descriptive research topics in pharmacy

Table of Contents

Developing the research idea.

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“The idea of finishing my project within 1 year initially seemed overwhelming. While each individual step seemed manageable, the totality of the project made me cringe and even lose sleep occasionally (honestly, quite often). Despite the valuable guidance I received from my mentors, they didn’t seem to share my level of anxiety about the project. After all, it was my residency certificate that was hanging in the balance! Overall, I’m grateful for the experience because it taught me so much and really prepared me for future projects.” —Former PGY2 Ambulatory Care Resident

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Identify how to write a scientific research question that meets PICOTS ( P opulation, I ntervention, C omparison group, O utcomes, T imeline, and S etting) or FINER ( F easibility, I nteresting, N ovel, E thical, and R elevant) criteria.

Formulate primary and secondary study objectives.

Formulate study hypotheses and select related outcome measures.

Develop a research proposal and timeline.

INTRODUCTION

As you embark on your research journey, you are probably asking yourself, Where do I begin? What needs to go into the research question? If so, this chapter will lay out a step-wise process for building the foundation of your project:

Identifying a research question.

Searching and appraising background scientific literature.

Writing study objectives.

Specifying and defining outcomes.

Compiling these elements into a study protocol.

This chapter will equip you with the tools to accomplish these steps ( Figure 1-1 ).

CONCEIVING THE RESEARCH IDEA

Where do good research ideas come from? Creating a focused, relevant research idea may be one of the biggest challenges for a new researcher. A great place to identify research ideas is from your own clinical practice, such as when you encounter problems but cannot find solutions in the scientific literature. You may also want to evaluate the way evidence-based care has been implemented at your institution. 1 , 2 Problems may relate to a patient-specific clinical question (e.g., “What is the relationship between benzodiazepine use and emergency department utilization in the elderly?”), institutional concerns related to quality measures defined by The Joint Commission or the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (e.g., “How can we increase bisphosphonate use in women who have experienced an osteoporosis-related fracture?”), resource justification (e.g., “What is the value of a clinical pharmacist as part of a diabetes-management team?”), or process improvement (e.g., “Is there a more efficient way to conduct double-checks of intravenously prepared products?”).

As a resident, your clinical experience is typically limited to rotations from pharmacy school or a previous residency; you may not have been in your practice site long enough to recognize a relevant research question. Engaging in dialogue with preceptors and mentors about possible research ideas can be the first step in building your own skills in idea development. By asking research questions, you can help to build skills in identifying relevant questions. If you have to formulate your own idea, a good place to start is by reviewing the literature about a general topic that interests you. Many studies end with recommendations for future research. Another tactic is to attend poster sessions or lectures at professional meetings where you can talk with investigators to get their ideas for needed research. 1 , 2

The Research Process

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Regardless of where your research idea originates, the research question developed from the idea should address an unmet need or a gap in current understanding. Its answer should also contribute to improved patient care. For example, a medication adherence tool with demonstrated utility improving adherence in patients with asthma could be investigated as a strategy to increase insulin adherence in patients with Type 1 diabetes mellitus.

Once you have an idea that meets a need and interests you, the next step is to formulate it into a well-written research question. There are three general types of research questions:

Descriptive questions seek to describe a current situation or what now exists. These ­questions may be answered by qualitative and/or quantitative research methods.

Relational questions examine a relationship between different phenomena and utilize quantitative research methods.

Causal questions evaluate the cause-and-effect relationship between one or more variables and an outcome of interest; these, too, employ quantitative methods. 1 - 3

Developing a Research Question Using PICOTS Criteria

Research question, example 1.

Do patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection have better outcomes when they take a statin?

This is a good start, but the question needs to be more focused before study design efforts can begin. The PICOTS ( P opulation, I ntervention, C omparison group, O utcomes, T imeline, and S etting) criteria are useful for ensuring that your research question contains the necessary elements, while the FINER ( F easibility, I nteresting, N ovel, E thical, and R elevant) criteria help to ensure that a study is feasible and worth doing ( Table 1-1 ). 4 - 6 The PICOTS criteria are applied first to example 1 below.

PICOTS and FINER Criteria 4 – 6

Your target patient population is patients with HIV, but you need to be more specific. Examining all patients with HIV is too broad and, obviously, impossible. For example, you may include any of the following variations:

Where is your population of interest from? A managed care organization in California? Medicaid patients in the state of Ohio? Hospitalized patients?

What are the characteristics of your population of interest? All adults? A specific age range? A specific viral load range? A specific CD4 count range? Patients with cardiovascular risk factors?

Is the population limited to those on antiretroviral therapy and any particular kind of therapy, or to newly diagnosed patients not taking antiretrovirals?

The point is to be specific . You will need precise inclusion and exclusion criteria in your protocol to define the study population.

Intervention

Next, consider the intervention. Interventions may include a new strategy, drug exposure, service exposure, or application of a tool (e.g., pharmacist delivery of medication management services, text message reminders). A prospective trial for the example question could randomize the patient population to receive either a statin or a placebo. For an observational study to address this ­question, you could study an historical exposure instead of a prospective intervention:

Taking a specific statin (e.g., atorvastatin) or statin intensity.

Taking any statin but for a certain period of time.

Comparison Group

Do not underestimate the importance of a good control group.

Is there an appropriate comparison group available?

What kind of comparison (e.g., placebo, active, historical) will be used?

The value of pharmacist interventions has not been adequately demonstrated due to failure to identify a control group or a selection of one that is biased. Ideally, this group should look as much like your intervention or exposure group as possible, but it should not have received the intervention. Historical controls can be used, if necessary, but be aware they often differ from the intervention group in significant ways. If using a parallel control group (i.e., one whose exposure and outcomes occur within the same timeframe as the intervention group), you can make them more comparable by matching them on characteristics that might affect the outcome such as exposure date, age, sex, or an indicator of disease severity.

Make sure the outcomes you choose are meaningful, measurable, and occur frequently enough to be observable in your study.

Specifically, what type of outcome(s) should be examined?

Ideally, you should examine outcomes that matter. Examples include morbidity, mortality, hospitalizations, or events such as fractures or heart attacks. In reality, these types of outcomes may occur so infrequently that very large sample sizes would be required to detect true differences between groups, which may limit feasibility. Sample size limitations usually require surrogate outcomes, such as low-density lipoprotein levels, CD4 counts, bone mineral density, and ­adherence. Keep in mind that many other types of outcomes are relevant, including economic, humanistic, quality, or educational outcomes. In addition, not all outcomes have to be purely clinical in nature. For example, identifying if a particular intervention leads to a certain outcome can be an important question to answer.

The duration of the follow-up period to evaluate outcomes is important.

Is the duration 2 weeks?

Is the duration 6 months?

Is the duration 1 year or more?

The length of the follow-up period must be specifically stated.

The setting refers to where the study will take place, such as an outpatient physician practice, an inpatient hospital setting, or a classroom setting with pharmacy students. The revised question could be as follows:

Do Ohio Medicaid outpatients, aged 18 to 75 years, diagnosed with HIV within the past 2 years and with a CD4 T-cell count >350 cells/mm 3 who initiated statin therapy within 1 year of diagnosis have improved CD4 counts 1 year after statin initiation as compared to similar patients with HIV, matched by diagnosis month, not taking a statin?

Research Question, Example 2

Does a home blood pressure (BP) monitoring program improve hypertension control?

First, apply the PICOTS criteria. Consider the questions noted below.

Are you interested in patients with a diagnosis of hypertension and uncontrolled BP versus controlled BP? How will you define “uncontrolled”?

How will home BP monitoring be conducted? Will patients be asked to monitor BP using an automated home BP cuff and take measurements 3 times per week? What else is involved with the program? Will patients enter data into a database or a patient portal linked to an electronic medical record? Who will receive the data?

Will you compare patients enrolled versus those who are not enrolled in the program in the same clinic or in a separate clinic? Would a historical comparator group be comparable (e.g., guidelines change)?

Is the outcome of interest a change in systolic and diastolic BP or achieving a specific BP goal?

Will you measure the outcome at 6 months, 12 months, or both? Are you able to bring study participants in for a specific follow-up visit and measurement, or are you relying on self-reported measures?

In what setting will these patients receive care (e.g., ambulatory clinic, community pharmacy)? The revised question could be as follows:

Does enrollment in a pharmacist-managed home BP monitoring program increase the proportion of hypertensive patients with uncontrolled BP at baseline who achieve their target BP after 6 months, compared to similar patients at an ambulatory care clinic not participating in the program?

Additional examples of research questions that have been revised using PICOTS criteria are included in Table 1-2 .

Example Research Questions Revised Using PICOTS and FINER Criteria 4 – 6

Developing a research question using finer criteria, feasibility.

Is your study feasible?

Questions to consider include the following:

Can the study population be clearly identified?

Can you identify a large enough sample size?

Do you have, or will you be able to obtain, appropriate data to examine the study question?

Do you have the technical expertise? Will you need additional help (e.g., biostatistician, content expert, someone with regulatory experience)?

What is the cost of the study? Is internal/external funding needed? If so, can you obtain it?

Can the study be conducted in the necessary time period?

As a pharmacy resident, this is the amount of time available for the actual study once you factor in any required Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval (see Chapter 3 ), data requests, and preparation of a presentation and a manuscript (see Chapters 10 and 11). Look again at your research objective(s)—did you confine yourself to one to three objectives? Having too many research objectives or collecting too much data reduces the likelihood of completing the primary focus of your project. The key to completing your project by the end of your residency is keeping it tightly focused.

If the answer to many of these feasibility questions is no , then reconsider the idea. Consult with your research team to identify how this idea could become feasible or if a different research project should be undertaken.

Interesting

Does the research question interest you?

Working on a research project can be a tedious process; if you begin the project feeling that your question is mundane or uninteresting, finishing your project will be a challenge. Your research question also needs to be interesting to a journal editor if you want to publish your work. Your residency program should provide a structure for identifying an idea that allows you flexibility in meeting this criterion. To illustrate, some residency programs may have a model in which the previous year’s resident hands over a project for the next resident to continue in the following year. Alternatively, you may complete a small project that is part of a larger project—understanding the project’s role in the big picture can allow you to recognize its significance. If a project does not seem interesting or ambitious, consider building the case for a larger one that the initial project could help to support.

Does the research question confirm or refute previous findings? Does it seek new conclusions? Does it fill a gap in the literature?

Confirm this with your literature search. Skimping on this step will have negative consequences when you try to publish. It may be acceptable to use a published idea and apply it with a more local focus. Is the question important to your department or hospital or important to improving the quality of patient care at your practice site?

Can the study be conducted in an ethical manner?

For example, a retrospective study that investigates the effect of co-pay increases on adherence would be ethical, whereas a prospective study that randomly raised co-pays on some Medicare beneficiaries would place an unethical financial burden on patients. A study examining the effect of not providing counseling to patients for new medications would be unethical and unlawful. Investigative studies inherently carry more ethical risk than observational study designs. The IRB will scrutinize potential ethical issues carefully as they are charged with protecting patients.

Is the study question relevant to clinical practice and patients?

Some questions are interesting to study, but they may not be relevant given current guideline recommendations or patient needs. For example, studying the impact of an intervention to improve patient adherence in an outpatient practice may not be as pressing when providers are prescribing evidence-based therapies at a low rate in that practice setting.

CONDUCTING A LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review should be completed in the early stages of a research project and serves three purposes:

Increase your scientific understanding of the area of focus.

Ensure that your research question is novel or clarifies ambiguity around previous research.

Provide ideas on how to best fill in the gaps in the current understanding of your focus area. 4 , 6

Ensuring that your work builds on existing literature and does not duplicate other research is vital to future publication. A well-written literature review helps to build a compelling case for why your project needs to be done, and serves as background for your protocol and eventual manuscript once the project is completed. To fulfill these purposes, you need to build a comprehensive search strategy.

Key Tips: General Literature Search Strategy

• ✓ Use at least two databases (e.g., PubMed, GoogleScholar, EMBASE).
• ✓ Check references of the “key” studies that address your research topic.
• ✓ Use the Cited By feature in PubMed to identify additional studies published on similar topics.
• ✓ Check with content experts to ensure relevant studies are not missed.
• ✓ Search for gray literature —literature that falls outside of the mainstream domains for publication. Some examples include publications that have not been indexed in PubMed or Embase, government organizations’ annual reports, and proceedings of professional meetings that align with your topic. Gray literature can be located using an internet search or Google Scholar or by searching abstracts from relevant professional meetings.
• ✓ To be as inclusive as possible in your literature search, avoid limiting searches by date.
• ✓ Develop a process for reference management up front (see the Managing References section).
• ✓ Save the search strategy and repeat the search periodically to ensure the most recent literature on the topic has been identified, especially prior to presenting the project and/or writing the manuscript.

Organizing and Evaluating Literature Search Results

Finding a method to organize and synthesize the findings of your literature search helps you organize your ideas and find key facts that you may need to reference later. This will help others understand the scope of evidence about the topic and the different types of published studies. You also need to provide a critique about the relevance and quality of the published evidence. Consider how the study findings can be compared and contrasted and then identify strengths and weaknesses of each study. Categorize papers into different topics or headings using an Excel spreadsheet with headings for study design, methods, key findings, and critiques (see the example in Table 1-3 ). 7 A second option is to create an annotated bibliography (see the Recommended Readings section for resources on annotated bibliographies).

Sample Excel Spreadsheet with Study Description 7

Managing references.

Managing references can be a cumbersome process. Online reference managing programs to aid in this process are plentiful; use one of them to keep track of your references ( Table 1-4 ). These programs facilitate the numbering of references, especially when multiple authors provide edits, and ease the process of incorporating reviewer feedback.

Reference Management Resource

APA = American Psychological Association; DOI = digital object identifier; MLA = Modern Language Association; PDF = portable document format

DEVELOPING A STUDY PROTOCOL

The study protocol is the document that will guide the conduct of your research. This includes the study’s background, research question, objectives, methods, and statistical analysis that will be used as well as outcomes to be measured. 4 If the protocol is given to another researcher, he or she should be able to understand and replicate your study. The study protocol includes two main ­components—the introduction or background and the methods .

Writing the Background

Your literature review will guide and simplify writing the background section of your protocol. This portion of the protocol provides the background and rationale for the research project. The quantity of information needed in your background will vary based on the existing information on the topic. Usually, one to two pages in length is appropriate; however, your institution may prefer less material (e.g., one paragraph) for the IRB protocol (see Chapter 3 ). Writing a longer background will help you synthesize the current literature and provide a foundation for your manuscript once the study has been conducted. The background section should identify how your study will fill a gap in the literature and build on existing knowledge. The following information is a general overview to writing a background section. 8

Answer three questions:

What is known about your topic? Describe relevant published literature (i.e., standard of care, guidelines) and provide enough information and context for the reader to become familiar with the topic without getting too broad. For example, a project on primary non-adherence to bisphosphonates should not go into an extensive background on diagnosis and epidemiology of osteoporosis, but should quickly get to the actual problem at hand.

What is not known? Outline gaps in the literature, focusing on the gap(s) your study hopes to address.

Why is your study important? Explain the importance of the problem or critical barrier to progress in the field that your project addresses and what contribution is expected to be made to close the gaps.

End with the research question/purpose statement for your study.

Determining the Methods

The next section of the protocol focuses on how you will conduct the project or the methodological approach and study design. This section includes a description of the study site, inclusion and exclusion criteria, participant recruitment process, data collection methods, research instruments, study variables and outcomes, and data analysis approach. These topics will be addressed in the following chapters. Refer to the outline in Exhibit 1-1 for more information about specific details to include in your study protocol.

WRITING OBJECTIVES, HYPOTHESES, AND OUTCOME MEASURES

Writing objectives.

After you have written your research question and conducted a literature review, you can write research objectives. The objectives form the backbone of the protocol. 4 The objective(s) or aim(s) identify knowledge gaps that the study will fill; identify what the study will achieve; and guide the study design, analysis, and reporting of results. A study can have multiple objectives, but one should be designated as the primary objective. The primary objective is the axis around which the study is designed and is key to determining the necessary sample size. Developing tightly focused study objectives is essential to conducting a successful project. Make sure you have one clear primary objective and no more than two or three secondary objectives . As a clinician, you have been trained to consider myriad factors in caring for your patients, but as a researcher, you must avoid diverting efforts in too many directions and subsequently losing focus on your primary ­objective. 4 , 6 , 10

Refer back to the example study questions stated earlier in the chapter. Example study objectives for those research questions are listed below.

Primary objective: Compare 6-month and 1-year changes in CD4 T-cell counts between patients who are receiving a statin compared with those who are not.

Secondary objective: Compare 6-month and 1-year changes in plasma HIV ribonucleic acid counts between the study groups.

Primary objective: Compare BP control rates at 6 months in patients enrolled in a pharmacist-managed home BP program to rates in patients receiving usual care (i.e., not enrolled in a program).

Secondary objective: Compare absolute change in systolic and diastolic BP between the two study groups.

Secondary objective: Compare the number of visits required to achieve BP control between the two groups.

Formulating a Hypothesis

A study hypothesis is the prediction of the relationship between one or more factors and the problem under study. 3 , 4 , 11 A hypothesis is appropriate for an intervention or evaluative study, but it is generally not applicable for a descriptive study. Hypotheses should be identified prior to the research, and state the specific relationship between the variables you plan to collect and the study outcome variables. You should have at least one hypothesis for each study objective/aim; more than one hypothesis statement can be written, but it is not required.

Hypothesis statements have many different characteristics ( Table 1-5 ). First, hypotheses may be stated as a null or alternative hypothesis. A null hypothesis posits no difference between two or more groups under examination, whereas an alternative hypothesis indicates that you expect to observe a difference between groups. The null hypothesis is commonly used during statistical analysis (see Chapter 5 ). Second, a hypothesis statement may be nondirectional or directional. A ­ nondirectional hypothesis indicates that a relationship between variables is predicted, but the direction of the outcome—higher versus lower, better versus worse, increased versus decreased—is uncertain. A directional hypothesis indicates the anticipated direction of the relationship between ­variables. Lastly, a hypothesis may be associative or causal. Associative hypotheses make no judgment regarding causality and suggest the only thing that can be stated with certainty is a change in one variable is associated with a change in the other. In contrast, a causal hypothesis is used to infer that a change in one variable (e.g., pharmacist intervention) directly causes a change in an outcome variable. 3 , 4 , 11

The following hypothesis statements are based on the example research questions in the previous section.

Examples of Hypothesis Statements 11

HIV = human immunodeficiency virus

Hypothesis: Patients with HIV who receive a statin will have improved CD4 T-cell counts compared to patients with HIV who are not taking a statin.

Hypothesis: Patients randomized to a pharmacist-managed home BP program will achieve greater BP control compared to patients who are randomized to receive usual care (i.e., no program).

Specifying Study Outcomes (Endpoints)

A study outcome is the specific phenomenon you are going to measure to represent your objective. 3 , 4 In other words, the primary endpoint should be representative of the primary objective. For a quantitative study, it should be measurable and represented as a number or proportion. Also, the numerator and denominator for how the outcome will be calculated should be determined. A study outcome, for example, could be the proportion of patients in each group who express that they are adherent to their antiretroviral regimen.

The following are examples of study outcome measures using the example research questions.

The proportion of patients with HIV with a CD4 count >350 cells/mm 3 . (The numerator is the number of patients with a CD4 count >350 cells/mm 3 , and the denominator is the total number of patients with HIV and a CD4 count measured in the past N number of days.)

The mean change in systolic BP from baseline to 6 months follow-up.

COLLABORATING WITH YOUR RESEARCH TEAM

Research is a collaborative, interdisciplinary process; therefore, you will likely require others’ cooperation to complete your project successfully. As a pharmacy resident, you may have been assigned an individual mentor or team of collaborators to work with on your project. In future research endeavors, the need for a team and members to be included on the team will vary. When working with a team, it is helpful to define the roles and responsibilities of each team member at the ­beginning of the project. For some projects, the level of involvement for each person will vary with some people taking responsibility for certain tasks or contributing expertise at specific phases of the project (e.g., data analyst extracting data from medical records during data collection phase). In other projects, it may be expected that all team members share the responsibilities throughout the course of the study. Working in a team setting can be rewarding; however, team dynamics can be challenging to manage. It is necessary to maintain open communication and flexibility to prevent potential misunderstandings and ensure that everyone is engaged, as needed. The initial team meeting should include a discussion of the following items:

Establishment of ground rules for respectful team dynamics

Identification of who needs to be on the team and their respective roles on the project

Communication preferences

Frequency of team meetings

Authorship and authorship order

Goal journal submissions

Key Tips: Successful Collaborations

• ✓ Schedule meetings proactively at regular time intervals, especially while developing the protocol. You can always cancel if meetings are not needed.
• ✓ Create an agenda for each meeting.
• ✓ Take minutes to record decisions made and work to share; send minutes to participants after the meeting, including action items, who is responsible, and by what deadline.
• ✓ Create a central place to store study-related documents (e.g., literature, protocol) so that all team members have access to all documents (e.g., Google Drive, Dropbox, Box).

DEVELOPING A STUDY TIMELINE

To keep your research project on track and check feasibility, it is important to create a timeline. Most residency research projects occur over 1 year, so it is helpful to work backward from the residency completion date to ensure that you allocate time appropriately to complete your study and draft the manuscript or final study report. Allot extra time for IRB approval and data collection in case of unanticipated setbacks. Ask about the IRB meeting dates before starting the research process and target the date you plan to submit your project for review. It is important to know those dates so you can allot time for the approval process or revise your proposal, if needed. Revise the timeline, as required, if setbacks occur, and ensure that all research team members agree about project expectations. Additionally, allow sufficient time (e.g., 1−2 weeks) for mentors to provide feedback about your study implementation plan and documents. Better yet, ask how much notice they need to review documents so that you can accommodate their schedules. Incorporating a plan for publication into the timeline is beneficial, and expectations for publication should be discussed with your research team. 5 A sample timeline is provided in Table 1-6 .

Sample Study Timeline 10

* It is not unusual for revisions to extend beyond the completion of your residency. Consider building this extra work into your timeline.

IRB = Institutional Review Board

A Gantt chart is another tool to aid project planning ( Table 1-7 ). A Gantt chart includes all research activities in the order they are expected to occur and plots how much time will be allocated for each activity. Consider including additional columns for who is responsible for completing each milestone or additional rows with greater detail for activities that support accomplishing each milestone. 12

Implementing a research project begins with writing a well-crafted research question. The PICOTS and FINER criteria are useful tools to guide the development and refinement of your question. Once the question is finalized, formulating a search strategy to uncover relevant literature will guide further refinement of your research question and writing of the study protocol. Regular meetings with your study team to draft and finalize the study protocol, especially the background and methods, will ensure that your project has a strong foundation.

Key Takeaways

• ■ Identify the knowledge gap your study will address by critically evaluating the literature and consulting with colleagues.
• ■ Write the research question using PICOTS and/or FINER criteria.
• ■ Search for existing information on the topic and refine the research question.
• ■ Identify a strategy for referencing the relevant literature.
• ■ Develop a study protocol and outcome measurement strategy.
• ■ Create and implement a study timeline.

Lipowski EE . Developing great research questions . Am J Health-Syst Pharm . 2008 ; 65 : 1667 – 1670 .

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• Export Citation

Haynes RB . Forming research questions . J Clin Epidemiol. 2006 ; 59 : 881 – 886 .

Smith KM . Building upon existing evidence to shape future research endeavors . Am J Health-Syst Pharm . 2008 ; 65 : 1767 – 1774 .

Aparasu RR . Research Methods for Pharmaceutical Practice and Policy . London, UK : Pharmaceutical Press ; 2011 .

Aparasu RR , Bentley JP . Principles of Research Design and Drug Literature Evaluation . Burlington, MA : Jones & Bartlett Learning ; 2015 .

Hulley S , Cummings S , Browner W , et al. et al. Designing Clinical Research . 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA : Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins ; 2007 .

Smolen JS , Kay J , Doyle MK , et al. et al. Golimumab in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis after treatment with tumour necrosis factor alpha inhibitors (GO-AFTER study): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase III trial . Lancet. 2009 Jul 18 ; 374 ( 9685 ): 210 – 221 .

Welch HG . Preparing manuscripts for submission to medical journals: the paper trail . Eff Clin Pract . 1999 ; 2 : 131 – 137 .

NEJM Resident 360 Website . Sample research protocol template . https://resident360.nejm.org/content_items/1839 . Accessed July 15 , 2019 .

Weber RJ , Cobaugh DJ . Developing and executing an effective research plan . Am J Health-Syst Pharm . 2008 ; 65 ( 21 ): 2058 – 2065 .

Farrugia P , Petrisor BA , Farrokhyar F , et al. et al. Research questions, hypotheses, and objectives . Can J Surg. 2010 Aug ; 53 ( 4 ): 278 – 281 .

Wilson JM . Gantt charts: a centenary appreciation . Eur J Oper Res. 2003 ; 149 : 430 – 437 .

RECOMMENDED READINGS

The references listed below outline how to develop research ideas and a plan as well as write research questions.

Research Planning

Al-Ryami A . How to prepare a research proposal . Oman Med J . 2008 ; 23 ( 2 ): 66 66−69 69 .

Weber RJ , Cobaugh DJ . Developing and executing an effective research plan . Am J Health-Syst Pharm . 2008 ; 65 ( 21 ): 2058 2058−2065 2065 .

Planas LG . Intervention design, implementation, and evaluation . Am J Health-Syst Pharm . 2008 ; 65 : 1854 1854−1863 1863 .

Smith FJ . Conducting Your Pharmacy Practice Research: A Step-by-Step Guide . 2nd ed. London, UK : Pharmaceutical Press ; 2010 .

Research Questions

Lipowski EE . Developing great research questions . Am J Health-Syst Pharm . 2008 ; 65 : 1667 1667−1670 1670 .

Smith KM . Building upon existing evidence to shape future research endeavors . Am J Health-Syst Pharm . 2008 ; 65 : 1767 1767−1774 1774 .

Raich AL , Skelly AC . Asking the right question: specifying your study question . Evid Based Spine Care J . 2013 ; 4 ( 2 ): 68 68−71 71 .

PubMed (Medline) . https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ . Accessed March 31 , 2020 .

Google Scholar . https://scholar.google.com . Accessed March 31 , 2020 .

EMBASE . https://www.elsevier.com/solutions/embase-biomedical-research . Accessed March 31 , 2020 .

International Pharmaceutical Abstracts . https://www.ovid.com/product-details.109.html . Accessed March 31 , 2020 .

Cochrane Collaboration . http://www.cochrane.org/ . Accessed March 31 , 2020 .

ClinicalTrials.gov . https://clinicaltrials.gov/ . Accessed March 31 , 2020 .

Web Resources

ASHP Foundation . Essentials of a Practice-Based Research for Pharmacists . https://www.ashpfoundation.org/research . Accessed March 31 , 2020 .

Gantt Charts . https://www.teamgantt.com . Accessed March 31 , 2020 .

Annotated Bibliography Guide . http://guides.library.cornell.edu/annotatedbibliography . Accessed March 31 , 2020 .

Annotated Bibliography Example . http://www.ucdenver.edu/academics/colleges/pharmacy/AcademicPrograms/clinical-pharmacy-toolkit/Documents/annotatedbibliography_clinical-pharmacy-integration-into-pcmh.pdf . Accessed March 31 , 2020 .

Study Protocol Outline 9

I. Title Page

A. Protocol title, principal investigator, co-investigators, date

B. Affiliations for all investigators

II. Abstract (optional)

A. Brief one-page summary of proposed research; this section may be shorter depending on institution requirements

III. Background and Rationale

A. Significance of research question

B. Last sentence should be the study purpose/main research question

IV. Study Objectives (Aims)/Hypothesis

A. Primary objective

B. Secondary objective(s)

A. Study design (e.g., prospective, retrospective, randomized, cohort); include statement that IRB approval will be obtained

B. Study setting and population

i. Brief description of study setting

ii. Inclusion/exclusion criteria

C. Study procedures

i. Describe subject identification and/or recruitment

ii. Describe informed consent process (written or verbal) (if applicable)

iii. Describe subject enrollment process (if applicable)

iv. Describe procedures for intervention, methods for blinding, randomizing, detailed description of what will occur once subject is deemed eligible for study (if applicable)

v. Describe criteria for assignment to study versus control group (exposure)

vi. Describe data collection, including all required data elements, sources, date ranges, and storage

D. Outcome measures

i. Primary outcome

ii. Secondary/tertiary outcomes

VI. Analytical Plan

VII. Study Timeline

VIII. References

IX. Appendixes (separate documents)

A. Data collection tools, consent forms, patient information letters, surveys, etc.

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ABOUT THE COLLECTION

All PharmD students at the University of Arizona College of Pharmacy must complete a research project as part of their graduation requirements. This repository collection contains the abstracts of these projects, and the full-text of projects that students have opted to make available.

Contact Jennifer Martin , Librarian & Clinical Instructor, Pharmacy Practice and Science, for more information about the student research projects in this collection.

Recent Submissions

Exploring How to Improve Professionalism and Engagement During Zoom Learning

A retrospective study evaluating the effect of hepatic steatosis on paclitaxel tolerability in patients with breast cancer 

Accuracy and Reproducibility of Injections from Prefilled “Code Cart” Syringes Compared to Standard Polypropylene Syringes

Modified Patient Intake Process and its Effectiveness in Timely Access to Patient Data in Endocrinology Telemedicine Visits

The Role of Vaccine Literacy on Vaccination Rates in Maricopa County Health Pods

Assessing community pharmacists’ confidence with and knowledge of veterinary medications

Implementation and Review of Student Led Meds-to-Beds Intervention on Hospital Readmission Rates and Patient Satisfaction in Advanced Heart Failure

Assessing knowledge and integration of updated FDA pregnancy and lactation labeling in practice between rural and urban prescribers and dispensers 

Surveying rural healthcare workers for vaccine awareness and hesitancy

Perceived Mental Health of Student Pharmacists Working in Community Settings During the Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) Pandemic: A Qualitative Analysis at the University of Arizona College of Pharmacy

Do Rural And High Index Of Need Counties Have Different COVID-19Vaccination Rates?

A Pilot Educational Video Series Aimed at Orienting Non-Native English Speakers to the U.S. Pharmacy System

Prophylactic Benzodiazepine Use in Bupropion Overdose

Comparison of Inhaled Epoprostenol and Inhaled Nitric Oxide for COVID-19 Induced ARDS in Critically Ill Adults

A Qualitative Analysis of 2022 Request to Speak Comments

Impact of Student Loan Debt on University of Arizona R. Ken Coit College of Pharmacy Alumni

Outcomes of patients with DKA treated with subcutaneous insulin in the emergency department

Identifying the Student Pharmacists’ Perception of Characteristics of a Fulfilling Career

Anticoagulation Quality Assessment and Risk Evaluation in Patients with Nonvalvular Atrial Fibrillation (NVAF)

Influenza Vaccination Perceptions Among Pharmacy Students During the COVID-19 Pandemic

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3.2 Choosing a Research Topic

Faith Alele and Bunmi Malau-Aduli

Many researchers assume that choosing a topic is a linear process; however, in reality, it is more complex, and the research idea may need to be refined before the topic is finally chosen. Watch the video below that explains the process of choosing a research topic.

Choosing a research idea video by Bunmi Malau-Aduli and Faith Alele, used under a CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 licence

Techniques for finding and choosing a research topic

There are two main approaches to finding and choosing a research topic– rational (logical) and creative (intuitive). 2,3 The creative approach requires techniques such as brainstorming, keeping a record of the ideas, using relevance trees and exploring personal preferences. 3,4 The rational approach, on the other hand, involves techniques such as reviewing the literature to identify knowledge gaps, discussing the ideas with subject experts, peers or stakeholders, using past project titles, scanning the media and identifying one’s strengths and interests. 3,4 It is also imperative to engage in critical reflection throughout the process to ensure that the topic is relevant. As a result of this process, the topic may not only be refined but may change substantially. It is important to note that diverse techniques can be used simultaneously or iteratively to decide on a research topic. 3 Figure 3.1 portrays the different techniques.

• Although you are often presented with a research topic, thought out by your honours supervisor, there is always a possibility that as a group or an individual you can use some of the techniques above to refine your topic
• Whether in research or professional honours, you have already expressed interest in your  topic – with suggestions made to you either for a specific topic in the case of research honours  or a broad area of pharmacy practice e.g. aged care, community, hospital or rural practice for your professional honours.

Activity 1️ ⃣ ⏰20 Minutes

Write a short summary paragraph as to WHY you have made your research choice – highlight which of the techniques in the image above that you used to make that choice.

As a researcher, it is important to ensure that your chosen research topic is of obvious value and benefit, financially viable and within your capabilities and interests. 5

Attributes of a good research topic

As indicated in Table 3.1, ways of assessing your capability include deciding if the topic is achievable within the time frame, whether the project will be current at completion and whether you have access to the required data. 4 Furthermore, there is a need for the topic to be linked to theory, emphasizing the role and importance of literature. 4 This implies that the topic should be set in the context of existing literature, i.e. reading and identifying research already undertaken on that topic to guide the decision-making process about the topic selection. Also, the literature aids the refinement of research ideas and prevents research that repeats what has already been done. 6 The proposed research should provide fresh insight into the topic, the aims and objectives should be clear, 7 and the findings should be of similar value irrespective of the outcome (symmetrical). 4 Finally, the research topic should match the researcher’s career goals. 4 While this may not be the case in all instances, it is important to give it considerable thought, especially for those undertaking a dissertation. A checklist of the attributes of a good research topic is listed in Table 3.1 and serves as a guide when choosing a topic.

Activity 2️⃣⏰10 Minutes

Refining the research topic/idea

Remember that a research idea can be generated using rational and/or creative techniques. However, at the onset, the developed idea may be too broad or too specific and may need to be refined. Refining a research idea involves the steps outlined in Figure 3.2. First, a research topic is picked, and the topic is tested by reading the literature. If the topic is too broad, it needs to be made more focused, and if it is too specific, it needs to be broadened. The literature search and discussion with subject experts could be useful in refining the topic. 2

A useful way of refining the research idea/topic is to use a concept map based on the findings from the literature or discussions to identify contextual factors or areas related to the topic. 3 Let us return to our previous example of obesity as your research topic which was depicted in the video. A concept map that utilised the 5Ws and H (who, what, where, when, why and how) questions is presented in Figure 3.3 to facilitate in-depth analysis and refinement of the research topic. It is important to note that concept maps can be complex as each theme can be branched into further subthemes.

The refined topic can be further tested by searching the literature to ensure that the idea is novel and has not been previously answered.

Activity 3️⃣⏰20 Minutes

The Delphi technique

The Delphi technique is an alternative technique that could also be used to refine the topic and generate possible research questions. 8 The Delphi technique entails selecting a more focused research idea via contributions from a group of people who are either working on or interested in the research topic. 8 The Delphi consists of four distinct phases. In the first phase, participants can provide whatever information they deem pertinent, which explores the topic under investigation. The second stage is ascertaining how the entire group perceives the topic/idea. 8 The third step is utilised to investigate any substantial disputes and identify the root causes of any identified differences. A final assessment of all the information acquired is done in the fourth step. 8

Delphi technique is the most commonly reported consensus research method and is  a structured, multistage interaction method to determine consensus using repetitive administration of anonymous questionnaires across two or three rounds . The Delphi technique is increasingly being used in pharmacy practice research.

• Myriam Jaam et al. Use of the Delphi technique in pharmacy practice research , Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy 18(1) 2237 -2248 (2022).

Activity 4️⃣⏰20 Minutes

Chapter Attribution

Alele, F., & Malau-Aduli, B. (2023).  An introduction to research methods for undergraduate health profession students.  James Cook University. https://jcu.pressbooks.pub/intro-res-methods-health

3.2 Choosing a Research Topic Copyright © by Faith Alele and Bunmi Malau-Aduli is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

• Potential Research Projects

Research projects for Higher Degree by Research (HDR) students are available within the following School of Pharmacy research areas and research centre. 

Please email our academic staff to discuss potential HDR projects and ask if they are available as an advisor for your proposed HDR program.

Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacometrics

Title: Implementing Pharmacogenomics into Community Pharmacy Practice to Personalise the Treatment of Depression Contact:  Associate Professor Chris Freeman

Title:  Developing pharmacokinetic models for immunosuppressants in solid organ transplant patients Contact:   Dr Christine Staatz

Title:  Improving the use of immunosuppressant agents in solid organ transplant patients Contact:   Dr Christine Staatz

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Title:  The ethics of pharmacogenomic testing in community pharmacy Contact:  Doctor Adam La Caze

Title: Pharmacy ethics and the opioid crisis Contact:  Doctor Adam La Caze

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Title:  Engineering nanostructures and nanomedicines using supercritical fluid technology Contact:   Dr James Falconer

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Title:  Discovery of new drugs from indigenous Australian plants using supercritical fluids Contact:   Dr James Falconer

Title:  Design, construction, and development of supercritical fluid technology Contact:   Dr James Falconer

Title:  Characterisation of high pressure spray behaviour and bioactive Contact:   Dr James Falconer

Title:  Delivery of therapeutics to the posterior eye Contact:   Dr Harendra Parekh

Title:  Development of bioresponsive drug/gene carrier systems Contact:   Dr Harendra Parekh , Dr Karnaker Tupally

Title:  Bioresponsive porous silicon-polymer composite nano- and micro-particles for oral protein delivery Contact:   Dr Amirali Popat

Title:  Mesoproous silica nanoparticles synthesis and application in drug delivery, diagnosis and therapeutic protein delivery Contact:   Dr Amirali Popat

Title:  Inorganic nanoparticles for targeting bacterial biofilms Contact:   Dr Amirali Popat

Pharmaceutical Biology

Title:  Calcium homeostasis in cancer: identification and characterisation of novel drug targets  Contact:  Professor Greg Monteith  and  Professor Sarah Roberts-Thomson

Title:  Identification and characterization of novel ion and drug transporters and the design of novel high throughput screening assays for new pharmaceuticals Contact:   Professor Greg Monteith

Title:  Physiological regulation and the role of calcium transporters   Contact:   Professor Greg Monteith

Title:  Morphine and metastasis Contact:   Associate Professor Marie-Odile Parat

Title:  Role of caveolar proteins in glioblastoma Contact:   Associate Professor Marie-Odile Parat

Title:  Effect of perioperative pharmacotherapy of cancer patients on tumour Biology  Contact:   Associate Professor Marie-Odile Parat ,  Dr Ben Ross  and  Professor Nick Shaw

Biomedicinal Discovery and Development

Title:  Design, synthesis and evaluation of novel molecules for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease Contact:   Dr Ben Ross

Title:  Computer-aided design, synthesis and evaluation of new drugs for cancer, pain and neurodegenerative diseases Contact:   Dr Ben Ross

Pharmacy Education Research Centre

No current projects available.

Alan Grant-Taylor Memorial Scholarship: Community Pharmacy Practice

Find out more about the Alan Grant-Taylor Memorial Scholarship

UQ Summer and Winter Research Programs

Coordinated by the UQ Student Employability Centre, these programs provide an opportunity for scholars to work with a researcher in a formal research environment in their area of interest.

By participating in a program students will gain valuable academic and professional opportunities, develop analytical, critical thinking, and communication skills, and have an opportunity to cultivate links with industry and academic contacts. 

It is also a chance to ‘test drive’ research before embarking on further research studies or higher degree research projects. Participation is open to undergraduate students and Masters by coursework students.

All students participating in the summer and winter programs will receive a scholarship. General information on the program, including how to apply, is available from the UQ Student Employability Centre’s program website .

Please see our Summer and Winter Research Program page for a full list of the available programs.

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An Exploration of Pharmacy Education Researchers’ Perceptions and Experiences Conducting Qualitative Research

Antonio a bush , phd, ms, mauriell amechi , phd, ma, adam persky , phd.

• Author information
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• Copyright and License information

Corresponding Author: Antonio A. Bush, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599. Email: [email protected] .

Note: At the time of manuscript submission, coauthors Drs. Bush and Amechi were affiliated with the UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy. Dr. Bush is now with the Association of American Medical Colleges and holds an adjunct faculty position at UNC. Dr. Amechi was a postdoctoral research fellow at UNC and is now a visiting assistant professor with Old Dominion University in Norfolk, VA.

Corresponding author.

Received 2018 Apr 23; Accepted 2019 Mar 4.

Objective. To investigate pharmacy education researchers’ experiences in conducting qualitative research and their perceptions of qualitative research in pharmacy education

Methods. A phenomenological approach was used to conduct one-time, in-depth interviews with 19 participants from 12 schools and colleges of pharmacy. Interview transcripts were coded and themes were identified using a modified form of the Sort and Sift, Think and Shift method of data analysis.

Results. Faculty members were the largest subgroup in the sample, followed by graduate students, postdoctoral fellows/scholars, and residents. Pharmacy education researchers had varying levels of training in conducting qualitative research and some had none at all. Salient findings included that pharmacy educators’ lack of training and exposure to qualitative research was a barrier to entry to conducting qualitative research; the lack of understanding and value of qualitative research in pharmacy education impacts the acceptability of qualitative research projects in Journals and academic meetings; and qualitative research offers several benefits in answering complex research questions.

Conclusion. The application of rigorous qualitative research in pharmacy education holds great potential in addressing complex and evolving healthcare problems. This work provides empirical evidence of the ongoing anecdotal dialogue that has long existed in pharmacy education concerning why some researchers are hesitant to conduct qualitative research, the challenges encountered by those who employ qualitative approaches, and the benefits qualitative approaches provide.

Keywords: pharmacy, qualitative, educational research, quantitative

INTRODUCTION

Practitioners and researchers in health professions fields are increasingly recognizing the value and critical role of employing rigorous qualitative research approaches in addressing complex and evolving healthcare problems. 1-5 Unlike quantitative inquiry, qualitative research can provide holistic insights into why people engage in particular actions or how they experience them. 1-5 In-depth interviews, focus groups, and participant observations, among other methods frequently employed in health professions research, have also been vital research tools in pharmacy education. For instance, while some studies focus exclusively on qualitative methods, others have applied this approach to complement or explain quantitative results or serve as a preceding exploratory method to guide quantitative approaches (ie, mixed methods). 5-7 Nevertheless, as some researchers have noted, qualitative research methods remain considerably underutilized by most pharmacy education researchers. 1,5,8 Moreover, ongoing calls (and guidelines) for more rigorous standards in reporting qualitative research are pervasive in the health professions literature. 1-5

Qualitative research involves the study of social phenomena in natural settings, delving into the meaning, experiences, and views of the participant in the world. 1,9 Compared to quantitative research, qualitative research approaches offer the advantages of an emergent and fluid design, the exploration of a problem in natural settings, and the ability to capture participants’ meanings via rich, thick descriptions. 1,9 Notwithstanding the multiple strengths of qualitative research methods, a significant divide exists among researchers on issues of ontology and epistemology and the standards for methodological rigor. In light of present debates and the increasing significance of this methodological approach, it is essential for pharmacy education researchers to reassess their experience with and preparation for conducting qualitative research. To advance qualitative scholarship within the field, researchers must leverage rigorous qualitative research methods consistent with guidelines issued by the Journal .

The purpose of this study was to investigate pharmacy education researchers’ experiences conducting qualitative research and their perceptions of qualitative research in pharmacy education. Three central research questions guided this study: What concerns impede pharmacy educators from employing qualitative research? What are the barriers and challenges of employing qualitative research in pharmacy education? What are pharmacy educators’ perceptions of the benefits of employing qualitative research?


A phenomenological qualitative approach was used to address the study’s guiding questions. The phenomenological approach best positioned us to understand the participants’ experiences and make meaning of the phenomena under study. 10 This exploratory approach was suitable because no systematic research had yet been published on this topic. The study was approved by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects in Research.

One-time, in-depth interviews were conducted with 19 participants using a semi-structured protocol. Purposeful sampling (ie, participant selection according to a set of predetermined criteria) was used to capture multiple perspectives and explore information-rich cases. 9 Participants were selected based on the following predetermined criteria: they were identified as a pharmacy faculty, postdoctoral fellow/scholar, resident, graduate student, and/or staff member; they were affiliated with an accredited school/college of pharmacy; and they had experience conducting pharmacy education research (eg, quantitative, qualitative, and/or mixed methods).

To begin recruitment, the primary investigator sent an introductory email to pharmacy education researchers via listservs (ie, email distribution lists) and contacts from pharmacy education research centers. The researchers began with listservs from two nationally recognized centers for pharmacy education research: The Wulling Center for Innovation and Scholarship in Pharmacy Education (W-CISPE) at the University of Minnesota, and the Center for Innovative Pharmacy Education and Research at the University of Chapel Hill. These centers were selected because of their dedication to advancing educational research and scholarship in pharmacy education and their expansive listservs of collaborators. In addition to these centers, information on the research project was sent to other pharmacy education insiders across the United States for dissemination. Consistent with snowball sampling, in the initial recruitment email, prospective participants were asked to forward the email to other contacts who might be interested and fit the inclusion criteria. 9 Before the interview, participants completed an informed consent form and demographic survey online (eg, level of education attained, employee or trainee classification, and prior experience conducting qualitative research). The majority of the interviews were conducted via a video-conference call, while the rest were facilitated in-person or via telephone. Modified from previous work completed by Povee and Roberts, 11 our interview protocol questions explored several topics such as how participants defined qualitative research, their past experiences using qualitative research, their exposure to formal or informal training related to qualitative research, and their perceptions of how qualitative approaches might be used to advance pharmacy education research. Each interview was audio recorded. Interviews lasted from 30 to 45 minutes, on average. Upon completion of the interviews, the audio data were professionally transcribed by a third-party (ie, Rev.com , San Francisco, CA). The de-identified transcripts were then uploaded to a password protected drive to begin analysis. Participants did not receive any incentive for participation.

We employed a modified form of the Sort and Sift, Think and Shift method to analyze the data. 12 This approach “is an iterative process whereby analysts dive into data to understand its content, dimensions and properties, and then step back to assess what they have learned and to determine next steps.” 12 The Sort and Sift, Think and Shift method is informed by a variety of key qualitative components including: Labov’s six identifiable elements of storytelling (abstract, orientation, complicating action, evaluation, result or resolution, and coda), 13 Seidel’s model of qualitative data analysis process (ie, collecting, thinking, noticing, and engaging), 14 and five common qualitative traditions (ie, phenomenology, grounded theory, narrative, ethnography, and case study). The comprehensiveness of the Sort and Sift, Think and Shift process developed a unique framework for data analysis, conducted through several rounds of coding, review, and consensus building.

The first step in the data analysis process was selecting the five most substantive interviews to review. Then, qualitative data analysis software (ie, Atlas.ti, v.1.6.0; Scientific Software Development GmbH; Berlin, Germany) was used to review each interview transcript and highlight powerful segments of the data (ie, pulse quotations) that were meaningful, interesting, and/or impactful (ie, first round open-coding).

Next, PowerPoint was used to develop a visual depiction of each of the reviewed transcripts (ie, episode profiles) affording an opportunity to connect the data and identify relevant topics within each transcript across three predetermined themes: pharmacy educators’ qualitative research experiences, barriers and challenges when considering and conducting qualitative research in pharmacy education, and benefits of employing qualitative research in pharmacy education. Topics (or categories) were selected if they were considered to be relevant to the purpose of the research, impactful, comprehensible, and/or connected to other topics. Upon completion, the five episode profiles were compared and topics were identified across the data. Next, the identified topics were used to develop a codebook. The codebook consisted of a code name, description of the code, and a sample participant quotation for each code. The codebook was then reviewed by members of the research team. The analysts met to discuss any areas of disagreement and come to consensus. The codebook was then modified to reflect the agreed upon changes.

Next, the modified codebook was used to code all interviews in Atlas.ti (second round coding). Upon completion of second round coding, the data were exported from Atlas.ti to an Excel document for a third round of coding. During the third round of coding, each coded quotation was reviewed to ensure that it was captured under the appropriate code and combined similar codes to develop themes and subthemes related to each research question. The final themes were reviewed by all members of the research team, and areas of disagreement were discussed and consensus was established. The employment of this rigorous data analysis process, which included several rounds of extensive coding, afforded us with an opportunity to glean a comprehensive understanding of the participants’ experiences and enhance the trustworthiness of our study and results.

Interviews were completed with 19 participants with experience conducting research in pharmacy education. Demographically, faculty members (including administrators and/or staff members with faculty appointments) (n=15) represented the largest numeric subgroup in the sample, followed by graduate students (n=2), postdoctoral fellows/scholars (n=1), and residents (n=1) (Table 2). All participants had attained either a professional degree and/or a doctoral degree and represented 12 different schools and colleges of pharmacy. The majority of the participants had experience conducting qualitative research, and had either led or contributed to an average of three qualitative projects.

Several themes emerged from this exploratory study. The themes are presented below as aligned with the research questions. Appendix 1 provides additional exemplar participant quotes. Pseudonyms are used in place of the participants’ real names. Participant pseudonyms were produced by an online random name generator ( http://random-name-generator.info/random ). Two themes relating to pharmacy educators’ qualitative training experiences emerged. Specifically, participants noted that they gained qualitative research training through both formal and informal means. Some participants received formal qualitative research training via courses taken to fulfill requirements for a master’s degree (ie, as a resident) or doctorate degree. The levels of training varied. Some participants took courses with a specific focus on qualitative research (ie, Introduction to Qualitative Research). For example, Leonard, a faculty member noted, “I got full training in qualitative through my master's [degree] and my Ph.D., but primarily in my Ph.D. is where I went more in-depth with it.” Other participants noted that while they had taken educational research design courses, the units specific to qualitative research were occasionally distributed throughout the courses. For example, in describing his training, a resident, noted, “I would say it would be limited…There are a couple [of] classes that either directly or indirectly include qualitative research content…sometimes it's like a whole class on qualitative research, but then sometimes it's just looped in through the course as we go.” Other pharmacy education researchers received what Sylvia, a faculty member, referred to as “on the job training” or informal training. Specifically, these participants were self-taught, acquiring their qualitative knowledge through a variety of alternative mechanisms.

One way participants received training in qualitative research was by engaging in professional development or continuing education opportunities (eg, workshops, research institutes, short courses, and sessions at professional conference). Participants also received training through trial and error, by designing and engaging in qualitative research projects and figuring it out along the way. Roberta described this as “diving right in.” Another faculty member, Erin, who had not received formal qualitative research training stated, “I haven’t received any formal qualitative research training. I think I've mainly learned through jumping in with a few projects here or there.”

Participants also received informal training by reading research and methodology articles and reviewing other sources, such as books, to assist them in designing qualitative research projects: “I've been reading about it on my own, whether that's through books or articles” (Priscilla, faculty member). Willie, a faculty member noted, “I think reading the educational research, you begin to understand what people do when they [conduct] qualitative analysis or do qualitative research. So reading other qualitative studies and reading about qualitative research to help us better understand how to do it.”

The participants also shared how they sought training from colleagues, faculty members, and staff members with expertise in qualitative research within their pharmacy school, at their university, and/or at other institutions. For example, Erin, a faculty member, stated, “So, we'll go to an expert…and just kind of learn by watching their analysis of that information as best I can...So, kind of learning how to think through the methodology of a particular project, and the steps that we should go through to have a valid research process.”

The next set of themes conveyed the barriers and challenges the participants faced when conducting qualitative research in pharmacy education. Three barriers and challenges were found. First, participants noted how their lack of training and limited exposure to qualitative research presented a “barrier to entry” to considering and/or conducting qualitative research. Another pharmacy education researcher, Roberta, stated, “Nowhere in our pharmacy education, at least nowhere in my pharmacy education, did we talk about qualitative research.” Participants noted that quantitative approaches (eg, clinical trials) were primarily emphasized during their pharmacy training. As expressed by faculty member Armando, “I'm more comfortable with quantitative because I was trained…to do quantitative types of research.” However, participants did express that increased training and exposure to qualitative research, and greater access to colleagues with such expertise would be helpful in increasing their understanding of the value of qualitative research. As Erin explained, “If we became more familiar with how to do qualitative research and understand it, then…we would probably become more accepting of it.”

The second barrier identified by the participants included a variety of challenges surrounding recruiting participants, data collection, and data analysis. Concerning recruitment and data collection, participants described difficulties including managing the logistics of scheduling interviews and focus groups, as well as the time needed to collect qualitative data. Evelyn, a graduate student, stated, “I think it's challenging to recruit participants because you're asking for a fairly significant amount of their time... I think one of my biggest barriers, number one, is just feeling comfortable asking people for their time...Then, number two, finding participants who are willing to give up their time.”

Participants in this study also discussed challenges related to the data analysis process. Spencer, a faculty member, stated, “[Qualitative research] generates a lot of data, which is good but that's also a disadvantage in that then you've got to analyze that data.” Erin expressed similar concerns related to analyzing qualitative data: “It's harder to access the information and process it. In clinical research, it was very easy to download 100 patients' hemoglobin A1Cs and rapidly get that into an average with means and standard deviations, and run T-tests on them, and all of that kind of stuff. I think the barrier, [or] onus, of [conducting] qualitative research is processing large amounts of information.” Issues related to analyzing qualitative data included converting audio-recorded interviews into transcribed text, and securing the funds to pay someone or a service to transcribe the recordings. Some participants, such as Mark, a resident, noted that funding for interview transcription within qualitative research projects was scant, “… I just begged to get funding for transcription...even when you collaborate with faculty, I think some of them don't really have research money, and that can be difficult. So, I think if there [were] a pool or something that we could apply for that would give the resources and funding, it [would] make it a lot easier. Because there is a lot of work ahead to transcribe that data, analyze it, [and get the paper submitted to] the journal.”

Lastly, participants expressed issues concerning the acceptability, perceived value, and lack of appreciation for qualitative research in pharmacy education. These concerns triggered apprehension for those considering qualitative approaches and served as a barrier to publication for scholars who frequently used the approach. Carmen, a graduate student, stated, “In the pharmacy world, when I’ve tried to conduct qualitative research, I feel this insecurity for legitimacy… I have to make it look more like quantitative methods for it to be accepted.” The participants expressed that qualitative research was open to more scrutiny than quantitative approaches and was perceived to be considered less scientific than quantitative approaches, which may impact the legitimacy of qualitative research in pharmacy education. One faculty member, Spencer, described the divide between quantitative and qualitative approaches as a “paradigm war.” Kelly noted that formal training might contribute to the acceptance and perceived value of qualitative approaches: “because we're not trained formally in qualitative methodology, there is less acceptance of it.”

Because of perceptions of the acceptability and value of qualitative approaches, participants expressed that it has been difficult to get qualitative research projects accepted for publication in prominent pharmacy education journals and at pharmacy education conferences. The participants communicated that, in some instances, reviewers had questioned the veracity of [their] work,” “wanted to see numbers (instead of words),” and had limited understanding of qualitative research data collection and analysis. Participants also noted that challenges existed in determining the best approach to present their qualitative work through manuscripts. Roberta discussed the challenge of writing as a qualitative researcher: “Qualitative researchers have to be really prolific writers, and describe and tell stories, and paint the picture, and describe the meanings behind what [their] participants are telling [them] or showing [them].” Participants also noted that the jargon used in qualitative research compared to that used in quantitative research might contribute to qualitative approaches not being understood by readers.

The final themes summarized participants’ views of the benefits of employing qualitative research in pharmacy education. Three benefits surfaced from the interviews. First, the participants discussed how the exploratory nature of qualitative research affords an opportunity to investigate a variety of topics in which little to no research exists. The researchers noted that the landscape of pharmacy education is changing. For example, Evelyn stated, “I think our field has a lot to offer, especially because it's evolving right now… I think capturing it via qualitative methods is …very valuable. In light of the ongoing transformations to pharmacy education and practice, participants expressed that different perspectives might be needed to explore unknown topics. As Sylvia, a faculty member, expressed, “I think [qualitative approaches] gives us a different way to look at some of the things that we're doing on the educational side of things, that we haven't had before. I think it's a different way to communicate... those findings, that information. I think there's a need for it...[We may] gain some information that will help us do things moving forward.”

The second benefit noted by participants was that qualitative approaches could be employed to answer complex questions that quantitative methods may inadequately address. Verna, a faculty member, noted, “I think a lot of the questions that we need to ask can't be answered quantitatively. I still come to this with a bias that quantitative research answers some questions better than qualitative research can, but there's definitely a place for qualitative research….” Similarly, another participant shared their reasoning for employing qualitative approaches: “It's been pretty clear that multiple questions can't be answered quantitatively, so that's why I'm branching out into qualitative research.” However, participants also noted how qualitative and quantitative approaches could be combined (ie, mixed methods) to provide a holistic view of a research problem. Verna explained that she saw qualitative research as a type of precursor that would lead to other questions that could be answered with quantitative research. “I see the two go kind of hand-in-hand because pharmacists like numbers. Let's face it; they want to look at the numbers, too. But I see that qualitative research has the potential to inform the quantitative research and maybe help expedite or progress that area of pharmacy education research as well.” The final benefit expressed by the participants was that qualitative methods provide greater depth of inquiry via the collection of “rich” data. For example, Erin, a faculty member, noted that qualitative approaches afford an opportunity to “put a human touch on your study” and hear the voices of the participants.

The purpose of this study was to explore pharmacy education researchers’ experiences and perceptions of qualitative research. Several themes were found presenting opportunities for the Academy to address gaps in the preparation of researchers in or entering the field. The first two themes reflected the dichotomy of training experiences. Just as faculty members are rarely formally trained to teach, they also are unlikely to be formally trained in qualitative methods, or educational research broadly. Thus, faculty members often seek out professional development to learn these desired skills, which may be problematic for those members with limited resources or insufficient opportunities. This is especially noteworthy considering that researchers (ie, humans) are the “instruments” in qualitative research. 10,15 As Kuh and Andreas stated, “The integrity of qualitative data depends on the competence of the data collection instruments—human beings. That is, the data are only as good as the qualifications of the inquirer.” 15,16

While it may be challenging for faculty members to obtain formal training in qualitative methods, the pharmacy education academy has expanded its offerings in recent years. For example, the Journal will release a special-themed issue on qualitative research to provide frameworks and resources and has previously published similar work. 1 Additionally, the American Association of College of Pharmacy has sponsored presentations at various conferences regarding qualitative research. 17,18 Further, in 2014, the Journal of Academic Medicine , published standards for reporting qualitative research, 4 and in 2011, the Journal of Graduate Medicine published a series on qualitative methods. 19

Like other faculty development models, a mentoring model or community of practice may also be appropriate to help develop qualitative research skills. In fact, some pharmacy education researchers included in the study expressed a need for such mentoring and suggested that increased exposure, training, and understanding of qualitative research may increase its value and acceptability in pharmacy education. This mentoring could be formed through schools and colleges of pharmacy partnering with qualitative research experts within their institutions (ie, schools of education, psychology, etc.) and with national organizations or research consulting firms.

Because faculty members may not have read a substantial number of qualitative research studies and have no formal training in this area, they may be more averse to engaging in this approach. This is consistent with self-determination theory, where self-efficacy is a driving force of motivation. 20 This barrier can be addressed in two ways. The first is increased training through the methods mentioned previously. The second is to increase the presence of qualitative research in educational publications read by pharmacy educators. Providing model papers reinforces the appropriate methods and rigor of qualitative research. Journal editors could play an important role here by recognizing and selecting these quality papers for publication and subsequently promoting the works.

Participants also discussed the acceptability or appreciation of qualitative research. Most pharmacy educators are more familiar with quantitative methods. Thus, the lack of appreciation for qualitative approaches may result from an inadequate understanding of the underpinnings of the methodology, which may be linked to the lack of training and exposure to the approach in pharmacy education. 21,22 This issue could be addressed by having better examples within the literature of qualitative methods and manuscripts that use qualitative methods to “close the loop” on research questions.

When discussing barriers, participants cited the process of conducting the research. One challenge was time, specifically, the time researchers must spend recruiting participants, and collecting, transcribing, and coding the data. According to Archibald and Munce, when conducting qualitative research, recruiting participants “is often the most challenging and resource intensive aspect of a study.” 23 Frequently, researchers misjudge the amount of time needed to recruit participants as well as the participants’ interest, availability, and eligibility to participate in the study. 23 Perhaps this is not only an issue for qualitative research but also recruiting participants for educational research projects in general. However, in qualitative research, the logistics and time surrounding participant recruitment and data collection (eg, interviews, focus groups) are especially problematic if researchers fail to anticipate challenges and consider options to address these challenges. 23 Archibald and Munce review some of the potential challenges and outline several strategies to employ: designate a member of the research team to lead recruitment efforts; create a recruitment protocol with clear instructions, aligning recruitment strategies with the participant sample (eg, different strategies will be needed to recruit faculty vs students vs patients); anticipate prolonged engagement with the study site and gatekeepers prior and during recruitment to build trust; and provide incentives for participation. 23

According to Harper and Kuh, qualitative data analysis are often perceived to be “labor intensive and cumbersome.” 15 Not surprisingly, some participants with formal qualitative research training identified this as a barrier. Such feelings are amplified for those participants delving into projects with little to no formal training. To alleviate such challenges, some participants noted that they sought the qualitative research expertise of their colleagues. Using a collaborative, team-based approach may decrease the time needed to analyze data (ie, increase efficiency) and enhance meaning-making. 15 However, employing a team-based approach is not without challenges. When developing teams, it is important to be thoughtful about roles, responsibilities, and expectations and have consensus on managing and analyzing the data to increase productivity. 24

The participants described several benefits of qualitative research. The benefits centered around the richness of the data, the ability to answer questions for which quantitative approaches may not be best positioned to answer, and the exploratory nature of qualitative research. As stated by Givens, “The term rich data describes the notion that qualitative data and their subsequent representation in [a] text should reveal the complexities and the richness of what is being studied… In short, rich, thick description builds on rich data to grab readers, giving them a sense that they are there, experiencing what the researcher is representing.” 25 Much of the educational research conducted in pharmacy education centers on people (ie, learners, trainees, faculty members, and/or patients). Conveying their experiences using rich data may provide valuable context and perspective, 26 and help to inform decisions and policies made to improve educational outcomes. Participants also mentioned how employing a mixed method approach may allow for a more holistic picture of a problem. In some instances with mixed methods approaches, qualitative data may inform a quantitative approach. For example, after analyzing qualitative data, a survey could be developed to capture a broader audience’s opinions. Conversely, a qualitative approach may follow quantitative approach to delve deeper into the “how” and “why” of the data.

While our work provides key information to propel the dialogue more work should be done to explore the barriers to entry into, challenges with conducting with, and the benefits of qualitative research. Considering the aforementioned, we offer suggestions for future research to provide a deeper and more holistic understanding of these phenomena. For example, the themes emerging from our data may provide a framework for a researcher to sample a larger number of educational researchers via a survey or mixed methods approach to find keys to success and best practices among those who have been successful in conducting qualitative research. There are limitations in this study that should be addressed in future research. Specifically, the study focused on the experiences of a variety of pharmacy educators including faculty members, students, and residents. However, the majority of participants in this study were faculty members. Thus, future studies may consider delving deeper into the experiences of students and residents. As trainees, understanding their perspectives and knowledge of qualitative approaches and research training experiences could provide key insight into what is needed to prepare the next generation of scholar-practitioners.

Despite the increasing application of rigorous qualitative approaches in many health professions fields, qualitative research remains mostly underutilized in pharmacy. In this study, we interviewed 19 pharmacy education researchers and cataloged their perceptions of and experiences with conducting qualitative research. Our findings provide empirical evidence to the anecdotal dialogue that has long existed in pharmacy education to explain why some researchers are hesitant to conduct qualitative research, the challenges encountered by those who employed qualitative approaches, and the benefits that qualitative approaches provide. The findings from this study are especially useful in pharmacy and pharmaceutical sciences as the need to address complex problems intensifies in a rapidly evolving environment. Whether as a standalone method or combined with quantitative approaches, qualitative approaches may provide a suitable solution to advance pharmacy education research.

Appendix 1.

Themes and Participant Quotes From Interviews Regarding Views on Qualitative Research

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A Descriptive Study Examining Trends in Pharmacist-Authored Original Research Publications in the Journal of the American Medical Association Network from 2000 to 2019

Affiliations.

• 1 School of Pharmacy and Health Professions, Creighton University, Omaha, NE 68178, USA.
• 2 Department of Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy and Health Professions, Creighton University, Omaha, NE 68178, USA.
• PMID: 33668619
• PMCID: PMC7931010
• DOI: 10.3390/pharmacy9010040

Pharmacists are expected to participate in the conduction of research to advance the profession and health care broadly. Additional opportunities for pharmacist research engagement have emerged with the increased integration of clinically trained pharmacists into interprofessional care teams. Research conducted over the past four decades has demonstrated an increasing trend of pharmacist-authored publications in medical journals. The purpose of this study was to build upon this work and investigate trends in pharmacist-authored original research publications within the JAMA Network over the past 20 years. A descriptive study design was used to retrospectively evaluate trends in the numbers of pharmacist-authored publications and authorship within those publications in nine JAMA Network journals. Data were aggregated into ten-year time periods (2000-2009 and 2010-2019) and compared using chi-square and Fisher's exact tests. Overall, pharmacist-authored publications significantly increased over the ten-year period (2.0% to 3.0%, p < 0.001), including in five specific journals: JAMA , JAMA Dermatology , JAMA Neurology , JAMA Ophthalmology , and JAMA Surgery . There was no change in first-and senior-authored publications. While the overall pharmacist publication trend was positive, room for significant growth remains. A deeper understanding of the barriers and facilitators to pharmacist engagement in research is needed, along with strategies to enhance pharmacist research training.

Keywords: authorship; bibliometrics; medical journals; pharmacy research; publishing trends; research training.