they missed it. Learning from these errors helps the team better prepare for similar cases in the future to improve patient care.

While many industries use case studies to iterate and improve their performance, not every company uses case study interviews. This type of interview is very common at consulting companies (no matter what kind of consulting it is). But it’s not unusual for companies outside of consulting to use case interviews for marketing or operations roles.

In a case study interview, you’re given a real-world situation the company has faced and are tasked with analyzing it and suggesting a course of action.

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Businesses use case study interviews to assess your abilities in real-time. While you’ll probably draw on a variety of skills, most case study interviews assess:

• Strategic thinking
• Analytical skills
• Common sense

The advantage of a case study interview is that the interviewer can evaluate your ability in each of these areas and see how you’ll actually use them on the job.

What Is a Fit Interview?

Some people use “case study interview” and “fit interview” interchangeably. While a fit interview and a case study interview both ask behavioral interview questions , they are not the same thing.

A case study interview assesses your ability to do the job. It primarily evaluates how you approach business problems and use your skills to solve them. A fit interview is about company culture fit. The interviewer asks questions that assess how well you’ll fit into the company, like asking you questions about what motivates you or how you lead .

Fit and case interviews are important parts of the evaluation process. Getting the job done is just as critical as getting along with coworkers and supporting the company’s mission. Depending on where you interview, you may have one fit interview and one case study interview, or the fit interview may be a smaller part of the case study interview.

What You’ll Learn in a Case Study Interview

A case study interview allows the hiring manager to see your skills in action and how you approach business challenges. But it also teaches you a lot about the company (even if you’re doing most of the talking).

In a sense, you’re behaving as an employee during a case study interview. This gives you a peek behind the curtain, allowing you to see the company’s inner workings, like how they approach business problems and what they expect from you and your performance.

For example, you may offer a novel approach to solving a problem during a case interview. How does the interviewer react to it? Are they impressed? Surprised? Is there a scowl or frown on their face? Their reaction gives you insights into how the company will likely receive your solutions.

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Depending on the specific company, you may have the case study interview questions in advance, but you may not. Whether you do or don’t, here’s how to prepare for a case study interview.

Conduct Deep Research

Good interview prep for any interview means researching the company. That includes things like learning more about the company’s mission and the challenges the industry faces. But when you’re preparing for a case study interview, your research needs to go deeper. 

When you answer a case study question, your answer has to be specific to the company’s clients or business objectives. For example, if you’re interviewing for a role in strategy consulting , your answer shouldn’t focus on aspects of human resources consulting (unless it’s particularly relevant).

Your research needs to include the kinds of clients the company works with and what types of problems the company solves. For example, the company may only consult for Fortune 100 companies that need accounting advice. Keep these facts in mind as you prepare for the interview.

Case Study Interview Formats

There are four types of case study interview formats:

• Candidate-led: The interviewer asks you a specific question (or gives you a prompt), and you walk the interviewer through a detailed answer.
• Employer-led: The interviewer leads you through a series of specific (and predetermined) prompts and questions, no matter your answers.
• Presentation: You’re given a problem in advance to create and present a detailed case study.
• Video: Similar to a presentation case study interview, you’ll create a video presentation of the case study.

Most companies will tell you in advance which style of case study interview you should prepare for. But if they don’t, reach out to your recruiter or check the company’s website. Many include the essential details you need to prepare for the case study interview.

Seek Out Company-Specific Tips

Speaking of companies and their websites, not only do many companies that use case study interviews tell you the format, they often include helpful tips and tricks to help candidates prepare. This includes what to expect, what the company is looking for skill-wise, and what kinds of responses they want. They may even have a few practice questions and videos you can use to help you prep.

Unlike other common interview questions , it’s not as easy to prepare an answer to case study interview questions. Even though you know it’s a case study interview, you don’t necessarily know the specifics of the case or what problems you’ll be asked to solve.

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That said, it’s likely your case study interview questions will cover one or several of these concepts:

• Entering new markets
• Increasing profits
• Cutting costs
• Turnarounds
• Mergers and acquisitions
• Pricing strategy
• Developing new products
• Industry analysis
• Competitive response

While there are many ways to answer case study interview questions, a few basic prep tips can help you get ready for every question.

In addition to what you usually bring to a job interview , make sure you bring a notepad and pen or pencil to a case study interview. Taking notes will help you better understand the questions and formulate your answers. It also gives you a place to calculate numbers and figures if you need to. Not every case study interview allows calculators, so you’ll need to be ready to do your calculations manually.

Ask Specific Questions

As you’re working through the case study, you can and should ask any clarifying questions you need. The interviewer wants to hear specific, detailed answers that solve the problem. So, whenever you’re unclear, ask a follow-up question to not only get what you need but to give the interviewer what they need. 

That said, your question(s) should be very specific. You need to verify exactly what the interview is asking so you can create an appropriate answer. Say the interviewer gives you a broad question: The client’s revenue is falling. How do you help them increase it? You can follow up with a very specific question or two to make sure you understand what the interviewer is asking:

You’re asking how I would help the client raise revenue, correct? Are you also asking how I would help them increase their profit and cut costs?

>>Related: 5 Top Questions to Ask in an Interview (and Why You Should Ask Them)

Talk Them Through It

A big part of the case study interview is seeing you in action. However, in this case, “see” really means “how you think.” Since the interviewer can’t hear your inner monologue, you’ll need to practice thinking out loud.

While the interviewer wants to hear your solution, they also want to hear how you got there. That means talking through your entire thought process. Instead of saying, “I’d do X,” you have to explain how you arrived at your decision while you’re getting there.

Because not everyone thinks out loud, it may feel unnatural to you, and you likely won’t be expected to do it on the job. But it’s crucial to practice this skill — and it is a skill — because the interviewer is expecting you to do it in a case study interview.

Want to give a case study a shot? Try out a Forage consulting virtual simulation program and gain the skills you’ll need to ace a case study interview.

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Case Interview 101: The Online Guidebook

“Case Interview” is the cornerstone of consulting recruitment, playing a decisive role in final results. In 30 minutes, your “consulting” qualities will be tested to the limit as you cruise through a hypothetical “consulting project” with the interviewer.

Yes, this is a BIG topic. The depth of content in this single article is HUGE with various chapters ranging from beginner’s topics to more advanced ones. You would want to bookmark this page and go back often throughout your whole preparation journey.

What is a case interview?

A case interview is a job interview where the candidate is asked to solve a business problem. They are often used by consulting firms, and are among the hardest job interviews, testing both problem-solving skills and “soft” skills. Case interviews often last 30-45 minutes each, and firms can utilize up to 6 case interviews, usually divided into 2 rounds.

Example case questions:

• “We have a restaurant called “In-and-out Burger” with recently falling profits. How can you help?”
• “The CEO of a cement company wants to close one of its plants. Should they do it?”
• “A top 20 bank wants to get in top 5. How can the bank achieve that goal?”

Case interviews are modeled after the course of actions real consultants do in real projects – so success in case interviews is seen by consulting firms as a (partial) indication of a good management consultant.

During the interview, the interviewer will assess your ability to think analytically, probe appropriate questions, and make the most client-friendly pitches. Be noted that the analytical thought process is more important than arriving at correct answers.

Generally, there are 2 styles of conducting cases:  Candidate-led and Interviewer-led. 

Candidate-led cases

On this end, the interviewer rarely intervenes; the candidate will lead the approach from structuring the problem, drawing frameworks, asking for data, synthesizing findings, to proposing solutions. This format can be difficult for beginners but it provides you with much control over the case.

Interviewer-led cases

On this end, the interviewer controls the process in significant ways. He or she has the candidate work on specific parts of the overall problem and sometimes disregards the natural flow of the case. The game here is not to solve the one big problem, but rather to nail every question, every pitch, every mini-case perfectly. Because the evaluation is done on a question basis, the level of insightfulness required is higher.

Most cases will fall somewhere in the middle section of that spectrum, but for educational purposes, we need to learn case interviews from both extremes ends.

Great details in each and every aspect of the case, as well as tips, techniques and study plans are coming in the chapters below. You may skip straight to Chapter 3 if you have business background and confidence in your own understanding of the terminology used in case interviews. 

To better understand or practice candidate-led and interview-led cases, let’s book a personal meeting with our coaches . At MConsultingPrep, you can connect with consulting experts who will help you learn the ins and outs of both cases and the solving approach to each one. Get “real” practice now!

Case interview starter guide for non-business students

All consulting firms claim that all educational backgrounds have equal chances. But no matter what, case interview reflects  real-life business problems and you will, therefore, come across business concepts .

Not everybody has the time to go to a full Business Undergraduate program all over. So through this compact Chapter 2, I will provide you, the non-business people, with every business concept you need in case interviews.

Accounting and financial terms – The language of business

Accounting & Financial Terms are often called the language of business, which is used to communicate the firm’s financial and economic information to external parties such as shareholders and creditors.

There are three basic financial statements : Balance Sheet, Income Statement, and Cash Flow Statement.

Balance Sheet

A snapshot of the current stage of the company’s property, debt, and ownership at one given point in time, showing:

• Assets: what the company owns: Building, Equipment, Cash, Inventory, along with some other intangible items.
• Liabilities: what the company owes: Loans, overdrafts, bills to be paid, etc. Debt is like negative assets.
• Equity (Net worth): Calculate by taking Assets subtract Liabilities.

The neat thing about the Balance sheet is that it’s always balanced. Every action, every transaction changes the three components but it’s always in harmony.

Income Statement

A record of the business performance through a period of time , given it a quarter or a year. The Income Statement directly tells you how the company is doing in terms of making money, the heart of any business.

From the top to bottom, the Income Statement shows the Revenues, Costs, and Profits. That’s why often, Profits are referred to as the “bottom line”.

There are a few types of costs to notice – see the two pictures below this table.

One important thing to notice is that even though it may seem like, the Income Statement does NOT necessarily relate to cash. Many times, especially for B2B transactions, the selling happens before the money flow. Therefore, we may have to record revenue without having the cash.

Cash Flow Statement

There’s a famous saying that: Income statement is an opinion, Cash Flow statement is a fact.

The Cash Flow statement just strictly monitors the cash flow in or out, categorized into different sections. Three of them are:

• Operation: illustrates how much cash the company can generate from its products and services.
• Financial: includes the sources of cash from investors or banks and the uses of cash paid to shareholders.
• Investing: includes any sources and uses of cash from a company’s investments.

Upon completion this section, you should be able to read and interpret financial statements for business diagnosis and decision-making.

More importantly, you possess the conceptual base to start solving case interviews on your own. Do not forget that, as with any other language, becoming proficient with accounting and financial terms require constant practice.

Organizational structure – The heart of a company

When it comes to organizational structure, it is important to notice the fine line between the company’s ownership and management .

Technically, at the highest level, there are shareholders . For private companies, the group of shareholders and their shares are not necessarily disclosed and publicly tradable. For public companies, on the other hand, shares are publicly traded on different stock exchanges. One of the most famous is the NYSE, which stands for New York Stock Exchange.

• A company can have one, a few, or millions of individual owners, but being governed by the Board of Directors – a group of people elected by owners, with the President or Chairman being their highest leader.
• The Board usually hires a management team to manage the company. They are led by the Chief Executive Officer – CEO , who makes every decision on day-to-day work. Most of the time, the Board of Directors doesn’t directly intervene in the CEO’s work, but they reserve the right to fire CEOs.
• Besides that, there’s a committee called Supervisors. The supervisor’s job is to independently monitor the CEO and the management team and report to the Board.

Below CEOs, there are two general two ways of structuring the company. One way is through business lines and the other one is through functions. Think of business lines as mini-companies themselves inside the big company.

Within functions, here are a few most typical divisions most companies have:

Business strategy concepts

Even with business students, strategy is a challenging topic – especially with those without a strategy major. These fundamental concepts will get you started.

• Organization: In general, this refers to how a company is organized, what are different components that make up a company
• Governance refers to how a company is managed and directed, how well the leader team runs. The leader team includes the Board of Directors and Board of Managers. A company with good governance has good leadership people, tight control, and effective check & balance processes, etc.
• Process looks like rules and common practices of having a number of processes, entailing every single activity. Process design should include 4 factors: who, what, when, and accompanied tools.

For example, let’s look at Kim’s family picnic process.

• The who part is presented on the y-axis, left-hand side, labeling all departments, a.k.a: family members, involved.
• The what part is presented through the big mid-session with each box represents every single activity.
• The when and tools parts are presented at the bottom

B2B  vs B2C : stand for “business-to-business” and “business-to-customer”. These two terms refer to two types of transactions a company typically does: transactions with other companies and transactions with individual customers.

Bottom-up vs Top-down: this refers to two opposite schools of thought or action. Top-down usually encompasses various general branches while bottom-up tends to narrowly focus. 

Management consulting terms & concepts

These are the most common consulting terms you may encounter not just in case interviews but also in consulting tasks .

• Lever: Think of this as one or a group of initiatives, actions to perform to meet certain goals. e.g. some levers to help increase customer experience in a hotel are free breakfast, free Wi-Fi, 24/7 support, etc.
• Best practice: Refers to how things should be done, especially if it has been successfully implemented elsewhere.
• Granular: This refers to how specific and detailed a break-down or an issue goes. For example, a not-so-granular breakdown of the NBA is the West and the East conferences. A much more granular is something like this: Leagues, Conferences, Divisions, and Teams.
• MECE: MECE is so important and we explain it in detail in this article. In short, MECE is the standard, per which we can divide things down in a systematic, comprehensive, and non-overlapping way.

There are three parameters the consulting world uses in the categorization of businesses.

• Industry: used to group different companies mostly based on their product (Banking, Construction, Education, Steel Industry, etc.)
• Function: is the categorization mostly based on missions and the type of roles of different parts of a company. We can count some as Human Resource, Finance, Strategy, Operation, Product Development, etc.
• Location: is where things are, geographically.

Normally two consultants ask each other “What do you work on?”, they need to give 3 pieces of information in all of those three parameters, such as “I worked on a Cement project, focusing on Finance, in Southeast Asia”. In fact, all of the McKinsey support networks are organized in this way. During my projects, I would need to speak to some Cement experts, some Finance experts, and some local experts as well.

This chapter is relatively long, yet it is still way shorter than 4 years at business college. I hope this will act as a great prerequisite to your case interview study. Make sure that you have mastered all of these content before really tackling the Case Interview.

Case interview example – The typical flow

In a simplified way, a typical case would go through these phrases (we will talk about exceptions in great detail later):

Case question -> Recap -> Clarification -> Timeout -> Propose issue tree -> Analyze issue tree -> Identify root-causes -> Solutions -> Closing pitch

Problem-solving fundamentals – Candidate-led cases

Though most cases will be conducted in mixed format, let’s dive deep and learn about each extreme end of the spectrum to get the full picture.

Even though this is the harder format, it shows us the foundation of how management consulting works, i.e: the consulting problem-solving logics!

If you were exposed to case interviews, you have probably heard about some of these concepts: framework, issue tree, benchmark, data, root cause, solutions, etc. But how do they all fit into the picture?

It all starts with the PROBLEM

Before getting into anything fancy, the first step is to define and be really clear about the problem.

This sounds easy but can be quite tricky. Here are a few guidelines:

1. What’s the objective?

2. What’s the timeline required?

3. Any quantified or well-described goals?

For example, one client can state a problem as: “I lost my car key”. In normal contexts, this is a perfectly simple and straightforward problem. But a consultant tackling this would go ask clarification questions to achieve even more details:

1. Objective: the client in fact just needs to be able to use the car.

2. Timeline: this is an urgent need. He is happy only if we can help him within the next hour.

3. Specificity: help the client put his car into normal operation like before he lost the key.

Find the ROOT-CAUSE, don’t just fix the symptom

To completely wipe out the problem and create long-lasting impacts, consultants always  search and find the root causes.

For example, fixing the symptom is like you breaking the door lock, getting into the ignition electrics behind the wheel, and connecting the wires to start the car.

That does fix the surface symptom: the client can drive the car. But it does NOT create a long-lasting impact because without you there, the car can’t be started. The client will need to rely on you every single time. Plus, more problems even arise (now he needs to fix the broken door lock too).

A much better approach is to find the root cause. What is the bottom-line reason causing the problem? Once we trace, find, and fix it, the problem will be gone for good.

In this example, the root cause is “the lost key”. We need to find its location!

Use ISSUE TREE to isolate potential root-causes into groups

There could be thousands of possible root-causes. How do we make sure every possible one is examined? If we are to list out all thousands and test one by one, there is simply not enough time. On the other hand, if we just list out some of the most “possible” ones, we run a high risk of missing the true root-cause.

This is where we need issue trees ! We would group possible root-causes into big groups. Those big groups will have smaller sub-groups and so on. All is done in the spirit of top-down and MECE. By doing this, we have an organized way to include all possible root-causes.

Continue with the example: A “bottom-up” approach to search for the car key is to go straight to specific places like the microwave’s top, the black jacket pocket, under the master bed, etc. There can be thousands of these possible locations.

The top-down approach is to draw an issue tree, breaking the whole house into groups and examine the whole group one by one. For example: first floor, second floor, and the basement.

Issue Tree only works if it’s MECE

What happens if we break down the search area into the First floor and East wing? The search area would not cover the whole house and there will be some overlapping which creates inefficiencies.

So for an issue tree to work properly, it has to be MECE – Mutually Exclusive and Collectively Exhaustive … which in simple language just mean 2 things: no overlap and no gap

How to draw MECE issue trees? Use FRAMEWORKS!

Each problem requires a unique issue tree. Coming up with MECE and spot-on issue trees for each problem can be really difficult. This is where “framework” helps.

Think of frameworks as “frequently used templates” to draw issue trees in any particular context. Many people use the word “framework” to refer to “issue tree” but this is conceptually incorrect.

We will talk about frameworks in more detail in the below chapters. You can also check out this deep-dive article on Frameworks.

Choosing which branch to go to first? Use HYPOTHESES!

So let’s say you have an issue tree of First floor, Second floor, and Third floor. Now what?

To make the problem-solving process even faster and more efficient, we use hypotheses. In simple language, it’s the educated guess of where the root cause may lie in. So we can prioritize the branch with the highest chance.

So let’s say, the client spends most time on the first floor, it’s where he/she most likely leaves the car key. Any consultant would hypothesize that the root cause is in the first-floor branch and go search there first.

Notice: hypothesis and issue tree always go together. It doesn’t make sense to draw an issue of First, Second, and Third floor and hypothesize that the key is in the East wing. Many times, hypotheses are even the inspiration to draw issue trees.

How to test a branch? Use DATA and compare it with BENCHMARK

Now that we decide to test the branch “First floor”, how do we do that?

We prove or disprove our hypothesis by collecting DATA. That data is then compared with benchmarks to shed more meaning. Two main types of benchmarks are: historical and competitive. For example, let’s say by some magic, the client has a metal detection machine that can measure the metal concentration of any space.

To test the “first-floor” branch, the consultant would come to the first floor, measure the metal concentration and compare it with the data before the car key is lost, a.k.a: historical benchmark.

If a hypothesis is true, drill down; if it’s false, go sideways

What happens when we test a hypothesis?

Assuming that we have access to enough data, it either gets proven TRUE or proven FALSE. How do we proceed from here? 

• Proven True: go DOWN the issue tree to sub-branches! Let’s say the metal detector identified the key IS indeed on the first floor. Go deeper. Draw sub-branches of that first-floor branch and repeat the process.
• Proven False: go HORIZONTAL to other big branches! Let’s say the metal detector denies the key presence on the first floor. We then can cross out this branch and go test others, a.k.a: the second and third floor.

Test, Sleep, Test, Repeat … until the ROOT-CAUSE shows up!

Once identified the ROOT-CAUSES, go for SOLUTIONS

With all proven root causes identified, the last step is to come up with solutions to kill the problem … and we are done! There can be multiple solutions to each root cause. These solutions should attack straight to the root cause.

Case interview questions – Interviewer-led cases

While candidate-led cases are all about the logical foundation of problem-solving, interviewer-led cases are more about tackling each individual question itself. The structure of the whole case is relatively loose and flexible.

In this chapter, we touch on some of the most popular ones. You can read in-depth about each in this designated article.

Framework/Issue Tree questions

“Which factors would you consider when tackling this problem?”

This is one of the most popular question types in case interviews, often asked in the beginning. It comes with several shapes and forms, but the real meaning is always: “Give me the bloody issue tree!”

So how do you tackle it? Just like in candidate-led cases. Take a timeout; brainstorm about the problem and how it should be broken down into; plug a few frameworks to see how it looks; and go for the most appropriate issue tree.

Unlike in candidate-led cases where you only present the upper-most layer, here you should walk the interviewer through the whole issue tree, covering at least 2 layers. Interviewer-led cases are much less interactive. It’s more like they ask you a question, and you deliver a comprehensive and big answer. They ask you another one. And so on.

Market-sizing / Guesstimate questions

“How many face masks are being produced in the whole world today?”

This is among  the most popular question types and you will likely face a few of them throughout several interview rounds. These questions ask you to “guess” and come up with number estimations in non-conventional contexts. These questions are called “Guesstimate”.

When a guesstimate question asks you to “guess” the size of a market, it’s called a “Market-sizing” question. Though this variation is very popular in consulting, the nature is nothing different from other Guesstimate questions.

It can be intimidating to face a question like this. Where to start? Where to go? What clues to hold on to?

The key is to understand that you don’t have to provide an exact correct answer. In fact, nobody knows or even cares. What matters is HOW you get there. Can you show off consulting traits, using a sound approach to come up with the best “estimate” possible?

Read the designated article on this for great details. Here, let’s walk through the 4-step approach that you can apply to absolutely every market-sizing question.

Step 1: Clarify

Make sure you and the interviewer are on the same page regarding every detail and terminology, so you won’t be answering the wrong question.

Step 2: Break down the problem

Break the item in the question (number of trees in Central Park, market size of pickup trucks) down into smaller, easy-to-estimate pieces.

Step 3: Solve each piece

Estimate each small piece one at a time; each estimation should be backed by facts, figures, or at least observations.

Step 4: Consolidate the pieces

Combine the previous estimations to arrive at a final result; be quick with the math, but don’t rush it if you aren’t confident.

Math questions

“If the factory can lower the clinker factor by 0.2, how much money will they save on production cost?”

Almost all cases involve some math. So you will face math questions for sure. These “questions” can go at you either explicitly and implicitly. Sometimes, the case interviewer will ask out loud a math problem and have you solve. But sometimes, you have to do multiple calculations on the background to push the analysis forward.

Either way, a strong math capability will help you a lot during cases and the future career in consulting. See this Consulting Math article for more details.

Chart insight questions

“What insights can you draw from this chart?”

Consultant works with data and a big chunk of those data are presented by charts. Many times, the interviewer would pull out a sanitized exhibit from an actual project and have you list out insights you can see from it.

There are many types of charts. Getting yourselves familiar with the most popular ones is not a bad idea.

• Bar charts simply compare the values of items that are somewhat parallel in nature.

• Line charts illustrate the continuous nature of a data series, e.g: how my heart rate evolved through time.

• Pie charts illustrate proportions, i.e “parts of a whole” analyses.

• Scatter-plots use data points to visualize how two variables relate to each other. Correlation for example.

Tips on tackling chart-insights questions:

1. Read labels first: from Chart titles, Axis titles, Legend titles, etc. Don’t jump straight to the content of the chart. It takes more time to get lost there and has to go back to read the label. Besides, you may also run a risk of misunderstanding the content.

2. Look for abnormalities: important insights always lie in those unexpected and abnormal data. Look for them!

Value proposition questions

“What factors does a customer consider when deciding which car insurance company to buy from?”

In simple language, this question type asks you: what do the customers want? Understanding exactly this need will put any company in the best position to tailor products/services.

Like any other questions, Value-proposition questions are not only about correctly identifying customer preferences (insights) but also about analyzing and delivering the answer in a structured fashion. Here are a few tips for you to do that:

How to be more insightful: 

• It always helps to break customers into groups and provide different substances for each.
• Put yourselves into the customers’ shoes. Think from the first-view perspective and more insights will arrive.
• If there is any data/ information previously provided in the case, definitely use it.
• A library of factors? Safety, speed, convenience, affordability, flexibility, add-on services, durability, fashion, ease of use, location, freshness, etc.

How to appear more structured:

• Follow this structure: Customer group 1, Customer group 2, etc. Under each: Factor A, factor B, factor C.
• Develop your personal script for this question type. Make sure it’s easy to follow and structured in nature.

Information questions

What kind of data do you need to test this hypothesis? How do you get data

Consulting is a data-driven industry. As consultants, we spent most of our time gathering and presenting data to clients ( see the What the heck does a consultant do video ). No surprise information questions are relatively popular in cases.

The best way to tackle this question type is to understand inside out the types of data actual consultants use in real projects. Because almost no candidate knows about this. This is also a very quick way to build rapport. The interviewer will feel like he/she is talking to a real consultant.

Case interview example video – Pandora case

Enough theory! Enough cute little illustrations here and there. Time to get our hands into a serious case interview example.

Notice the following when watching the video:

• How the problem is given and clarified
• How the problem-solving approach is layouted and executed
• How the candidate use wording and frame the pitches
• The dynamic of a case. How energy transfers from one to another person.

Every case is unique in its own way but principles are universal. The more examples you see, the better. This video is extracted from our  Case Interview End-to-end Secrets program, where you can find 10 complete examples like this and many other supplement contents.

How to prepare for case interviews

Case Interview preparation is a long and tough process. In an ocean of books, videos, programs, how do we navigate to maximize learning? Most materials floating around are quite good, at least in terms of substance. But the timing and the organization of them can be confusing.

• Too much theory in the beginning can burn brain power very quickly.
• Tackling cases without basics can develop bad habits, which eventually cost more time to unlearn.
• Practicing complicated (or even just normal) cases in the beginning can destroy morale drastically.

So a good study plan is constantly switching between 3 activities: reading theory, watching examples, and practicing, with cases increasing difficulty level. It’s so crucial to start with super easy cases, be patient, and stay on that level until you are ready to move up. There are so many skills, habits, and scripts to develop and these take time.

“The quickest way to do just about everything is … Step by Step”

Even for candidates with cases coming up urgently, I still strongly recommend spending the most valuable time practicing cases that match your level. After all, cases are just the context. What you will be evaluated on is your approach, your skills, your techniques, etc.

So, this is a sample study plan you can adopt for yourselves:

Step 1: Learn the basics of case interview theory

• Read this article thus far
• Watch this  Case Interview 101 video

Step 2: Watch a simple case interview example

• Read the sample case flow above.
• Watch this  Case Interview Example video
• Go to this list of free case examples and try to select a very simple one. If you can’t follow one, it’s probably not good for you. Just skip it.
• Watch the first example in the  End-to-end Program

Step 3: Review the theory of case interview approaches  

• Read deeply about the logical foundation of problem-solving in this BCG & Bain Case Interview article.
• Watch intensively the logical foundation of problem-solving in this Candidate-led cases video.

Step 4: Do one mock case interview

• Practice with consultants. They have the insight and knowledge to help you pass the interview. Discover our experienced coaches from McKinsey, BCG and Bain here .
• Find a partner to practice with. Make sure you both watch this  Guide on how to conduct a case. A bad coach can do more harm than good.
• Get your hand on another example in the  End-to-end Program. But this time, don’t just watch. Actively solve the case as you see it! Try to say out loud your version, then listen to the candidate, then hear the feedback!

Step 5: Start improving your business intuition

Business Intuition is like your natural sense of the business world: how to be insightful and creative in various business contexts, how to feed the “content” into your approach, etc. Think of this as a basketball player trained for muscle strength, agility, or durability. Intuition can be improved gradually through constantly exposing yourselves to a wide range of business situations and contexts.

You can do this by:

• Read consulting publications. One article per day for example. Three wonderful sources are: McKinsey Insights, BCG Perspectives, and Bain Publications
• Train  case interview questions individually. By isolating each part of the case, you can focus more on the substance. Hit that link or get more question training on the End-to-end Secret Program .

Step 6: Start training consulting math

• Visit this in-depth consulting math article.
• Train our  Mental Math methodology.

Step 7: Practice another mock case interview

At this stage, please still stick to very basic cases. The goal is to see all of the knowledge and skills above in real action. Again, this can be done by either:

• Book a meeting with coaches
• Find another partner to practice with. Just make sure you both watch this Guide on how to conduct a case. A bad coach is always more harmful than not practicing at all.
• See another example in the End-to-end Program. Like the previous one, try actively solving the case as you see it! Say out loud your version, then listen to the candidate, then hear the feedback!

Step 8: Equip yourself with tips, techniques, and advance theory

• Read on! The below chapters of this very article will provide you with more advanced theory and killer tips.
• Watch the whole Tips & Techniques sections of the End-to-end Program. You will find 10 examples with clear walkthroughs of tips and techniques right in the middle of real action.

Step 9: Do further mock cases, review, and improve

Practicing for case interviews is a time consuming process – but as long as you have the right method, you will make it!

• First, brush up on knowledge related to case interviews with the Case Interview End-to-End Secrets Program .
• Second, get personalized practice with ex-consultants. That way, you’ll receive clear and tuned feedback to understand what to improve, building your own proper case approaches.  See a list of experienced coaches here .

Stay tuned with us on this website and our Youtube channel for continuously updated information on case interviews and management consulting recruitment; you can also subscribe to the newsletter below for free materials and other insightful content!

Good luck with your case prep!

Case interview tips – With instant results

Imagine a case interview just falls out of the sky and into your lap, scheduled for tomorrow – how can you even prepare?

The answer lies in a few “quick and dirty” tips, which I’ll share with you in a moment.

I am a firm believer in the 80-20 rule – which states that 20% of the causes lead to 80% of the consequences.

In the case interview prep context, 20% of your learning efforts will bring about 80% of the improvements – so the key to instantly and dramatically improving your case performance is to identify and focus on that 20%.

In the next 8 chapters, I’ll tell you the killer tips and tricks that helped me get a McKinsey offer, the majority of which were previously only available in the premium End-to-End Secrets Program , including:

• Chapter 9: Delivering the perfect case opening
• Chapter 10: Remaining absolutely structured throughout the case
• Chapter 11: Taking the best notes
• Chapter 12: Getting out if stuck
• Chapter 13: How to ask for data
• Chapter 14: What to do when receiving data
• Chapter 15: Deliver the most convincing closing pitch
• Chapter 16: Developing your personal scripts

One thing before you proceed: don’t forget to learn the fundamentals, the question types, and the frameworks. Remember, these 20% tips can only get you 80% performance; if you want 100%, there’s  no substitute for hard work.

How to deliver the perfect case opening

The result of a case interview is determined  the first 3 minutes – and I’m not even exaggerating.

Most people will be put off by this fact – indeed, with all those efforts spent on learning for the later part of the case, and the hiring decision is made when you’re not even properly warmed up yet.

However, putting a spin on it, this is the 20% to focus on – if you nail the opening, you’ll make a better impression than most candidates; it’s also easier to perform well in 3 minutes than in 30 minutes, especially when the case hasn’t gotten tricky. Additionally, you can prepare the opening in a formulaic manner – essentially learning by heart until it becomes natural.

There are 7 steps in the perfect case opening formula:

1. Show appreciation

2. Announce case introduction

5. Announce case approach

7. Ask for a timeout

In this chapter, I’ll walk you through each of those steps.

Step 1: Show appreciation

The quickest way to score the first points with any interviewer is to  sincerely compliment them. Everybody loves compliments.

Case interviewers are not dedicated HR staff, but Engagement Managers, Partners, and Directors who conduct interviews ON TOP OF their projects as goodwill for the firm, so you should at least be thankful for the time they spend with you.

Begin your interview with a sincere “thank you” for the interesting case (if you have to fake these words because deep down you don’t like case interviews, you aren’t exactly cut out for the job).

Step 2: Announce case introduction

Announce you’re going to do  steps 3, 4, and 5.

This step is related to what I call the “map habit”, which I’ll describe in detail in the next chapter. For now, just understand that it  helps the interviewer follow your introduction, and shows you’re a structured person.

Step 3: Recap  

What is the key question of the case?

On a side note: one common mistake is to mix up step 3 with step 4 (clarify) – remember, don’t ask anything , just rephrase the case to ensure that you get it right.

Step 4:  Clarify

Ask questions to clear up any  potential confusion about the details of the case.

Case questions are always very short with a lot of vague details; if you don’t see the need to ask anything, you’re doing it wrong.

Run this checklist through your mind to help you clarify as many unclear points as possible:

• Definitions: are there words you don’t understand or can be interpreted in multiple ways?
• Timeframe: what is the “deadline” for solving this problem?
• Measurement: how are the important variables (performance, revenue, etc.) measured?

Additionally, number your questions so it’s easier for you and the interviewer to keep track.

Step 5: Announce case approach

Roughly sum up  how you’ll analyze the problem.

Again, this is related to the map habit, which makes the overall case progress easier to follow.

There are 3 types of cases: (1) problem-solution, (2) should I choose A or B, and (3) how to do C. For each type, there is a different approach. The latter two are discussed in the “Advanced Logic” chapter, for now, we’ll continue with the first type: tell the interviewer you’re going to find the root cause to ensure long-lasting solutions, and to do that you’ll develop an issue tree.

Step 6: Align

Check if the interviewer  approves of your case approach.

This is an important habit of real consultants  because nobody wants to waste resources going in the wrong direction; interviewers expect candidates to show it in the case interview.

Simply ask “Does this sound like a reasonable approach to you?” – most likely the interviewer will give you the green light, but if you’re lucky he/she may even suggest a better approach.

Step 7: Ask for timeout

After you’ve gone continuously through the 6 steps above, ask the interviewer for timeout to (make this explicit) gather your thoughts and develop the first part of the issue tree.

Make the most of your timeout session, and keep it as short as possible. Any unnecessary silence will damage the impression and hurt your chances (refer to the End-to-End Program example in Chapter 6 to “feel” how awkward a lengthy timeout session is).

Case opening – Example script

Now it’s time to see how you can put all those steps into action!

Thank you for this very interesting case, I am really happy to get a chance to solve it!

The first step in solving any business problem is to make sure we solve the right one, so before diving into the problem, I would like to first recap the case, then ask a few clarification questions to make sure we’re both on the same page, and lastly announce my overall case approach.

So here is my understanding of the case:

• [facts regarding the client and situation]
• [key case question]

Does that correctly summarize the case?

<assume the interview confirms that your playback is correct>

Great, now I’d like to ask my three clarification questions:

• [question 1]
• [question 2]
• [question 3]

<wait for answers>

Thank you for the clarification. Is there anything else I should be aware of?

Thanks for all the insights. It’s great that we all agree on the key details.

For the overall approach to this case, to completely wipe out the problem for a long-lasting impact, we will need to find out the root causes of this problem. To do that I will try to break the problem down into bite-size pieces with issue trees, in order to quickly isolate the root causes inside the branches, then drill down accordingly to gather information until we can draw actionable solutions.

So before I go on to establish my first issue tree, does that approach sound reasonable to you?

<assumes the interviewer agrees with your approach>

It’s great to see that we’re on the same page regarding the key details as well as the overall approach to the case. I do need some time to gather my thoughts, so may I have a short timeout?

Being structured throughout the case

The high stress and large amount of information in case interviews make it easy for even the brightest candidates to derail from the objective or present in an unstructured manner.

I’ll be sharing with you my 3 most impactful tips for keeping the structure in case interview:

1. The map habit

2. Numbering your items

3. Sticking to the big problem

The map habit

It means regularly and explicitly checking where you are, and where you’re doing next.

I call it the map habit because it’s similar to using a map while traveling – pausing every once in a while to check your location, destination, and direction.

This habit gives you a sense of direction and authority while making it easier for the interviewer to follow your case progress. It also makes you sound organized and systematic – a definitive mark of management consultants – and the interviewer will love it!

You’ll see this habit a lot in our Case Interview End-to-End Secrets Program, where candidates would often pause at each key step during the case. Do the same thing in your own case interviews, and you’ll greatly impress the interviewer.

Numbering your items

A very easy and effective way to make your pitches sound structured is to number each item.

The formula is simple: “There are X items that I’m going to say; they are: No.1 … No.2 … No.3 …”

By now you may have noticed that I use this structure many times throughout this guidebook – it’s already quite effective in written language, but it’s even more impactful in spoken communications!

Having this numbering habit will make it very easy for the listener to follow your speech, and it creates an impression of MECE (even if content-wise it’s not MECE).

Sticking to the big problem

There are two ways to keep yourself on track  all the time in those high-stress case interviews

1. Occasionally check your position on the issue tree, and quickly get back on track if it seems you’re “derailing”. If this sounds like the previous map habit, you’re right, it is the map habit.

2. Take good notes, with the case question being written big and bold on top of your scratch paper. That way you’ll be reminded every few seconds.

That last point brings us to the next issue: how to take notes.

How to take notes in case interviews

The best notes for case interviews are always  clear-cut, structured, and relevant.

Even the smartest candidates suffer from seemingly silly problems in case interviews – forgetting data, messing up the numbers, getting stuck with frameworks, losing sight of the original objective, etc. And in the true management consulting spirit, I set out to find the root causes.

And looking back at hundreds of coaching sessions I did, I found one thing in common – none of those candidates could take good notes.

I’ll tell you precisely how I took notes to get a McKinsey offer; however, I hope that after this chapter, you can install the spirit of the method, not just the method itself.

So here we are, with the 3 groups of sheets laid out for the ideal note-taking:

1. Data sheets

2. Presentation sheets

3. Scratch sheets

Data sheets

Data sheets are used to store and process every piece of incoming data .

Try to draw tables for these sheets, because this not only makes the calculation process easier but also gives the impression that you’re a careful and organized person.

Also, remember to write only the results of calculations on this sheet, to keep it neat and tidy. Most of your calculations should be done mentally (see the article on Consulting Math for more details); if you really need to jot down the calculations, do it on the scratch sheets.

Presentation sheets

Presentation sheets are used to develop and present any “outgoing” content.

Your issue trees should be drawn on these sheets, along with the big-and-bold case question/objective right on top. When delivering your pitches, always turn around the presentation sheets so the interviewer can clearly read what’s on them.

As with the data sheets, avoid any messy “mid-process” drawings. Put them on the scratch sheets instead.

Scratch sheets

Scratch sheets exist to keep other sheets clean.

Ever felt irritated receiving a notebook full of correction marks? That’s exactly how the interviewer feels if you present with untidy notes. You should try your best to hide all the unorganized, messy parts of your thought process.

The scratch sheets provide a sanctuary for that unstructured part of yours – it’s okay to go all over the place for brainstorming, as long as you can organize the incoming resources and present in a systematic manner.

“I took the notes just as you instructed, but I still get stuck in cases. How can I avoid it?” – Well, that’s the subject for our next chapter – “Stuck” situations and how to get out of them.

Stuck in cases – What to do

We’ve all been there – that scarily awkward feeling when you don’t know what to do next in a case interview, that fear of being rejected.

In every “stuck” situation, the most important thing is to remain calm and collected (you’ll lose points if you panic) – then methodically work your way out. I’ll teach you how to get out of those situations, with style.

There are actually 3 different kinds of “stuck”, and for each, I have a different solution:

1. The “Framework” stuck

2. The “Data” stuck

3. The “I-Cannot-Find-The-Problem” stuck

Let’s go through each in detail.

The framework stuck

This situation happens when the candidate does not know which framework to use, and the secret tool for it, is “segmentation”.

Segmentation works just like any framework, and like a Swiss Army knife, it’s usually safe and easy to use. So if you’re unsure how to break things down, say these magic words:

“At this point, I’d like to break down this X item, and one good way is to use the natural segmentation within this line of business. So may I ask how they break this X item in this industry?”

If you get it right, the interviewer will reply with the most industry-relevant way to segment the item.

You may be wondering why I’m not talking about issue trees and frameworks here, after all the theory at the beginning of the guidebook.

The answer is that the textbook and “ideal” solution – learning the problem-solving fundamentals and deep-diving the frameworks to increase your flexibility – takes a lot of time, while the “cliched” solution – learning as many frameworks as possible, usually at the cost of depth – is inherently dangerous.

The data stuck

The “data stuck” happens when the candidate can’t extract relevant insights from the given data. And when this happens, ask for benchmarks.

Comparing with benchmarks is the quickest way to put data into perspective, yielding useful insights. There are 2 kinds of benchmarks – if you remember from the chapter on Candidate-led Cases: 

• Historical benchmarks: data on the same entity in the past
• Competitor benchmarks: data on similar/competing entities in the same timeframe

To ask for benchmarks, Just say the following lines:

“For now, I hypothesize that the root cause of the problem comes from the X branch of this issue tree. However, to further break down the problem in a spot-on way, I do need some information on the context of our client’s problem.

One of the quickest ways to grasp that context is to use competitor’s data; so can I have the X figure for our client’s competitors?”

The “I-Cannot-Find-The-Problem” stuck

This is the scariest “stuck” because there’s no obvious reason or solution – you’ve done your math right, your framework is suitable, and you’ve got a lot of interesting insights from data. Why are you still stuck?

From my experience in coaching sessions, there are 2 scenarios where this happens: (1) your issue tree is not MECE, and (2) if your issue tree is MECE, it does not isolate the problem.

You can try to avoid this in the first place by mastering the MECE principle, improving intuition, as well as aligning with the interviewer early and often.

But what if you still get stuck? The answer is to calmly admit you’ve hit a dead-end, and ask for time to fix the problem; be it the first or second scenario, you have to redraw your issue tree.

Literally use the following script:

“My whole analysis seems going towards a dead-end, which means either part of my issue tree is not MECE or my method of breaking down does not isolate the problem. Either way, I would like to take a timeout to have a look at it.”

You likely get stuck when practicing on yourself. That’s the reason why you need personal coaching. Veteran coaches at MConsultingPrep will give insightful feedback, propose actionable steps, and help you significantly enhance your performance. Find my coach !

How to ask for data

Data is the fuel for the case interview engine. Without it , your analysis can’t progress.

The problem is that interviewers don’t simply give out precious data for free. It has to be earned. There are 4 tips you can use to show that “worthiness”, and prompt the interviewer to supply you with the best information:

1. Create a good impression

2. Explain the purpose of the data

3. Explain the method of acquiring the data

4. Ask open-ended questions

Tip 1: Creating a good impression

The interviewer will love you if you think and act like a real consultant – if you can achieve that, he/she will always give you the best pieces of data available.

In this guidebook, there are countless tips to show your consulting characteristics – I even write a whole chapter on how to install consulting culture into your own personality. Generally, you must always be (1) structured , (2) fact-based, and (3) action-oriented.

Additionally, common people skills and interview tips also apply – show your appreciation by thanking for their help, keep a smile on your face to maintain a positive atmosphere, etc.

Tip 2: Explaining the purpose of the data

Say why you need that data, so the interviewer knows you can actually use it.

There are only two purposes for data in case interviews: (1) to test a hypothesis, and (2) to understand the context.

You can use the following scripts to when to reason your data requests:

“For now, I’m hypothesizing that the root cause of this problem comes from the X branch. Since this hypothesis can only be tested with the data on X, may I have those figures?”< testing hypothesis>

“For now, I hypothesize that the root cause of the problem comes from the X branch of this issue tree. However, to further break down the problem in a spot-on way, to better understand the context of our client’s problem, I will ask a few more questions. Does that sound reasonable to you?” < understanding the context>

Tip 3: Explaining the method to acquire the data

By stating how to get the data, you prove its feasibility and reinforce your data request.

In real consulting projects, data is not always available; the interviewer may rely on this logic and refuse to give you any information. So, when you ask for data, make sure your request is realistic, then state the method to acquire it using these words:

“If this was a real project, this information can be acquired from/by X source/method”.

In our  Prospective Candidate Starter Pack ,   there is a sheet listing all the possible sources of information in consulting projects, which you can download for your own use, along with many other free case interview materials.

Accurately explaining the data acquisition method also shows that you’ve done your homework and you know the consulting industry inside-out. Any interviewer will be greatly impressed.

Ask open-ended questions

This prompts the interviewer to give you data you haven’t thought of.

The precise questions mostly depend on specific cases (meaning you need to sharpen your intuition), but there is a Swiss Army knife here: “Is there anything else?” – which is a question real consultants ask several times a day, at the end of their conversations.

Use open-ended questions when you feel you might be missing something – for example, during clarification – and only after a series of well-defined, close-ended questions. Otherwise, you risk appearing lazy and over-reliant.

What to do when receiving data

Suppose the interviewer agrees to give you data. Now what?

Time to shine! If you do these following 3 steps, even just once, in the interviewer’s mind, you already pass:

1. Acknowledge the data and show appreciation

2. Describe the data, especially its notable features

3. State the implications of the data

Let’s dive into each separately.

Step 1: Acknowledging the data

Simply  thank the interviewer for the interesting piece of data.

Firstly, it confirms that you have received, and can understand the data.

Secondly, it’s always good to give out modest, subtle compliments to the interviewer. Trust me, conducting case interviews is hard work, and the interviewer does appreciate those little compliments.

Last but not least, it buys you a few seconds to fully absorb the new information and minimize any possible silence.

Step 2: Describing the data

Summarize  the most important insights you can extract.

Don’t recite a short essay about the data, there is no time for that. Quickly and mentally calculate all the important points, then state it out loud in 1-2 sentences.

This step has several uses:

It showcases your consulting math skills (chart insights and mental calculation)

It eliminates the silence during your analysis

It helps you quickly memorize the key trends in the data

Step 3: Stating the implications

Concisely explain how the insights from the data  related to the issue tree – do they confirm or reject the current hypothesis? Do they open new areas for investigations?

This part is extremely important because it connects to the action-oriented mindset of actual management consultants while laying solid foundations for your next steps (fact-based).

Example – Handling revenue data

Suppose you’re working on a profitability case (how to fix low profits), and you’re trying to dictate whether the root cause comes from the revenue side.

The interviewer gives you this data:

How would you respond? Try to answer it yourself before revealing the sample answer.

Sample Script - Receiving Data 

Thank you for the very interesting data. (acknowledging)

It seems that our client’s revenue has been increasing steadily throughout four years – around the mark of 20% annual growth, in fact. (describe the data)

This suggests that the problem may not come from this side of the issue tree. However, in order to fully reject the possibility, I need the figures on the revenue of other companies in this industry around this time. Do we have those numbers? (implications)

Delivering the perfect closing pitch

“You have one minute to summarize all of your findings to the client CEO. What would you say?”

Your answer must be short, to-the-point, action-oriented, and client-friendly.

The closing pitch of the case interview is sometimes called the “elevator pitch” , where you supposedly meet the client CEO inside the elevator and must somehow deliver the results of the project before the elevator arrives at its destination floor (it’s even worded like that sometimes).

Regardless of the wording, the principles remain the same, and your closing pitch must consist of these 4 parts:

1. Introduction / Lead-in

2. Summary of the root causes

3. Summary of the solutions

4. Next step

Part 1: Introduction / Lead-in

Open your pitch in a client-friendly way. Remember, consulting is a service – a premium one, in fact.

There is a simple formula for this part of the pitch:

“Mr. CEO, it has been a great pleasure to be working with you on your company’s X problem.”

Everybody loves a little compliment, don’t they?

Part 2: Summary of the root causes

Don’t go into detail about your analysis – show them the results first.

CEOs are busy people, they have no time for a 15-minute break-down of your issue tree. They only care about the “big picture” – “Why is the problem happening?”.

You need to sum up root causes in a structured manner, with a numbered list – in the case interview context, that’s one characteristic the interviewer looks for, and in real projects, it helps the listener follow your pitch.

“After careful analysis, we have found X root causes for the company’s problem: 1… 2… 3… X”.

Part 3: Summary of the solutions

The solutions are what the clients pay for in the first place, so make sure to deliver them clearly and systematically.

This step must also be structured. Additionally, list the solution in the same order as their corresponding root causes, to imply the connection between them (if the root causes are listed as A, B, C, then the solutions should never be C, B, A).

“To solve the aforementioned issues, we propose the X following solutions: 1… 2… 3… X”.

Part 4: Next step

The ending must lead the customer towards a follow-up project, in a client-friendly way.

This step shows that you have an action-oriented mindset and necessary people skills to represent the firm before the clients.

Moreover, follow-up implementation projects are a major source of revenue for the top consulting firms (such as McKinsey, BCG or Bain), so mentioning them in your case interview ending pitch proves that you did the appropriate research before applying.

So here’s what you’ll say when the elevator reaches the destination:

“We would be more than happy to work with you to implement these solutions”.

Develop personal interview scripts

Every tip I’ve mentioned in the previous 7 chapters is for recurring situations in case interviews, and they can be dealt with using formulaic responses.

What that means for you – the candidate – is that you can make personal scripts and learn them by heart until they all become your second nature. That will save you a lot of brainpower to use on the issue tree. This approach has proven successful with all of my coachees, and it’s also a major part of our Case Interview End-to-End Secrets Program. You will find my own personal script I used back in the day, and I will also personally give feedback to scripts of members of the program.

So open your document tool and start writing now. Once you’ve finished the scripts, learn them by heart one at a time. When you feel comfortable with every one of them, you can move up to a higher level and practice with whole cases.

Inside the case interviewer’s mind – Consulting culture

The best way to impress your consulting interviewer is to act like a consultant. And to do that, you need to know what goes on inside their mind – both the conscious and unconscious – then install it into your own personality.

In this chapter, I’ll guide you through 15 ingredients that make up a consulting mind. However, I won’t tell you how to apply this in case interviews because it will sound fake – what you need is to immerse yourself in a consulting environment, and incorporate these “ingredients” into your own mindset.

Responsibility & proactivity

Everyone talks about responsibility and proactivity these days, but in management consulting, we have a much more powerful word – “ownership” . When you “own” the work, you deeply and sincerely care about it, and you always try to go beyond what is required.

If you ever spend your efforts trying to improve a piece of work that your boss already approved, just because you know it is the right thing to do, because you feel so good seeing a job well-done, you have that “ownership” mindset.

In management consulting, you are expected to possess that mindset. In my early days at McKinsey, I was almost thrown out the window for working on a cement project but not knowing where the aggregate mines were (which was outside my responsibilities, but my boss expected me to know it, since I “owned” that cement project).

If you fail to do your work, don’t ever blame anyone or anything. Your responsibility is to draw up contingency plans for the “worst-case scenarios”:

• Missing the deadline because the client did not send you the data? You should have accounted for it in your schedule. 
• Late for work because of a traffic jam? Why didn’t you get up earlier?
• Your pet bite your suit? Any sensible person should have a spare one; even if that one is bitten, aren’t we paying you enough to get a new suit at the store this morning?

In short, if you want to be a consultant,  don’t make excuses.

Result-oriented / Can-do attitude

“There’s nothing I can’t do” – that’s the mindset you need to work in management consulting.

The result orientation inside a consulting firm is intense – saying that it’s “Mission Impossible” everyday would not be an exaggeration, but at the end of the day it’s always “Mission Accomplished”.

The boss doesn’t pay much attention to how you do a task, or what resources it takes, as long as you get it done. The firm has enough resources of every kind to help you with that, so there’s no reason you can’t pull it off.

Top-down communication

Communications made by consultants are always short, concise, to-the-point, action-oriented, and structured.

We were all given full-on lectures by our parents back when we were kids, for wasting food or not exercising (or not studying, for Asians like me). If they were management consultants, most of those lectures would be replaced with powerful, action-oriented messages: “Go study. If you don’t get an A+ for the next test, I’ll have to discipline you”.

A consultant seeing something non-MECE is like your mom seeing your messy bedroom. It’s that discomforting.

If you wish to be a consultant, train yourself to be MECE in everything you do. Once you can be MECE effortlessly, and you start spotting the annoying non-MECE-ness in everything around you, you know you’ve got it. 

If you’re unstructured, you won’t get into the business.

Being “structured” is a pretty vague concept, but everyone in the consulting industry knows when they see it. It’s about being organized, logical, top-down, MECE, etc.. Basically, if you can approach things the same way as real consultants, you will be deemed “structured”

If you can’t meet the deadline, you’re dead (of course, not literally).

A consulting firm works like the perfect machine, where every part operates as intended. When consultants promise to help you with something, you can be nearly 100% sure that they’ll keep their word. This makes work management that much easier.

Consequently, if you start missing the deadlines, you’ll be out of the game soon enough.

Manager from Day 1

You’ll get the idea right away if you watched this video on the job of management consultants:

In short, even as an entry-level associate, you’ll be managing a multitude of resources (experts, specialists, etc.), contents (reports, client data, expert knowledge,…), and stakeholders (the two most important being your client and your boss).

Pulling all of these together to create impactful results would be an impressive feat, even for the best and brightest new hires.

Client first

Don’t. Ever. Piss off. The client.

Management consulting is a special service industry – besides the usual “don’t disrespect the client” and “don’t leave a bad image of the firm”, there’s also “don’t make them hate you while telling them to do what they probably hate.” (which is a good way to sum up a consultant’s job).

In case interviews and PEIs, the interviewer will be asking himself a big question: “Can I trust this guy to represent me and my firm before the client?” – if the answer is anything below a stellar impression, you won’t be receiving an offer.

Consultants will have valid reasons for everything they do.

In both consulting work and case interviews, you need to be very explicit about the basis of your actions – every conclusion must have backing data, every idea must be explained, and every request must serve a purpose. Don’t ever assume that you’re justified.

Being fact-based is part of the foundation for the trust people place in consulting firms, so people who draw ideas out of thin air and act impulsively will never get into the industry.

Effective time & resources management

Every consultant works hard, so the only way to stand out is to work smart.

Yes, I know it’s a buzzword, and I know it’s cliched, but the 80-20 rule really does apply in this line of work. The best performers are always the ones to identify the most important lever and focus on it.

With the intense workload and up-or-out policy at major consulting firms, this skill is vital. Don’t be surprised if you pull all-nighters and work hard all the time but still get fired, while that one guy who goes home at 5 gets promoted. If you want to survive, learn from him.

Key takeaways & key messages

To a management consultant, everything has a key takeaway.

Consultants are efficient people, they don’t simply waste time, effort, and resources on irrelevant things. Things are only worthy of their attention if they have an interesting, helpful “so what”:

• You tell a story? So what?
• You perform a data analysis? So what are your key insights, and what’s the implication?
• You draw a slide? What’s the key message you’re trying to deliver?

If you already think like this, trust me, the interviewer will love you.

Think on your feet first

You should only ask for leadership assistance only  after you’ve thought well about the problem.

Just pause for a second and think: would you be more ready to help someone who really tries their best at the job or someone who does nothing and relies solely on you?

The same thing is true in consulting work, and even in case interviews: the interviewer will assist you if you can deliver well-informed opinions.

With that said, “asking without thinking first” is a very common mistake in case interviews, which you can see in the numerous examples from our End-to-End Secrets Program. 

Align early, align often

Always try to reach and maintain a consensus with co-workers and your boss, from the most mundane tasks to the largest projects.

Nobody wants to spend a whole week building a model that the team doesn’t need; it’s a huge waste of time and resources. As such, consultants have this aligning habit very early and often – a little time spent on reaching an agreement now will save a lot of trouble later.

Remember to align in case interviews as well – at the start of the case, and every important step.

Consultants are very action-oriented people who always think about the next step.

Every meeting, phone call, even random catch-up must end with everybody being explicitly and absolutely clear about what to do next.

So what’s YOUR next step, after reading this guidebook?

Scoring in the McKinsey PSG/Digital Assessment

The scoring mechanism in the McKinsey Digital Assessment

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Case Interview End-to-End Secrets Program

Elevate your case interview skills with a well-rounded preparation package

Six types of charts in case interview are: Bar/Column chart, Line chart, Percentage chart, Mekko chart, Scatter plot chart, Waterfall chart.

Business knowledge is not a mandatory condition to become a consultant. Nevertheless, it still has specific obligations and advantages for consultants.

There are 9 type of questions that mostly used in actual case interviews. Each type has a different solution, but you can rely on the a 4-step guide to answer

Center for Career Development

Case Interview Preparation

Case interviews are designed to test an applicant’s ability to solve business problems and demonstrate skills valued in the consulting field. Firms seek applicants who can think logically and strategically under pressure, give evidence of strong communication skills and exhibit the ability to work with a team to address often quickly changing priorities.

What is a case interview?

Interviewers present a hypothetical business challenge and assess how you explore the problem and conceptualize and structure a solution. As you process the case they are looking for key traits and skills. Interviewers assess how you: 

• Listen to information about the business problem and probe deeply or broadly with thoughtful questions posed to the interviewer while building rapport
• Think out loud and express your ideas concisely, responding quickly and confidently, and deal with the pressure of the interview process
• Use quantitative and qualitative analysis to creatively and logically problem-solve
• Toggle between details and the big picture 
• Communicate understanding of business concepts such as falling markets, introducing a new product or entering a new geographic area

Which traits are consulting firms seeking in candidates?

Interviewers use case interviews (and any behavioral interviews that may follow) to assess the skills listed above and your flexibility. They want to see how easily you can change direction, both in your understanding of client problems and your ability to navigate unpredictable situations with clients and others. The ability to get along with different personalities and to integrate into teams with new co-workers and client partners is an important skill. 

Some positions require frequent travel to client sites. They seek candidates who can change venues frequently and work in unstructured work environments without an office or administrative support.

How long is a case interview?

A preliminary, first-round interview is typically one case for 30 minutes to an hour. Additional interviews may include several cases conducted by different professionals within a few hours.

How to prepare

Review multiple sources to gain information and insights. You should also prepare for behavioral interview questions, which may follow your case or be part of subsequent interviews. You can find preparation tips for behavioral interviewing in our interview guide , and library of resources includes more than 500 cases, nine video courses, 10,000 case drills, 11 industry primers, and 12 chatbot cases through Management Consulted .

Other strategies to prepare include:

• Review sample cases and outline your answers  
• Practice mental math to work with quantitative data more easily
• Review brain teasers and practice solving them
• Practice case interviews with friends who you know are also applying to consulting opportunities
• Contact alumni who work in consulting (you can start by looking up alumni in Career Compass ) to learn more from them or practice cases with them 
• Attend information sessions with consulting employers to learn about their case interview processes
• Study the consulting organization with which you are interviewing to understand their types of clients 
• Keep current on business issues and financial markets to understand trends 
• Be prepared to devote time over a number of weeks to become proficient with the different types of case interview questions

Where can I find more resources to help?

Management consulted.

All Princeton undergraduates, graduate students and alumni have free access to Management Consulted , a consulting and case interview prep resource. 

Consulting companies' websites

Many of the top consulting firms offer their advice about case interview preparation. Some of them include interactive case practices which will give you a chance to walk through cases.

Videos and podcasts

Some of the major consulting firms have videos or YouTube videos of case interviews.  Others may be created by former consultants, or firms who provide paid coaching services as well as free resources, such as podcasts and videos.

Firsthand is a tool to research employers, industries and other career subjects. Access is free for Princeton students courtesy of the Princeton University Library. The Firsthand Guide to the Case Interviews reviews case interview format, suggestions for preparation and evaluation tips. 

Students and alumni have cited these books as being helpful: 

• Case in Point (Marc Cosentino)
• Case Interview Secrets (Victor Cheng)
• Crack the Case System (David Orhvall)
• Cracking Case Interviews (Max Serrano & Jonathan Yarde)

Brain teasers/open-ended questions

Practice brain teasers, which require logical and quick-thinking to highlight problem-solving skills, attributes that are helpful for case interviewing. Brain teasers are not usually business-focused problems. An example would be: How many gas stations are there in the U.S.? 

• Five Terrific Brain Teaser Questions (Indeed)
• How to Solve Google’s Crazy Open-Ended Interview Questions (Wired)
• 7 Insane Brain Teasers You Could Actually Encounter in an Interview (The Muse)
• How to Ace Guesstimate Interview Questions (Firsthand)
• How to Answer Brainteaser Interview Questions (Big Interview)

There are many consulting preparation-related websites that can help you navigate or practice case interviews. They typically provide free resources such as case walkthroughs, directories of consulting firms, annual consulting salaries data, but also have paid resources such as case interview prep assistance. 

Consulting student groups and case competitions

Join Princeton student groups (e.g., Princeton University Graduate Consulting Club or Princeton University Nonprofit Consulting) to build connections and gain experience with consulting through speakers, projects and case competitions.

A case competition can be organized by student groups or consulting organizations. Teams of three to six tackle a real-world case by identifying key problems and providing a strategy for the client throughout a limited time period. In general, a group of representatives serves as judges, and they choose the best team(s) who may receive bragging rights, corporate gear or actual cash prizes. 

Although case competition format or style may differ around the industry (e.g., finance, management consulting, healthcare), they all provide students with hands-on exposure to consulting with the opportunity to apply various skills (e.g., problem-solving, teamwork, critical thinking).

Related Resources

Case Interview Prep 2024 (5 steps to an MBB offer)

It's August and in the consulting world, that means one thing... recruitment season!

Today we're going to explain how to prepare for case interviews, step-by-step, updated for 2024.

We've helped thousands of candidates ace their management consulting interviews and get jobs at Mckinsey, BCG, Bain, and other top firms. Below we've summarised the five main preparation steps you'll need to take to succeed in your case interviews.

And here's one of the first things you'll want to know:

Memorising pre-made frameworks will NOT impress your interviewers. You need to learn to create custom frameworks that are tailored to the details of each individual case. We'll cover this in more detail in  section 2   below. 

Here's an overview of your five preparation steps (click to jump to that section):

• Learn what to expect in a management consulting case interview Get a succinct overview of what case inteviews are, how they work and differences between top consulting firms.
• Learn a structured approach to case problems Understand how to solve cases in a methodical and structured manner.
• Solve practice cases (33 free example cases) Find links to example cases from the top firms. Working through cases is a key part of your prep
• Improve your case interview technique Read tips from our experts on how to perform better in case interviews.
• Practice, practice, practice First practice on your own, out loud. After that, doing mock interviews with anyone will improve your chances, but doing mocks with ex-consultants is a game-changer.

You can use this guide as a launchpad for all your case interview prep. When you need to go deeper into a sub-topic (such as using frameworks, case examples, specific firms, even what to wear, etc.), just click on the relevant link.

Click here to practise with MBB ex-interviewers

How we wrote this article

This article was originally written by two ex-consultants, Max and Jon . We also talked to six expert consultants from top firms: Bain, Oliver Wyman, EY, and Accenture. Our particular thanks to John, Garvit , Adrian , and Kai for their input.

We update this article a couple of times a year to make sure it's up-to-date with current case interview practices.

Step 1. Learn what to expect in a consulting case interview ↑

1.1 what is a case interview.

Case interviews (sometimes called case study interviews) are used by consulting firms to test candidates on their problem-solving, maths, communication, and business sense skills. They usually last ~1 hour and they are the core of the consulting interview process.

1.2 What is the format of a case interview?

In a case interview, you are presented with a case study about an imaginary company facing a problem or challenge. You'll need to review the information, ask questions to get more information, and then provide recommendations on what actions the company should take.

Most case interviews are made up of the following six components:

• Case prompt
• Framework development

Framework exploration

• Quantitative question (with or without data)
• Brainstorming

Recommendation

Depending on what firm you're interviewing for, the interviewer may control the case interview by asking you a list of questions, or you may be expected to take the initiative in the discussion.

Some firms, such as Bain and BCG, also use case presentations. In these, you are given a couple of hours to analyse a pack of documents and create a presentation (you can learn how to prepare for that in our guide to written case interviews ).

1.3 Why do consulting firms use case interviews?

Case interviews aim to simulate, as accurately as possible, the day-to-day of a management consultant. If a candidate does well, the interviewer can be fairly confident that they've got what it takes to succeed in the role.

"To make it as realistic as possible, interviewers often use questions from actual situations they've experienced with clients. So case interviews help consulting firms understand if the candidate is someone they can put in front of their client and is fit to represent the brand that the company carries." Garvit (case interview coach, former manager at EY )

Let's take another look at those six components of case interviews. Garvit explained to us that at each stage, you're being tested on a different set of skills as you work your way toward satisfactorily solving the problem.

• Case prompt: tests your ability to filter information and focus on a relevant topic
• Framework development: tests your problem-solving skills
• Framework exploration: tests your problem-solving skills
• Quantitative question: tests your quantitative and analytical ability
• Brainstorming: tests your creative thinking skills
• Recommendation: tests your business sense

1.4 Are case interviews the same across all consulting firms?

There are generally two styles of case interviews used across all main consulting firms: candidate-led and interviewer-led.

Candidate-led (used by Bain, BCG, Oliver Wyman, and almost all other firms): In this format, interviewers give you more control over the pace of the interview. You're expected to take the initiative and lead the way to solving the problem.

Interviewer-led (used by McKinsey): In this format, interviewers tend to control the pace of the interview much more. They will have a list of questions about the case they want to go through with you, and will take you from one question to the next. If they feel you spend too much time on one question, they might interrupt you and ask the next question.

Some consultants say that candidate-led interviews are harder because you have to take charge. Adrian (case interview coach and ex-BCG interviewer), gave four reasons why candidate-led interviews are harder:

• There's more to think about: you're responsible for not only solving the case but also for guiding the discussion, asking the right questions, and managing the flow of information.
• You have to identify what's important without much guidance.
• You have to decide on the direction of your analysis with minimal cues, so you'll need good business intuition.
• It's up to you to keep the conversation focused on relevant areas.

  Another difference between firms is that Bain tends to use a lot more charts in its case interviews compared to McKinsey, BCG, and others. John (case interview coach and ex-Bain interviewer) told us that " at Bain, you could easily see three to six charts in one case, or even more. "

For more information on interviews at specific firms, see our bespoke interview guides:

• McKinsey case interview guide
• Bain case interview guide
• BCG case interview guide
• Oliver Wyman case interview guide
• Deloitte case interview guide
• EY case interview guide
• Accenture case interview guide
• PWC Strategy& case interview guide

1.5 What's the difference between first- and second-round case interviews?

Kai (case coach and ex-interviewer at EY and Accenture) explained that there are, in  fact, significant differences between first- and second-round case interviews:

• Structure: Second-round interviews can often be more unstructured, without any graphs or exhibits, more focused on the brainstorming and creativity part, and on testing your business judgment.
• Complexity : Second-round case interviews may involve more complex cases or scenarios compared to the first round. This is because candidates have already demonstrated basic problem-solving abilities in the initial round.
• Depth of analysis : Second-round interviews may require candidates to delve deeper into their analysis and recommendations, exploring various aspects of the problem in greater detail.
• Behavioural questions : While first-round interviews often focus solely on case studies, second-round interviews may include a behavioural component, such as discussing past experiences or fit with the company culture.

There is also a difference regarding who will be interviewing you.  You can expect a first-round case interview to be run by an Associate (2+ years of experience) or an Engagement Manager (4+ years of experience). In contrast, in the second round, you'll be interviewed by Partners (+10 years of experience) who are more likely to ask you tougher questions.

In theory, the firm takes into account your performance at both first- and second-round interviews when making final offer decisions. However, in practice, your performance during the second round carries more weight.

This is simply because Partners will have a stronger voice when the recruiting group discusses your application. It is therefore particularly important that you do well at your second-round interviews.

1.6 What are the different types of case interview problems?

Case interview problems used at the top consulting firms are generally one of the following:

Profitability Cases : These are the most common type of consulting interview cases. They focus on identifying why a company's profits are declining or stagnant. Candidates need to analyze costs and revenues to pinpoint issues, such as rising expenses, falling sales, or market changes, and then recommend strategies to improve profitability.

Market Entry Cases : These cases involve deciding whether a company should enter a new market. This includes evaluating market attractiveness, competitive landscape, and the company's ability to succeed in that market. Market sizing often plays a key role here, as candidates need to estimate the potential market size and revenue opportunities.

Merger & Acquisition (M&A) Cases : In M&A cases, candidates assess the potential value and risks of a company acquiring or merging with another business. This includes analyzing the strategic fit, financial benefits, cultural alignment, and potential synergies or integration challenges.

Response to Competitive Threat Cases : These cases focus on how a company should respond to a new or existing competitor threatening its market position. Candidates need to evaluate the competitive landscape, assess the company's strengths and weaknesses, and recommend strategies to counter the threat, such as changing pricing, improving products, or entering new markets.

Pricing Cases : Pricing cases revolve around determining the optimal price for a product or service. Candidates must consider factors like cost structure, customer demand, competitor pricing, and the overall market strategy. The goal is to find a price point that maximizes profits while maintaining competitiveness.

Ste p 2. Learn a structured approach to solving cases ↑

Whichever type of case you're given, you can follow this structured approach.

• Ask clarification questions
• Create a case framework
• Explore the framework
• Do the maths
• Make a recommendation

Let's dive into it.

1. Ask clarification questions

As the interviewer lays out the case problem, you need to snap into full concentration mode. You'll need to write down all the key points from the information they give you, and once you've got it down, summarize the problem back to the interviewer.

This has two benefits: it's a great way to make sure you've properly understood the most important details, and it gives you some thinking space to think of clarification questions.

There will ALWAYS be clarification or follow-up questions worth asking. For example, imagine you've been given a case where you need to help a client turn around declining profits. You could ask:

• How much have profits been declining?
• When did the decline begin?
• What is the nature of the decline? Have they been declining at 1% per year for the past 5 years, or is it a recent and sudden 20% drop?
• What’s the CEO’s objective? For example, are they aiming to just stop the profit decline or do they want to reverse the trend?

When the interviewer has answered your follow-up questions and you've written down the additional information, ask for a minute to create a framework.

Case prompt and clarification questions

"I'm rating the candidate on their ability to:

• Prioritize the most important aspects of the case to focus on.
• Employ active listening, including asking good clarifying questions and summarizing key points.
• Ability to build rapport and collaborate with the interviewer as a partner in solving the problem."

Adrian, ex-BCG associate director .

2. Create a case framework

It's time to give your thinking a clear structure. You're going to create a framework, and this will be the foundation that will structure your thinking for the rest of the interview. It will also demonstrate that you have the ability to break down complex problems into manageable components.

The kind of framework you create will depend on the type of case problem you're given but most of the time you'll create an issue tree. You'll need to make sure that your issue tree is both MECE and 80/20 . Read more about using issue trees in case interviews .

You might want to base your issue tree on one of the common case frameworks:

• Profitability
• Porter's 5-forces
• Market entry
• Merger and acquisition

These pre-existing frameworks can be a useful starting point. However, DO NOT simply copy an existing framework. Interviewers immediately spot and penalise candidates who do this because the objective of the framework question is to test your creativity and business acumen – not your ability to memorise frameworks!

In any case, in our experience (we've helped thousands of candidates get MBB offers) pre-existing frameworks are bound to produce average results because all cases are unique.

Read more about the top case frameworks and how to use them

Your framework should be tailored to the specific case, but it doesn't need to be complicated. Look at how simple the below framework is.

When you've created your framework, talk the interviewer through it.

"I'm rating the candidate on:

• ability to break down complex problems into manageable components.
• use of structured frameworks or methodologies to approach the problem.
• ability to clearly articulate their approach."

3. Explore your framework

Once you've explained your framework to the interviewer, you'll want to start exploring it. The best way to do this is usually by making a hypothesis. State a hypothesis that seems most likely, given the information available.

Think aloud as you start exploring this hypothesis. Ask the interviewer questions to explore whether your hyphothesis is valid. If you conclude that your hypothesis is false, eliminate that branch and go to the next one.

" In general, being hyphothesis-driven is a great way to approach cases. It helps you start formulating potential answers early on, and it helps you narrow down the list of criteria that could be driving your answer ." John, case coach and ex-Bain manager .

"Throughout the interview, but especially during this stage, I'm rating the candidate on how well they:

• identify key business drivers and factors that affect the client’s business.
• make decisions under uncertainty or with incomplete information.
• justify decisions with logical reasoning and supporting evidence.
• evaluate the potential risks and trade-offs associated with different options.
• show flexibility by adjusting their approach based on new information or feedback."

4. Do the maths

Now your deeper into the analysis of the case, it's almost certain that you'll come across some calculations that you need to make.

You might be provided with additional charts and data (McKinsey) or you might be asked a quantitative question with no data provided (BCG, Bain), such as " Could you estimate the market size for cars in the US by making assumptions?" .

Calculators are not usually allowed in case interviews. This applies to both in-person and virtual case interviews. That’s why it’s crucial for candidates to practice doing mental maths quickly and accurately before attending a case interview. 

Unfortunately, doing calculations without a calculator can be really slow if you use standard long divisions and multiplications. 

Luckily, there are some tricks and techniques that you can use to simplify calculations and make them easier and faster to solve in your head. We cover them in our free guide to Case interview maths .

Don't forget that when you've run the numbers and got your results, you'll need to interpret those numbers, What do they mean for the client's business? Do they support your hypothesis? What course of action do they support?

Maths and analytical skills

"I'm evaluating the candidate on:

• quantitative analysis: are they comfortable with numbers, can they perform quick calculations?
• data interpretation: have they shown an ability to analyze and draw insights from data?
• logical reasoning: can they make local connections and conclusions from the information they've been given?"

5. Brainstorm solutions

Depending on the type of case problem you're given, you may reach a moment near the end of the case where you're required to brainstorm potential solutions, problems, or causes.

For example: Now that we know that the profit decline is driven by a decrease in number of SUVs sold, what are some of the ideas you have to turn the situation around?"

This type of question is very open-ended. There are no right or wrong answers. It's testing your ability to generate new ideas and solutions in a pressured environment, but you need to do this in a structured way, rather than just throwing some ideas around.

When you're at this moment in the interview, ask for a minute to gather your thoughts and create a mini-framework before you start coming up with solutions.

Here your "framework" can be extremely basic. For the example we gave above, you could create two buckets - sales/marketing ideas and product ideas - and then come up with a couple of suggestions for each.

"I want to see creativity and innovation from the candidate here. I'm hoping to see them:

• think outside the box and propose unconventional solutions.
• generate new ideas that can create additional value for the client."

6. Make a structured recommendation

The last component of every case interview is the recommendation. As the name suggests, this is the part of the interview where you’ll be asked to summarise your findings and explain what the client should do.

When asked to give your recommendation, don't jump straight in. Ask for a moment to gather your thoughts. Then:

• Give your recommendation first
• Then provide 3-5 supporting arguments
• Outline next steps and potential risks

Consulting is a time-scarce businesses, so you need to get straight to what's most important. The same way a newspaper story starts with the headline, you give the recommendation first, then provide supporting arguments.

If the interviewer challenges your recommendation, listen to their argument and be prepared to adapt. However, keep in mind that some interviewers will challenge you simply to see if you have the backbone to defend your ideas when you're confident of being right.

• summarize key findings and insights succinctly.
• provide a coherent and logical conclusion that addresses the client's problem.
• formulate clear and actionable recommendations based on the analysis, and justify their recommendations persuasively.
• handle objections or challenges from the interviewer professionally."

Right, now you've learned a structured approach to case problems, you can start putting it into action on example cases.

Step 3. Solve practice cases (33 free example cases) ↑

The best way to master the case interview process we've outlined above is to practise with realistic example cases. 

Below are several example cases for leading consultancies to get you started.

3.1 McKinsey case interview examples

• Beautify case interview   (McKinsey website)
• Diconsa case interview   (McKinsey website)
• Talbot Trucks case interview   (McKinsey website)
• Shops Corporation case interview   (McKinsey website)
• Conservation Forever case interview   (McKinsey website)
• Loravia Education case (McKinsey website)
• Electro-Light case (McKinsey website)
• McKinsey case interview guide   (by IGotAnOffer)
• McKinsey live case interview extract (by IGotAnOffer)
• Profitability case with ex-McKinsey manager (by IGotAnOffer)
• McKinsey case example  (by CaseCoach) - see below

3.2 BCG case interview examples

• Climate case (BCG website)
• Digital strategy (BCG website)
• IT architecture strategy (BCG website)
• Chateau Boomerang written case interview  (BCG website)
• BCG case interview guide   (by IGotAnOffer)
• Written cases guide   (by IGotAnOffer)
• BCG live case interview with notes (by IGotAnOffer)
• BCG mock case interview with ex-BCG consultant: Revenue problem case (by IGotAnOffer) - see below

3.3 Bain case interview examples

• Milk alternative practice case (Bain channel)
• CoffeeCo practice case   (Bain website)
• FashionCo practice case   (Bain website)
• Associate Consultant mock interview video   (Bain website)
• Case interview tips   (Bain website)
• Bain case interview guide   (by IGotAnOffer)
• Bain live case interview extract (by IGotAnOffer)
• Consultant mock interview video   (Bain website)
• Revenue case with ex-Bain manager (by IGotAnOffer
• Digital transformation case, ex-Bain manager vs ex-Bain consultant (by IGotAnOffer) see below

3.4 Deloitte case interview examples

• Engagement Strategy practice case (Deloitte website)
• Recreation Unlimited practice case (Deloitte website)
• Strategic Vision practice case (Deloitte website)

3.5 Other case interview examples

• Yale SOM consulting club - Playworks case (YouTube)
• Yale SOM consulting club - Airlines case (YouTube)
• Fully interactive mock case (by CaseBinge) - see below

If your target firm isn't included above, or if you want even more practice cases, check out our list of   47 case interview examples . This list includes free cases for other firms like Accenture, Oliver Wyman, PWC, Roland Berger, etc. There are several more McKinsey cases there as well.

Step 4. Improve your case interview technique ↑

Interviewing is a skill in itself, and that applies even more so when you're in a case interview. So once you've practised using the methods we outlined above, take the time to polish your interview technique and make sure you're following these best practices:

Tip #1: Listen carefully and ask clarification questions

At the beginning of the case, your interviewer will lay out the situation of the company you are trying to help (e.g.: Coca-Cola's profits have decreased by 10% over the past 12 months). Your job in that part of the interview is to make sure that you understand the situation correctly by asking the right clarification questions (e.g.: In which countries have profits declined? And for which products?).

This is what partners at McKinsey and other firms do with clients. They sit down with them, listen carefully to the problem they have, and ask clarification questions before trying to solve the problem. They do this because it's impossible to solve a business problem you don't understand in detail. And you should therefore follow a similar approach in your cases.

Tip #2: Structure, structure, structure

Once you understand the situation in detail, your interviewer will expect you to put together a framework that you will use to solve the problem your client is facing. For instance, if your client is facing a profits issue, your interviewer will expect you to look into 1) potential revenue issues and 2) potential cost issues because profits issues can be due to one or both of these factors.

Consultants use frameworks to structure their thinking all the time because it's client-friendly. If you don't solve the problem in a structured way, your client will probably lose track of what you are doing and be unhappy. If you solve it in a structured way, they will know what you are working on at all times and feel that you have things under control. Interviews are the same. If you structure your approach and communicate in a structured way, you'll have a happy interviewer!

Tip #3: Don't reuse frameworks

We mentioned this in section 2 but it's worth repeating because so many candidates fall into this trap: don't reuse generic frameworks. As we explain in our case frameworks guide , interviewers will immediately notice if you do this and you will get penalised. Each case is unique, and you should therefore create a custom framework for every case you do. This might sound difficult, but it actually isn't if you take the right approach.

Tip #4: Think before speaking

Consultants sell advice. Once you have said something, it's hard to take it back. One of the things you learn as a junior consultant is to think first, decide how you are going to say what you want to say, and then finally say it. If you can do that well in your interviews, it will truly set you apart. In practice, it means that you should take some time to organise your thoughts before speaking and that you should avoid jumping to conclusions.

Tip #5: Try to convey confidence

We know this one is hard, but conveying confidence can make a big difference in your interviews. We all have doubts, and we are all stressed when we interview. It's perfectly normal. But you should try to keep these doubts and stress to yourself. You should try to look your interviewer in the eye and speak as confidently as possible. Conveying confidence is a core consulting skill and if you can do it in your interviews, it will take you a long way!

Tip #6: Brush up your maths

Virtually all case interviews involve doing maths computations without a calculator. Having rusty maths at the beginning of your preparation is normal. But in our experience, successful candidates take some time to brush up their maths when they start practicing. You should take the time to refresh your memory and be 100% comfortable doing basic additions, subtractions, divisions, multiplications, and growth rate calculations mentally. We really encourage you to take the time to do this. Trust us, it's worth it!

Tip #7: Don't calculate silently

When you're on the numerical part of the case, it can be tempting to go quiet as you do calculations in your head. This is a mistake. " It's much better if you can keep your interviewer engaged in your thought process and speak your calculations out loud ", says Garvit (ex-interviewer at EY) .

Tip #8: Draw conclusions

As we mentioned above, consultants get paid for their advice. One of the things clients hate is to pay a large sum of money and not get a clear answer about their problem. Even if they are halfway through the project, consultants avoid telling their clients: "We don't know yet." What they say instead is: "Based on what we have seen so far, our current hypothesis is that the profit decline you are experiencing is mainly driven by the Chinese market. We think this is the case for 3 reasons. Reason #1 is etc."

You need to do the same thing in your cases. At the end of the interview, your interviewer will ask for your conclusion. You can't dodge the question. You've got to give a clear answer with supporting arguments based on what you have learned doing the analysis. The trick is to caveat your answer with a sentence such as "Based on this initial analysis, etc." And to also highlight additional areas to explore to confirm that your current understanding is the right one.

Tip #9: Catch the hints

99% of interviewers have good intentions. They're here to help you perform at your best. During your interviews, they will give you hints about whether you are doing well or not. If they try to steer you in a direction, follow them - they're trying to help you. This might sound obvious, but candidates sometimes get so stressed out that they don't pick up on the hints interviewers give them.

Tip #10: Read up on business events

To pass a case interview, you don't necessarily need to be up to date on the latest business deals, but you can sometimes impress the interviewer if you bring in real-world knowledge. " I recommend to candidates that they try and know a bit about everything. Understanding current business and economic trends will help ," says Adrian (ex-BCG interviewer) .

Demonstrating interest and an ability to discuss business topics can also help answer fit or PEI questions .

Tip #11: Do targeted drills as well as mocks

You'll want to do plenty of mock interviews as part of your preparation, but don't think that you should only practise full-length interviews. John (ex-Bain manager) recommends doing targeted drills to ensure you are improving on your blind spots. He says, " For example, if you are consistently strong at chart clearing and brainstorming, but you tend to omit key points in your framework and often make one or two math mistakes, you need to focus on specific exercises targeting framework improvement and math accuracy. " 

Tip #12: Prepare properly for fit/PEI questions

The first 15 minutes of most case interviews is usually a "personal experience interview" where you'll be asked questions about your experience, motivations and working style.

Don't make the mistake of thinking these questions aren't important, they are. Use our Guide to answering PEI questions (written for McKinsey candidates but relevant to all) to prepare.

Step 5. Practice, practice, practice ↑

Your answers to behavioural and case questions are important, but your interviewers will also be evaluating how you COMMUNICATE your answers. It's important to speak in a structured way and to avoid drifting off-topic or spending too much time on each question. 

We recommend that you practise by interviewing yourself out loud . Play the role of both the candidate and the interviewer, asking the questions and answering them, just like you would in an interview. 

This may sound strange, but it will help  you master the rhythm of case interviews. It will also help you to memorise the key details of your answers to behavioural questions, without any crutches (like notes, glancing at your resume, etc.). 

Do your best to replicate the conditions of a real case interview as much as you can. It might help to look in a mirror while you're giving your answers. You may even find it helpful to practise in the same clothes you intend to wear to your interview . 

As you go through this process, if you'd like a broader list of questions to practise with, you can check out our   consulting interview questions article .

Do 30+ mock interviews

Practising by yourself is critical, but we all have gaps that we won't be able to identify without a partner that can see our performance more objectively. 

As a result, we recommend that you do as many mock interviews as possible before your interviews. We've found that most successful consulting candidates do 30+ mock interviews to prepare.

This probably sounds like a lot, and it is, but case interviews are a skill that is developed with experience.

5.1 Do mock interviews with friends and family

First, you can practise case interviews with friends, colleagues, or family. 

These are great ways to catch communication mistakes, but at some point, you'll probably notice that the feedback you are getting isn't helping that much anymore. 

Once you reach that stage, we recommend practising with ex-interviewers from top consultancies.

5.2 Do mock interviews with ex-interviewers

If you know a consultant who has experience running interviews at a top consulting firm, that's fantastic. Practise with them as much as you can!

But for most of us, it's tough to find the right connections to make this happen. And it might also be difficult to practise multiple hours with that person unless you know them really well.

Here's the good news. We've already made the connections for you. We’ve created a coaching service where you can practise 1-on-1 with ex-interviewers from leading consulting firms like McKinsey, BCG, Bain, etc. Book your consulting mock interview in a few clicks.

Related articles:

A Quick Guide to Pre...

A quick guide to preparing for a case study interview.

• Updated May 13, 2020

Recruiting & Careers Social Influencer

Reviewed by Chris Leitch

Invited to participate in a case study interview but not sure about the best ways to get ready for it?

As you always want to be at your very best when interviewing with a company, the case study interview requires a bit more preparation than recognising some of the common types of job interviews .

While you’ll still need to impress a prospective employer with strong research, confident interview responses and a professional appearance , the case study interview tests your knowledge and abilities through a spontaneous, analytical exercise. It examines how you approach problem-solving with the pressure of handling a situation without previous knowledge of any details or context.

Although the consulting industry utilises it as an essential part of the hiring process, the case study interview can be also found in many other environments, including startups, government and corporate organisations. It measures a candidate’s analytical, logic reasoning and communication abilities while under pressure.

In this guide, we will cover what you need to know to successfully prepare for a case study interview.

Case Study Interviews Explained

Even if you’ve never participated in one, it’s likely you’ve heard stories about the case study interview format. The case study puts you, the candidate, on the spot to solve a business problem posed by the interviewers.

Case study interview questions cover a wide range of topics and do not look for a single ‘right’ answer. Instead, the format gives the interviewers a look at how you respond spontaneously while applying problem-solving skills to create a solution to the business challenge presented.

For example, an exercise might ask what the potential market size is for a vegan food company within a prospective city and if setting up shop within the region would be worth it. The case study may not share all the details to help you reach an answer, but it should prompt you to ask questions that help you structure your thought process.

What to Expect in a Case Study Interview

The ways by which a case study interview is conducted will vary by company. However, this format bears unique characteristics:

• You’ll receive an introduction to the business problem, its relevant details and other information that lend to setting context. Some companies may choose to share a briefing document for you to read, while others may prefer to communicate the scenario in conversation.
• Information about the business problem will be, to some degree, vague. While the problem may cover complex business concepts, expect that the information will provide a high-level description of the scenario – not detailed reports with specific facts and figures. Case study interviews present such information in general terms for a reason. They’re meant to provide just enough information so that you can choose how to approach your line of questioning to solve the problem.
• The discussion about the business problem will be led by either the interviewer or the candidate. You need to be prepared for both situations. Who leads the conversation about the business problem is important, as it reveals the direction the discussion will take.

In interviewer-led sessions, the interviewer seeks to gauge the quality of your approach as it relates to a specific part of the business problem. They control the dialogue, focusing on a series of tough questions unlike those considered to be difficult in other interview formats . The interviewer sticks to a line of questioning that refers to details and themes relevant to the business problem, and evaluates how you comprehend, interpret and recommend actions within this specific domain.

On the hand, candidate-led conversations evaluate your ability to understand a business problem comprehensively, and from multiple points of view. Consultants play different roles on projects. Their actions cover various levels of activity, from analysing the business facts and data, creating the solutions and communicating directly with the clients on the overall strategy and approach. You’ll need to show strong methodology to guide others in your process.

Candidate-led sessions are challenging because they give you the freedom to explain your best approach to tackle the entire problem, but without receiving the input or comments of others to help guide a conversation along.

How to Prepare for a Case Study Interview

As you might find these interviews to be difficult, intense and downright nerve-wracking , you can succeed in a case study interview through thoughtful preparation. Here are five tips to help you ace the interview:

1. Demonstrate Your Analytical, Reasoning and Communication Skills

While recapping key details of the business problem is important, the case study interview measures much more than your ability to recall the facts. It showcases how you think on your feet as you seek out information to determine your course of action.

While you might be comfortable sketching out a framework or a mathematical formula that helps you identify the way you wish to solve the problem, this interview format also tests your ability to explain the reasoning in a clear and believable manner to others.

To be successful in a case study interview, you must demonstrate the skill to process information quantitatively, as well as speak about your rationale and decisions convincingly.

2. Get Ready to Play an Active Role in the Discussion

Case study interviews require a high level of engagement. While other interviews might have you responding to questions with rehearsed answers, the case study interview presents a situation that is dynamic and unpredictable.

You’ll want to approach the session with an active disposition. This typically includes taking notes, documenting your observations and ideas, sketching out diagrams and charts, and asking follow-up questions throughout the interview .

3. Identify the Type of Problem Posed to You

Jobseekers may find that there are common themes that appear when covering the type of business problems found in case study interviews. Eight of the most common exercises explore these questions:

• Maths – eg: ‘How many more units do we need to sell to double the profit?’
• Market size – eg: ‘How big is the market size within the US for smart wearable devices?’
• Framework/Issue tree - eg: ‘Identify the factors you would consider in addressing the problem.’
• Data-chart insights – eg: ‘What story do the numbers tell about the operations of this business?’
• Value proposition – eg: ‘What factors do customers look for in choosing a mobile phone carrier?’
• Business valuation – eg: ‘Just how much is this company worth today, and would it change if acquired by our competitor?’
• Hypothesis – eg: ‘What are some possible reasons that explain this trend?’
• Brain teaser – eg: ‘How many tennis balls can you fit in an area that is twice the size of a football field?’

There is not a single approach that solves all business problems. By identifying the type of problem you’re encountering, you’ll be able to quickly determine the most appropriate method to apply.

For example, you might discover that a maths problem will rely on the knowledge of specific formulas and expressions, while a hypothesis question calls for a closer look at the root causes behind an issue.

4. Organise a Framework that Helps You Solve the Problem

Having a good framework to apply to a problem is the key to doing well in a case study interview. You want to show that you understand a business issue well enough to formulate recommendations or insights that address the problem. As there isn’t one right answer to such a problem, your interviewer will be interested to hear about the thought process you applied to arrive at your decisions.

The process may involve a range of problem-solving skills and methods, including the use of mathematical formulas, first-hand knowledge about an industry and decision-tree flowcharts that guide through questions you’ve applied to the issue.

It’s helpful to write down your framework and refer to it as needed. By having the steps outlined, you’ll be able to explain your recommendations in a clear and confident manner so that the rationale used in your analysis appears sound.

5. Practise, Practise, Practise!

Prepare for the case study interview by engaging in mock practice sessions before the big day. While it’s important to spend time putting together the methods you’ll use to analyse a business problem, enlisting the help of a friend or two familiar with this interview format is essential.

You’ll want to find case study examples online and share your selections with those helping you practise. Your friends should read the materials before the practice sessions and play the role of the interviewer.

By conducting a practice session as if it were the real thing, your friends will help you work through the awkwardness and spontaneity of the case study interview and develop the confidence to perform successfully.

By following these tips, you’ll be ready to show off your analytical, communication and problem-solving skills, all important to the case study interview. However, don’t limit your preparation only to the guidance given for this specific style; rather, you’ll want to make sure you continue the things that served you well for other interview formats, including making a good first impression and avoiding interview faux pas .

By combining those behaviours with the preparation, mindset and practice needed to solve business problems on your feet, you’ll put yourself in a great position to succeed at a case study interview.

Have you ever found yourself in a case study interview? What advice do you have to give? Let us know in the comments section below!

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How To Prepare For A Case Study Interview

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Following the recent success of our technical interview prep guide and one-way interview prep guide , I caught up with professional resume writer and interview coach Paula Christensen to learn how you can best prepare for a case study interview.

Here’s what she shared about case study interviews and how to succeed in them:

What Is A Case Study Interview?

For starters, what’s a case study interview? “A case study interview is a specific interview method in which applicants are given complex business problems to analyze and solve on the spot,” explains Christensen. “They assess a candidate’s analytical and critical thinking skills as well as personality traits such as adaptability and curiosity.”

According to her, employers use case study interviews to not only evaluate how applicants approach problems, but also the analytical frameworks they use, as well as their communication skills.

Now, how do you effectively prepare for a case study interview? Perhaps not surprisingly, preparing for a case study interview has a lot of similarities to preparing for a regular interview .

First, “To enhance any interviewing skills, especially case study interviewing skills, practice is essential,” argues Christensen. She recommends reviewing common case study interview frameworks, then practicing them with a mentor , partner, or interview coach .

Next, Christensen suggests that you “be prepared to ask clarifying questions, learn to structure your thoughts and communicate them clearly, and get in the habit of using data and facts to support your recommendations.”

You also want to be ready for follow-up questions from the interviewers. “Good follow-up questions dig beneath the surface, and by answering them well, you can demonstrate that you have done your due diligence,” adds Christensen.

Sample Case Study Interview Questions

“There are hundreds, if not thousands, of practice case interview questions available online,” says Christensen. “Be selective about the cases you choose and practice situations that closely mimic scenarios you will encounter in your job function and industry.”

With these suggestions in mind, Christensen provided the following several sample case study interview questions along with explanations on how to approach answering them.

Sample Case Study Interview Question 1

“A company is considering entering a new market; what steps would you take to evaluate the potential success of the venture?”

Christensen explains that the interviewer might ask this question with the hope of learning how you evaluate potential business opportunities, including your strategies for collecting and assessing information, as well as your process for making conclusions about the probable success of the venture.

“They also want to understand your approach to assessing the risks and rewards of entering a new market and how you make data-driven decisions,” she says. “Can you demonstrate your understanding of what it takes to evaluate a market? Can you clearly explain your reasoning and rationale for your recommendations?”

Sample Case Study Interview Question 2

“How would you approach a restructuring plan for a struggling company?”

According to Christensen, “This question is designed to test your problem-solving and reasoning skills.” With this in mind, she recommends beginning by collecting information on the company’s current situation, which could include its industry, market, finances, and any recent events that might have contributed to its struggles.

Once you’ve gathered the relevant details, you can then take steps to begin to identify the root cause of the company’s struggles, explains Christensen. Examples of the root cause might include operational inefficiency, a lack of market share, or poor financial performance.

Next, based on the root cause, you’ll want to develop an action plan that addresses the issues you identified, says Christensen. Finally, she suggests communicating how you would execute the plan. “This includes identifying KPIs to measure success and regularly monitoring and adjusting the plan as needed,” she adds.

Final Case Study Interview Tips

Learning how to prepare for and succeed in a case study interview takes time. If you can, try to avoid cramming, and give yourself ample runway to learn the nuances of case study interview questions. Also, consider heeding Christensen’s advice and find someone to support you with the process. You’ve got this!

About The Author

Dr. Kyle Elliott, MPA, CHES

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How to Succeed in a Case Study Interview

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Instructor: Jena Viviano

You’ve nailed the first few rounds of interviews, and now you’ve been invited to participate in a case study interview. Curious about what this next stage of the process looks like? In this course, Jena Viviano breaks it down for you, explaining the basic components of a case study interview, how to prepare, and what to do to project confidence and engage your interviewer. Learn how case study interview questions are used and why employers find them beneficial. Discover the key elements that interviewers use to evaluate your answers. Plus, learn how to formulate key questions to dig deeper into the case, develop your own framework for every case study answer, and craft a conclusion with supporting rationale that’s concise and clear. Jena also provides tips for quelling your performance anxiety, as well as sample case study questions that give you a better understanding of what to expect.

The Ultimate Guide To Venture Capital Case Study Interview

Venture capital case study interviews can be daunting – testing not just your technical and analytical skills but also your ability to make decisions under pressure.

But don’t worry! In this article, you’ll begin to understand what happens during case study interviews and how to effectively prepare with our step-by-step guide. You’ll even see an example and additional resources to make sure you ace your interview. 

Let’s begin.

What is a Venture Capital Case Study?

Venture capital case studies are administered during interviews and typically require interview candidates to provide some kind of detailed analysis or investment recommendation.  

This allows VC firms to evaluate how viable these prospective investments are before they commit to any financial backing.

Case studies will typically carry out an assessment of various factors, including:

• Business models
• Market dynamics
• Competitive landscape
• Financial projections
• The capabilities of the management team

The primary objective of venture capital case studies is to determine how attractive an investment opportunity is. It also provides the opportunity to gather the relevant data to make an informed decision.

Due diligence will be carried out at this point and will involve:

• Data analysis
• Interviews with key stakeholders

This examination of the investment proposition will mitigate potential risks. It will also provide the VC firm with a better understanding of potential financial returns.

Let’s take a closer look at some factors that are typically evaluated in case studies:

Business Model

Analyzing the target company’s business model will help to determine its scalability and potential revenue generation. It will also identify competitive advantages over similar companies in the same sector.

Analyzing the prospect’s business model involves assessing the products or services being offered. It will also incorporate a detailed analysis of their:

• Pricing strategy
• Sales channels
• Distribution channels
• Target market size
• Growth potential
• Industry landscape
• Industry trends

Analyzing these factors will allow venture capitalists to identify potential challenges and opportunities.

Financial Analysis

The financial analysis of a prospect is another important part of venture capital case studies. It will involve assessing the target company’s historical and projected financial performance. This will factor in:

• Profitability
• Capital structure
• Funding requirements
• Potential exit strategies

These are all essential elements that will determine how attractive a proposition is for venture capitalist firms.

Management team capabilities

The experience and expertise of the management team will also be assessed during venture capital case studies.

Evaluating the management team’s capabilities and track record will determine whether business plans can be executed effectively. This will also help VC firms determine how potential investment opportunities will adapt to changing market conditions.

Checking references and interviewing key members of the team will ensure the management team aligns with the venture capitalist’s investment thesis.

The ultimate goal of a venture capitalist case study is to objectively evaluate the suitability of the investment opportunity. The detailed analysis provides the data required to make informed decisions. It also mitigates potential risks.

A well-executed VC case study will improve the decision-making process. It will also increase the success rate of an investment portfolio.

What To Expect in a Venture Capital Case Study Interview?

Venture capital case studies are rigorous evaluations of a candidate’s ability to assess potential investments. They will allow the candidate to demonstrate their analytical, communication, and problem-solving skills.

Candidates must be well prepared for a VC interview as it closely simulates real-world scenarios.

In most cases, the candidate will receive the case study before the interview. This gives them the opportunity to review the information provided. They can then carry out an exploratory analysis of the potential investment and its market.

Hypothetical information detailing the company’s background and financial data will be provided.

The VC case study may also include hypothetical problems or questions to resolve.

The interviewer will ask you to present your analysis and findings based on the information you have been provided.

You will be assessed on a range of factors, including:

• Critical thinking
• Identifying key issues
• Application of relevant frameworks
• Decision making
• Potential risks
• Communication skills

Communication is an essential skill for a venture capitalist. Being able to articulate your findings in a clear and structured way will be a major benefit.

You may be asked to defend your findings when the interviewer asks follow-up questions. This will require the interviewee to think on their feet and demonstrate their knowledge.

After focusing on the case study, an interviewer may broaden the scope of their questions. This will test the candidate’s knowledge of the venture capital industry.

Questions may cover topics including:

• Market trends
• VC investment criteria
• Due diligence processes
• Portfolio management strategies

A well-rounded candidate will be able to field these questions and show an in-depth knowledge of the industry.

An interviewer may also incorporate role-playing exercises or group discussions. This is to evaluate your collaborative and listening skills.

Why Venture Capital Case Studies Matter in Interviews?

The case study VC interview is designed to assess the business acumen of the candidate. This will help firms determine whether the candidate will be a good fit and has the required skills to succeed in the VC industry.

They show the candidate’s ability to assess potential portfolio companies. They will also demonstrate the candidate’s analytical and decision-making skills.

Venture capitalists must demonstrate a range of essential skills during the interview process. This is because venture capital firms invest in early-stage companies and must evaluate potential.

In comparison, private equity firms will invest in mature companies that have a proven track record.

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Become an early stage venture capital investor, how to prepare for a venture capital case study interview.

Preparing for VC case study interviews requires a lot of hard work and research. The following steps will help you to prepare for your interview:

Step 1: Research the industry

A good understanding of the industry is essential to the success of your interview. Venture capital positions are fiercely contested so you must demonstrate your knowledge.

Researching the VC firm you are applying for will also help. It will allow you to make comparisons with existing portfolio companies. It also helps you to carry out your case study based on the firm’s methodology.

Step 2: Review analysis techniques and financial concepts

In the interview, you must be able to analyze and interpret financial statements. This will allow you to conduct an accurate valuation of the case study subject.

Reviewing the techniques required to do this will help with your results and any follow-up questions.

Step 3: Study investment models and frameworks

Studying the most commonly used frameworks and models in investment analysis will make your assessment easier. Models and frameworks worth studying include:

• Porter’s five forces
• Pricing framework
• 3 Cs framework
• SWOT analysis
• Market sizing
• Growth projects

Step 4: Practice case studies

Practice real-world simulation case studies to get used to the techniques. This will help you with a number of key skills, including:

• Analyzing financial data
• Market research
• Formulating recommendations

You should also practice how to structure your findings and support the data you present.

Step 5: Research industry sectors

Research sectors that align with the VC firm’s investment focus. This will give you a better understanding of the trends, challenges, and opportunities within the sector.

Step 6: Broaden your knowledge base

Read the latest financial news and industry publications to keep abreast of the latest developments. This will also help to give you a well-rounded perspective on relevant topics.

Step 7: Attend networking events

Attending industry events with industry professionals will help you gain valuable industry insights. This will also expand your network.

You will have the opportunity to converse with other venture capitalists, stakeholders, and entrepreneurs. If you’re not sure how to do networking the right way, I recommend checking out this comprehensive growth equity networking guide.

Step 8: Practice your interview technique

Communication is vital to the success of your interview. Practicing mock tests to improve your communication skills will help you to present your case study findings in a clear and structured way.

Using professionals and peers to give you feedback will also improve your critical thinking under pressure.

Step 9: Prepare questions for your interviewer

You should always try to ask a couple of questions during your interview. This demonstrates the candidate’s enthusiasm for the role and curiosity about different aspects of it.

Step 10: Prepare well in advance

Appearing well-prepared, calm, and confident is important. To do this you should ensure you have properly researched the industry and case study. It will also help if you’re familiar with the most common growth equity interview questions .

You should also plan to arrive early and prepare your interview clothes the day before so there are no last-minute hiccups.

Venture Capital Case Study Analysis Framework

To excel in venture capital case study interviews, it’s helpful to have a structured approach to analyzing potential investments. Below is a detailed framework that outlines the critical steps and key metrics you should consider. Use this during your preparation to ensure a comprehensive analysis and a well-organized presentation of your findings.

1. Initial Assessment and Market Analysis

• Identify the market opportunity by defining the target market and estimating its size.
• Analyze market growth trends and future potential.
• Identify key market segments, customer demographics, and the competitive landscape.
• List direct and indirect competitors, and evaluate their strengths, weaknesses, and market share.
• Determine the company’s unique value proposition and competitive advantages.

2. Business Model Evaluation

• Outline primary and secondary sources of revenue and assess their sustainability and scalability.
• Evaluate the customer acquisition strategy, including costs, and examine customer retention rates and lifetime value.
• Assess the scalability of the business model, considering operational costs and potential challenges.

3. Financial Analysis

• Review historical financial performance, including key metrics such as revenue growth, gross margin, and net margin.
• Analyze projected financial performance, checking for consistency with market dynamics.
• Outline current capital structure and detailed funding requirements, use of proceeds, and anticipated runway.

4. Risk Assessment

• Identify operational risks, including supply chain and technology risks.
• Evaluate market risks such as shifts in customer preferences and regulatory changes.
• Assess financial risks, including cash flow volatility and high burn rates.

5. Management Team Evaluation

• Review the experience and track record of the founding team and key executives.
• Assess whether their skills and experience align with the business’s needs and growth strategy.
• Evaluate the cohesiveness of the management team and organizational culture.

6. Exit Strategy and Potential Returns

• Identify potential exit scenarios such as IPOs or acquisitions and estimate the potential timeline for exits.
• Calculate potential returns on investment based on different scenarios and assess alignment with the firm’s expectations.

7. Final Investment Thesis and Recommendation

• Summarize key strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT analysis).
• Clearly state your investment recommendation, supported by data-driven insights and a clear rationale.

Market Sizing Techniques for Venture Capital Case Study

Market sizing is a critical component of venture capital assessments, as it helps determine the potential scale and growth opportunities for an investment. Accurate market sizing enables venture capitalists to gauge the viability of a business within its target market and informs decisions on whether to invest. Below, we outline common market sizing techniques and provide examples to guide your analysis.

1. Top-Down Market Sizing

The top-down approach begins with a broad market estimate and narrows down to a specific segment relevant to the company.

Steps for Top-Down Market Sizing:

• Start with the Total Addressable Market (TAM) by estimating the total market demand for the product or service. For example, for a food delivery startup, the TAM could be the entire market for restaurant delivery services in the target region.
• Identify the Serviceable Available Market (SAM), which is the portion of TAM that the company can realistically target. For a food delivery app, this could be the market for tech-savvy customers in urban areas with high smartphone penetration.
• Determine the Serviceable Obtainable Market (SOM), the subset of SAM that the company can capture in the short term, starting with a specific geographical area or customer segment.

Example Calculation: If TAM for food delivery is $100 billion, SAM for urban areas is $30 billion, and you estimate capturing 2% of SAM:

SOM = 30 billion * 2% = 600 million

2. Bottom-Up Market Sizing

The bottom-up approach builds the market size from the ground up, starting with the company’s own data, such as sales projections and customer acquisition rates.

Steps for Bottom-Up Market Sizing:

• Start with Core Metrics using internal data like average revenue per user (ARPU) and projected customer base. For example, if a SaaS company expects to onboard 10,000 users in its first year at $100 per user per year:

Annual Revenue = 10,000 users * $100 = $1,000,000

• Scale Up by projecting growth based on realistic assumptions, such as increasing user acquisition rates or expanding geographically.

Example Calculation: If a SaaS company plans to expand from one city to ten cities within three years, and each city is expected to contribute similarly:

Expanded Revenue = $1,000,000 * 10 = $10,000,000

3. Value Theory Approach

This approach estimates market size based on the value created for customers rather than on direct sales or population metrics.

Steps for Value Theory:

• Estimate Customer Willingness to Pay by identifying how much value the product or service creates for the customer. For example, a B2B software that saves companies $500,000 annually in operating costs could price its solution to capture a fraction of that value.
• Calculate Market Potential by multiplying the number of potential customers by the price they are willing to pay.

Example Calculation: If there are 1,000 potential customers and each is willing to pay $50,000 annually:

Market Potential = 1,000 customers * $50,000 = $50,000,000

4. Using Industry Benchmarks and Reports

Industry reports and third-party research provide a foundation for market size estimates, especially when primary data is limited.

Steps for Using Benchmarks:

• Identify Relevant Reports from sources like Gartner, IBISWorld, or Statista to find market size estimates.
• Adjust for Specific Context by tailoring the data to fit your specific market segment using adjustment factors based on the company’s unique positioning or geographic focus.

Example Adjustment: If an industry report states the global market for cloud services is $200 billion, but your company targets only mid-sized businesses in Europe, adjust accordingly using a specific factor relevant to your target.

Venture Capital Case Study Examples

A potential VC case study example may look like this:

VC Health & Tech – Digital Health Investment Opportunity

Background:

VC Health & Tech is an innovative startup company. It wants to revolutionize the healthcare industry with its mobile application.

The app provides users with:

• Remote monitoring
• Personalized health tracking
• AI health recommendations

The aim is to enable users to proactively manage their well-being.

The company requires a Series A funding round. This will support product developments, expand their marketing, and scale operations.

Evaluate the investment opportunity by assessing VC Health & Tech. This assessment should cover the viability of the prospective investment. It should also include market potential and the company’s financial prospects.

The overall objective is to determine whether the prospect aligns with the investment thesis. This should result in a low-risk, high-reward profile.

Considerations:

1. Market analysis

Analyze the digital health market to determine the size, growth rate, and potential target segments.

Identify key players and evaluate the competitive dynamics. You should also evaluate unique value propositions and market share.

2. Business model evaluation

Evaluate VC Health & Tech’s business model. This will include analyzing the approach to customer acquisition. Pricing strategies and revenue streams must also be considered.

Explore the platform’s scalability and recurring revenue potential. Determine the company’s growth potential.

3. Product and tech assessment

Analyze the features and functionality of VC Health & Tech’s app. Other aspects that must be explored include:

• User experience
• Technology infrastructure
• Data security
• Potential product enhancements
• Intellectual property portfolio
• Competitive advantages

4. Financial projections

A full financial review should be conducted. This will include:

• Cost structure
• Revenue forecasts
• Projected profitability
• Capital requirements
• Potential funding gaps
• ROI scenarios

5. Management team

The experience and track record of the management team must be assessed. This will determine their suitability to execute the business plan effectively.

Conduct reference checks and ensure the team’s vision and mission align with that of the VC firm.

Recommendations:

Carry out a risk management assessment to explore market dynamics or challenges that may impact growth.

Determine a valuation and investment amount that is suitable for Series A funding.

Outline the key strategies and value drivers that will allow the investment to reach pre-defined milestones.

Conclusion:

Summarize your findings by highlighting the key points, including:

• Key strengths
• Opportunities

Present a well-structured investment thesis that is supported by the data collected. This should outline potential financial returns and a strategic fit in the VC firm’s investment portfolio.

Scenario: AlphaPay, a FinTech startup that aims to revolutionize the digital payment landscape with a secure, AI-powered payment gateway, is requesting a $10 million investment to expand its product features, increase marketing efforts, and scale operations internationally.

Your task is to evaluate whether AlphaPay aligns with the investment thesis and presents a viable opportunity for your venture capital firm.

Step 1: Market Analysis

• Market Size and Growth: The global digital payment market is projected to grow at a CAGR of 15% over the next five years, with significant opportunities in the SME sector due to increasing digital adoption.
• Competitive Landscape: Key competitors include established players like Stripe and PayPal, as well as emerging fintech companies focusing on niche markets.
• Unique Value Proposition: AlphaPay differentiates itself through its AI-powered fraud detection system, which boasts a 20% higher accuracy rate compared to industry standards, and a user-friendly interface tailored for SMEs.

Key Decision Point: Does AlphaPay’s unique positioning in a high-growth market with a clear competitive advantage justify the investment?

Step 2: Business Model Evaluation

• Revenue Streams: AlphaPay generates revenue through transaction fees (2.5% per transaction) and subscription plans for premium analytics features.
• Customer Acquisition Strategy: The company has a targeted digital marketing strategy focusing on social media and partnerships with SME-focused platforms. Current customer acquisition cost (CAC) is $200, with a projected lifetime value (LTV) of $2,500.
• Scalability: With its cloud-based infrastructure, AlphaPay has the potential to scale rapidly with minimal additional fixed costs, supporting its ambitious growth targets.

Key Decision Point: Is the business model scalable, and does the customer acquisition strategy demonstrate sustainable growth potential?

Step 3: Financial Projections

• Current Financials: AlphaPay reported $2 million in revenue last year with a 60% gross margin. The company is currently operating at a net loss due to high marketing spend but projects profitability within 18 months.
• Funding Requirements: The requested $10 million will be allocated as follows: 40% to product development, 30% to marketing, 20% to scaling customer support, and 10% as a contingency buffer.
• Projected Returns: Based on conservative estimates, AlphaPay expects to achieve $20 million in annual revenue by Year 3 post-investment, with an EBITDA margin of 20%.

Key Decision Point: Do the financial projections and funding allocation align with realistic growth expectations, and does the risk profile fit within the acceptable range for your firm?

Step 4: Management Team Evaluation

• Team Experience: The CEO and co-founder has a background in payments technology with ten years of experience at a leading digital payments company. The CTO has previously scaled a successful AI startup, and the CMO has a track record in SME-focused marketing.
• Execution Capability: The team’s combined expertise in technology, operations, and marketing gives them a strong foundation to execute their business plan. Reference checks reveal a proactive and adaptable leadership style, which is crucial for navigating the dynamic fintech landscape.

Key Decision Point: Does the management team have the necessary skills and experience to execute the business plan and adapt to market changes?

Common Mistakes in Venture Capital Case Study Interviews and How to Avoid Them

Venture capital case study interviews can be challenging, and even well-prepared candidates can make mistakes that impact their performance. Below are some of the most common pitfalls and practical advice on how to avoid them, helping you to stand out and make a strong impression.

1. Lack of a Structured Approach

• Mistake: Diving into the analysis without a clear plan or structure can lead to disorganized thoughts and a presentation that lacks clarity. This often happens when candidates rush to provide answers without thoroughly understanding the problem.
• How to Avoid: Start by outlining your approach before delving into the details. Use frameworks such as SWOT, Porter’s Five Forces, or a step-by-step checklist to guide your analysis. Clearly communicate your plan to the interviewer before starting your deep dive, which demonstrates both structure and strategic thinking.

2. Overlooking Key Financial Metrics

• Mistake: Failing to focus on crucial financial metrics or not fully understanding the financials of the case can lead to incorrect assessments and recommendations. This is a common error, particularly if the candidate is more focused on qualitative factors.
• How to Avoid: Make sure to thoroughly analyze financial statements and key metrics like revenue growth, margins, cash flow, and valuation multiples. Practice interpreting financial data and connecting it to the overall business strategy and market positioning to provide a holistic view.

3. Neglecting the Competitive Landscape

• Mistake: Many candidates focus solely on the company under analysis and neglect to adequately consider the broader competitive landscape. This can result in a narrow viewpoint that overlooks external threats or opportunities.
• How to Avoid: Always include a detailed competitor analysis in your evaluation. Identify direct and indirect competitors, assess their market positioning, and understand their strengths and weaknesses relative to the company you are evaluating. Highlight how the company can achieve a sustainable competitive advantage.

4. Inadequate Risk Assessment

• Mistake: Underestimating or failing to address risks can lead to overly optimistic recommendations. Interviewers expect a realistic assessment of potential downsides and how they might be mitigated.
• How to Avoid: Incorporate a thorough risk analysis into your presentation. Identify key risks across operational, market, and financial dimensions, and propose strategies to mitigate these risks. A balanced approach that considers both upside potential and risks demonstrates thoroughness and maturity in decision-making.

5. Weak Communication Skills

• Mistake: Delivering your findings in a disorganized or overly technical manner can confuse interviewers and detract from your overall presentation. Poor communication can undermine even the most insightful analyses.
• How to Avoid: Practice articulating your findings in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Focus on storytelling techniques: set the context, present your key findings, and conclude with a strong recommendation. Anticipate follow-up questions and be prepared to defend your analysis with confidence and clarity.

6. Ignoring the Importance of the Management Team

• Mistake: Overlooking the evaluation of the management team or not understanding its impact on the company’s success can be a critical oversight. Investors know that a capable management team is often as important as the business idea itself.
• How to Avoid: Always include an assessment of the management team’s experience, track record, and alignment with the company’s goals. Highlight how their expertise and leadership style fit with the business’s needs and growth strategy, demonstrating a comprehensive evaluation.

Good Resource for VC Practice Case Studies

There are many great resources for VC practice case studies online. Exploring different options will broaden your knowledge and prepare you for your interview.

Some good examples include:

• McKinsey & Company – More than 500 cases that provide guidance and solutions
• BCG – A library of BCG interview examples and solutions
• Management Consulted – This is a paid resource that provides more than 550 online cases, video drills, and other valuable resources
• Bain & Company – A collection of case study interview examples

Exploring these options will give you the resources required to practice and learn more about different case studies.

Practice Exercises: Mini-Case Studies to Test Your Skills

To solidify your understanding of venture capital case study analysis, it’s important to apply what you’ve learned in real-world scenarios. Below are practical exercises and mini-case studies designed to help you practice critical aspects of the evaluation process. Use these scenarios to test your analytical skills, identify key issues, and develop well-rounded recommendations.

Mini-Case Study 1: FinTech Startup “QuickPay”

Scenario: QuickPay is a FinTech startup that offers a mobile app for instant, peer-to-peer money transfers with low fees. The company is seeking $5 million in funding to expand its user base and enhance its technology platform.

Key Information:

• Revenue Model: Transaction fees of 1% per transfer.
• Market Opportunity: Targeting millennials and Gen Z in the U.S. market, which is expected to grow at a CAGR of 12% over the next five years.
• Competitors: Venmo, Cash App, Zelle.
• Current Financials: Annual revenue of $1 million with a net loss of $500,000. User growth has been strong, with a 30% increase in monthly active users over the last six months.

Questions for Analysis:

• What are the main strengths and weaknesses of QuickPay’s business model?
• How does QuickPay differentiate itself from its competitors, and is this differentiation sustainable?
• Analyze QuickPay’s financials. What are the key financial risks, and how might they impact future growth?
• Based on the provided information, would you recommend investing in QuickPay? Why or why not?

Mini-Case Study 2: HealthTech Startup “WellnessTrack”

Scenario: WellnessTrack is a HealthTech company that provides a subscription-based digital platform for personalized fitness and wellness plans. They are seeking $7 million in Series A funding to scale their operations and enter new markets.

• Revenue Model: Monthly subscription fees ranging from $10 to $30.
• Market Opportunity: The global digital health market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 18%.
• Unique Selling Proposition: AI-driven recommendations and a strong focus on mental wellness.
• Management Team: Led by a CEO with a background in health technology and a CTO who previously developed a successful fitness app.
• Evaluate the scalability of WellnessTrack’s business model. What challenges might the company face as it scales?
• How significant is the market opportunity for WellnessTrack, and what key factors will influence its success?
• Assess the strengths and potential gaps in the management team’s ability to execute the business plan.
• Develop a brief investment thesis for WellnessTrack, including potential risks and expected returns.

Mini-Case Study 3: EdTech Startup “EduWave”

Scenario: EduWave is an EdTech platform that offers interactive, live online courses for K-12 students. The company is seeking $3 million to improve its technology and expand its course offerings.

• Revenue Model: Subscription-based with additional fees for premium content.
• Market Size: The global online education market is projected to reach $350 billion by 2025.
• Competitive Landscape: Competes with platforms like Khan Academy and Outschool.
• User Engagement: High engagement rates but slower growth in new user acquisition.
• How does EduWave’s approach to the EdTech market compare to its competitors?
• Identify the key financial metrics you would analyze to determine EduWave’s financial health and growth prospects.
• What risks do you see in EduWave’s current strategy, and how would you address them?
• Would you invest in EduWave at this stage? Provide a rationale for your decision, including potential upsides and downsides.

How important is quantitative methodology in a venture capital case study?

The quantitative methodology is an essential part of VC case studies. This is because you must gather and analyze data to accurately report the suitability of a prospective investment.

What should I include in a venture capital case study interview?

Clear and structured communication is essential to a successful VC case study interview. Because of this, you should include a summary of key points and findings before stating your recommendations.

Will a case study be based on a real-life prospect?

Case studies will be hypothetical scenarios. The interviewing firm will provide candidates with background information prior to the interview. This will give the candidate the opportunity to carry out the required research.

Should I ask questions at a VC case study interview?

You should always try to prepare questions for a job interview. They should be pertinent to the discussion and will show your interest and eagerness to learn more about the industry and firm.

By now, you already know what to expect during case study interviews and what you must do before showing up at the firm.

To further improve your skills and ensure that you’re completely ready to take up any question and exercise during interviews, I recommend you check out my Growth Equity Interview Guide .

It’s a comprehensive online course design to help professionals like you stand out in their growth equity interviews.

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Constraints on public policy design and formulation: a case study on the conservation of natural resources in local governments of the amazonia, peru.

1. Introduction

2. theoretical framework that considers natural resource vulnerability and climate change as a priority public issue, 2.1. attributes of natural resource and climate change vulnerability, 2.2. details of forest resource degradation levels in peru, 2.3. reasons for the causes of weak governance in the face of natural resource vulnerability as a priority public issue, 2.3.1. weak enforcement of laws and regulations, 2.3.2. corruption, 2.3.3. lack of coordination among sectors, 2.3.4. weak participation by local communities, 2.3.5. pressure from economic interests, 2.3.6. limited technical capacity, 2.3.7. inadequate public policies and methods, 4. results and discussions, 4.1. the limits to the inclusion of public problems in the government agenda for the design and formulation of public policies, 4.2. the limitations to the fulfillment of roles of public servants in charge of organic units of natural resources, 4.3. the degree of integrity of the management instruments and the importance of the organic units of natural resources, 4.4. budget allocation to activities of designing, formulating, and implementing public policies, 4.5. socio-environmental needs prioritized in the public agenda for the design and formulation of public policies, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Bravo, E.; Amasifuen, C.A.; Cayo, I.S.; Pariente, E.; Sanchez, T.; Vásquez, J.; Vergara, A.J. Constraints on Public Policy Design and Formulation: A Case Study on the Conservation of Natural Resources in Local Governments of the Amazonia, Peru. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 8559. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198559

Bravo E, Amasifuen CA, Cayo IS, Pariente E, Sanchez T, Vásquez J, Vergara AJ. Constraints on Public Policy Design and Formulation: A Case Study on the Conservation of Natural Resources in Local Governments of the Amazonia, Peru. Sustainability . 2024; 16(19):8559. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198559

Bravo, Einstein, Carlos A. Amasifuen, Ilse S. Cayo, Eli Pariente, Tito Sanchez, Jheiner Vásquez, and Alex J. Vergara. 2024. "Constraints on Public Policy Design and Formulation: A Case Study on the Conservation of Natural Resources in Local Governments of the Amazonia, Peru" Sustainability 16, no. 19: 8559. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16198559

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• Open access
• Published: 27 September 2024

Exploring challenges and innovation in memory assessment services in England and Wales – a national survey and case study approach

• Sarah Jane Smith   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1561-9485 1 &
• Claire Surr   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4312-6661 1  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  1143 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

41 Accesses

Metrics details

To explore the design, delivery models and identify good and innovative practices in Memory Assessment Services (MAS) in England and Wales.

A two-stage service evaluation comprising (1) on-line survey of MAS providers to identify features of the commissioning models, service design, delivery, and challenges alongside examples of good/innovative practice; (2) qualitative case studies using video/telephone interviews with key staff and people who had used the service.

The 49 respondents to the survey reported a shift in delivery of MAS post COVID and identified key areas for improvement, including a need for specialist staff, support for MCI and rarer dementias, and capacity for post diagnostic support. The 15 case studies illustrated good practice and innovation focusing on post diagnostic support, equity of access, working with external services/service location, MCI and rarer dementia and involving specialist staff.

Conclusions

The evaluation speaks to the importance of (re)evaluation of services to identify local need and the importance of commissioning based on local need and innovative approaches that my sit outside of ‘typical’ MAS pathways.

Peer Review reports

Timely dementia diagnosis enables people to receive early treatment and support that brings benefits for the planning of future care, access to dementia medications, better symptom management, implementation of co-ordinated care, postponement of the need for institutional care and greater support for carers [ 1 , 2 ]. There is also evidence to suggest receiving a timely diagnosis and post-diagnostic support can improve quality of life [ 3 , 4 ]. Access to a timely dementia diagnosis is a global priority with the WHO global action plan on dementia [ 5 ] setting a target of at least 50% of countries having at least 50% of the estimated people with dementia formally diagnosed by 2025. Given an estimated 57.4 million people worldwide were living with dementia in 2019, a number set to triple by 2050 [ 6 ], it is important to establish effective, person centred and timely routes and services for diagnosis.

In England timely diagnosis of dementia is driven by policy [ 7 ], and dementia-specific clinical guidelines [ 8 ] and pathways [ 9 , 10 ] and memory assessment services (MASs) are the primary means for gaining a dementia diagnosis. Diagnostic procedure and services offered is guided by National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE) [ 8 ] guidance. This guidance, aimed at practitioners and commissioners, covers diagnosing and managing dementia and includes recommendations on: the process and best practice concerning assessment and diagnosis, psychosocial and pharmacological interventions and managing non-cognitive symptoms. In line with advances in our ability to offer earlier and offer etiological diagnosis [ 7 ] clinics increasingly also offer biomarkers and generic testing alongside neuropsychological evaluation to inform diagnosis and post diagnostic support.

MASs were first established in the UK in the 1980s with numbers growing rapidly in the 1990s and 2000s as a means to enhance diagnostic rates in response to national policy and initiatives [ 11 ]. As in the UK, the diagnosis and management of people with cognitive impairment typically takes place in memory clinics in most high-income countries (HIC) [ 12 ]. For example, in Australia, although there is variation across jurisdictions, typically diagnosis occurs in an outpatient service memory clinic staffed by specialists [ 13 ]. Similarly, to the UK, although diagnosis does not occur in Primary Care, research has indicated that the referring GP is an integral part of the diagnostic pathway informing and influencing patient experience and outcomes [ 13 ].

Although there are relatively well-established routes to diagnosis in HIC, more than two thirds of people living with dementia are in low and middle income countries (LMIC) [ 14 ]. Lower diagnostic rates in LMIC have been attributed to perceptions of dementia being part of the normal aging process, as well as stigmatising views about the condition – hence an avoidance of diagnostic labels [ 12 , 15 ]. These barriers are often coupled with a lack of diagnostic and post-diagnostic services and resources. Furthermore, the diagnostic standards and criteria (e.g. DSM V) applied in HIC can be difficult to apply in LMIC as neuropsychological tests and diagnostic criteria rely on population norms that are not available in many LMICs [ 12 ]. However, as awareness about the importance and value of diagnosis increases so do evidence-based applications of services and tools to enhance diagnosis rates in LMIC countries. For example, in 2016 the World Alzheimer Report advocated the use of community mental health workers as a means to increase diagnosis rates in LMIC [ 16 ]. Researchers have also explored the utility and applicably of cognitive assessment tools in LMIC finding that, subject to further research and validation, simple digital tools used in HIC could be useful for the detection of dementia in LMIC [ 12 ]. Thus, investigations of practice in HIC, may prove useful for informing future practice in LMICs.

There are approximately 330 MASs in England and a further 22 in Wales. MASs are primarily based in NHS Trusts or primary care organisations, follow a range of models of service design and are commissioned to meet local needs [ 17 ]. In England, there is also an optional accreditation route for services. The Memory Services National Accreditation Programme (MSNAP) was established in 2009 to support local service improvement of memory services in the UK. MSNAP developed a set of a quality standards for memory services which are underpinned by research, best practice guidance and legislation. Memory services participate in MSNAP to achieve accreditation against these standards, however in 2021–2023 only 71 services were accredited or working toward accreditation [ 18 ]. This is not necessarily reflective of poor-quality MAS in England, but of the optional nature of accreditation and limited incentives for services to become accredited. Thus, there is a limited picture of what MAS services look like across England.

Although a dedicated clinic is the preferred model of care in England, despite attempts to standardised approaches [ 19 ], the design and service provision of MAS in England remains difficult to determine with services commissioned and operating in different ways [ 20 ]. A study of MASs in England [ 21 ] attempted to develop a MAS typology according to characteristics like structure and processes of care but found that variation meant this was not possible. There is greater consistency in MAS provision in Wales, thought to be driven by the way services are commissioned, with 86% of memory clinics provided as part of a wider service such as Community Mental Health Teams for Older People, as opposed to stand-alone clinics. However, variations in post-diagnostic support are still evident [ 22 ].

Variability in service design has the benefit of enabling services to be commissioned based on local need but can mean patients may have different services available to them based on postcode. The impact of MAS service structure and on patient outcomes remains unclear [ 23 ]. Attempts to address lack of consistency in England include development of quality standards through the Royal College of Psychiatrists, although currently less than 20% of MAS have sought and are accredited through a voluntary process in England [ 20 ].

Reports of evidence-based service improvement in MAS in the UK remain limited A regional audit in London found service variation across a range of areas of practice [ 24 ], with findings subsequently used to deliver four service improvement projects targeting aspects of service variation and promoting best practice. However, the COVID-19 pandemic had a significant impact on MAS operations with the majority of services closed for a period of months, and on reopening having to quickly establish new ways of remote working, including establishment of guidance to underpin this [ 25 ]. Whilst remote assessment and diagnostic methods offer a range of potential benefits in certain circumstances [ 26 ], they are not suitable or accessible for all [ 27 ].

The available literature on MAS in England and Wales indicates that services are diverse in their provision, there are recognised gaps in service provision and a limited evidence-base to inform practice. COVID-19 has impacted service delivery and necessitated a change in delivery methods. The recent return to usual ways of working provides MAS with a unique opportunity to consider service models and make decisions about longer terms plans for service design, delivery, and improvement. Services need a contemporary evidence-base to do this. This mixed methods study sought to address this need and provide, via a national survey, an overview of the nature of MAS in England and Wales including service models, the impact of COVID-19, the challenges that MAS are facing, perceived gaps in current provision. Using a case study approach we provide examples of innovative service delivery which could be used to inform national and international service development.

A mixed-methods service evaluation [ 28 ] underpinned by a positive deviance approach [ 29 ] comprised of (1) a national survey and subsequent (2) multiple case studies [ 30 ] selected from survey respondents.

Ethical approval for the service evaluation was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee at Leeds Beckett University on 21.9.21 (survey) and 29.11.21 (case studies), with the survey approved as an audit and the case studies as service evaluation under the Health Research Authority definitions [ 31 ]. The service evaluation included human participants and informed consent was obtain and all procedures carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the aforementioned research ethics committee.

National survey

A survey of MAS was conducted to (1) provide an overview of the range of service delivery models operating (2) identify areas of need/concern (3) identify innovative practice to inform case study selection (part 2).

Survey design

The survey design was informed by an expert steering group and public advisory group. The survey included two parts: Part 1 - service model, commissioning, staffing and services. Part 2 - innovative practice across 13 areas of practice interest including examples. The areas of practice interest were identified by advisory groups, drawn from a guide to continual improvement in MAS [ 32 ]. Respondents were asked to indicate in the survey if they would be happy to be approached to participate as a case study site.

The survey was completed electronically and distributed via e-mail by the NHS England Clinical Networks and Improvement Cymru to staff who were on their e-mails lists as associated with MAS and was promoted via social media and webinar/conference presentations where MAS staff attended. Due to the way the survey was distributed it is not possible to know the numbers of MAS staff or services reached and thus response rates. Given the primary purpose of the survey was to describe a variety of service models and identify common practice challenges and good practices with MAS, the underpinning sampling approach was thus positive deviance [ 29 ]. Therefore, it was not our aim to recruit a representative sample. The survey opened in September 2021 and closed in January 2022.

Multiple case studies

We adopted a multiple case study approach following Stake’s [ 33 ] approach to case study methodology. The quintain or phenomenon of study was how MAS in the UK have innovated their practice to meet local needs in the context of current commissioning models. We adopted the case site selection criteria of particularisation [ 33 ] where the power of each site comes from its representation of the local situation rather than its generalisability. This was underpinned by a positive deviance approach, where cases are selected for their ability to provide potential solutions to common problems through approaches already being practised in the community [ 29 ]. Our underpinning philosophical stance was pragmatism where applied knowledge is seen as constructed and interpreted based on its application to help solve particular problems [ 34 ].

Case study sites in England and Wales were identified based on responses to part two of the survey. Respondents identified and reported on their own interpretation of innovative practice in the survey. Clear indication was provided in the survey as to what elements and types of practice considered good and/or innovative. These topics were based on previously published good practice guide, developed by the authors, an expert consensus group and published with NHS England [ 32 ]. For site selection the following criteria were applied:

Demonstrates at least one example of good or innovative local practice.

Delivers an example of good practice that is judged by advisory group members to be strong, significant, innovative and potentially replicable in other situations.

Represents a range of geographic locations/regions.

Represents a range of MAS commissioning/delivery models.

Anonymised survey data were discussed with the public and expert steering groups where consensus was reached sites were approached to take part.

Case study data collection and analysis

At each site agreement to take part as a site was obtained from the initial respondent who took responsibility for the identification of participants at each site which comprised two groups (1) Staff who had worked in the service for at least four-months (2) Service recipients and/or their relative/carer who had accessed the MAS in the last two-years.

One-to-one or small group interviews were conducted remotely via Microsoft Teams, or telephone. Interviews took place between March and November 2022. Interviews were conducted by research team comprising the two authors (CS/SS), and two researchers (LG/SB). Each case study site had a team member assigned as the lead for the site (CS/SS/LG or SB) coordinating all communication and data collection and conducting the majority of interviews – a small number of sites had interviews conducted by two researchers due to workloads and timing of interviews to meet practitioner availability. Where appropriate documentary and other secondary evidence was also gathered. The interviews were semi-structured, conversational in style and focused on drawing out key information about the area(s) of good practice and how these had been achieved. All interviews were audio recorded or video recorded on Microsoft teams and later transcribed. They followed a topic guide used by all researchers flexibly and aimed to address the following ‘issue questions’ related to innovative service delivery [ 33 ]:

What were the drivers for the localised practice change?

What process was gone through to make the change? What were the barriers and facilitators to change?

What impacts has this had on service delivery and for patients?

If and how have you been able to sustain this service?

What advice would you have for another service who may wish to adopt a similar practice change?

Participants were asked to discuss the specific area(s) of good practice identified via the survey response about their MAS, but were also given the opportunity to identify and discuss additional aspects of practice they felt were good or innovative in their service. In this way each case study was not limited to only including practices related to the area of innovation identified in the initial survey response.

For each case the interview transcripts were brought together to compile a detailed description of the case [ 35 ] including direct quotations. The initial case was written by the lead member for that site (CS/SS/LG or SB) and then all cases were also reviewed by the first or second author (CS or SS) alongside the interview transcripts to check accuracy and consistency of presentation across cases. Following this a cross case analysis [ 30 ] was conducted by the first author (SS) using deductive thematic analysis where thematic categories related to innovative approaches to addressing service challenges which also aligned to features of a person centred MAS pathway identified in the guide for innovative practice previously published by the authors [ 32 ]. The innovative practices were then compared across cases, with common and unique features identified and presented in this paper. Since the interviewees were not limited to only identifying the innovative practice first reported in the survey, each site features multiple elements of innovative practice that emerged from the data. The final themes were reviewed and agreed by the second author (CS). The full case studies are provided in a separate report [ 36 ].

Respondents to the survey came from England and Wales. There were 88 responses in total, although 39 were removed for incompletion or representing duplicate responses; 34 consented to take part in the survey but did not complete any substantive part of the survey and 5 responses were identified as duplicates.

Forty responses from England and nine from Wales were included in the analysis of the survey. Twenty-four participants agreed to be approached for participation in a case study. Following review of the site responses concerning innovative practice and consultation with the expert group, sixteen sites were approached to participate in the case studies. One site did not respond to follow up. Fifteen sites took part in case study data collection.

There was a broad geographical spread of respondents (see Table  1 ) with the greatest representation from the North East and Yorkshire region.

Service design

In England, the majority of the respondents (77%) were reporting for an individual MAS rather than on behalf of all MAS within their organisation (e.g. all MAS within a Trust). In Wales about half were reporting for an individual service (56%) and half for their organisation (44%) (see Table  2 ).

In England, 38% of the services reported were MAS that were embedded with Community Mental Health Teams, and in Wales this was 56%. There was a fairly even split between services with independent (England 50%, Wales 44%) and unified management structures (England 48% Wales 56%).

Format of MAS service appointments

The respondents were asked the about the format of their assessments and consultation appointments, as they were currently (December 2021) being delivered in their service(s) by stating what percentages of appointments were being delivered using each listed modality.

An overview of the way that appointments are delivered (December 2021)

Few services were offering appointments within outreach clinics such as primary care or non-NHS settings (Fig.  1 ). The most common modalities for appointments were consultation in the patient’s own home or attending the hospitals. Few services reported that appointments were delivered in a single modality (e.g., over 90% of services being delivered in one modality). Where this was the case, this tended to be using the patient’s own home. Where a mix of modalities were being used, these included telephone, video conferencing and hospital-based appointments as relatively common choices. Non-NHS settings and primary care were the least frequently used appointment settings.

The impact of COVID-19 on modes of delivery

Participant responses to an open-text question about how appointments were delivered at the point of survey completion generally alluded to changes that had been made in response to the COVID pandemic. For most respondents the approaches that had been adopted in the peak of the COVID pandemic were still influencing practice, particularly with regards to adopting and retaining blended approaches to appointment mode.

“The assessment is carried out face to face however, feedback of diagnosis has been delivered via telephone or video consultation.” “ Following the covid outbreak appointments are now and will continue to be offered, remotely via Microsoft teams, face-to-face at home or in clinic, or over the telephone. Where a telephone appointment is deemed appropriate and no other option available, outcomes are always discussed in the weekly multi-disciplinary team meeting to ensure enough information is available to go ahead with a diagnostic appointment or decide if further assessment is required at home. We have found the majority of our service users prefer to come to clinic for initial assessment.”

Respondents were asked if the currently delivery model was different to their pre-COVID-19 model of delivery and if so how. In Wales, all respondents to this question indicated yes ( n  = 7), in England two thirds ( n  = 28/38) said the model was different.

Some respondents indicated how COVID had interrupted or delayed service changes that were already in the pipeline or being implemented.

“Pre-COVID one part of the service was embedded in the CMHT. The decision had been made to make it a stand-alone service…but managed jointly with the already established MAS in the other half of the Trust which is commissioned by a different CCG [Clinical Commissioning Group]. A model had been agreed pre-COVID for the new service but this had to be re visited due to the situation.” “Pre-COVID the service had began to implement a “Market Place” event, bringing together services/agencies who can offer a service to those living with dementia. This is something we plan to grow and develop as soon as .restrictions on service delivery are lifted.”

Other respondents referred to the impact of COVID-19 on the rapid adoption of technology for remote consultations and blended approaches. This had streamlined services and offered more options to meet patient preferences. Although some respondents noted the increased use of technology was at the “cost’ of reducing face to face contact, which was not regarded as favourable.

“We have now re-opened our clinic and are seeing most patients either in clinic or in home visit appointments, however, our team are now confident to offer remote and telephone assessments on rare occasions when it is needed.”

In other services the impact of COVID was more temporary with modes of delivery returning to a pre-COVID models.

“Staff have generally returned to their normal practice and preference which is to assess people in their home environment or within clinic."

Respondents were asked if the current model reflected how they plan to deliver the service moving forwards. Most respondents in England ( n  = 30/38) and Wales ( n  = 5/6) indicated that this was how they plan to deliver the service moving forwards, although 21% of respondents in England said this was not the case.

Most respondents indicated that the elements of change they planned to retain related to offering optionality for patients.

“We have found that family members and carers tend to prefer telephone consultations as they are more convenient. Home visits have also been found to improve access to the service for people with mobility issues or those who are concerned about attending hospital appointments. Looking at developing model that incorporates different consultation modes dependent upon need.”

Memory assessment service workforce

The survey asked which staff groups were represented within their MAS commissioned services (Table  3 ). All MAS based in Mental Health and Community Trusts included old age psychiatrists in their workforce, with a large majority also including registered mental health nurses, occupational therapists, and psychologists. Non-medical prescribers and healthcare assistants were also commonly employed staff groups.

Some staff groups were less frequently represented, but still present in services, including neurologists and neuropsychologists, dementia navigators, and other staff groups such as Admiral nurses and Alzheimer’s society outreach workers.

We asked English respondents about the gaps or challenges in their current commissioned workforce model, with 78% of respondents identifying gaps. These fell into three broad categories: general capacity; the need for specialist staff; and staff to support post-diagnostic support.

First, some respondents indicated that staffing issues were related to general capacity.

“Assistant psychologists are brilliant at doing neuropsychological assessments under supervision from a psychologist in another team - but are hard to retain- which means there are gaps when one goes and another is coming. Ideally we would benefit from a full time qualified psychologist but service is not commissioned or funded to include this.” “No Occupational Therapist/s. No Assistant Practitioners (1 Fixed Term post at present), No Health Care Assistants/Support Workers. We do not have enough dedicated medic time in to the service. There are not enough staff in general.”

Second, many respondents identified the need for staff and associated support pathways that can provide specialist or rarer dementia support, this included MCI, young onset dementia and less common forms of dementia.

“Pathway for people who have a suspected alcohol-related brain damage and are still actively drinking .”

Third, many respondents also identified needing more staff to enhance post-diagnostic support.

“We would benefit from additional nurses and dementia navigators for post diagnostic support as currently we cannot meet the need.”

Commissioned services in MAS

To obtain a comprehensive overview of the MAS represented in our survey we requested respondents indicate which services they were commissioned to offer and deliver and where services were delivered locally but outside of the MAS (Table  4 ). Most MAS were commissioned to offer assessment and diagnosis to those over 65, with the majority also offering a diagnostic service to those under 65. Neuropsychology assessment, occupational therapy and cognitive stimulation therapy were also offered by most services.

Where services referred to specialist components of assessment or diagnoses, such as imaging or biomedical assessment, these were less frequently commissioned as part of the service but could be accessed. Similarly, services that related to post diagnostic support (outside of CST) were less likely to be commissioned, but in most cases could be accessed, for examples information sessions or care co-ordinators. Specialist support, such as Admiral nurses, was not commonly offered or accessible elsewhere.

A follow-on question was asked (to respondents from England) about gaps in respondent’s current service commissioning. Of the 38 respondents to this question, 45% said they had gaps in the way the service is commissioned, 29% said there were no gaps and 26% were unsure. We asked respondents to provide further detail with regards to the gaps in service commissioning. Their responses fell broadly into two categories; support for MCI and less common forms of dementia and post diagnostic support and carer support.

“Inadequate under 65s services, especially for non-neurodegenerative dementias (i.e. vascular and alcohol related brain injury).” “Longer term follow-up is an issue. Currently , stable patients are discharged to the GP after 6 months , with referral back to the MAS when necessary. There are plans to increase support (e.g. Admiral Nurses) in the near future.”

Finally, we asked English respondents whether they had plans in place for quality improvement over the coming 12-months. Most respondents (78%) indicated that they did, with 22% saying no or maybe. For the respondents indicating yes, the descriptions of their quality improvement plans broadly fell under three themes; streamlining and workforce recruitment (e.g. “we have trained our support workers to do phlebotomy and ECG’s so that we can complete all outstanding investigations at the first appointment”), introducing new services (e.g. “new business case to support MCI services”) and remodelling existing pathways (e.g. “Developing of Pathway Lead structure, reviewing the current pathway and designing a virtual diagnostic clinic for the county to help streamline assessments”).

Multiple case study findings

A total of 44 staff and service users were interviewed across the 15 sites. Table  5 provides an overview of the case study sites including the key service features at each site. The interviews were conducted with eight Memory Service Mangers, five Consultants/Old Age Psychiatrists, seven carers and people with dementia, five Nurses, five Occupational Therapists, four Memory Support Workers, two Assistant Psychologists, four Clinical psychologists, three Assistant Practitioners and one GP Specialist. More granular details of the roles of staff interviewed have not been provided since this could lead to identification of participants where there is only one individual working in a particular role within a MAS. Examples of practice under each service feature from the case studies in the series are presented after the table.

• Post diagnostic support

Half of the case studies featured innovative approaches to post diagnostic support. In some cases, this referred to specific interventions such as cognitive stimulation therapy. For example, at site 6, due to COVID staff felt alternatives to face-to-face group CST were needed to prevent people newly diagnosed with dementia from becoming isolated and under-stimulated. They developed options for delivering CST to people in their own home by way of a cross-borough project set up by the MAS psychologists and working collaboratively with psychologists from another MAS service within the same Trust.

“[We were] very aware that , as the pandemic moved on and a lot of things had moved to online , that it was very much an issue around exclusion , digital exclusion , with older people predominantly. Maybe , many people within that group may not have… be able to access it. So , we are very mindful of that and the additional challenge of people with dementia as well. But we thought it would be worth giving it a go and seeing… and starting to develop a way of having conversations with people who were waiting for CST. About the idea and thinking about what support they would need to access the group online. And talking , also , to people who supported them , their families and carers , to see whether we could work together to enable them to access the group if they were interested.” (Site 6 - Staff member two).

In other cases, innovative post diagnostic support meant adopting an extended model of post diagnostic support such as at case study site two where post diagnostic support is offered until end of life. At site two the lifetime support includes a one-month post-diagnostic review, followed by six-monthly comprehensive reviews which can be increased in frequency where complexities exist/arise, until the person with dementia has stabilised. Reviews are undertaken by either an Assistant Practitioner or a nurse dependent on the complexity of needs. At least one review annually is conducted in the person’s own home. The team includes occupational therapy and psychology staff who support diagnosis and post-diagnostic support. A lead practitioner and non-medical prescriber provide more intensive support for those with the most complex needs.

“It was the beginning of a relationship and that for us was critical , that it’s not about being dumped with something and go away and sort out your affairs. … It’s about , yes , this is something we’re going to support you through and we will be following it up and you will be seeing [name] on a regular basis. So I think that’s … absolutely critical. You need continuity and you need somebody that you can begin to build trust with because it’s such an unknown territory at the beginning and you know it’s pretty terrifying because you think. Where do I begin?” (Wife of someone diagnosed with dementia by the service – site two)

As in the above example, many of the reported cases rely on MDT approaches. For example, in site 12 a post-diagnosis support service within primary care was commissioned and is led by two GPs with a special interest in dementia. Both the memory assessment and post-diagnostic services work in collaboration with the Alzheimer’s Society.

Personalised care pathways

In several sites, personalised care pathways meant operating a tailored approach to referral or triage systems (site one, five, six). For example, site six provides telephone triage for anyone referred into the service within 24-hours. This operates seven-days a week. The information gathered at triage alongside the referral is used to determine whether a person is assessed via the Tier One routine pathway, or Tier Two pathway for more complex cases. Tier Two includes neuropsychological assessment and MDT review. This triage is available 7-days a week as referrals dealt with by the nurses cover both memory assessment and functional mental health problems.

“If we find that we identify risks within that conversation , where people need support within 24 h , or even a couple of hours , depending on what it is , we are able to do that. And I think that’s really important.” (Site 6 - staff member 3)

Similarly, a site five, the service offers different pathways that are based upon patient needs and presentation at screening.

“ Clients we would sort of divide people up into different pathways depending on how they present. So from the most not for the most straightforward , the most kind of obvious. You know people that look like they’ve gotten established cognitive impairment or established dementia , but nobody has formally diagnosed them through to people that you may have comorbid major mental health difficulties may be considerably younger and may still be working. So we’ve we developed a number of different pathways.” (Site 5 - Staff member one) .

The idea of the pathways ensures that people are not over or under assessed whilst ensuring that diagnostic accuracy is maintained.

“So it’s making sure that we’re giving the right type of assessment to the to the right , to the right clients so that the with the exception of the formulation pathway , the other pathways people get the same. Assessment process. But how much of which bits they get will depend on how much they need.”(Site 5 - Staff member one) .

Support for MCI and rarer dementia

This was identified as a key theme present in two cases. Site four offers pre diagnostic support, diagnosis and post diagnostic support for younger people with dementia for as long as required.

“I work with the younger person’s memory service and if someone needs nursing input prior to diagnosis , that will be through the younger person’s memory service , which is one of the reasons why there’s not dementia name in the service because a lot of people referred to the service won’t have dementia… And then when someone receives a diagnosis with dementia , then will remain within the younger person’s memory service until they have no need for us or until they’re 65” (Site 4 - Staff member 3) .

This has also afforded the opportunity for re(de)diagnosis.

“there was a kind of natural point there to start looking at diagnoses again when you repeat cognitive tests. And then you look back and think , well , right over a period of years , this hasn’t declined. This isn’t really consistent with your diagnosis anymore…. I think that is quite unique to our service because we do follow people up long term even if there aren’t major issues.” (Site 4 – staff member 3) .

This was only possible because of the length of time people are followed up and has enabled staff to identify people who they may have expected to decline but have not. This approach may not be viable in services that do not offer an extensive follow up in this age group.

Site nine had developed an innovative service improvement project for people presenting to services unlikely to meet the threshold for dementia (e.g. MCI or similar). In this project a consultant intercepted and reviewed referrals to the regional MAS, redirecting those likely to present as MCI or functional impairment to a brain health clinic.

“It’s not a perfect system , people … who are MCI , stage , still get through to the other consultants and people who have dementia stage illnesses are still getting through to me… over the last three months (the clinic) taking about 20% of the referrals which works out , if you do it retrospectively , works out at about the rate at which MCI is diagnosed amongst all referrals.” (Site 9 – staff member 1) .

After a comprehensive assessment within the brain health clinic, clients are offered feedback and follow up care based upon their individual need. The idea of the clinic is to address the gap in support that people with subjective cognitive impairment might experience, and recognise that tailored support can be offered with beneficial outcomes for this heterogeneous group.

Site six operates a specific MCI post diagnostic pathway using funding provided by the Clinical Commissioning Group (CCG). This includes six group sessions that cover biopsychosocial advice to support the person to lead a healthy lifestyle and a workbook which provides advice and information related to the session content. People can receive the workbook even if they don’t want to attend the group sessions.

“[The workbook includes] links to local resources that they can tap into so local exercise classes , …different voluntary organisations etc. People have found that useful , and … reiterates healthy living , health promotion , exercise , and … we … if someone wanted to give up smoking we can sign post them to smoking cessation or alcohol reduction teams. So we feel like we’re giving them something useful” (Site six – staff member 1) .

The team have also been able to create a specific MCI register to ensure recall happens in a timely manner. This includes a six-monthly triage for those who are at high risk of conversion to dementia. If there has been a change the patient will come back in for assessment sooner.

Equity of access

Examples of services that promoted equity of access included those that had adopted culturally appropriate practices. Site 7 was located in a city region with a high South Asian population. They noticed that members of this community were not being referred into the service at the same rate as white British people. When they did attend assessment, members of the South Asian community reported feeling the process was not culturally sensitive and staff reported difficulties administering the Addenbrookes cognitive assessment tool due to issues with language and the euro-centric nature of some of the questions. The service has worked with local GPs to dispel myths about dementia and to highlight the potential benefits of referring for/seeking a diagnosis. They undertook a project to develop a culturally appropriate version of the Addenbrookes which included revised questions and translation into Urdu and Hindi, and employ staff who speak some of the languages spoken in the local community so assessments can be conducted in their preferred language.

“I’d experienced that challenge as a practitioner when I was delivering the original form of the Addenbrookes. Even interpreters were saying , well , that that’s not a fair tool. You’re not giving this this person a fair chance to , to demonstrate their cognitive abilities. That often resulted in fairly uncomfortable sessions where the interpreter was attempting to help out the individual who was being assessed and … trying to rephrase.” (Site 7 – staff member 1)

Innovative/examples working with external services

Site 13 had worked with external services to develop a rapid scanning pathway. Unlike other MAS’ who need to refer service users to local hospitals with long wait times for brain scans, the service had an innovative and bold scanning provision with very short waiting times. Both MRI and CT scans can be booked at the same time as the assessment appointment. The team also commissioned another more local scanning facility with longer wait times. This second service is more accessible by public transport and the more protracted wait times consider that not everyone will want a rapid service.

“Look at your scanning pathway and see if there’s a possibility of doing that better as a kind of quick fairly , I mean , I’d say quick , easy win. I don’t do the contracts [S1] knows about that stuff , but you know , it seems to me to be a common theme of and a source of frustration or you know , some services get around that by requesting that the GPs get the scans done before they come into the service”. (Site 13 – staff member 3)

A further example of novel approaches to external working was seen in Site 14 in which the team established a relationship with Digital Technologies Wales and was able to loan equipment, for example, iPads and Echo Dots, to trial with their service users.

“How technology can advance somebody’s independence , looking at different ways in which we can enable people to be independent rather than just looking at kind of not using technology…there’s a perception there with older people , they’ll be less likely to use technology , but our outcomes of that are very different.” (Site 14 – staff member 4)

The team based their interventions around technology that is affordable and is often already in people’s homes, or that can be easily purchased from websites such as Amazon.

Specialist staff

Site 14 provided an example of a service that utilises specialist staff for a large portion of their service provision. The MAS occupational therapy (OT) service is a new service that delivers evidence-based pre-diagnostic assessment and post-diagnostic intervention. Each case is discussed at weekly MDT meeting and service users are referred to the OT team on a needs-based basis. For service users in receipt of OT support, once the OT team have completed their intervention (on average 12 weeks but can be shorter or longer) the service user will be discharged but will remain on the wider MAS caseload. To assist other healthcare professionals (e.g. GP), the OT team conduct re-assessments to determine if there have been any changes to an individual’s clinical or functional profile.

Location of memory services

The location of services featured in some of the cases, often alongside innovative workforce practices or approaches, as a means to increase diagnosis rates and/or the efficacy of post diagnostic support. For example, in site 13 an innovative MAS nurse-led model was implemented. The service was reformed into a community service, operating out of primary care locations and delivering home visits.

In site 11 the service had identified some localities across the area it serves which have low referral and dementia diagnosis rates. They considered ways they could be targeted to increase referrals from these areas. Public brain health sessions were suggested as a possible solution, and these were commissioned for delivery by a local charity.

“And the idea of the brain health sessions was to get down to grassroots. So we want [sessions] in supermarkets. We want them in libraries , in leisure centres. We were sort of saying , right , how do we get right down to … a really basic level with people who are out shopping and , oh , let’s talk about brain health. This is why it is important.” (Site 11 – staff member 1)

The intention of the sessions is to increase availability and accessibility of support, raise awareness of dementia and its symptoms, reduce stigma by getting people talking and promoting the importance of getting a timely diagnosis.

This evaluation provides an overview of MAS in England and Wales demonstrating both common challenges and examples of innovative and unique service delivery. It showed that service variation exists which creates opportunities for services to tailor their provision to better meet local needs and improve patient outcomes. The case studies provide examples of practice for national commissioners as was as contributing to the evidence base for developing services, including those in LMIC. Examples of good and innovative practice often involved undertaking multiple service innovations, related to features of service provision (e.g. post diagnostic support, counselling), service structure (location of services, care pathways, accessibility), service workforce (use of GPs and specialists), and remit (supporting younger people, people with MCI or rarer dementia).

Services included in the case series strengthen the case for individual MAS to routinely (re)evaluate the design and delivery of their services. Many enforced changes to service provision due to COVID-19 generated opportunities to for services to streamline and refine MAS pathways, as identified by the services that took part in the survey. A key characteristic of the collective case studies was the importance of developing services that are responsive to local need and informed by evidence of such. Implementation science and practice change theory, such as the i-PARIHS model in the healthcare domain [ 37 ], draw heavily on the need for consultation in identifying service need and implementing local/inner context solutions. The importance of co design and consultation is also reflected in NHS commissioning guidance [ 38 ]. In our sites there was clear evidence of establishing local need and working collaboratively with staff or service users to inform solutions. For example, at site 6 solutions for the delivery of remote CST were driven by consultation with people with dementia and their families on the waiting list to receive CST. In our case studies, sites also spoke to the importance of commissioning support for the success of their approach – with top down organisational support representing key feature of practice change success.

That being said, our evaluation was also indicative of the challenges of local commissioning. Significant gaps and shortfalls identified by the survey (for example with regards to postdiagnostic support) indicate that local commissioning arrangements can also create uncertainty within dementia diagnostic and post-diagnostic support pathways. Whilst commissioning for local needs is undoubtedly important, it can lead to commissioning for the lowest cost resulting in disjointed service provision with gaps that may fall between the responsibilities of individual providers.

As an example, our survey findings indicate that despite existing evidence-based guidelines on dementia diagnosis and post-diagnostic support (e.g. NICE guidelines [ 8 ]), in some areas of the UK recommended services such as CST are reported to not be routinely available. There are a number of reasons why this might be the case including commissioners not providing funding for post diagnostic support at all, for specific CST services, or a lack of resources within commissioned services to deliver all aspects of a service they are commissioned to deliver. The latter could result from a need to prioritise resources elsewhere in the system to meet more pressing demands (e.g. to diagnosis post pandemic vs. post-diagnostic support), lack of staff/staff with the requisite skills to deliver particular interventions [ 21 ], or a perception that other services/interventions better meet local needs and so reflect a better investment of limited resources [ 38 ].

NHS commissioning guidance for dementia requires that commissioners take an approach aimed at reducing health inequalities [ 10 , 38 ]. This involves identifying and meeting local need, such as demonstrated in sites adopting culturally appropriate assessment practices, but balancing this against “reducing unwarranted local variation in process and outcomes” [ 38 ], Overall, the commissioners’ priority is one that prioritises personalisation over place based approaches such that “the commissioning landscape…is characterised as much by the ability to personalise and shape care and support in response to individual needs and preferences, as it is by place-based approaches and new models of care” [ 39 ]. A third of the case series reflected the service feature of personalisation, with all cases reflecting an element of personalisation or person-centred approaches, potentially indicating the success of this commissioning principle. Although, given the survey format and complexity of commissioning arrangements and decision-making within local healthcare systems, it was not possible for us to have a more in-depth understanding of this issue and it should be a topic for future research.

In a few sites, such as site 9 that presented a Brain Health Service, the innovation had not yet met the threshold for commissioning, but nonetheless demonstrated an innovative local solution. Innovation at this site relied on individual motivation and skills to demonstrate solution, and whilst not (yet) showcasing sustainable service change, made a key contribution to the evidence base for future memory services. The brain health site reflects contemporary thinking that Brain Health Clinics are the next step in dementia care provision [ 12 ] and provides a working example of this in practice. The European Task Force on brain health services suggested the deployment of a second generation of memory clinics designed to offer evidence – based prevention in at risk individuals [ 12 ]. These clinics – conceptualised as Brain Health Services - will offer risk assessment (biomarkers and brain pathology), risk communication and personalised prevention. These are likely to become more important as earlier minimally or non-invasive dementia screening and diagnostic tests become more widely available (e.g. blood tests) and new disease modifying drugs come onto the market. These may lead to earlier presentation at MAS and a need to combine prescriptions of drugs where warranted, with a range of health advice on personalised prevention and risk reduction and ongoing monitoring.

However, personalised prevention is likely to be based on multidomain interventions [ 40 ] – and will likely put further pressure on services already struggling to offer PDS for dementia. Therefore, understanding the prevalence and exploring the reasons for existing shortfalls in this provision is an increasing priority. Service pressures will also arise from new treatments that require etiology to be clearly established (e.g. monoclonal antibody treatments) [ 41 ] in order to offer personalised treatment plans.

Examples from our collective case studies that address shortfalls in postdiagnostic care will be useful for national commissioning as well as provide examples for international service development. For example, two case study sites focused on meeting the needs of ethnically diverse communities, contributing evidence that may have additional utility for service development in LMIC. In the UK we are facing a projected seven-fold increase in dementia over the next five years in people from Global Majority communities compared to a two-fold increase in White British counterparts [ 42 ]. In the UK older South Asian adults are less likely to access dementia diagnostic services in a timely way, compared to rates for older white British adults [ 43 ]. Our case studies explored ways in which the diagnostic process can be adopted to be more sensitive and accurate as well as ways to reach into communities who may be reluctant to engage with services. In line with previous studies that suggest that simply scaling up services that work well in HIC will not work in LMIC [ 15 ], our findings indicate the importance of adapting services according to population characterises in order to achieve successful service outcomes. Whilst our communities exist in a HIC, there may be elements of learning that can be applied to the development of services in LMIC in South Asia and Somalia.

Previous research in HIC with similar models of care have indicated that patient experience can be adversely affected by the articulation between the MAS and other services, as in our evaluation, a study in Australia patients report significant gaps in post diagnostic support available to them [ 13 ], which was attributed to the articulation of services where GP discharge occurs. Our case studies also reflected the importance of the physical location of services or the points of contacts within the service pathway. Services that improved relationship with GPs or ancillary services elicited better patient outcomes. The importance of improved articulation existed at both ends of the pathway, referral and discharge. For example, in one of our cases (site 11) – the service point of contact was early in the pathway (pre diagnosis) and located in the community. This service was attempting to address the issue of low local diagnostic rates by running brain health sessions within the local community.

Innovation relied upon the creative use of staff as well as location. In our sites a range of staff have been shown to be equipped to reliably obtain accurate diagnosis. This is in line with published finings such as previously evaluated service addressed workforce issues by implementing advanced nurse practitioner (ANP) roles across four localities of a large NHS Trust. The ANP were upskilled and able to meet competencies related to assessment and diagnosis of dementia, thus reducing reliance on medical staff within the MAS [ 44 ]. In another evaluation structured assessment by AHP’s was shown to be just as accurate as a formal MDT judgment [ 45 ]. The use of community nurses at the point of screening has also been shown to have potential to enhance the speed and accuracy of dementia pathways [ 46 ]. Taken together, these findings support the recommendations of the WHO which advocated the use of health care workers in the community to increase diagnosis rates in LMIC. However, simply scaling up interventions that have worked in HIC is unlikely to generate optimal outcomes [ 14 ].

Limitations

This evaluation was limited by the number of services that the responded to the survey in the first instance ( n  = 49) which served as the sample from which the practice cases were obtained. However, given our evaluation was designed to seek examples of good or innovative practice, our self-selecting sample was primed to be receptive to requests for information about their services and provide access to their services for the subsequent case study component of the evaluation. A further limitation was that in conducting the case studies it wasn’t possible to obtain service user experience in all cases, so in most cases the staff perspective dominated. Previous research has suffered the same limitation in demonstrating that the structural and process characteristics of MAS in England are unrelated to HRQOL [ 47 ]. However the service innovations and structural and process characteristics may positively or adversely affect patient experience, and this should be further investigated via through qualitative exploration.

Whilst we did not record details of MAS accretion with MSNAP in our survey or in the case studies, it may be considered a limitation of the study that not all MAS taking part in the cases were accredited. Some were accredited, some were waiting to be and others reported being limited applying for accreditation because of the way that they were commissioned. However, previous research shows that MAS who had been accredited by MNSAP did not stand out as different in regard to structural or process characteristics to those that had not been [ 21 ].

A further limitation of the study is that we did not consider access to service as part of the pathway. Previous research has shown that the experience of accessing the service is as important for patient experience and outcomes as their experience of the service itself [ 13 ]. Future research should consider the local pathway in its entirety.

Our findings, taken together with the available evidence, suggest a significant shortfall in postdiagnostic services. This is particularly important given new dementia disease modifying treatments in the pipeline and the proposed second generation of memory services that will extend assessment to individuals at risk of dementia.

Whilst incentivisation of diagnosis in the UK led to increased diagnosis this created the “gap” of postdiagnosis service provision that has not been claimed by a specified service. Our collective case studies series offered solutions to the PDS shortfall. For example, the offer of CST remotely, with the benefit that it is not subject to the limitation of rural or remote geography – ideal for implementation in many LMIC, that may rely on digitation and remote delivery of services [ 14 ].

Our findings indicate that services should reflect local need. Population characteristics may be a important drivers for successful service outcomes – and providing a variety of services as examples that work well with specific communities is useful. Furthermore,

MAS will need evolve to keep up with our conceptualisation of cognitive impairments and the treatments on offer, which are increasingly becoming both more personalised (based on etiology) and preventative. Services need to prepare to deliver a changed offer and to meet national clinical guidelines on expected service provision and standards of pre-, diagnostic and post-diagnostic care for people with dementia. This will entail working collaboratively with stakeholders and commissioners, working across the dementia pathway, and balancing non-standard models of working with equitability. Forums which showcase good practice, that often remain unseen, will be a useful resource for developing national and international memory assessment and support services.

Data availability

Data may be made available from the authors upon reasonable request by contact Dr Sarah J Smith at [email protected].

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the input of out project steering group and lay advisory group members in the design and delivery of this evaluation, and Sally Brown and Leanne Greene for their contribution to the project.

This work was funded by NHS England NHS England and NHS Improvement and Improvement Cymru.

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CS and SS jointly conceived the project, conducted the data collection, analysis and preparation for publication. Both authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Ethical approval for the service evaluation was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee at Leeds Beckett University on 21.9.21 (survey) and 29.11.21 (case studies), with the survey approved as an audit and the case studies as service evaluation under the Health Research Authority definitions [ 31 ]. The service evaluation included human participants and informed consent was obtain and all procedures carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helskini and approved by the aforementioned research ethics committee.

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Smith, S.J., Surr, C. Exploring challenges and innovation in memory assessment services in England and Wales – a national survey and case study approach. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 1143 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11571-2

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Received : 20 June 2023

Accepted : 10 September 2024

Published : 27 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11571-2

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