Why I Learned Mandarin Chinese: My Language Learning Journey

When people find out that I can speak Mandarin, the first thing they usually ask me is why I decided to learn it. Chinese is often considered to be a difficult language for English speakers to learn. Some even call it the most difficult language in the world. While it’s becoming increasingly common for English speakers to learn Chinese, it wasn’t even offered as a language when I was in high school. So while most of my classmates were content learning French, Spanish, or German, I was searching for online Chinese classes that I could take on my own time.

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I’ve heard many different reasons for learning Chinese. I think that the most common reason, or maybe just the most logical, is that knowing Chinese is helpful if you’d like to do business with Chinese companies or even in China in the future. I’ve also heard many people say that an interest in China’s long history and culture is what sparked their interest in the Chinese language. This, an interest in a different culture, is similar to why I ended up learning Chinese. However, it wasn’t ancient Chinese culture that attracted me. It all began in high school, after I became friends with two Taiwanese-Canadian sisters. They introduced me to Taiwanese culture, and I ended up falling in love with Taiwanese dramas, movies, and pop music. I started singing to Fahrenheit (飛輪海) songs, practising Show Lo’s (羅志祥) “Party Boy” dance, and fan-girling over moody Zhi Shu in the drama It Started with a Kiss (惡作劇之吻).

essay about learning chinese language

"I Wanted to Understand and Be Able to Sing Along to the Songs that I Loved!"

My love for Taiwanese pop culture is what lead me to start learning Mandarin. I wanted to understand and be able to sing along to the songs that I loved. And although English subtitles were available online for most of the shows and movies I wanted to watch, it just wasn’t the same as actually being able to understand the dialogue. (I was also so hooked that I didn’t want to wait for the subtitles to be completed to be able to watch new episodes!)

When I went to my Taiwanese friends’ house after school, I also often heard their parents speaking to them in Mandarin. I was always curious about what they were saying, and impressed that my friends could speak a different language. Sometimes, when their parents yelled something from the kitchen, I’d worriedly ask my friends whether they were upset. It usually turned out that they were just asking whether we wanted to eat some fruit. I’ll always remember years later, after I started learning Chinese, their mother speaking to me in Chinese for the first time. We were ordering food at Tim Hortons, and she suddenly turned to me and asked “你要飲料嗎?” (Do you want a drink?) While this may seem like a simple question, the fact that she was speaking to me in Chinese, and that I could actually understand, was amazing to me.

As I mentioned, my high school didn’t offer Mandarin Chinese classes, so I had to figure out a way to learn the language on my own at first. I started by self-studying, by watching YouTube videos, listening to podcasts, and reading books. After trying to self-study for a while, I wanted a more structured way to learn, so I enrolled in an online course, which helped me start to expand my vocabulary a bit more. In university, I finally had the chance to take real, in-person Chinese classes. I really appreciated finally having a teacher to correct my pronunciation and answer my questions. All the while, I continued listening to music and watching shows and movies in Mandarin. These not only kept me motivated to learn the Chinese language, they also helped me improve my listening skills and pick up on how people talk in real-life situations.

While I was learning Chinese, I also had several opportunities to travel to Taiwan. The first time I went, I tagged along on my Taiwanese-Canadian friends’ family trip to Taiwan during summer vacation. At the time, I was still in high school. It was my first time traveling abroad without my parents, and a bit of a culture shock at first, but I ended up having an awesome time. I loved the sights, the food, and even the hot, humid summer weather there. Seeing Chinese being used in real life was also exciting to me, and I felt a sense of achievement every time I could recognize a character on a sign or understand what someone was saying.

"Being Immersed in the Language and Interacting with Native Speakers was even more Beneficial for Me."

A few years later, in the summer of my second year at university, I returned to Taiwan again. This time, I was fortunate enough to have received a Huayu Enrichment Scholarship from the Taiwanese government that allowed me to study in Taiwan for a few months. I chose to attend NTNU’s Mandarin Training Center for three months during the summer. The classes helped me learn a lot, especially in terms of reading and writing, but I think being immersed in the language and interacting with native speakers was even more beneficial for me.

Every day in Taiwan, I found myself forced to learn more of the language and expand my vocabulary in order to complete daily tasks. Whether mailing a letter, opening a bank account, or ordering food, knowing Chinese made things a lot easier. Of course, in Taipei, many people speak some English, but not all. Going to a smaller city might have given me even more learning opportunities, but I still learned a lot in Taipei. I also sought out language exchange events and found language exchange partners, which helped me get more comfortable conversing in the language. Oh, and I also started dating a Taiwanese guy… of course that wasn’t purely for the language learning benefits, but it did help.

The people I met in Taiwan, especially my boyfriend, became an even bigger motivation for me to improve my Chinese. I wanted to be able to communicate and express my thoughts to them as fully as possible. When I had to return to Canada to finish my degree after my summer at NTNU came to an end, I had an even bigger reason to work on my Chinese. I had decided to continue my relationship with my Taiwanese boyfriend via long distance, so the only contact we had was through Skype and messaging. That meant more talking than ever before. I’m now married to that same guy I met in Taipei while studying Chinese, and we live in Taiwan together now. I speak Chinese at home with him, as well as to many of my friends here, and of course use Chinese in much of my other everyday tasks while living in Taiwan. This helps me to continue learning and improving gradually as I go about my daily life. Looking back, it’s a mixture of my love for Taiwanese pop culture and the people that have come into my life that led me to learn Chinese. Today, I’m not as interested in pop songs and dramas as I was as a teenager. Instead, it’s the people around me that have become my main motivation to continue learning Chinese. I think learning a language is a lifelong process. This is especially true when it comes to Chinese, with its thousands of characters. I look forward to continuing my language learning journey, and wish you the best on yours!

Don't forget to try Glossika's audio training if you are learning Chinese:

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5. Follow Glossika Chinese:

View this post on Instagram Chinese Lunar New year is around the corner! And as a language learner learning Chinese, right now is the time for you to learn some related words and say something in Chinese to greet your Chinese friends! 農曆 means lunar new year. There are actually two ways to say lunar calendar in Chinese, they are 陰曆 or 農曆. 農曆 is more common to use in both China and Taiwan, and 農 (nóng) literally means agriculture and farming. 新 = new and 年 = year. So to combine these 4 characters together, you get a phrase 農曆新年. And how to wish someone happy lunar new year? 農曆新年快樂! #chinesevocab #vocab #chinese #mandarinchinese #glossika #languagelearning #hanzi #phrases #HSK #chinesenewyear #happychinesenewyear A post shared by Learn Chinese with #Glossika! (@glossika_chinese) on Jan 31, 2019 at 8:12am PST

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British Council

Learning chinese changed my life for good, by walker darke, sustainable energy consultant, united nations economic commission for europe, 31 august 2022 - 16:00.

Chinese Pagoda next to a bridge over a lake, with woodland and snow capped mountains in the background.

Image: Shutterstock

Walker Darke writes about being part of the Generation UK Programme. He recently took part in a panel event hosted with Generation UK alumni and shared his experiences with students on the Mandarin Excellence programme: 

It was a privilege to talk with thousands of schoolchildren across the UK about my experience learning Chinese and living in China. I started studying as part of the British Council’s Generation UK programme, which enabled me to move from Wolverhampton, England to Jinan, China. 

Learning languages broadens your horizons

I was inspired to learn more about the world from watching international events on TV like the FIFA World Cup, the Olympics, and the Eurovision Song Contest. Communicating with people from different cultures and points of view helped develop my life skills and critical thinking. I had already studied abroad thanks to the British Council’s study abroad scheme while I was studying French at university. China seemed a much bigger challenge. 

There’s so much more that unites us than divides us

China is so big. Chinese is so complicated. Everyone talks so quickly. There were no Walker’s crisps. These were my first impressions. However, students were welcoming, and everyone wanted to help me learn more. Studying hard in Chinese class helped to make local friends. I didn’t know much about Jinan, but friends invited me to watch football and share common interests. It was amazing to see former Manchester United player Marouane Fellaini play for the local team, Shandong Taishan FC.

Chinese helped my career development

After studying in China, I felt so much more confident to apply for bigger and better opportunities. Thanks to the Chinese language skills on my CV, I completed an internship at the European Union in Brussels. It was an exciting time to be in the offices during ‘Brexit’ negotiations. I stayed there for three years, working as a social media and web content manager, posting on social media pages with over one million followers. Now, I work for the United Nations where I write sustainability policy on behalf of governments all around the world. 

There is always a connection to China

Working in Europe may seem far from China, but China plays an important role in many aspects of society. Chinese investment and business probably made the COVID tests and the phone you use. At the United Nations, it’s extremely helpful to know some of the official languages of the institution. One of them is Chinese (alongside Arabic, English, French, Russian and Spanish). My local football team, Wolverhampton Wanderers, is led by a Chinese company and strongly supports the local community. 

Chinese isn’t always easy

My Chinese isn’t perfect, and it may be frustrating practising the tones or the stroke order of characters. I try and study a little bit every day. Applications like Hello Chinese, Pleco, and Duolingo are good places to start. Sometimes it can be a fun to draw the Chinese characters with friends and find the similarities in the languages. In English, we say Italy, in Chinese, they say Yìdàlì (意大利). I’ve never stopped learning, and even now I’m doing a PhD in China, I still have Chinese language class to avoid misunderstandings! 

Chinese enabled me to do amazing things

Keeping up your Chinese skills is worth it. Some jobs require you to have language skills. The skills I learnt studying languages enable me to live, work and study abroad. I’m extremely grateful to the opportunities that the British Council have given me to empower me to learn languages. I hope you do the same!  

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The panel event hosted with Generation UK alumni as part of the  Mandarin Excellence Programme  (MEP) showcased the value of Mandarin language ability and inspired MEP students to continue learning Chinese by hearing from successful Generation UK alumni.

The event was hosted by Hannah Silverleaf, Outward Mobility Manager at British Council China.  Walker is a Sustainable Energy Consultant at the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. He is also a PhD student in sustainable policy development at Fudan University, China. On the panel, Walker was joined by fellow Generation UK alumna, Ilakkiya Sundarraj.

You might also be interested in

  • Language learning gives me ‘richer experiences with a broader mindset’
  • Our time in China influenced our UK careers
  • Building key skills in Chinese Mandarin

View the discussion thread.

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Why Study Chinese?

whystudychinese

What you might already know

  • China is one of the world’s oldest and richest continuous cultures, over 5000 years old.
  • China is the most populous nation in the world, with 1.28 billion people.
  • One fifth of the planet speaks Chinese. Mandarin Chinese is the mother tongue of over 873 million people, making it the most widely spoken first language in the world.
  • In addition to the People’s Republic of China and Taiwan, Mandarin Chinese is also spoken in the important and influential Chinese communities of Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, the Philippines, and Mongolia.
  • China is the second largest economy in the world.
  • China is one of largest trading partners of the United States.
  • Many US companies do business in China and have long-term investments there.

Things to consider

The study of the Chinese language opens the way to different important fields such as Chinese politics, economy, history or archaeology. But to study Chinese finally means to study a culture, a people. At the heart of Chinese civilization is its rich heritage of novels, short stories, poetry, drama, and, more recently, film. They reflect the values, the struggles, the sensibility, the joys and the sorrows of this great people and often offer insights even into the most intimate feelings of people in the past or into high-level Beijing politics at he present that cannot be found anywhere else. These works help you understand what is behind the language, what makes it powerful, and how it actually functions in Chinese society. To be at ease and effective in a Chinese environment learning the language is half the battle, but knowing about the culture behind the language is the other.

Some surprising facts

Chinese has a relatively uncomplicated grammar. Unlike French, German or English, Chinese has no verb conjugation (no need to memorize verb tenses!) and no noun declension (e.g., gender and number distinctions). For example, while someone learning English has to learn different verb forms like “see/saw/seen,” all you need to do in Chinese is just to remember one word: kan . While in English you have to distinguish between “cat” and “cats,” in Chinese there is only one form: mao . (Chinese conveys these distinctions of tense and number in other ways, of course.)

The basic word order of Chinese is subject — verb — object, exactly as in English. A large number of the key terms of Mandarin Chinese (such as the terms for state, health, science, party, inflation, and even literature) have been formed as translations of English concepts. You are entering a different culture, but the content of many of the modern key concepts is familiar.

Remember these two facts:

  • Currently Mandarin Chinese is spoken by over 1 billion people around the world, about one fifth of the global population;
  • Each year more and more students around the world whose mother tongue is not Mandarin are studying it with enthusiasm and success. If they all can learn it, so can you!

The study of Chinese literature and culture will help you bridge the cultural gap, better understand your Chinese counterparts, and create a platform of knowledge and understanding with them that is crucial for effective communication.

Chinese is important for your career!

  • International businesses prefer to hire people who speak more than one language. China has become a huge market, and business leaders are looking for people who can speak Chinese and operate successfully in a Chinese cultural context.
  • Knowing Chinese may give you an edge when competing for an important position.
  • China will play a major role in world affairs in the future. As China now has opened up to the West, there are opportunities for employment in all areas.
  • China is a wonderful country in which to teach English while developing your language and cultural skills. The experience is great, and it’s something you will never forget.
  • Teach in China A program offered through the Council on International Education Exchange.
  • China Employment Center at China Online.
  • Greater China Job Listings from Wang & Li Asia Resources.
  • Job Information Journal: China ESL Cafe’s journal of various job experiences in China, including places you should avoid when looking for employment.

Study Abroad

At Boston University we offer a Shanghai Study Abroad Language and Culture Program and an Internship Program.  Our programs are at Fudan University, which is ranked as the number three university in China. Students have the opportunity to spend a summer, semester, or year studying Chinese, taking elective courses in English, and even having an internship in the vibrant city of Shanghai.  No prior knowledge of Chinese language is required to study abroad in Shanghai, but students will be required to study Chinese while in the program. Students in the Language and Culture program study two semesters’ worth of Chinese in one term.  In the Internship Program, students can choose to study Chinese at the normal semester pace or at an intensive pace.  More information on studying Chinese in China is available here:  http://www.bu.edu/abroad/find-programs/by-destination/shanghai-china/

Chinese Events

Each year students and faculty organize a celebration of the Chinese New Year with food and student performances. More than a hundred students participate. There also is a student competition and prize for the best Chinese-English translation, the best short story and the best essay or poem written in Chinese. We also invite guest speakers to talk about China-related topics. The lively Chinese-language club is one of the more active student organizations on campus.

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Chinese Language

Myths and facts.

Graphic of Chinese characters

Few things in Chinese culture are more widely misunderstood outside of China than the Chinese language. The Chinese write very differently from us and indeed from all other literate societies in today's world except for Japan and Korea (which continue to make partial use of writing borrowed from China long ago). Even to the untutored eye, Chinese characters are not an alphabet, though many Americans who want to ask about them do not know what term to use for them, and questions are often asked such as, "Is it true that the Chinese alphabet … well, writing … I mean pictures, well … you know what I mean … they're very pictorial, aren't they?"

Because of the obvious radical difference between the way that the Chinese write and the way that we write, many myths have grown up, not just around China's writing system, but around its language as a whole and around China's people. Indeed, people often say that the Chinese write in pictures. Many believe that Chinese is a monosyllabic language, which presumably means that every word in Chinese consists of a single syllable, like the English words but, aim, quick, work, crime, laugh, and unlike the words although, objective, rapid, employment, transgression, guffaw. Many believe that, because they write similarly (in part), Japanese, Korean, and Chinese people are related. Many assume that because of their language, the Chinese think in a way that is radically different from our way of thinking. Regarding modern Chinese, a common myth holds that the Communist government has done away with Chinese characters and has substituted a brand new alphabet that all people now use instead of characters. It is further believed that this supposed change has been tantamount to abandonment of the Chinese language itself. In addition, some believe that the Communist government has wiped out the various Chinese dialects.

Each of these beliefs and assumptions is false. Each of them is in its own way outrageous, since taken together they suggest that the capacity for language among the world's largest national-ethnic group is somehow different from that of all other human groups, a suggestion for which there is no evidence. To examine these unhelpful myths thoroughly would require greater scope than this short essay will permit. But in the following pages, I shall outline some basic facts about the Chinese language. In doing this, I shall try to correct the myths that I have just listed.

Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language group. Sino-Tibetan is a major genetic grouping of languages like the Indo-European family to which English belongs (along with German, French, Hindu, etc.). The Sino-Tibetan speech community stretches from northeastern India to northeastern China, and its billion-plus speakers are found in Southeast Asia, South Asia, and East Asia. Chinese itself is not a single language, but a language family like the Romance language family to which French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Swiss Romansch belong. Like the Romance languages, the Chinese languages are mutually unintelligible (that is what makes them different languages). But, because they share a common history and a good deal of common vocabulary and grammar, it is much easier for a speaker of one Chinese language to learn another Chinese language than for a complete outsider to do so. Again, this is true of the Romance languages as well. The Chinese languages referred to here are the famous Chinese "dialects": Cantonese, Shanghai, Fukienese, etc. Because speakers of one of these "dialects" cannot understand speakers of another of them, the "dialects" are as much real languages as are the Romance languages.

There are two ways, however, in which the analogy to the Romance languages is inaccurate. Most of the Romance languages are identified with separate independent countries and bear a name related to their place of "origin." There is no such political identification of nation with language in China. Politically and ethnically, China has retained the ideal of unity for well over two millennia. Although at times China has been divided by conquest and civil war, the divisions have never identified parts of China as separate nations, and the language groups of China have never been a rallying point for political or military separatism.

The other important difference between the Romance languages and Chinese lies in China's writing system. After the spread of Roman civilization during the expansionist years of the Roman Empire, Romance dialects grew to a position very much like that of the Chinese "dialects." Each region of the Roman world had a language that was Romance in origin and in vocabulary and grammar, but that had become incomprehensible to speakers of other Romance "dialects" through linguistic change and influence from the languages of the peoples who preceded the Romans in that area. Yet, although the languages of the various areas were so different, the written language was relatively uniform. That written language was, of course, Latin, the standard language of Rome. Latin retained its standard form for a very long time because of the prestige of Rome first as a political and then as a religious capital, and because of the low rate of literacy prevalent in pretechnical societies. Once Rome's power began to decline and the independence of the outlying areas increased, people more and more wrote as they spoke, using the symbols of the Roman alphabet to reflect their own pronunciations and way of forming words instead of those proper to Latin. Reflecting speech is a natural thing for an alphabet to do, since alphabets are a phonetic way of writing. Because Chinese is not alphabetic, its writing does not reflect differences and changes in speech. Even though two speakers of different Chinese languages cannot understand each other (and thus may have to resort to a foreign language such as English for oral communication), they can write to each other and thereby understand each other. The ways that they read aloud what they have written will differ almost completely, but the meaning of what has been written will be identically clear to each. Written Chinese reflects the vocabulary and grammar of the most broadly used Chinese oral language. Speakers of the nonstandard Chinese languages learn this vocabulary and grammar, often pronouncing the words in their own local ways, when they learn to read and write. In short, the written language of China is uniform despite China's actual language diversity and the mutual unintelligibility of the several Chinese languages.

The earliest origin of this writing system was in fact pictorial. Early characters dating from perhaps three thousand years ago illustrate how Chinese writing began.

But this early start with pictorial writing was quickly abandoned. It is difficult for pictures to represent abstract thoughts, and different people's drawings of the same object may differ greatly. It is simply cumbersome to express lengthy messages by pictures. As writing became more common and as the nature of written material became more diverse, Chinese writing grew more and more stylized and less pictorial. In the third century, B.C.E., Chinese writing was officially standardized to a form that is not too distant from today's Chinese writing. Since that time, the pictorial origins of Chinese writing have been largely obscured by the uniformity imposed on the writing to make it more efficient.

The pictures are evident only to those who have been informed that pictures are present. Much more important than graphic representation in written symbols has been the combination of an element in a character that suggests the pronunciation at the time of the character's creation and the one that indicates something about the semantic category of the meaning (i.e., human, mechanical liquid, insect, etc.).

Chinese characters in their modern form remain the only regular medium for writing standard Chinese in the world today. In modern China, some of the most complex or frequently used characters have been simplified by reducing their number of "strokes" or lines, in order to make them easier to learn to read and write. Furthermore, some of the least frequently used characters have been merged into a single character. This simplification of the writing in China has been accompanied by a massive effort at literacy training and an intensive campaign to promote Mandarin, the standard dialect, as the national language. The results of these campaigns have been outstanding. China's literacy rate has risen from between twenty and thirty percent to between eighty and ninety percent, a remarkable achievement for the nation with one of the most difficult writing systems to learn. Along with the spread of literacy in China has been the extension of the use of Mandarin as the national spoken language, and the adoption of a standard spelling system called Pinyin, which uses the Roman alphabet to spell the pronunciation of Chinese characters. Pinyin, officially replacing a variety of older, unstandardized romanization systems, is used as a reference tool in dictionaries, as a supplement to characters on signs and titles, and as the means of introducing standard pronunciation of characters to primary school first graders. In 1979, China's news agency began using the Pinyin spellings of names and places in dispatches, and Americans had to get used to Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai instead of the more familiar Mao Tse-tung and Chou Enlai. Some American newspapers mistakenly reported this adoption of the Pinyin system as a decision to abandon characters for the alphabet. Although there are some in China who advocate such a move, and although such a change is contemplated by planners of very long-term policy, there is no likelihood of it occurring soon.

China has thus not followed the lead of Japan in reorganizing its writing system. Japanese writing incorporates both Chinese characters and symbols that have a sound value like an alphabet (called a syllabary). Because of their syllabary, the Japanese are able to learn much more quickly than the Chinese to write their language intelligibly, even if not elegantly. (Elegance and style require the use of characters in Japanese.) Japanese differs from Chinese not only in its writing, but in almost all other aspects as well. Along with Korean, Japanese is related to the Altaic language family, which includes Turkish, but not Chinese. In Japanese there is a highly elaborated system of hierarchical expression for speaking with persons of different social levels, something Chinese does not have. In Japanese, verbs come at the end of a sentence; in Chinese they come in the middle. In Japanese, the characters may be read with words of several syllables. In Chinese every character is read with a single syllable. To sum up, although the two languages both employ written characters, their differences outweigh their similarities, and Americans should not assume that the two languages have much in common.

Each Chinese character is pronounced as a single syllable. This is the source of the myth that Chinese is monosyllabic. The truth is that most Chinese words are polysyllabic and are written in clusters of characters. Most words in modern Chinese are two syllables (two characters). Thus, ming means "clear, bright" and bai means "white, blank". Put together, mingbai means "understand, clear," and onlymingbai can be used to mean "understand." Ming can never be used alone, and bai means something different when it is used alone.

The most troublesome myth to deal with is the one that maintains that, because their language is structured differently from ours, the Chinese necessarily think differently from Westerners. One of the silliest versions of this myth that I have heard is the claim that science cannot be practiced in Chinese because that language is not "scientific." (Since all languages are about equal in their inconsistencies and irregularities, it is difficult to know what the word "scientific" means when applied to a language.)

The idea that Chinese and Westerners think differently because of linguistic differences is, in my opinion, unconvincing. Indeed I find very little hard evidence to prove that language and thought are intertwined in any culture. Certainly, our individual thoughts and the specific language in which we express them are inseparable. But that does not mean that what we say in our own language may not have direct equivalents in another language if what we say happens to be spoken by someone with our same aims.

Some implausible assertions about the way the Chinese language makes the Chinese people think include: the Chinese do not distinguish between one and many because their words are not marked for singular and plural; the Chinese do not know the difference between definite and indefinite because their language lacks articles; the Chinese do not always understand the differences between past, present, and future because their verbs are marked for change and completion rather than directly for time reference; the Chinese do not clearly understand the difference between counterfactual statements and possible ones (e.g., "If I were you, I would …" vs. "If I go, I will …" because their language does not have any formal ways to distinguish the two. If any of these assertions were true, it is unlikely that the Chinese race would have survived three or four millennia, since they would be always in the wrong place with the wrong objects and quite uncertain about whether they were there or not.

Most such misunderstandings come naturally from an inadequate understanding on the part of non-Chinese who are attempting to analyze Chinese. Some of it also comes from Chinese speakers who inadequately comprehend Western languages.

There is, however, one relationship between thought and language which is not myth. That relationship is exemplified in Chinese by the tendency of ordinary Chinese to understate, or to convey meaning indirectly. Not only do the Chinese not share our predilection for expletives of a superlative intent such as "Terrific!" "Great!" "Fantastic!" and the like, but they frequently describe situations through understatement, double negatives, apparent vagueness, euphemism, and allusive language. In negotiation, an agreement to a proposal may be given as wenti buda, which literally means "The problems are not great." This tendency is related to formulaic expressions in Chinese such as bucuo "no error" = "right you are," bushao "not few" = a lot," chabuduo "off not much" = "approximately." Similarly, a denial may take the form of "Perhaps it's not convenient" or "Possibly the time isn't right" for a refusal to respond to a proposal that is seen as impossible to implement. Criticism is often given indirectly, but effectively. Frequently historical allusion is used to describe a situation that the critic does not like, and the reader or hearer is left to infer who in contemporary life is being castigated. The former head of state, Liu Shaoqi, was labeled as "China's Khruschev" in the months before he was publicly identified and brought down. The late premier, Zhou Enlai, was identified with Confucius in the Anti-Confucius/Anti-Lin movement of the early seventies. Naturally, political labels and symbols form a major part of the vocabulary of both criticism and approbation, though it seems that the vocabulary for identifying deviants (right winger, right deviationist, capitalist roader, ultra-leftist, those who use the red flag to oppose the red flag, etc.) is much greater than that for identifying model citizens (as is equally true of the language use of the Christian Church).

It is important to realize that these usages are not new in Chinese society; only the specific terms, such as those with Marxist-Leninist content, are new. The tendencies to indirectness and allusion are ancient cultural traits of Chinese society, and politicians and negotiators were using them as much hundreds of years ago as they are now. This use of language is an expression of a cultural preference for harmonious and positive intercourse among people. It is a cultural expression, not a control of thought by language. Language is simply one of the tools through which a society expresses its character, and it is to be expected, not wondered at, that Chinese society expresses the same characteristics through its language as it does in other cultural forms.

Because the focus of American relations with China has moved from diplomatic sorting out to business connections, there is one area of cultural expression in language that must be mentioned in closing. That concerns the use of a special language for legal purposes. In our society, legal language is so specialized that it alone often carries the difference between one party's satisfaction and the other's in a hotly contested dispute. Our legal profession is a huge body of technocrats trained principally in the wielding of the tool of legal language. It is often noted that China has a tiny number of lawyers (as does Japan) compared to the United States. This is not primarily because Chinese criminal proceedings have failed to allow sufficient protection for defendants (though that has often been true), but because binding relations involving the exchange of money, goods, and services are not sealed in immutable language in China. Rather, contracts lay out basic wishes of both sides and fundamental intents; from our point of view, at least, a great deal is left to the common sense and mutual trust of the parties concerned. That procedure is unobjectionable so long as the expectations and assumptions of the two sides are the same. But troubles may arise when one party's differ from those of the other. Different expectations, of course, are more likely to occur when the parties are from different cultures and where the principal participants do not know each other's languages well.

China's joint-venture law of 1979 is a case in point. That law simply states general principles and does not contain the level of detail that American and other Western business people would consider normal in their own societies. Because of the vagueness of the language used, many businesses hoping for deals in China have held back from entering joint ventures for fear of losing their investment should something not planned for occur.

Misunderstandings related to language—particularly those that lead to troublesome problems—come from cultural misperceptions and language incompetence, not from the different structures of the two languages that two peoples speak. So long as we in America remember that Chinese is one of the world's human languages and make intelligent provisions for the training of enough Americans in the use of that language, we face little problem from the uniqueness of the way that the Chinese speak and write. But if we continue our historical ignorance of both China's culture and language, we doom ourselves to a very conflicting relationship.

Author: Timothy Light.

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The University of the West Indies

Why learn Mandarin Chinese?

Mandarin Chinese is by no means an easy language to learn. In fact, the US Department’s Foreign Service Institute categorizes Mandarin Chinese as a Category IV language. This means that for native English-speakers, Mandarin is exceptionally difficult. So what convinces our students to dedicate their time and mental energy to learning such a challenging language? What moves them to go beyond a token ‘nihao’? Or a desire to order more than char sui kai fan at their local Chinese restaurant? Fortunately for us, our students are all too happy to share their motives, which are quite diverse. Let’s see what some have said.

Vaughn, completed Levels 1A – 3B

My motivation : I started studying Mandarin after my mother was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease. Science shows that studying a foreign a language is a good way to keep the brain healthy. So I decided to choose the most difficult one – Mandarin.

My learner experience : What I have enjoyed about my classes is that they are not about the language alone. We get to learn about the Chinese culture which is vast and interesting. This is not something I would have done on my own. As a result, I can gladly share what I learnt with my students who are always fascinated when they find out that I can speak some Chinese. They get excited for me to say something to them in Chinese.

My greatest challenge : The most difficult thing is trying to speak like a native, with proper tones, and yet not sound foreign. I have not mastered that as yet.

My advice : I will certainly encourage everyone to learn this language since China is going to all areas of the world and it will be useful to have some understanding of the language and culture of the people with whom we do business.

Michelle & Kadesha, completed Levels 1A – 3A/3B

Michelle-and-Kadesha-Chinese-students

Our learner experience : Since September of 2018, we’ve both studied Chinese Mandarin, making it almost three years of studying the language in a formal setting. Our experience learning Chinese at the CLL has been exceptional. With the aid of very supportive tutors our language learning journey was even more enjoyable. Even with the limits as a result of the Coronavirus pandemic, the CLL administration has facilitated effective ways of online language learning. Not only have we learnt how to apply the language in quintessential aspects such as reading, writing and listening, we have also learnt a lot about Chinese culture and history, such as cultural festivals and the distinct cuisines of the provinces.

Our advice : Learning Chinese at the CLL has improved our memory through the memorization of Chinese characters and we have had the pleasure of connecting with others who share our love for the Chinese language and culture. We encourage others to start their Chinese language learning journey as it has proven to be an enlightening and delightful experience thus far.

Sonia, completed Levels 1A – 2A

My motivation: I have a non-profit cultural company that does a lot of volunteer work with schools and the public where we try to expose people to different languages and cultures. The guidance and education that we received with Ms. Lutchman helped us to organise free cultural activities for young children in schools.

My learner experience: It was amazing in class! Fun, exciting, engaging. It was nice to meet and connect with so many people while learning about the language and the culture. Classes with Ms. Lutchman were always something to look forward to! Plus, it took away all of my apprehension that I had been feeling for years.

My advice: Firstly, since we live in such a multicultural society and in an age of globalisation; any sort of exposure to a foreign language is an advantage. Secondly, learning Mandarin Chinese expands your knowledge about the myriad of traditions and cultures that exist in China. As well as the similarities and differences compared to Trinidad.

Exciting opportunities thanks to learning Mandarin Chinese

Having heard directly from a few students, let’s turn our attention to how learning Mandarin Chinese has opened the doors to new opportunities for our students.

Kia-Mohan-Chinese-student

Steffan, completed Levels 1A – 3B Steffan is an avid dragon boat racer on the local circuit, having participated in the sport since 2014. He is the helmsman of the Excellent Stores Titans . He also coached the UTT team from 2018-2019. In 2020, he placed in the Top 10 in the “My China Story” Essay Contest , organized by the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Trinidad and Tobago. The Top 10 best story writers were invited to a special ceremony. On this occasion, Ambassador Fang Qiu shared his gratitude for the writers sharing their unforgettable stories.

Tamara, completed Levels 1A – 3B Tamara is an engineering student at UWI who participated in an exchange programme to Shanghai. She went on to receive a scholarship to do her masters with Beihang University . Like Steffan, Tamara also placed in the Top 10 in the “My China Story” Essay Contest, organized by the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Trinidad and Tobago.

Certainly our Mandarin Chinese learners come from a wide range of educational and ethnic backgrounds. However, they are united in their sincere interest in the language and its diverse culture. We are extremely proud of how they have gone on to use Mandarin in their personal, professional, and academic lives. If you are interested in learning more about our Mandarin Chinese program, click here or contact us via email .

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Why I decided to learn Chinese

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By   fluentin

July 4, 2018

People ask me all the time why I wanted to learn Chinese. Living in China, I also get this question a lot when I first start talking to people, and I often just give answers like:

“Because I’m interested in the culture.”

“Because I’m interested in foreign languages.”

“Because I wanted to get the chance to travel the world and experience a different culture.”

But when I really think about why I wanted to learn Chinese, this answers actually only scratch the surface .

I was interested in the culture, and I was interested in the language itself from an academic point of view. In particular, Chinese characters intrigued me. I wanted to know how they were put together and how the writing system worked.

I also quite liked the sound of Chinese and I wanted to find out something about ancient Chinese culture – the history, the literature, and how the Chinese language fitted into all of this.

But after living in China for the past few years, and doing jobs that put my language skills to use, so many people have asked me about my motivations for learning Chinese that I started to do a lot of soul-searching and I’ve uncovered some much more deep-seated reasons for why I wanted to take up Chinese, which I want to share with you now.

1. Because I wanted to take on something completely new.

As a teenager, I often felt impatient. It was as if I was waiting for something to happen. I didn’t know what, and I didn’t know when.

Looking back, this impatience seems a little immature, and it seems very passive. After all, if you want something to happen, it’s up to you to make a decision and do something!

But what I knew was that I needed to try something new. This drove me to try to ‘break the mold’ and try to find a completely new project to take on. Something different to what I had been doing before.

That project was Chinese.

2. Because nobody else around me was doing it.

I was the only person in my school who wanted to study Chinese at university.

Then, I was only one of a very small number of people at my university who was studying Chinese.

I was always good at languages, and I could have taken up another European language, but I figured that a lot of the European languages have similar roots, and I had already studied French and Spanish. If I wanted to get better at them I could just take trips to the country, or study them on my own. It probably wouldn’t be that difficult.

I remember one guy at school, when he found out about my choice of subject, asked me very bluntly: “Why the **** do you want to learn Chinese?” I can’t remember what I said at the time.

But I didn’t care.

In fact, I quite liked being the only person who was learning Chinese. It set me apart, and it meant that I didn’t feel like I was competing with a lot of other people. I could concentrate on my own goal.

It was almost like some kind of secret code that I was learning to crack, except that there were more than a billion people somewhere in the world who were able to understand it.

3. I wanted to experience something different and I wanted adventure.

I had a great childhood, I did well at school and I really had nothing that I could complain about.

But life was very predictable and very, well, ordinary. I wanted adventure and I wanted to experience something new.

I knew that by studying a language degree, I would be able to integrate myself in a completely different culture and get the chance to travel.

And that certainly turned out to be the case. While I was studying Chinese, I studied in Taiwan, as well as in Qingdao and I’ve worked in Suzhou and Beijing and travelled all over China.

I’ve experienced all the sights, sounds and tastes of living in a foreign country. I’ve learned about how people from a completely different culture think, and dealt with cultural differences which at times have been frustrating and difficult.

But one thing’s for sure, it has never been boring .

I’ve had the chance to travel to places that I would never have visited if I hadn’t decided to learn Chinese. I’ve travelled China quite widely, and seen a huge variety of cities, landscapes, cuisines and sights. I’ve climbed some of the Chinese mountains, been to the Great Wall and the Terracotta Warriors and seen the giant panda.

But most importantly, I’ve been able to do much more than a tourist who didn’t speak the language would be able to do. I’ve been able to ‘get inside’ the culture, build closer relationships with the people who speak the language and find out about the culture from their perspective. I’ve also met some interesting people and had some pretty crazy experiences – like being on Chinese TV several times!

4. I wanted a challenge.

People talk about how Chinese is “the hardest language in the world to learn.”

I heard things like “it will take you years before you can even read a newspaper.” “It’s impossible for a non-Chinese to become really fluent.” “There are more than 50,000 characters, you’ll never remember all of them.”

But to be honest, I didn’t really pay that much attention to these claims . I was interested in learning Chinese and I had already decided that I was going to do it, so I was just excited to get started.

It wasn’t that I was really confident that I was going to be good at it and I was going to get fluent. As I had never learned a language like Chinese before, I really had no idea what it would be like. I just didn’t think about these things that much before I started.

This is probably the longest explanation of why I wanted to learn Chinese I’ve ever given.

In fact, I almost picked Arabic. Learning Arabic would have been a completely new challenge and an adventure as well, but something about Chinese culture attracted me.

So what about you? Why did you decide to learn Chinese? Can you identify with any of my reasons, or do you have difference ones of your own?

I’d love to hear your story! Leave me a comment below.

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How the Chinese Language Got Modernized

By Ian Buruma

a chinese character drawn with different types of machines

The late, great sinologist Simon Leys once pointed out a peculiar paradox. China is the world’s oldest surviving civilization, and yet very little material of its past remains—far less than in Europe or India. Through the centuries, waves of revolutionary iconoclasts have tried to smash everything old; the Red Guards, in the nineteen-sixties, were following an ancient tradition. The Chinese seldom built anything for eternity, anyway, nothing like the cathedrals of Europe. And what survived from the past was often treated with neglect.

So what accounts for the longevity of Chinese civilization? Leys believed it was the written word, the richness of a language employing characters, partly ideographic, that have hardly changed over two thousand years. As Jing Tsu, a scholar of Chinese at Yale, observes in “ Kingdom of Characters: The Language Revolution That Made China Modern ” (Riverhead), China had long equated writing “with authority, a symbol of reverence for the past and a talisman of legitimacy.” This is why mastery of classical Chinese used to be so important. To become an official in imperial China, one had to compose precise scholarly essays on Confucian philosophy, an arduous task that very few could complete. Even Chairman Mao , who incited his followers to destroy every vestige of tradition, proudly displayed his prowess as a calligrapher, establishing himself as the bearer of Chinese civilization.

Leys was right about the continuity of the Chinese written word. But zealots, intent on erasing old incarnations of Chinese civilization in order to make way for new ones, have often targeted the written language, too. One of Mao’s models was the first Qin emperor (259-210 B.C.), a much reviled despot who ordered the construction of the Great Wall and was perhaps the first major book burner in history. He wanted to destroy all the Confucian classics, and supposedly buried Confucian scholars alive. Mao’s only criticism of his hated predecessor was that he had not been radical enough. It was under the Qin emperor that the Chinese script was standardized.

But, if the endurance of written Chinese is a civilizational achievement, it has not always been seen as an asset. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, many Chinese worried that the complexity of the language’s written characters would put China at a hopeless disadvantage in a world dominated by the Roman alphabet. How the Chinese language and its writing system have weathered the modern waves of iconoclasm and been renewed since the turn of the past century is the subject of Tsu’s book.

Chinese certainly presents unique difficulties. To be literate in the language, a person must be able to read and write at least three thousand characters. To enjoy a serious book, a reader must know several thousand more. Learning to write is a feat of memory and graphic skill: a Chinese character is composed of strokes, to be made in a particular sequence, following the movements of a brush, and quite a few characters involve eighteen or more strokes.

Tsu begins her story in the late nineteenth century, when China was deep in crisis. After bloody uprisings, humiliating defeats in the Opium Wars, and forced concessions—predatory foreign powers were grabbing what spoils they could from a poor, exhausted, divided continent—the last imperial dynasty was falling apart. Chinese intellectuals, influenced by then fashionable social-Darwinist ideas, saw China’s crisis in existential terms. Could the Chinese language, with its difficult writing system, survive? Would Chinese civilization itself survive? The two questions were, of course, inextricably linked.

In this cultural panic, many intellectuals were ashamed of the poverty and the illiteracy of the rural population, and of the weakness of a decadent and hidebound imperial élite. They hoped for a complete overhaul of Chinese tradition. Qing-dynasty rule was brought to an end in 1911, but reformers sought to cleanse imperial culture itself. The authority of a tradition based on various schools of Confucian philosophy had to be smashed before China could rise in the modern world. The classical style of the language, elliptical and complex, was practiced by only a small number of highly educated people, for whom it functioned rather like Latin in the Catholic Church, as a pathway to high office. Reformers saw it as an impediment both to mass literacy and to political progress. Before long, classical Chinese was supplanted by a more vernacular prose in official discourse, books, and newspapers. In fact, a more vernacular form of written Chinese, called baihua , had already been introduced, during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). So there was a precedent for making written Chinese more accessible.

More radical modernizers hoped to do away with characters altogether and replace them with a phonetic script, either in Roman letters or in a character-derived adaptation, as had been the practice for many centuries in Japanese and Korean. A linguist, Qian Xuantong, famously argued that Confucian thought could be abolished only if Chinese characters were eradicated. “And if we wish to get rid of the average person’s childish, naive, and barbaric ways of thinking,” he went on, “the need to abolish characters becomes even greater.” Lu Xun, the most admired Chinese essayist and short-story writer of the twentieth century, offered a blunter prognosis in 1936: “If the Chinese script is not abolished, China will certainly perish!”

Many attempts have been made to transliterate Chinese in the Latin alphabet. These range from a system invented by two nineteenth-century British diplomats, Thomas Wade and Herbert Giles, to the “Pinyin” system, developed by linguists in the People’s Republic of China, which is different again from various forms of Romanization used in Taiwan.

Difficulties confront all such systems. The time-honored character-based writing system can readily accommodate different modes of pronunciation, even mutually unintelligible dialects. Chinese has a great many homonyms, which transliterations are bound to conflate. And Chinese, unlike Korean or Japanese, is a tonal language; some way of conveying tones is necessary. (Wade-Giles uses superscript numerals; a system developed by the linguist and inventor Lin Yutang uses spelling conventions; Pinyin uses diacritical marks.) The different efforts at Romanization, accordingly, yield very different results. The word for strength, say, is ch’iang 2 in Wade-Giles, chyang in Lin’s script, and qiáng in Pinyin.

Characters never were abolished in the Chinese-speaking world, but serious problems remained. How to make a typewriter that could accommodate all these characters? How to create a telegraph system? Tsu details how solutions were found to such technical difficulties—encoding Chinese characters in a telegraph system geared to the alphabet, for example—and to political ones as well. Which characters or Romanized transliterations should prevail? The ones adopted by the People’s Republic of China or by Hong Kong or Taiwan?

Amid the ferment of the early twentieth century, reformers faced a broader question, too: once Chinese traditions were overthrown, what cultural norms should succeed them? Most of the people whom Tsu writes about looked to the United States. Many of them studied at American universities in the nineteen-tens, subsidized by money that the United States received from China as an indemnity after the anti-Western Boxer Rebellion was defeated. Zhou Houkun, who invented a Chinese typewriting machine, studied at M.I.T. Hu Shi, a scholar and a diplomat who helped elevate the vernacular into the national language, went to Cornell. Lin Yutang, who devised a Chinese typewriter, studied at Harvard. Wang Jingchun, who smoothed the way for Chinese telegraphy, said, with more ardor than accuracy, “Our government is American; our constitution is American; many of us feel like Americans.”

This focus on the U.S. might please American readers. But, in the last years of the Qing dynasty and during the early Republican period, Japan was a far more influential model of modern reform. Oddly, Tsu barely mentions this in her book. Japan—whose military victory against Russia in 1905 had been hailed all over Asia as a sign that a modern Asian nation could stand up to the West—was the main conduit for concepts that changed the social, political, cultural, and linguistic landscape in China. More than a thousand Chinese students joined Zhou and Hu as Boxer Indemnity Scholars in the U.S. between 1911 and 1929, but more than eight thousand Chinese were already studying in Japan by 1905. And many schools in China employed Japanese technical and scientific teachers.

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It’s true that Japan’s industrial, military, and educational reforms since the Meiji Restoration of 1868 were themselves based on Western models, including artistic movements, such as Impressionism and Surrealism. But these ideas were transmitted to China by Chinese students, revolutionaries, and intellectuals in Japan, and had a direct and lasting impact on written and spoken Chinese. Many scientific and political terms in Chinese—such as “philosophy,” “democracy,” “electricity,” “telephone,” “socialism,” “capitalism,” and “communism”—were coined in Japanese by combining Chinese characters.

Demands for radical reform came to a head in 1919, with a student protest in Beijing, first against provisions in the Treaty of Versailles which allowed Japan to take possession of German territories in China, and then against the classical Confucian traditions that were believed to stand in the way of progress. A gamut of political orientations combined in the so-called New Culture movement, ranging from the John Dewey-inspired pragmatism of Hu Shi to early converts to socialism. Where New Culture protesters could agree, as Tsu notes, was on the critical importance of mass literacy.

Downgrading classical Chinese and promoting colloquial writing was a step in that direction, even if abolishing characters in Chinese remained too radical for many to contemplate. Still, as Tsu says, some Nationalists, who ruled China until 1949, were in favor of at least simplifying the characters, as were the Communists. Nationalist attempts at simplification ran into opposition from conservatives, who wanted to protect traditional Chinese written culture; the Communists were far more radical, and never gave up on the idea of switching to the Roman alphabet. In the Soviet Union, the Roman alphabet had been used in order to impose political uniformity on many different peoples, including Muslims who were used to Arabic script. The Soviets supported and subsidized Chinese efforts to follow their example. For the Communists, as Tsu notes, the goal was simple: “If the Chinese could read easily, they could be radicalized and converted to communism with the new script.”

The long conflict with Japan, from 1931 to 1945, put a temporary stop to language reform. The Nationalists, who did most of the fighting, were struggling simply to survive. The Communists spent more time thinking about ideological matters. Radical language reform began in earnest only after the Nationalists were defeated, in 1949, and forced to retreat to Taiwan. Mao, in the decade that followed, ushered in two linguistic revolutions: Pinyin, the Romanized transcription that became the standard all over China (and now pretty much everywhere else), and so-called simplified Chinese.

The Committee on Script Reform, created in 1952, started by releasing some eight hundred recast characters. More were released, and some were revised, in the ensuing decades. The new characters, made with many fewer strokes, were “true to the egalitarian principles of socialism,” Tsu says. The Communist cadres rejoiced in the fact that “the people’s voices were finally being heard.” Among the beneficiaries were “China’s workers and peasants.” After all, “Mao said that the masses were the true heroes and their opinions must be trusted.”

Tsu rightly credits the Communist government with raising the literacy level in China, which, she tells us, reached ninety-seven per cent in 2018. But we should take with a grain of salt the claim that these gains came from bottom-up agitation. “Nothing like it had ever been attempted in the history of the world,” she writes. The Japanese might beg to differ; ninety per cent of the Japanese population had attended elementary school in 1900. We can also wonder whether the simplified characters played as large a role in China’s high literacy rate as Tsu is inclined to think. In Taiwan and Hong Kong, traditional characters have been left largely intact; if there is proof that children there have much more difficulty in learning to read and write, it would be good to know. Simply being told that “the people’s voices were finally being heard” is not quite sufficient to make that case. And, even if there are benefits to learning a drastically revised script, there are losses, too. Not only are the new characters less elegant but books written in the old style become hard to understand.

That was part of the point. In 1956, Tao-Tai Hsia, then a professor at Yale, wrote that strengthening Communist propaganda was “the chief motivation” of language reform: “The thought of getting rid of parts of China’s cultural past which the Communists deem undesirable through the language process is ever present in the minds of the Communist cultural workers.” This was written during the Cold War, but Hsia was surely right. After all, as Tsu points out, “those who voiced their dissatisfaction with the pinyin reform would be swallowed up in the years of persecution that followed,” and those who grumbled about the simplified characters fared little better.

Tsu assiduously links the story of language reform to technology—we learn much about the heroic efforts to accommodate modern typesetting to the character-based system—and that story continues through the digital era. The speed with which these advances were accomplished is indeed impressive. In the seventies, more than seventy per cent of all circulated print information in China was set in hot-lead type. Today, as Tsu writes excitedly—at times, her style is redolent of Mao-period journals like China Reconstructs —information processing is “the tool that opened the door to the cutting-edge technology-driven future that China’s decades of linguistic reform and state planning at last pried open.”

Tsu celebrates these technical innovations by highlighting the personal stories of key individuals, which often read like traditional Confucian morality tales about terrible hardships overcome by sheer tenacity and hard work. Zhi Bingyi worked on his ideas about a Chinese computer language in a squalid prison cell during the Cultural Revolution , writing his calculations on a teacup after his guards took away even his toilet paper. Wang Xuan, a pioneer of laser typesetting systems, was so hungry during Mao’s disastrous Great Leap Forward campaign, in 1960, that “his body swelled under the fatigue, but he continued to work relentlessly.” Such anecdotes add welcome color to the technical explanations of phonetic scripts, typewriters, telegraphy, card-catalogue systems, and computers. Sentences like “Finally, through a reverse process of decompression, Wang converted the vector images to bitmaps of dots for digital output” can become wearying.

Today, in the era of standardized word processors and Chinese social-media apps like WeChat, Pinyin and characters are seamlessly connected. Users typically type Pinyin on their keyboards while the screen displays the simplified characters, offering an array of options to resolve homonyms. (Older users may draw the characters on their smartphones.) China will, as Tsu says, “at last have a shot at communicating with the world digitally.” The old struggles over written forms might seem redundant. But the politics of language persists, particularly in the way the government communicates with its citizens.

“Kingdom of Characters” mentions all the major political events, from the Boxer Rebellion to the rise of Xi Jinping. And yet one might get the impression that language development was largely a story of ingenious inventions devised by doughty individuals overcoming enormous technical obstacles. Her account ends on a triumphant note; she remarks that written Chinese is now “being ever more widely used, learned, propagated, studied, and accurately transformed into electronic data. It is about as immortal as a living script can hope to get.” Continuing in the same vein, she writes, “The Chinese script revolution has always been the true people’s revolution—not ‘the people’ as determined by Communist ideology but the wider multitude that powered it with innovators and foot soldiers.”

However much the modernization of language has been influenced by technology, though, it is also part of a much broader political story. Dictatorships shape the way we write and talk and, in many cases, think. (Victor Klemperer’s brilliant analysis of Nazi-speak in his book “LTI”—Lingua Tertii Imperii—remains an invaluable study of the phenomenon.) This, too, is part of the story of how Chinese changed in the modern age. I still shudder at the memory of reading, as a student in the early nineteen-seventies, Maoist publications in Chinese, with their deadwood language, heavy Soviet sarcasm, and endless sentences that sounded like literal translations from Marxist German—the exact opposite of the compressed poeticism of the classical style. But in Mao’s China mastery of this style was as important as writing Confucian essays had been in imperial times. When, back in the seventies, the official Chinese news agency, Xinhua, urged the government to speed up computer technology, its stated aim was to spread the Communist Party’s doctrines more efficiently.

These days, China’s geopolitical and technological status means that its political “narratives” have become global. China is advancing an alternative model to Western-style democracy. Soft power is being used to change the way China is perceived abroad, and the way business with China is to be conducted. Tsu says that China wants to have the ability to promote its “narrative as the master or universal narrative for the world to abide by.” This sounds ominous. Still, it isn’t always clear from her book whether she is talking about China as a civilization, as the Chinese-speaking peoples, or as the Chinese Communist Party. She writes that “the China story no doubt aims for a triumphant narrative.” But which China story? Does it include Taiwan, where citizens enjoy even more advanced information technology than their counterparts in the People’s Republic? Or is it vaguer than that, an entity that binds all Chinese cultures?

To Xi Jinping, of course, there is no distinction. At a Party meeting in November, something called Xi Jinping Thought was defined as “the essence of Chinese culture and China’s spirit.” The question is whether the Chinese Communist government will succeed in using its soft power to make its “narrative” universally triumphant. It already has its hands full imposing official dogma on its own people. China has enough gifted scientists, artists, writers, and thinkers to have a great influence on the world, but that influence will be limited if they cannot express themselves freely. These days, many written Chinese words cannot appear at all, in printed or digital form. In the aftermath of the Peng Shuai affair, even the word “tennis” has now become suspect in Chinese cyberspace.

In the last sentence of her book, Tsu writes, “Still unfolding, history will overtake China’s story.” I’m not sure what that means. But the story of the Chinese language under Communism is mostly one of repression and distortion, which only heroes and fools have defied. In an account of language, narratives, characters, and codes, the meaning of words still matters the most. Overemphasize the medium, and that message may get lost. ♦

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14 Incredible Benefits of Learning Chinese

Full disclosure: I am biased when it comes to the Chinese language. 

As a native speaker, I think Mandarin is one of the most beautiful historical languages in the world. Just one character or phrase can convey so much and express a great many things depending on the context. Even if you don’t share my sentiments about Mandarin, you’ll surely agree that learning Chinese as a second language is extremely useful. 

Not convinced? Here are 14 incredible benefits of learning Chinese that will convince you to start learning the language yourself! 

1. Chinese is the most widely-spoken language in the world 

Girls speaking chinese

One of the most obvious benefits of learning Chinese is simply that it is the most widely-spoken language in the world. 

Beyond the borders of Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan, you’ll also find Mandarin being spoken widely in Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and even the United States. In fact, it is estimated that one in every six people speak the language! 

With so many Mandarin speakers in the world, it’s only natural to want to be part of the conversation. 

2. Learning Mandarin opens the door to new career opportunities

Skyscrapers in Shanghai

Thanks to China’s booming economy and ever-growing market, one of the most practical advantages of learning Chinese is how it expands your career prospects both at home and abroad. 

Simply put, learning Chinese as a second language gives you a distinct advantage when seeking employment opportunities. To be even more precise, one of the benefits of learning Chinese for business is how it enables you to expand into the Chinese market! 

With companies rushing to establish a foothold in China, being able to utter phrases beyond nihao is extremely beneficial, both figuratively and literally. 

3. It also greatly expands your social circle! 

Chinese friends

Another one of the benefits of learning Mandarin is that it greatly expands your social circle. As we’ve already covered, there are over a billion Chinese speakers in the world today, and that’s only taking into account native speakers.

By learning Mandarin as a second language, you’ll be able to converse with way more people than before. Be it casual conversations about the weather or something a little more playful, you’re bound to make plenty of new friends once you start speaking Mandarin. 

Who knows? You might even meet “the one”! -wink- 

4. It unlocks whole new travel experiences 

Tourist in Pingxi, Taiwan

The best travel experiences are often those that only true locals know about. Most avid travelers know that. 

If you love traveling, some of the benefits of learning Mandarin are clearest when you’re visiting places like China, Taiwan, and more. As you converse with locals, you’ll find out about the best eats, the most beautiful hidden spots, and the easiest routes to get around the city. Good luck finding those in travel books! 

What’s more, with Chinese tourists making up the bulk of international travelers, many popular locations around the world now feature Chinese translations. I remember when I visited Jeju a few years back, almost everyone could speak Mandarin! 

5. You’ll get to taste the best Chinese food

Chinese noodles

On the subject of discovering hidden gems, being fluent in Chinese can also be beneficial to your palette! 

For one, some of the best food in China is sold from humble street carts whose owners hardly speak any English. So if you can speak Mandarin, even just a little, you’ve already unlocked a wider array of Chinese street food than most other typical tourists. You can also customize your order to your liking without worrying about getting lost in translation. 

What’s more, true-blue foodies will tell you that the best restaurants in China are often those that don’t provide English translations. So if you want to sample the most authentic Chinese dishes, don’t forget to learn a little Mandarin before your trip! 

6. You’ll be exposed to a whole new culture

Girl in cheongsam

As language learners can all attest to, learning a new language also means learning about new cultures. That is certainly the case when it comes to learning Mandarin as a second language. 

Not only is Chinese culture far removed from what English speakers are familiar with, but it is also a gateway to the Asian culture in general.  As you learn to read, write, and speak Mandarin, you’ll discover the ways that Chinese and other Asian cultures intertwine and influence each other, both in their respective languages and in daily life.  

You’ll also come across unfamiliar scenarios, foreign customs, and refreshing perspectives on issues that you might have taken for granted up till now. In short, one of the benefits of learning Chinese is that it truly broadens your horizons! 

7. You’ll fully appreciate the intricacies of Chinese culture

Chinese script

Of course, there’s a distinction between being exposed to Chinese culture, and fully falling in love with it. Beyond festivals and traditional folklore, learning Mandarin can help you fully appreciate the beauty of Chinese culture. 

That’s because the rich history of the Chinese civilization is fully integrated into its language. The way certain characters are written, why there are different words to describe certain things, and how the most popular idioms came about can all be traced back to specific events spread throughout over 5,000 years of Chinese culture and heritage. 

Even in daily life, you will find elements of Chinese culture that you wouldn’t understand if not for your proficiency in Mandarin. Take, for example, the superstition involving the number “4” as an unlucky number and why the Chinese try their best to avoid it.  

8. Learning Chinese is like power squats for your brain

Strong brain

One of the most scientific benefits of learning Chinese is how it greatly improves your cognitive abilities. 

While it’s true that learning any language from scratch is intellectually challenging, trying to master Chinese is an even tougher workout for your brain! Thanks to its different writing, phonetic and grammar system, Chinese is a language that’s likely completely different from what English speakers are used to. 

You’ll be forced to get creative and adapt accordingly to make the most of your time studying. What’s more, because how learning Chinese as a second language is heavily reliant on recognizing and memorizing words, trying to master Mandarin also improves your memory and attention span! 

9. There are a ton of resources to help you learn Chinese

Chinese learning resources

Despite everything that was just said above, you’ll be happy to know that learning Chinese , while challenging, isn’t actually that difficult these days. 

That’s because you have a wealth of resources at your fingertips to help you improve your Mandarin proficiency. 

Whether you prefer picking up some books , tuning in to podcasts , or simply using apps to learn Chinese , you’ll find that learning Chinese as a second language is now easier than ever! 

10. Mastering Chinese gives you an unparalleled sense of accomplishment

Girl in the wind

While I won’t mince words and say learning Chinese is a breeze (it’s quite a challenge), I will tell you that once you start seeing your progress, you will feel extremely pleased with yourself! 

After all, because of how different Chinese is compared to English, mastering the language is no small feat! Even if it’s just to the point of being able to recognize certain words or phrases, it is a great confidence booster, not just for continuing to learn Mandarin, but for taking on other challenges in life too!  

11. You get to fully enjoy Chinese movies and Netflix shows 

Netflix shows

Chinese media is on the rise, not just domestically in China, but also on the global stage. That is thanks in big part to streaming platforms like Netflix that host countless Chinese films and tv shows. 

While that’s all well and good, one thing that I’ve always found amusing (and annoying) is the subpart standard of the English subtitles. Even though they tend to capture the general meaning of the dialogue, the translated subtitles always seem to just miss the finer details that make a good scene “great”. 

One of the more entertaining advantages of learning Chinese is simply being able to fully enjoy Chinese movies and TV. By focusing on the actual Chinese words that are used in the original audio, you’ll be able to pick up on inside jokes, better appreciate the dialogue, and fully immerse yourself in the wonderful world of Chinese film and TV. 

12. You will fall in love with Chinese pop music

Mandopop

At this point, you might be asking: What about Chinese pop music (or Mandopop)? Oh, there’s a reason why I’m discussing Chinese music on its own. 

Before Korean pop music took over the world, the big thing in Asia was Mandopop. The likes of Jay Chou, Wilber Pan, Jolin Tsai, and more serenaded their legion of adoring fans with their sweet melodies on a regular basis.

As you start learning Mandarin as a second language, try listening to some Mandopop and I’m sure you’ll fall in love with the genre too! 

13. It opens the door to a whole host of amusing puns, pickup lines, and jokes

Girl laughing at phone

Personally, one of the best benefits of learning Chinese today is being able to enjoy the best TikTok and Douyin content! 

Unlike TikTok in the U.S., the social media app in China is a massive platform where independent, creative content creators share their work, many of which are hilarious short skits. As you enjoy these videos, you’ll no doubt come across amusing puns and jokes that will tickle your funny bone. 

What’s more, if you’re looking to improve your game, Chinese pickup lines are on a whole different level if I dare say so myself. From cheesy to genuinely funny, there are plenty of opening liners that work only because it’s in Mandarin! So, if you want to make a better first impression, you know what to do! 

14. Learning Chinese also helps you learn Japanese and Korean!

essay about learning chinese language

Finally, learning Chinese as a second language also has the added benefit of helping you learn other languages, specifically Japanese and Korean! As mentioned earlier, Chinese culture permeates many Asian cultures. The same can be said of the language itself.

Chinese and Japanese may sound different, but they share many similar words and characters, especially in Kanji. On the other hand, while the Korean alphabet looks nothing at all like Mandarin characters, listen closely and you’ll notice there are plenty of words and phrases that sound phonetically similar.

Most of them also share similar meanings, such as the Korean word, taeyang , which means “sun”. In Chinese, it’s taiyang ! Basically, if the benefits of learning Chinese go beyond just the language itself and opens the door to many more exciting languages!

And there you have it: 14 incredible benefits of learning Chinese! Of course, being a native speaker myself, I could have written an entire book about the importance of learning Chinese. But I’m guessing that, by now, you’re already thinking about how best to start your journey to master Chinese.  

Well, as mentioned there are plenty of resources online to get you started. In fact, you can also check out my top tips to learn Mandarin quickly, and my guide to speaking Mandarin fluently . Hopefully, by the next we meet, we’ll be able to exchange pleasantries in Mandarin! Jiayou ! 

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Chinese Language Study Experiences Essay

Introduction.

In my endeavor to become acquainted with some foreign languages, I found it appropriate to study Chinese, French, as well as, German. The key reason for such a decision is that my preferred job highly demands high experience in the above languages, because of their increased use across the globe. Trading, which is my preferred job, demands that I interact with people of diverse origins; therefore, the necessity of the languages. However, my Korean origin poses a myriad of challenges to me as I pursue trading, which is my preferred job.

In my learning center, the teaching of the Chinese language involves a comprehensive teaching approach that ensures its effectiveness. For instance, there is a systematic procedure of acquainting oneself with the language. Moreover, the teaching of the language is conducted by competent personnel who provide a guarantee of accomplishing the undertaking. Moreover, the Presence of customary tracking of succession in the study is an assurance of quality services.

Consequently, the clients have confidence, as well as assurance in their study of the language. Significantly, those schools offering the Chinese language have gained a reputation due to their commitment to delivering realistic teaching.

However, for a sizeable instance, while studying the language, I have noted the complication of the Chinese language. For instance, the language focuses on memorizing, therefore, the challenge of recalling most of the material learned in classes. In addition to the above, writing of the language entails the use of sole individual symbols together with typescripts. These ought to represent each word of the vocabulary. Moreover, a myriad of characters represents written versions that have a meaning in spoken sounds. Since a reliable dictionary requires about 40,000 characters, it is, therefore, intricate for one to memorize over 3,000 characters, usually essential for one to read an article in the Chinese language.

Literature has it that, the Chinese publication has a vast catch globally. Therefore, many people around the globe read Chinese literature daily. In the recent past, the language has experienced an enormous reading on the entire planet. Research has it that Chinese papers comprise of the global happenings. Therefore, they constitute valuable data circumscribing all aspects of life. The vast experience of the Chinese writers from million years ago guarantees lignite data in the prehistoric epoch. Concisely, the Chinese literature enormously encompasses archeological data normally employed by researchers as a critical element in dating events.

In conclusion, I would recommend the curriculum developers, as well as implementers to include Chinese in their curriculum for its intrinsic value. In addition, the teaching of the language should form its foundation on an inclusive, as well as a comprehensive strategy to enhance its efficiency. For instance, the government can back the strategy through the provision of sufficient budgetary allocation. Significantly, enormous information of the people’s past would be retrieved thus the reconstruction of the past. Research has it that for individuals to comprehend their present and foretell the future they must understand the precedent.

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The Teaching and Learning of Chinese as a Second or Foreign Language: The Current Situation and Future Directions

  • Special Issue Editorial
  • Published: 03 April 2020
  • Volume 15 , pages 1–13, ( 2020 )

Cite this article

  • Yang Gong 1 ,
  • Chun Lai 2 &
  • Xuesong Gao 3  

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In this opening commentary, we highlight the development of the teaching and learning of Chinese as a second or foreign language (CSL/CFL), which has attracted much attention from researchers, language educators, and other stakeholders worldwide. To contribute to this ongoing examination and discussion, this special issue documents the collective efforts of scholars in different educational contexts to review six critical issues in teaching and learning CSL/CFL: learning and instruction of reading Chinese as an additional language, Chinese character teaching and learning, learner identity in CSL/CFL education, teaching and learning Chinese through immersion, technology assisted CSL/CFL teaching and learning, and mobile assisted learning CFL. We contend that all efforts to address these critical issues require constant examination to facilitate further development in CSL/CFL education around the world.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all the authors for their contributions to this special issue and the reviewers for their professional and selfless participation in the peer-review process. Dr. Gong Yang’s work has been generously supported by the Specialized Subsidy Scheme for Macao Higher Education Institutions in the Area of Research in Humanities and Social Sciences of Higher Education Bureau (10/DSESHSS-UM/2019) (Macau SAR, China).

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Gong, Y., Lai, C. & Gao, X. The Teaching and Learning of Chinese as a Second or Foreign Language: The Current Situation and Future Directions. Front Educ China 15 , 1–13 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11516-020-0001-0

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8 Reasons Why You Should Learn Chinese

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“千里之行﹐始于足下” (Qiānlǐ zhī xíng, shǐ yú zú xià) “A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step….” – Chinese proverb

For most people whose native language is English, learning a language is not only difficult and time-consuming but often not worth the time and effort because ‘everyone speaks English’. Having lived in China for almost 4 years now, I can tell you confidently that everyone DOES NOT speak English, furthermore have no reason to learn it. We, on the other hand, the remaining 5.8 billion people on the planet, certainly do have several good reasons why we should learn Chinese, here are just 8 Reasons Why You Should Learn Chinese:

1. Chinese is the most widely spoken and fastest growing language in the world

I know literally every blog post you find about learning Chinese will have this as the first reason to learn Chinese. But rightly so; if you’re going to learn another language, why not make it the one that almost ¼ of the world already speaks! Ok, so you might be thinking, I’m never going to China, but you might go to Singapore or Taiwan where Chinese is also widely spoken. Not only that, but Chinese folk are living all over the world: in Canada, Australia and the USA to name a few. In many states in the USA, people learn Spanish because of the high population of Spanish speakers, wouldn’t it be nice to speak to your Chinese neighbours…? Not to mention students; statistics show that Chinese students make up 19.8% of all international students studying in the UK. And whilst they may be in the UK to practice their English, a ‘ 你好 ‘ or a ’ 谢谢 ‘ once in a while might make them feel a little more at home… Chinese is now also being taught in many schools in the USA because chances are those kids will need to speak it (even just a little) in the future.

The truth is, Chinese IS becoming more popular, not meaning to brag but I know this from looking at Written Chinese , and the amount of people who every single day ask ‘Please teach me to speak/read/ write Chinese!’, ‘How can I learn Chinese?’ ‘Where do I start?’

2. To Be able to Travel in China Without Accidentally Ordering Dog Off the Menu.

Sadly, one of the things that happened to me when I arrived in China was I became more picky when it came to food. Because I had very little spoken Chinese, let alone read it unless I was with someone who could read or speak Chinese I ended up pointing at pictures, or worse, not going to restaurants I knew I couldn’t order at. And don’t kid yourself, whilst there are many places in China where people do speak English if you choose to experience the ‘real’ China, there probably won’t be. Even in a big city like Shenzhen, there are many people who can’t speak English apart from ‘Hello’ and ‘Look Missy’. I’m not criticising anyone. I live here and it’s my responsibility to learn Chinese. On the other hand, anyone who can speak English will probably be beyond themselves with excitement and help you any way they can. Just don’t expect it, is all I’m saying, and learn the basics at least.

p.s. the point is, I really don’t want to order dog meat in a restaurant …

3. To Understand Chinese Culture and History

Reasons to Learn Chinese - Culture

I honestly believe that in order to fully understand Chinese culture and history you need to learn Chinese. I’m not suggesting that you need to be able to read the works of Confucius, but there are just some things when spoken in English make absolutely no sense and leave you feeling more confused and unsatisfied than before. Once you get to grips with even the basics of Written Chinese you will begin to make connections and comprehend more about Chinese society and mentality. You’ll understand another culture’s point of view.

4. Because Chinese is Quickly Becoming the Language of Business (and Tourism)

Reasons to Learn Chinese - Tourism (2)

There are more and more businesses not only having their products made in Chinese factories but also marketing towards the Chinese market. Recently a group of entrepreneurs began to make their unicycles here, and are confident that their products will sell well here. There is a mass of foreigners in Shenzhen alone looking to import and sometimes export products to and from China, and it’s a lucrative business, especially as we’re so close to Hong Kong. Chinese are travelling abroad more often, especially to Australia, USA, Japan and Thailand. If you work in tourism, it’s definitely worth speaking a little Chinese to accommodate the big spenders. If you work in the tourism industry and are considering learning Chinese check out our Tourism page .

You can also check out my colleague, Mike’s Global From Asia blog for more information about businesses in Hong Kong and China!

5. There Are Plenty of Resources And Mobile Apps to Help You Learn Chinese: So No More Excuses!

Now there are plenty of excellent resources out there for learning Chinese. Books are great, Kindle books are even better if you’re travelling. Online courses are popular, blogs , videos and audio can educate you in new methods of learning from REAL students or teachers of Chinese. Mobile apps are probably the way forward and there are tons on the market to choose from (although I would highly recommend this one! You really have no reason not to learn it…

6. It’s Good Exercise For Your Brain

essay about learning chinese language

Studies suggest that learning Chinese utilizes areas of the brain that learning other languages does not. As there are many differences between learning Chinese compared with English such as tones and characters it is said that learning Chinese takes more brain power! Whereas English speakers only use the left temporal lobe, speakers of Mandarin use both. If you choose to learn Written Chinese, learning to write characters can help with motor skills and visual recognition will keep the mind sharp. Bilingual people, in general, are also said to be better at prioritizing and multitasking than monolingual people . So if you want to keep your brain on the ball, be a maths genius (Chinese children have a great understanding of maths than English-speaking children) or keep yourself organised, Chinese is the language for you!

7. More Job Opportunities

It’s fair to say that more and more foreigners are arriving in China looking to find work as a teacher or to start their own businesses. Whilst learning Chinese is not essential for teaching, it would probably benefit your relationships with colleagues and the parents of your students (if you keep their kid happy, the parents will love you forever, or at least until you leave for another job anyway!) If you’re serious about learning Chinese and take an HSK exam this will definitely something you can put on your resume for the future . As Chinese businesses such as electronic goods, textiles and petrochemicals expand more into the West, China aims to turn around the term ‘Made in China’ into a more positive ideal and working alongside the Chinese to achieve these goals will be imperative in almost every industry.

8. It’s a cool, interesting language – nuff said!

The more time I spend learning Chinese, the more intrigued and enthralled I become. I’m making more and more connections when learning new characters; I realize that a certain character is used in many different bigrams (2 characters that make a word), or when you can guess the meaning of a character just by looking at the radicals and when the penny drops it’s just utterly amazing! I’m not the only one who feels this way – more and more people are learning Chinese just for fun. Literally for their own enjoyment, and honestly I can’t blame them. It’s challenging and sometimes writing the same character 100 times makes you feel crazy, but if you keep going you’ll soon realise that this is an awesome language. Look at the characters who goodness sake! Some of them are pictures, but also a word. My mind is blown.

These are just a few reasons why we should be learning Chinese. If your reasons are different, share them below in the comment section!

essay about learning chinese language

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A systematic review of pedagogical research on teaching Chinese as a foreign language in the United States – from 1960 to 2020

Shenglan Zhang is an associate professor in the Department of World Languages and Cultures at Iowa State University in the United States, where she is Coordinator for the Multi-Section Lower Division Courses in the Chinese Studies Program. She earned her PhD in Educational Psychology and Educational Technology at Michigan State University. Her research interests include computer-assisted language learning (CALL), designing for blended, flipped, and online learning, language teaching pedagogy, and self-regulated learning.

Since the 1960s, research on Chinese language teaching and learning has developed gradually, so it is worthwhile to synthesize the research results and examine trends and changes. A literature review shows that research has been done to synthesize research findings regarding Chinese language acquisition, but no review of the research studies have been done examining Chinese language pedagogy. This study investigates the research trends in Chinese language pedagogy in the U.S. by analyzing 122 empirical studies published in 25 peer-reviewed journals. These articles were identified through an exhaustive search using multiple databases and methods. The articles were cross analyzed in terms of research topics, language learning settings, methodological approaches, theoretical perspectives, and types of learners that were studied. The analysis found that the topics studied in pedagogical research have become increasingly diversified, and that many of the studies used SLA theories, cognitive theories, and multimedia theories as support for their research designs. Almost half of the studies used technology as part of their pedagogical method. The data also revealed that more research was done with beginning-level learners than advanced learners, and that most of the studies used qualitative data. Analysis of the data highlights the need for more research using Action Research and Design-Based Research methods and reveals a need for all future research to use theoretical support for the research designs. This article concludes by suggesting aspects of Chinese pedagogy that could benefit from further research.

自上世纪六十年代以来美国的中文教学研究在教与学两方面并行日益成熟,其结论值得总结。文献显示学者对习得方面的研究有过综述,但是对教学法方面的综述研究仍然缺乏。过去六十年中文教学方法的研究有什么趋势,这些研究集中在教学中的什么问题上,所采用的研究方法以及涉及的理论有哪些?这些问题迫切需要回答。这些问题的答案可以为学者、教师以及中文师资培训指出一个发展方向。通过对相关学术期刊进行穷尽式搜索与综述,本文试图回答这些问题。穷尽式搜索得到一百二十二篇实证性研究,从发表日期来看,研究数量成递增趋势,研究领域也呈现多样化。多数研究运用定性数据,并且针对初学者教学的研究数量多于中级和高级者。文章最后探讨了中文教学法研究的欠缺方面(比如行动研究与 ‘设计为本’ 研究法的缺乏;研究设计应该以扎实的理论为基础) ,以及将来的可能走向。

1 Introduction

While the popularity of learning Chinese has waxed and waned in the United States over the years, the overall trend shows increased demand for Chinese language instruction, particularly in recent years. Consequently, programs for educating Chinese language teachers, which are usually situated in an East Asian Languages and Cultures program, have expanded to offer M.A. programs in order to produce a greater number of qualified Chinese teachers. To train these teachers effectively, M.A. programs should base instruction on both anecdotal teaching experience and research conducted in the Chinese teaching classroom. To that end, this study examines the research already done in Chinese language teaching and notes the aspects of Chinese teaching that still need research. This knowledge can provide focus and direction for future research.

Although American educational institutions have offered Chinese instruction since 1877, it was not until in the 1960s that a significant number of people (over 1,000 students in the entire country) started to learn Chinese ( Yao and Yao 2010 ). While scholars have conducted research on specific aspects of the history of Chinese language teaching and learning in the U.S. ( Chi 1989 ; Meng 2017 ; Yao and Yao 2010 ; Zhang 2018 ), no studies examine the development of Chinese pedagogy research in America.

The field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) bifurcated into basic SLA research (aka, pure research) and applied SLA (aka Instructed SLA) over time ( Han 2016 ). Pedagogy falls within the Instructed SLA area of research, as the academic discipline of pedagogy refers to the theory and practice of teaching. As noted by McLaren and Jaramillo (2007) , the discipline studies teaching methods to determine which are most effective at imparting knowledge and skills efficiently in an educational setting. Pedagogy involves setting educational goals, identifying methods to help reach those goals, creating learning environments that facilitate those methods, and observing interactions in which the goals may be achieved. The importance of Chinese pedagogy in improving learning outcomes was first recognized in print in 1979 ( Zhang 2018 ) when the editor of the flagship journal of Chinese Language Teachers Association (CLTA), Professor Light, debuted a column in the journal to address pedagogy. However, it was in 1989 that Chi pointed out that Teaching-Chinese-as-a-Foreign-Language (TCFL) was not involved in research on language pedagogy. He wrote,

In the literature and at conferences, there is extensive discussion on issues relating to linguistics analysis of the language or to the merits and weaknesses of certain texts used in the classroom. However, on the whole, there is not enough discussion on language pedagogy at either the theoretical or practical level. Most of us seem to be either unaware of or uninterested in the research activities, past and present, in the fields of language acquisition and second language teaching, and in the Shingling theoretical extensions and practical implications such research may have for teaching Chinese as a foreign language (p. 113).

As we strive for high-quality, research-based classroom instruction ( Wen 2019 ), it is important to learn what pedagogical research has been done and what still needs to be done. The purpose of this study is to investigate the development of the pedagogical research in the field of TCFL in the United States from 1960 to the present.

2 Literature review

In previous studies, researchers have devoted a great deal of attention to the acquisition of Chinese as a second or as a foreign language in the United States (e.g. Ke and Li 2011 ; Ke and Shen 2003 ) and in China (e.g. Shi and Wen 2009 ). Ke and Shen (2003) did a review of literature study on Chinese-as-a-Foreign-Language (CFL) acquisition in America starting from the early 1980s to 2003. They analyzed the research done on the acquisition of Chinese as a foreign language during those 20 years by examining a few aspects of language learning, including the acquisition of pronunciation, characters, grammar, and reading strategies that learners adopted; non-cognitive factors that affects learning; learners’ pragmatic knowledge; and assessment. Their study also analyzed the pedagogical research on teaching writing/composition. At the end of the article, the authors offered valuable suggestions on the gaps in the field of CFL acquisition research.

Ke and Li (2011) detailed the situation in teaching Chinese nine years ago, giving an overview of programmatic structures, opportunities, and challenges in the field. Their study also surveyed research on learning Chinese as a foreign language from the late 1980s to the first decade of the 21st century. Although their study focused on students’ learning rather than pedagogy, it offered a clear picture of the research situation in the field of CFL. In addition, Ke and Li (2011) gave insight on what issues required more attention to improve our understanding of CFL learning, such as calling for more CALL research and more CFL researchers.

Other researchers have approached Chinese language teaching from other perspectives. For example, Meng (2017) analyzed Chinese language teaching in the context of the changing language policy patterns that America showed from 1876 to 2016. Meng divided the 130-year history into four periods based on the policy patterns and Chinese teaching, such as the establishment of Chinese language programs and the enrollment numbers corresponding to the different policy patterns.

Taking a different perspective, Yao and Yao (2010) gave a detailed description of the start of Chinese language teaching in the United States. They analyzed the development of Chinese language teaching in the mainstream and nonmainstream society in the 19th century, the 20th century, and the current time, and pictured the future development of Chinese teaching in America.

Zhang (2018) gave an interesting report of the growth of the journal Chinese as a Second Language (CSL, formerly titled Journal of CLTA ) between the years of 1966 and 2018. The article covers many areas, ranging from the CLTA membership to the role of linguistics and literature in the research published in CSL . Because CSL is the flagship journal of CLTA in America, this narrative, to a large degree, mirrors the growth of CSL in America. It stressed the “unwavering commitment to pedagogy” of the journal; however, noted that there was no space provided in the journal to talk further and in depth about the pedagogy research.

In another research project, H. Zhang (2014) and Z-S. Zhang (2014) provided statistics on different analyses of articles published in Journal of CLTA (JCLTA), evaluating them in groupings such as language, type, and category and by theme in the title. The article offers a valuable overview of the publications, the trends, and the blind spots in JCLTA from 1966 to 2014. As H. Zhang (2014) and Z-S. Zhang (2014) mentioned, however, the methodology of this study might be too simplistic, JCLTA may not reflect the entire field of CFL, and more details and analyses are needed to provide a more comprehensive and in-depth account of the publications in JCLTA .

All these studies have made significant contributions to the fields of CSL and CFL. They provide a useful account of the beginning of CSL/CFL in the U.S. and its growth over the years as well as research on how students acquire Chinese as a foreign or a second language, which is the basis for designing instructional approaches for classroom use. After discovering how learners acquire or learn the language, it is crucial to then discover how to teach the language based on the findings about students’ methods of learning. Learning and teaching are two separate matters, even though they are closely connected. No studies in the literature have systematically examined the development of pedagogical research – that is, research on the instructional approaches used to teach Chinese as a foreign language or as a second language – in CFL from the infancy of field to the present. Few efforts have been made to investigate whether the development of pedagogical research in teaching the Chinese language has a solid theoretical basis. A review of the literature focusing on the development of CFL pedagogy in the U.S. using a careful search criterion and a rigorous research method is urgently needed.

3 Research questions

What are the trends in Chinese pedagogical research in the United States from 1960 to the present?

What pedagogical research topics have attracted the most attention from scholars and what topics have been neglected in the past six decades?

What research methods have been adopted in these pedagogical research studies and what theories underpin these studies?

4 Methodology

To answer the research questions, three search methods were used to conduct an exhaustive search identifying all the peer-reviewed publications related to Chinese pedagogy research studies in the United States published in the time period from 1960 through mid-2020 when this project was conducted.

The first search method was a database search. Four databases that include all the important journals in the field were used for the search: Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts (LLBA), ERIC, PsychInfo, and Education Index Retrospective. The databases complement each other, as LLBA includes journals in the field of linguistics and languages, Eric includes journals in the field of education in general, PsychInfo includes journals in educational psychology, and Education Index Retrospective includes journals that address all levels of education and education specialties. When searching these databases, “Chinese” was used as the keyword to include all possible articles, and searches were made using a variety of different settings to be sure to gather all relevant results. A manual search was then done to screen the titles and gather relevant articles.

The second search method was a manual search of the references found in the articles gathered through the initial search. The purpose of the manual search was to find relevant articles that the initial search of the databases might have missed. The third search method, which was the most time-consuming but most productive method, was a manual search of the two most important journals in the field of CFL in America: Chinese as a Second Language (i.e. Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association), the flagship journal of Chinese Language Teachers Association , and Journal of Technology and Chinese Language Teaching (JTCLT). These two journals were indexed at a later date than the more inclusive journals such as Foreign Language Annals (FLA); therefore, some issues of the journals might not have been indexed in the databases at the time of the initial search. A manual search of these two journals ensured that the search included all published articles in the field of Chinese pedagogy. To ensure that the search was exhaustive, the author also visited the website of each journal included in the databases used for search method #1 and used the search archive function on each journal website to manually search all the relevant journals.

The search used the following criteria to gather the sample: 1) The study had to include empirical research methods. In other words, each study had to create knowledge from actual experience through observation and measured phenomena, and the study had to include a description of the methods used to examine a certain population or phenomena including the data selection criteria and the instrument(s) used. Concept papers, reports of teaching experiences, narratives about specific innovations in the classroom, and teachers’ reflections on or description of lessons, though valuable in many aspects in the field, were not included in this study. 2) The research topic had to be Chinese pedagogy; that is, the topic needed to be a method or methods of teaching modern Chinese as a foreign or a second language. Note, if a study addressed culture or film as part of the language teaching, it was included. If the study focused exclusively on culture or film, it was not included. An example of such a study that was excluded is Mu and Zhang (2005) , which studied the use of WebCT to teach Chinese films. It is true that research findings in many other areas found their way to helping with Chinese teaching over time, such as acquisition of Chinese as a second language, Chinese learning motivation, teacher education, assessment, learner behaviors such as the use of reading strategies, study abroad, teaching Chinese literature or film, the acquisition of a certain language phenomenon, and so on. However, because they are not directly related to methods of teaching Chinese, articles focused on these topics were not included. 3) The study had to be conducted in the United States. Because the focus of this study is pedagogical research in America, studies that were published in America but conducted in another country were not included. 4) The research had to be published in a peer-reviewed journal between January 1960 and June 2020. 5) The articles had to be written either in English or in Chinese.

The searches using these three search methods resulted in a set of 898 articles that were related to Chinese language learning and teaching. These 898 articles were further screened manually based on the above criteria, and 122 articles were identified as the pool of articles that satisfied all of the criteria. Information about each of the 122 articles was recorded, including the year of publication, the research setting (k-12 schools or college/university), the research topic, learner information (proficiency level, heritage or non-heritage), the research method, and the theoretical framework. This information was then categorized based on the aspects of language use that the research focused on, such as characters, vocabulary, reading, grammar, pragmatics, listening, speaking, essay writing, pronunciation, culture, or overall language proficiency. The data was then analyzed.

5 Findings and discussion

5.1 journals that published chinese pedagogical research.

The finding shows that 25 peer-reviewed journals published Chinese pedagogical research in the United States in the past 60 years. The three journals that published the most articles related to Chinese pedagogical research are Chinese as a Second Language (CSL), Journal of Technology and Chinese Language Teaching (JTCLT), and Foreign Language Annals (FLA) . Seven journals published five or more studies in the area of pedagogy, and 15 journals published one to four relevant studies in the past six decades. See Figure 1 . Note: the number of publications in each journal does not necessarily reflect the emphasis of the journal because the inauguration date of each journal is different. For information on the different inauguration dates of the few journals in America that focus on Chinese languages, please see H. Zhang (2014) and Z-S. Zhang (2014) .

Figure 1: 
Twenty-five journals published Chinese pedagogical research.

Twenty-five journals published Chinese pedagogical research.

5.2 Trend in time of publication and the use of technology

Out of the 122 studies, only three (2%) were published before the late 1980s and 98% of the 122 articles were published after revolutionary theoretical and teaching changes happened in the 1980s. The two biggest changes in Chinese pedagogy during that time were: 1) Communicative learning started to be widely accepted in the field, which revolutionized L2 classroom teaching; 2) Instruction started to change from form-focused (such as audio-lingual instruction and habit formation) to meaning focused. However, the findings show that not all studies published after this time concentrated exclusively on meaning-focused teaching. There was some renewed interest in formal instruction in the context of meaning-based communicative methods because formal instruction, especially in teaching complicated grammars, could improve accuracy and prevent fossilization ( Yuan and Dietrich 2004 ).

Another trend relates to the number of studies that addressed the use of technology in teaching Chinese. There were 60 studies that utilized computer and internet technology representing nearly 50% of the studies in total. This is a continuation of a trend in CALL research detected nine years ago ( Ke and Li 2011 ) and this theme was discussed in Da and Zheng (2018) . Most of these articles were also published after the 1980s. See Figure 2 .

Figure 2: 
Time distribution of the publications and studies regarding the use of technology in teaching.

Time distribution of the publications and studies regarding the use of technology in teaching.

5.3 Research settings and the level of learners in the research

Out of the 122 studies, 105 studies (86%) were conducted in a university setting, and the learners were largely college students. Twelve of the 122 studies (10%) focused on teaching Chinese to middle school and high school students. Five (4%) focused on teaching Chinese to kindergarten and elementary school students. Out of the five studies that were conducted in an elementary school, four of them were about teaching Chinese in an immersion program. See Figure 3 .

Figure 3: 
Research settings: college/university, middle/high school, or kindergarten/elementary school.

Research settings: college/university, middle/high school, or kindergarten/elementary school.

Out of the 105 studies investigating university students, six focused on teaching heritage learners and three focused on teaching in an intensive program. Some of the 105 studies examined students at the same language level and some examined students at all language proficiency levels (beginning, intermediate, and advanced). Two studies did not specify the language mastery levels of the students who participated in the studies.

Of the 105 studies, 61 (58%) targeted beginning-level CFL learners, 43 (41%) targeted intermediate-level CFL learners, and 24 (23%) targeted advanced-level learners (See Figure 4 ). While most did not sub-categorize within each level, some studies made the distinction between intermediate-low, intermediate-mid, and intermediate-high; for the purpose of maintaining simplicity in this study, the sub-level within intermediate level students was not recorded. When identifying advanced level students, all learners who had studied more than three years in a college setting were categorized as advanced level.

Figure 4: 
Learners’ language level in the pedagogical studies in the college/university setting.

Learners’ language level in the pedagogical studies in the college/university setting.

5.4 Research method adopted in the pedagogical studies

A majority of the studies (46%) used qualitative data gathered through various data collection methods such as surveys, case descriptions, discourse analyses, exploratory methods, comparative analyses and so on. About 36% of the studies were experimental studies, out of which only two were longitudinal studies. Eighteen percent of these studies adopted mixed methods, combining both qualitative and quantitative methods within the same study. See Figure 5 .

Figure 5: 
Research methods adopted in the 122 studies.

Research methods adopted in the 122 studies.

5.5 Aspects of language teaching addressed

The 122 pedagogical studies were sorted into two general categories. Category 1 includes studies that focused on evaluating the overall effect of a particular pedagogical approach at the syllabus or program level. Category 1 includes 31 articles, or 25% of the studies. The overall effect being examined in these studies included aspects of learning such as self-efficacy, communication skills, verbal skills, cognitive awareness of the language, collaboration, engagement, enjoyment, and classroom management. Category 2 includes studies that focused on one aspect of language teaching. There were 91 articles (75%) that fell into this category. Research topics addressed in these studies included 10 aspects of the Chinese language: characters (e.g. Jin 2006*; Wang 2014*; Xu, Perfetti, and Chang 2014*; Zhu, Fung, and Wang 2012*; Zhu and Hong 2005*), vocabulary (e.g. Chen 2016*; Li and Tong 2019*; Yang and Xie 2013*; Shen 2010*; Shen and Xu 2015*), reading (e.g. Huang 2018*; Huang 2019*; Wang 2014*; Zhang 2013*; Zhang 2016b*), grammar (e.g. Paul and Grüter 2016*; Yuan 2012*; Zhang 2018*; Zhang 2017*), pragmatic use of the language (e.g. Li and Taguchi 2014*), pronunciation (e.g. Chun 2015*) and tones (e.g. Godfroid, Lin, and Gyu 2017*), culture (e.g. Wang and Crooks 2015*; Zhang 2019a*), writing (Eubanks, Yeh, and Tseng 2018*; Liao 2018*; Yuan 2010*), listening (e.g. Wilberschield and Berman 2004*), and speaking (e.g. Stickler and Shi 2013*). (The citations marked with an asterisk (*) can be found in the overall references of the included studies on CASLAR website.) Note: Because a few studies addressed both reading comprehension and learning vocabulary and one study focused on both reading and writing, the total number of the studies in Figure 6 exceeds 91.

Figure 6: 
The different focuses among the category 2 studies.

The different focuses among the category 2 studies.

5.5.1 Studies in category 1

The 30 studies in category 1 have the same distribution trend as the group of 122 studies; that is, there were few publications of this type before the 1980s, and it was not until after the year 2000 that the majority of the studies were published. The trends in learners’ heritage or non-heritage status, in research settings, and in the type of research methods used in the studies mirrored those of the entire group. That is, a majority of the 30 studies in category 1 researched non-heritage learners in a college or university setting. There were more studies that used qualitative data than used quantitative data, and the fewest number of studies used mixed methods. However, the learner skill level studied did not follow the overall trend. More studies in this category worked with advanced level learners compared to the number of studies that worked with learners at the intermediate level. See Figures 7 and 8 . Another difference is that there was a higher proportion of qualitative to quantitative studies in this group than in the overall group. See Figure 9 .

Figure 7: 
The publication time distribution of the category 1 studies.

The publication time distribution of the category 1 studies.

Figure 8: 
Learner information in the category 1 studies.

Learner information in the category 1 studies.

Figure 9: 
Research methods adopted in category 1 studies as compared to the 122 studies.

Research methods adopted in category 1 studies as compared to the 122 studies.

The studies in category 1 covered a variety of instructional approaches, including the manner of teaching, e.g. co-teaching (e.g. Wang, Zhang, Liu, and Yonke 2019*); high pressure versus low pressure (e.g. Packard 1989*); the use of Chinese or English as the instructional language (e.g. Yang 2010*); the way to provide corrective feedback (e.g. Li 2014*); the creation of different learning environments like blended learning (e.g. Zhang 2016a*), flipped classrooms (e.g. Tseng, Broadstock, and Chen 2016*; Yang, Yin, and Wang 2018*), wiki-enhanced Course Management Systems (e.g. Zhang 2019*), WebCT (e.g. Cheng 2010*), Virtual Reality (e.g. Chen 2011*; Grant and Huang 2010*), or One-on-One video conferencing (e.g. Sun and Chen 2017*); the application of digital tools such as Google maps, WordPress, Adobe Spark (e.g. Valdebenito and Chen 2019*), or speech recognition in class (e.g. Da 2015*); gamification (e.g. Tang and Taguchi 2019*; Wang, Liu, and Zhang 2019*); the use of different instructional approaches such as project-based and theme-based learning (e.g. Padilla, Fan, Xu, and Silva 2013*; Zhang and Beckett 2014*); the use of researcher-designed software or apps such as CyberChinese (e.g. Yu and Michael 1998*); the use of authentic multimedia materials (e.g. Chang 2007*); and Computer-Mediated learning (Zhang 2016c*). (The citations marked with an * can be found in the references page of the included studies on the CASLAR website.)

A majority of these studies (67%) did not have a theoretical framework, while 23% of the studies relied on various theories to underpin their studies. Constructivism and meaningful learning were the most commonly used theories, and 50% of the studies that had a theoretical framework were based on the Vygotsky’s sociocultural and constructivist theories. These educational theories emphasize the importance of social participation, relationships between novices and experts, the setting of an activity, and how knowledge is constructed when learners interact with others in the real world. The Zone of Proximal Development and scaffolding were often referred to in the studies that used these theories. Theories used in the other half of the studies included Interaction Hypothesis ( Long 1996 ), Noticing Hypothesis ( Schmidt 1990 ), Output Hypothesis ( Schmidt 1995 , 2001 ), and the notion of intersubjectivity ( Heritage 1984 ). See Figure 10 .

Figure 10: 
Theories based on which the studies were conducted.

Theories based on which the studies were conducted.

5.5.2 Studies in category 2

Similar to the studies in category 1, the studies in category 2 (focusing on a specific aspect of Chinese language learning) also reflected a sharp increase in studies after the 1980s, in particular during the 21st century. Still, pedagogical research in Chinese character learning and grammar has a long history, beginning in the 1970s. Pronunciation/tones and reading studies also have a relatively long span of research history compared to other aspects of teaching and learning Chinese. Chinese writing and the pragmatic use of the language was not studied often in earlier decades, but research in those areas has increased over the past 10 years. In fact, in the past decade, researchers increased the number of investigations into all aspects of Chinese language teaching. See Figure 11 .

Figure 11: 
Distribution of pedagogical research in category 2 over time.

Distribution of pedagogical research in category 2 over time.

In the most researched areas of Chinese teaching and learning – such as characters, vocabulary, reading and grammar – a majority of the studies adopted an experimental design. In other research areas, most studies used qualitative data. Some of the studies in the most often researched areas also used mixed methods, although the studies using mixed methods represent a small percentage of the total studies. See Figure 12 .

Figure 12: 
Research methods adopted in category 2 studies.

Research methods adopted in category 2 studies.

In areas of Chinese learning that tend to be challenging for beginners – such as learning characters, pronunciation and tones, listening, reading, and grammar – a majority of the studies were conducted with learners at the beginning level, whereas in other areas – such teaching learners to use the language pragmatically – studies focused on advanced-level learners. Out of the 22 studies focused on teaching characters, four examined students who did not have any Chinese learning background. These four studies were included in the pool of studies examining beginning-level learners. In the studies that focused on teaching vocabulary, most focused on teaching intermediate-level learners. See Figure 13 .

Figure 13: 
Proficiency level of learners in category 2 studies.

Proficiency level of learners in category 2 studies.

It is not surprising to find that heritage learners were studied in each of the three primary areas of teaching Chinese – reading, vocabulary, and writing. Most heritage learners do not have a problem speaking and listening, and most of them learned some writing as they grew up. Additionally, they are familiar with Chinese culture. The areas that heritage learners need to improve the most are essay writing, reading, and vocabulary. See Figure 14 .

Figure 14: 
Heritage or non-heritage: learner info in the category 2 studies.

Heritage or non-heritage: learner info in the category 2 studies.

While most studies were conducted in a college/university setting, a few studies were completed in K-12 schools. For example, two studies on teaching characters were completed in a kindergarten or an elementary school, and a few of the studies on reading, vocabulary, writing, and listening were done in a middle school or a high school. See Figure 15 .

Figure 15: 
Learning settings in the category 2 studies.

Learning settings in the category 2 studies.

5.5.3 Studies on teaching characters

Out of the 22 studies on teaching characters, 17 studies (77%) used a theory to support their research, while five studies (23%) did not. Among the theories underpinning these studies, Dual Coding Theory (DCT) ( Paivio 1971 , 1986 ) was the mostly widely used. According to Paivio’s (1971 , 1986 DCT theory, both visual and verbal information are used to represent information, but they are processed differently in distinct channels in the human mind. Therefore, information can be retained more successfully when the stored information is represented both verbally and visually than when represented with one or the other alone. Using DCT, many studies on teaching characters used experimental design to test the effectiveness of a variety of presentation methods. Other theories used in the studies are related to DCT including Cognitive Load Theory ( Sweller 1988 ), Split-Attention Effect ( Chandler and Sweller 1992 ), Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning ( Mayer 2005 , 2009 ), and Generative Theory of Multimedia Learning – a combination of Wittrock (1974) ’s Generative Theory of Learning and Paivio’s DCT. In addition, the Interactionist Approach ( Chapelle 1998 , 2009 ; Gass and Madden 1985 ) was also adopted in one of the studies. Another theory that was used to support the design of one study was the Order Analysis method, a multi-dimensional scaling technique that generates hierarchical sets of data points based on the relationships between the elements studied ( Krus 1977 ), depending on which characters were ordered hierarchically rather than randomly in the study.

The primary focus in studies on teaching characters was on using different ways to present characters such as digital flashcards, characters in hierarchical order, different groupings of characters, static versus dynamic presentation, chunking mnemonics, embodied animation, translation, self-generated mnemonics, and a variety of multimedia presentation methods (digitally voiced pronunciation, stroke sequence animation, radical presentation, stroke order presentation, pinyin presentation, hyper-character, and so on). In addition, there was research on how to bypass teaching character writing by using a penless approach and research on when is the best time to introduce character writing to learners.

5.5.4 Studies on teaching vocabulary

Nine of the 13 studies on teaching vocabulary had a theoretical framework, while four (31%) did not. The nine theory-based studies were grounded in the following theories: the Dual Coding Theory ( Paivia 1971 , 1986 ), the Cognitive Load Theory ( Sweller 1988 ), the Generative Theory of Learning ( Wittrock 1974 ), and the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning ( Mayer 2005 , 2009 ). Additional concepts and frameworks were used in the studies to help develop methods and understand results. For example, the Active Learning Concept ( Meyers and Jones 1993 ) derived from the Constructivist Learning Theory, Cooperative Learning ( Johnson and Johnson 1975 ) derived from the Sociocultural theory, Motivational Dynamics ( Waninge et al. 2014 ), and Memory-Based Strategic Framework ( Ma 2014 ).

Studies defined Active Learning as learners being given the opportunity to participate in problem solving activities. Cooperative Learning in a classroom setting was defined in studies as organizing activities into academic and social learning experiences so that learners could capitalize on one another’s resources and skills to complete tasks collectively as they worked toward academic goals. In the Motivational Dynamics framework, motivation was seen as dynamic and changeable in the process of language learning, and the framework asserted that teachers should direct the motivational current to help learners to benefit more from learning. Lastly, the Memory-Based Strategic Framework proposed that there are four stages of processing vocabulary learning, which go from perceiving the form to accessing the meaning to mentally building a new word and then to retrieving the new word from a mental lexicon for production.

There were diverse themes that were presented in studies about teaching vocabulary, and these themes were all associated with providing needed support for the learners to retain the new words better. These supports include, e-flashcards, e-dictionary, external supply of text-vocalization, and gamification, and different visual-verbal presentations. There were also studies on how to provide an internet retrieval tool to help students to learn collocation, how to use an iPad to assist learners in learning idioms, and how to use mobile technology to help learners learn colloquialism.

5.5.5 Studies on teaching reading

Eight out of the 12 studies on teaching reading did not have a theoretical framework. Four of the studies used theories and concepts as such LaBerge and Samuels’s (1974) theory of automatic information processing in reading, Paivia’s (1971) Dual Coding Theory, the concept of reading for deriving meaning and the social nature of reading ( Farnham 1887 ), and the concept of linguistic input modification ( Yano et al. 1994 ). Automatic information processing refers to a mental cognitive process that goes through a series of stages involving visual, phonological, and episodic memory systems to achieve comprehension. Automaticity happens as the result of repetitive training in this process. The concept of linguistic input modification says that both the simplification and elaboration of the input have value in helping learners with their reading.

The themes of these studies included providing different supports for helping readers’ understanding, such as pop-up dictionaries or e-dictionaries, externally supplied text vocalization, visual aids, and multimedia aids. In addition, these studies used other methods such as repeated reading, the spiral model for performance, using authentic materials, using student-created picture books as reading materials, and using theme-based and content-based instruction.

5.5.6 Studies on teaching grammar

Seven out of the 11 studies on teaching grammar did not use a theory for support. Four studies adopted one of a handful of different theories, and some studies adopted more than one theory for their theoretical framework. This group of studies had the widest variety of theories adopted compared to studies addressing other aspects of the Chinese language. The theories that were adopted include the Teachability Hypothesis ( Pienemann 1989 ), the assumption of language acquisition order and sequence ( Hyltenstam 1977 ; Krashen 1985) , the consciousness-raising theory ( R. Ellis 2002 ; Ellis 2007 ), the level of processing framework from psychology ( Craik and Lockhart 1972 ), the assumption of blocking ( Ellis 2006 ; Kruschke and Blair 2000 ), the Full Transfer/Full Access hypothesis (FT/FA) ( Schwartz and Sprouse 1996 ), the frequency effect hypothesis ( N. C. Ellis 2002 ), the noticing hypothesis ( Schmidt 1990 ), and the Cognitive theory of Multimedia Learning ( Mayer 2005 , 2009 ).

The Teachability Hypothesis is based on the idea that instruction is more effective when it is compatible with the development of the learner’s interlanguage. It predicts that some grammatical structures can be best learned only when the learners are at the developmental stage to learn it. The acquisition order refers to the idea that one particular grammar feature must be acquired before others. The acquisition sequence refers to the process through which learners generally go when they learn a linguistic form; for example, the acquisition of a grammatical feature sometimes occurs in a U-shaped course rather than a lineal upward motion.

Consciousness raising involves increasing learners’ awareness of certain linguistic features. It theorizes that learners have a long-lasting awareness of form and an improved accuracy when linguistic features are explicitly introduced. It is important to design consciousness-raising tasks when teaching challenging grammar. The level of depth of processing refers to conceptual or semantic processing versus perceptual processing. The former is deep processing, and the latter is shallow processing. For learners to have deep processing, the learners need to process information semantically in association with similar information and actively construct relationships between the information being processed and the information associated with it.

The blocking phenomenon is the effect of learner attention. There are many situations where the blocking phenomenon shows up in language learning; for example, when the cues are redundant. The FT/FA, on the other hand, hypothesizes “that the initial state of L2 acquisition is the final state of L1 acquisition (Full Transfer) and that failure to assign a representation to input data will force subsequent restructurings, drawing from options of Universal Grammar (Full Access)” ( Schwartz and Sprouse 1996 : 40). The frequency effect hypothesis postulates that the frequencies of linguistic items to which learners are exposed have important facilitative effects in language acquisition, and the noticing hypothesis argues that input has no practical value and cannot become available for learners to effectively process unless it is noticed by the learners.

The topics in this group of studies focused on how to teach challenging linguistic features in Chinese, such as the bǎ-construction, jìu, bèi, le, classifiers, and the modal verbs. The researchers in this group explored different ways of teaching grammar (high-pressure vs. low-pressure), using formal instruction, using explicit negative evidence, using a Task-Based Language Learning approach, and using multimedia design to engage and inform students’ grammar learning.

5.5.7 Studies on teaching using the language pragmatically

Six out of the 11 studies on pragmatic instruction did not use a theory to support their study. The five remaining studies adopted four different theories, including the Principles of Training for raising learners’ communicative strategies ( Oxford 1994 ; Rabab’ah 2002 ), the Input Processing model ( VanPatten 2004 ), the Skill Acquisition theory ( Anderson 1993 ; DeKeyser 2001 ), and the Noticing Hypothesis ( Schmidt 1990 ). The Skill Acquisition theory states that the different types of knowledge (mainly, declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge) are acquired first and then the automatization process happens. It explains language learning as a gradual transition from effortful use to more automatic use of the language and the ultimate goal is to achieve speed and accuracy in processing. The Input Processing theory explains how learners process input, how they make form-meaning connections, and how they map syntactic structures when speaking.

These studies addressed different approaches to teaching learners to make requests, to expressing gratitude, to refusals and complaints, to accepting invitations, to using formulaic expressions, to learning circumlocution, and to using modal verbs appropriately in contexts. Some of the studies used Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) or gamification to help learners to improve their pragmatic competence.

5.5.8 Studies on teaching pronunciation and tones

Out of the nine studies on teaching pronunciation and tones, a majority did not adopt any theories. One theory that was adopted among these studies was the Cognitive Load Theory ( Sweller 1988 ). One of the studies focused on pinyin, applying speech recognition technology to find out if it helps with learners’ pinyin accuracy. Eight studies focused on how to teach tones and three of them researched Tone3 production and/or perception. Five out of the eight studies investigated the effectiveness of different approaches to teaching learners tone production, and three studies addressed tone perception. The different approaches tested in these studies included displaying pitch contour to the learners, learners creating and comparing pitches to native speakers, comparing pitch height-focused and pitch direction-focused instructions, using the multimodal method, comparing low teaching and full teaching approaches, the “Full T3 First” approach, and comparing online and traditional approaches to teaching tones.

5.5.9 Studies on teaching culture

Most of the studies ( N  = 6) (83%) on teaching culture had a theoretical support. The theories used by the authors included the concept of Performing Culture ( Walker 2000 ), the lens of internationalization ( Lantolf 2000 ; Lantolf and Thorne 2007 ), Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, and the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning ( Mayer 2005 , 2009 ). The concept of performing culture regards culture as what we do but not what we know. To understand another culture and another language, one must use the language and participate in the real life of the target culture. Using the lens of internalization, an individual’s language learning process is seen as a reorganizing process that happens through collaborative work in a social environment and includes the steps of voluntary attention, logical memory, and formation of concepts. Internalization happens when the learner’s reliance on external help decreases.

The themes used in this group of studies included the performed culture approach to teaching behavioral culture, allowing medical students to explore authentic doctor-patient conversations in order to improve their intercultural competence, using authentic videos to learn about social realities, combining researcher-edited multimedia and ethnographic interviews to teach students Chinese culture online, using an online cooperative learning project to increase learners’ cultural awareness, and using decorative graphics in personalized instruction to teach culture.

5.5.10 Studies on teaching writing

Four of the five studies on teaching writing were supported by a theoretical framework. The theories used included the concept of classroom community ( Potts 2005 ; Rovai 2001 ), Vygotsky’s sociocultural and social constructivist theory, the assumption of benefits that computer-mediated writing instruction could bring such as de-centering authority ( Phinney 1996 ), the theory of humans’ limited attentional capacity ( Anderson 1983 , 1995 ), the concept of multiliteracies ( The New London Group 2000 ), and the interactionist theory ( Gass 1997 ; Long 1996 ; Swain 1995 ).

The concept of classroom community is crucially important, especially for virtual classrooms, because it offers learner interaction and shared knowledge construction while also providing for learner perception of the value of social bonds in the learning process. The concept of multiliteracies acknowledges the multiplicity of communication channels and linguistic diversity in the world today and has brought us a broader view of literacy than traditional views. The concept also provides an appropriate pedagogical framework for teaching literacy. The interactionist theory demonstrates that writing skills can be better acquired when writing activities are embedded in social dialogs. When learners are engaged in bi-directional output, they can test their output with each other, are able to notice the gaps in their learning, and are likely to attend to the problematic aspects of their interlanguage.

The themes in this group of studies included different approaches to improving writing (such as using WebCT discussion board), using different task performance conditions (form-focused vs. meaning-focused), conducting a technology integrated writing workshop (using an iPad recording app, iPad camera, and the Book Creator App), and using different forms of pre-task pair planning activities (face-to-face oral discussion vs. online text-chat).

5.5.11 Studies on teaching listening and speaking

One of the two studies on teaching listening did not have any theoretical support. The other study on listening did have a theoretical framework, as did both studies on teaching speaking. The theories used in the studies were Paivia’s Dual Coding Theory, the socio-cultural perspective on language learning ( Lantolf 2000 ; Vygotsky 1978 ), and the Educational Engineering Research Theory ( Colpaert 2010 ; Colpaert 2016 ). The Educational Engineering Research Theory argues that neither technology nor pedagogy nor content should be the starting point for the design of a learning environment. To design a beneficial learning environment, real-world situations should be analyzed in a systematic and verifiable way and the design should take into account the specificity of the context.

One study on listening used WebCT-based, teacher-created listening materials to improving listening. The other study used video clips from authentic Chinese TV broadcasts with two different organizer conditions: one using words and sentences with pictures taken from the video and the other using words and sentences but without pictures. One of the studies on improving speaking focused on using synchronous online Chinese tutorials while the other used wiki-enhanced TBLT to improve learners’ speaking.

5.6 A summary of the major findings

This study set out to answer three research questions: 1) What are the trends in Chinese pedagogical research in the United States from 1960 to the present? 2) What pedagogical research topics have attracted the most attention from scholars and what topics have been neglected in the past six decades? 3) What research methods have been adopted in these pedagogical research studies and what theories underpin these studies?

The study found that trends in research include a sharp rise in the number of pedagogical studies conducted starting after the late 1980s. Technology is an important component of pedagogy studies, with about half of the studies using some type of technology. A little more than 4/5 of the studies were conducted in a university setting focusing on non-heritage learners, with far fewer studies focused on middle schools and elementary school. Out of the studies conducted at the university level, a little more than half targeted beginning-level CFL learners, and a little less than half targeted intermediate level learners, and only about ¼ targeted advanced-level learners.

When looking at topics, one quarter of the studies focused on evaluating the effect of certain pedagogical approach at the syllabus or program level addressing different aspects of learning such as self-efficacy, communication skills, cognitive awareness of the language, collaboration, engagement and so on. Three quarters of the studies addressed different aspects of language teaching. Ten aspects of the Chinese language were addressed including teaching characters, vocabulary, reading, grammar, pragmatic use of the language, pronunciation and tones, culture, writing, listening, and speaking, out of which, teaching characters, vocabulary, and reading were the top three most-researched areas.

Methods in the studies vary, with a little less than half of the studies using qualitative data only, less than 2/5 using experimental studies, and less than 1/10 of the studies using mixed method. As many as 2/3 of the studies lack a theoretical framework to underpin their studies. With the 1/3 of the studies using theoretical support, the theory that was adopted most frequently was Constructivism, and a majority of the studies used Vygotsky’s socio-cultural and constructivist theories. Other theories were also adopted, such as, the Long (1996) ’s Interaction Hypothesis, Schmidt (1990) ’s Noticing Hypothesis and Output Hypothesis, and the notion of Heritage (1984) ’s intersubjectivity.

6 Looking to the future

As early as 2003, in Ke and Shen (2003) ’s review of literature research on CSL acquisition, researchers noticed a limitation with the research in CSL; that is, the majority of studies focused on pronunciation, tones, and grammar. Ke and Shen called for diversifying research by including research on the other aspects of Chinese language teaching and learning, such as speaking, listening, reading, and writing. In the most recent two decades, pedagogical research in America is no longer focused solely on grammar, characters, pronunciation, and tones as it was in the first few decades of pedagogical research. The research in the past 20 years has addressed a variety of important pedagogical problems, including teaching speaking, listening, writing, the pragmatic use of the language, and understanding the Chinese culture. Research in all these areas should be continued. However, there are a few additional areas that should see more growth.

First, more pedagogical research on teaching in online and in flipped or blended environments is needed. While there has been a significant amount of research in the past two decades addressing the use of computer technology in teaching Chinese and there have been a few research studies on teaching Chinese in online, blended, and/or flipped situations, more research is needed, especially in the area of teaching in different environments. The ubiquity of the internet and the increase in online teaching in a variety of formats provides the opportunity for learners to learn on their own schedules and at their own paces. As a group, CSL educators should take advantage of this opportunity to find better approaches to making learning as flexible and as effective as possible. Furthermore, the pandemic has given most instructors the opportunity to teach fully or partially online. A majority of instructors now have first-hand online teaching experience. This has laid a foundation on which innovative and creative online instructional approaches can be built and tested.

These online teaching experiences will also affect how we utilize the affordances of technology when the time comes for returning to face-to-face instruction. It is crucial that instructors examine all aspects of online learning and study how to help learners receive the maximum benefits from these online learning environments. For example, there is a vast amount of free, engaging, multimedia material on the internet that can help learners understand culture and language, if it is used effectively. There is a great potential for using these resources to teach different levels of learners. The questions then arise: How should teachers integrate the available multimedia resources in teaching? If a teacher would like to design online components for learners, how should such a design be constructed? At a syllabus level, how should a blended course or a flipped classroom be built to enhance students’ learning?

Second, more studies using the action research method are needed. The pedagogical research in the past six decades used a balanced variety of different research methods including experimental, exploratory, and some mixed methods. However, out of the 122 studies, there were only three studies using the action research method. This finding concurs with the findings in many studies, such as in Ke and Li’s (2011) research, and supports other scholars’ calls for more action research ( McDonough 2006 ; Yuan 2018 ). Action research, a problem-focused research method, combines theory and practice via an iterative process (such as problem diagnosis, action intervention, and reflective learning) that involves both researchers and practitioners (or the practitioner as researcher) and provides teachers with structured reflection so they have a better understanding of themselves as teachers ( Wallace 1998 ). It is a valuable research method that could contribute to professional growth as well as to the field of Chinese pedagogical research. Han (2016) agreed, calling for teachers to be aware that “the published studies were done in contexts different from the situations teachers find themselves in” and proposed that “teachers themselves should not be content with being consumers of research … [but] be empirically minded, practicing so-called “empirical pedagogy” ( Han and Selinker 1999: 247 ). Yang and Luo (2017) found that there was not a straightforward application of SLA to pedagogy, and they suggested that more language instructors should be engaged in pedagogical research. Furthermore, it has been suggested that even though there are effective strategies for teaching certain aspects of the language, it is still worthwhile for teachers to explore more effective strategies ( H. Zhang 2014 ; Z-S. Zhang 2014 ; S. Zhang 2017 ). That said, further research is needed to reveal the reason(s) for the extremely small amount of action research published. If the problem is that Chinese language teachers lack training in this area, graduate-level Chinese language teacher education programs should start to emphasize this type of research.

Third, research needs to be based on theories and have an underpinning theoretical framework. This finding also concurs with Ke and Shen (2003) and their call for rigorous, theory-based research design. The findings of the current study show that about half of the studies utilized a variety of theories from SLA, especially from cognitive linguistics (based on cognitive science, ref. Jing-Schmidt and Peng 2018 ) and the sociocultural perspective, from theories in multimedia design. However, about half of the studies lack a theoretical framework to support the research design, the instructional tools, and the strategies. Theory is essential in any scholarly or scientific discipline. By framing the study with a theoretical foundation, the research results can be explained within an already established body of knowledge and the observed connections, giving credibility to the results and inspiring further research in areas in need of investigation ( McMillan and Schumacher 2000 ). As stated in Klette (2011) , “theories provide predictions and explanations as well as guidelines for actions and behavior” (p. 4). Without theories, studies lack a set of structured lenses through which the study can be designed, observed, investigated, and analyzed. In addition, theories provide protection against unscientific approaches to a problem, an issue, or a theme ( Suppes 1974 ). By situating one’s research within a theoretical framework, the research can be easily understood and protected against criticism. Not only should the research design be based on theories, but instructional tools, strategies, and approaches must also be based on an accepted theory of learning, cognition, or design ( Bednar et al. 1995 ).

Fourth, more Design-Based Research (DBR) is needed. In some of the exploratory studies, there were detailed descriptions of how certain instruction or a particular instructional approach was designed. However, the designs did not employ specific theoretical claims about teaching and learning, nor did the studies draw conclusions about how the design could be improved and what principles could be drawn from the results to influence the next cycle of design. The value of DBR relies on developing solutions or innovations (i.e., interventions) to problems and then putting the interventions to use to find out how well they work and why. By so doing, DBR helps us understand the relationships among educational theories, designed solutions/approaches/innovations, and actual practice. In pedagogical research, most researchers are testing to discover the most effective instructional approach to help learners with a certain aspect of the language. It is important to know which approach has the most positive impact on learning. It is even more important to know why this approach has a positive impact. Only after we know the “why”—the principles of design and the theories on which the design is based – can practitioners and researchers design more successful approaches based on the principles and theories ( Hampel 2006 ). The principles could include, for example, how to utilize the immediate learning environments and how to take into consideration the features of the learner group.

Fifth, even though the studies did touch on a large number of different topics and themes, there are still neglected but important areas where more research is needed. For example, there is only one study on classroom management in the 122 studies. Classroom management requires a wide variety of skills and techniques that instructors apply in either Face-to-Face meeting or online synchronous meetings in order to keep students organized, attentive, engaged, and academically productive. Strategies and approaches for teaching different aspects of the language are useful. However, without good classroom management strategies, it is hard to apply those teaching strategies and instructional approaches effectively. This research task is even more challenging now, because researchers not only need to discover the best classroom management practices for Face-to-Face meetings but also need to examine the management of online synchronous meetings and discover ways to better use online meeting time.

Another neglected area is that of teaching Chinese for specific purposes. Only two studies on teaching Chinese for a specific purpose were identified, one on teaching Chinese for business, one on teaching for medical purposes. Teaching Chinese for a specific purpose generally uses similar approaches as teaching the language in an academic setting; however, there may be specific strategies that best help the learners grasp skills in the specific contexts, whether it is in the area of business, medicine, engineering, agriculture, or other professions.

Sixth, research is needed to examine how to teach certain aspects of the Chinese language to the groups of learners that have not been thoroughly studied. In some research areas, such as teaching the pragmatic usage of the Chinese language, the published studies primarily focused on working with advanced-level learners. In other areas, such as teaching characters and pronunciation/tones, the studies published so far concentrated on beginning-level learners. It would be worthwhile to find different instructional approaches to teach tones and pronunciation in a remedial way to advanced-level learners and find ways to get learners to perceive their fossilized pronunciation and tones and produce them in the correct way. It is also possible and could be valuable to find ways to raise the pragmatic awareness of learners from early on in their Chinese language learning journey and teach beginning-level learners to use simple expressions pragmatically.

7 Conclusion

An exhaustive search of peer-reviewed journals resulted in 122 empirical studies on Chinese pedagogy in America published between 1960 through mid-2020. A look at the publication time and the theme of the studies found that there was an increased amount of pedagogical research on teaching Chinese as a foreign language over those decades. As many as 25 journals published pedagogical research in the past six decades. Over these years, the pedagogical research has become more diversified in terms of the issues in teaching being addressed.

This review study did not include narratives such as concept work and anecdotal accounts of teaching experiences (especially the large numbers of this type of work that were published in the 1960s, the 1970s, and in the early 1980s). For example, Nathan (1966) published an article “A classroom innovation: Contracts and Self-Paced Instruction in Chinese,” which is a description of an innovation in classroom. However, the article did not investigate the effectiveness of the approach. Articles that utilized that kind of report format were not included in this review. However, those studies are the forerunners of the current research. Those researchers and practitioners did a great deal of exploration in teaching, especially in how to balance speaking, reading, listening, and writing. Examining those studies is a project worthy of another article or even a book to explore their impact. Additionally, another full article is warranted to describe the inception of the research in different areas of teaching Chinese as a Foreign language in the United States. Such an article would examine the issues in teaching and learning what concerned our forerunners, what they did to address those issues, and what we do to solve those problems now. Without the exploration and persistent efforts of those early researchers, current researchers could not have reached the level they have today. Their research is broader and considers many different factors, but is full of sincerity and devotion, which makes it valuable in many ways.

Another limitation of this study is that there is not space to fully elaborate on the pedagogical studies in each aspect of language teaching. For example, there are 12 studies on teaching reading. A full article is needed in order to delve into each of the theories used, the trends shown across time, the themes addressed, and the future directions indicated. This holds true for most of the other studies that examine teaching the other aspects of language, for example, the use of technology, teaching characters, teaching cultures, and so on.

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Learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language: A scoping review

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Review of Education

Over recent years, the numbers of people learning and teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL) worldwide have risen sharply. 1 As the current paper will show, research into learning and teaching CFL has also surged. As well as being strategically and economically important, CFL is of theoretical interest in the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA). This is because both the Chinese language and its writing system are typologically distinct from many other second languages (L2s) which have been more frequently researchednotably English, by far the predominant focus of SLA study to date.

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How to Write a Chinese Essay

Dec 16, 2020 | Guest Blogs & Media

The more essays you write, the better you get at communicating with Chinese. To write a good essay, you first have to reach a high language mastery level.

Do you admire the students who write seamless Chinese essay? If you do, then you should know that you too can achieve this level of proficiency. In the meantime, don’t be afraid to pay for your essay if you cannot write it on your own. Online academic writers are a resource each student should take advantage of.

Here are tips to help you get better at writing essays in Chinese.

How to Write a Chinese Essay | That's Mandarin Blog

Learn New Chinese Words

The key to communicating in a new language is learning as many words as you can. Take it upon yourself to learn at least one Chinese word a day. Chinese words are to essay writing what bricks are to a building. The more words you have, the better you get at constructing meaningful sentences.

Case in point, if you’re going to write a Chinese sentence that constitutes ten words, but you don’t know the right way to spell three of those words, your sentence might end up not making sense.

During your Chinese learning experience, words are your arsenal and don’t forget to master the meaning of each word you learn.

Read Chinese Literature

Reading is the most effective way of learning a new language. Remember not to read for the sake of it; find out the meaning of each new word you encounter. When you are an avid reader of Chinese literature, nothing can stop you from writing fluent Chinese.

In the beginning, it might seem like you’re not making any progress, but after a while, you will notice how drastically your writing will change. Receiving information in Chinese helps your brain get accustomed to the language’s sentence patterns, and you can translate this to your essays.

Be extensive in your reading to ensure you get as much as possible out of each article. Remember that it’s not about how fast you finish an article, but rather, how much you gain from the exercise.

Translate Articles from your Native Language to Chinese

Have you ever thought about translating your favorite read to Chinese? This exercise might be tedious, but you will learn a lot from it. The art of translation allows you to seamlessly shift from one language’s sentence pattern into the other. The more you do this, the easier it will be for your brain to convert English sentences into Chinese phrases that people can comprehend.

You can always show your Chinese professor your translations for positive criticism. The more you get corrected, the better you will get at translation. Who knows, you might actually like being a translator once you graduate.

Final Thoughts

Adrian Lomezzo | Guest Author at That's Mandarin Blog

by Adrian Lomezzo

Adrian  Lomezzo is a freelance writer. Firstly, he has been developing as a content manager and working with different websites, and the main goal of his was to develop the content making it in the first place. Secondly,  Adrian  had a big desire to help students and adults in self-development in this field and teach them to improve their skills. As a lover of traveling, he did not want to be in one place, and became a writer who could be closer to everyone, and share precious information from the corners of the world.

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COMMENTS

  1. Why I Learned Mandarin Chinese: My Language Learning Journey

    When people find out that I can speak Mandarin, the first thing they usually ask me is why I decided to learn it. Chinese is often considered to be a difficult language for English speakers to learn. Some even call it the most difficult language in the world. While it's becoming increasingly common for English speakers to learn Chinese, it ...

  2. Why do we learn Chinese: 11 reasons why learning Chinese

    The most significant advantage of learning Chinese is that it allows you to explore the fascinating country of China on your own. If you are not a typical tourist, take the opportunity to learn Mandarin, and you will discover the "real China" on your travels. Even if you have limited language skills, locals will appreciate your efforts and ...

  3. Mandarin Chinese

    Referring to my particular cases, I am planning to further examine the integration of real-life experience into compiling visual aids, engagement into computer games and music while studying Mandarin Chinese. Such an approach will help me define the most effective ways to advance Mandarin literacy learning.

  4. Learning Chinese changed my life for good

    In English, we say Italy, in Chinese, they say Yìdàlì (意大利). I've never stopped learning, and even now I'm doing a PhD in China, I still have Chinese language class to avoid misunderstandings! Chinese enabled me to do amazing things. Keeping up your Chinese skills is worth it. Some jobs require you to have language skills.

  5. How I learned Chinese. 我是怎么学的中文

    9. 我是怎么学的中文. I have been learning Chinese for just over three years. Over the past month, more and more people have been asking how I learned Chinese. Today I'll explain my process. But before I start explaining the process, there are a few bits of "common knowledge" which I consider unhelpful and hope to dispel:

  6. Why Study Chinese?

    Things to consider. The study of the Chinese language opens the way to different important fields such as Chinese politics, economy, history or archaeology. But to study Chinese finally means to study a culture, a people. At the heart of Chinese civilization is its rich heritage of novels, short stories, poetry, drama, and, more recently, film.

  7. Chinese Language

    The Chinese languages referred to here are the famous Chinese "dialects": Cantonese, Shanghai, Fukienese, etc. Because speakers of one of these "dialects" cannot understand speakers of another of them, the "dialects" are as much real languages as are the Romance languages. There are two ways, however, in which the analogy to the Romance ...

  8. Why learn Mandarin Chinese?

    We encourage others to start their Chinese language learning journey as it has proven to be an enlightening and delightful experience thus far. Sonia, completed Levels 1A - 2A. ... In 2020, he placed in the Top 10 in the "My China Story" Essay Contest, organized by the Embassy of the People's Republic of China in Trinidad and Tobago ...

  9. Why I decided to learn Chinese

    People ask me all the time why I wanted to learn Chinese. Living in China, I also get this question a lot when I first start talking to people, and I often just give answers like: "Because I'm interested in the culture.". "Because I'm interested in foreign languages.". "Because I wanted to get the chance to travel the world and ...

  10. A Weibo's Story

    The rote difficulty of learning Chinese makes it really interesting. I love Mandarin because I love uncovering patterns and learning about cultures outside my own. I also like approaching hard problems, and the Chinese language is one of the hardest problems that I have come across so far. Happy learning! ... Some of My Favorite Personal Essays.

  11. How the Chinese Language Got Modernized

    Learning to write is a feat of memory and graphic skill: a Chinese character is composed of strokes, to be made in a particular sequence, following the movements of a brush, and quite a few ...

  12. Experiencing Chinese education: learning of language and culture by

    Introducing the special issue. The special issue includes papers on international students' language learning and intercultural development. Considering that many international students expect and are expected to improve their linguistic competence in either Chinese or English, the papers in this special issue examine language learning issues in relation to their intercultural understanding ...

  13. My Chinese Learning Journey: Top 5 Insights, Tools & Resources

    Which is how characters are supposed to be. 5. Grammar is Key: AllSet Learning: Chinese Grammar. This resource has been the single most important one for me to ensure that I am able to bring all ...

  14. 14 Incredible Benefits of Learning Chinese

    Here are 14 incredible benefits of learning Chinese that will convince you to start learning the language yourself! 1. Chinese is the most widely-spoken language in the world. One of the most obvious benefits of learning Chinese is simply that it is the most widely-spoken language in the world. Beyond the borders of Mainland China, Hong Kong ...

  15. Chinese Language Study Experiences

    In my learning center, the teaching of the Chinese language involves a comprehensive teaching approach that ensures its effectiveness. Writing Help Login Writing Tools. ... This essay, "Chinese Language Study Experiences" is published exclusively on IvyPanda's free essay examples database. You can use it for research and reference purposes to ...

  16. Learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language: A scoping review

    INTRODUCTION Background. Over recent years, the numbers of people learning and teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language (CFL) worldwide have risen sharply. 1 As the current paper will show, research into learning and teaching CFL has also surged. As well as being strategically and economically important, CFL is of theoretical interest in the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA).

  17. The Teaching and Learning of Chinese as a Second or Foreign Language

    In this opening commentary, we highlight the development of the teaching and learning of Chinese as a second or foreign language (CSL/CFL), which has attracted much attention from researchers, language educators, and other stakeholders worldwide. To contribute to this ongoing examination and discussion, this special issue documents the collective efforts of scholars in different educational ...

  18. 8 Reasons Why You Should Learn Chinese

    We, on the other hand, the remaining 5.8 billion people on the planet, certainly do have several good reasons why we should learn Chinese, here are just 8 Reasons Why You Should Learn Chinese: 1. Chinese is the most widely spoken and fastest growing language in the world. I know literally every blog post you find about learning Chinese will ...

  19. A systematic review of pedagogical research on teaching Chinese as a

    Since the 1960s, research on Chinese language teaching and learning has developed gradually, so it is worthwhile to synthesize the research results and examine trends and changes. A literature review shows that research has been done to synthesize research findings regarding Chinese language acquisition, but no review of the research studies have been done examining Chinese language pedagogy.

  20. Sustaining International Students' Learning of Chinese in China

    Over the last two decades, Chinese has emerged as an increasingly important language taught and learnt as an additional language around the world [1,2,3].By the end of 2018, more than 2.7 million people from 154 countries/regions were reportedly learning Chinese as an additional language (CAL) through various learning modes [].Despite the rising number of CAL learners both in and outside China ...

  21. (PDF) Learning and teaching Chinese as a foreign language: A scoping

    CHINESE LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LINGUISTICS INSIDE AND OUTSIDE CHINA The history of Chinese language study by Western learners can roughly be divided into three stages: 1. The initial stage saw the sporadic establishment of discrete and special purpose programs and/or the design of curricula for Chinese language learning in Asia.

  22. How to Write a Chinese Essay

    Here are tips to help you get better at writing essays in Chinese. Cover image from Pexels Learn New Chinese Words. The key to communicating in a new language is learning as many words as you can. Take it upon yourself to learn at least one Chinese word a day. Chinese words are to essay writing what bricks are to a building.

  23. Chinese Essay Writing

    This course is ideal if you have strong speaking skills but want more practice reading and writing in Chinese. The course will be separated by grade into two groups (grades 2-6 and 7-12) for optimized learning. Meeting times: Monday, Wednesday - 7-8 p.m. ET.

  24. Generative AI for Chinese Studies

    Fri, Feb 23 2024, 4 - 5:30pm. View all events. Digital China Initiative is organizing two workshops on how to apply generative AI for Chinese studies. The first workshop, on 23 Feb 2024, will introduce basic GenAI concepts, writing prompts, and examples of domain-specific tasks (language learning, data extraction, etc.). Limited to 45 attendees.

  25. BBC Learning English

    Phil. And finally, doing something in 20 minutes flat, means 20 minutes exactly, and is used to emphasise that it is done very quickly. Once again our six minutes are up! Have fun cooking up your ...