empirical and theoretical literature review pdf

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Module 2 Chapter 3: What is Empirical Literature & Where can it be Found?

In Module 1, you read about the problem of pseudoscience. Here, we revisit the issue in addressing how to locate and assess scientific or empirical literature . In this chapter you will read about:

• distinguishing between what IS and IS NOT empirical literature
• how and where to locate empirical literature for understanding diverse populations, social work problems, and social phenomena.

Probably the most important take-home lesson from this chapter is that one source is not sufficient to being well-informed on a topic. It is important to locate multiple sources of information and to critically appraise the points of convergence and divergence in the information acquired from different sources. This is especially true in emerging and poorly understood topics, as well as in answering complex questions.

What Is Empirical Literature

Social workers often need to locate valid, reliable information concerning the dimensions of a population group or subgroup, a social work problem, or social phenomenon. They might also seek information about the way specific problems or resources are distributed among the populations encountered in professional practice. Or, social workers might be interested in finding out about the way that certain people experience an event or phenomenon. Empirical literature resources may provide answers to many of these types of social work questions. In addition, resources containing data regarding social indicators may also prove helpful. Social indicators are the “facts and figures” statistics that describe the social, economic, and psychological factors that have an impact on the well-being of a community or other population group.The United Nations (UN) and the World Health Organization (WHO) are examples of organizations that monitor social indicators at a global level: dimensions of population trends (size, composition, growth/loss), health status (physical, mental, behavioral, life expectancy, maternal and infant mortality, fertility/child-bearing, and diseases like HIV/AIDS), housing and quality of sanitation (water supply, waste disposal), education and literacy, and work/income/unemployment/economics, for example.

Three characteristics stand out in empirical literature compared to other types of information available on a topic of interest: systematic observation and methodology, objectivity, and transparency/replicability/reproducibility. Let’s look a little more closely at these three features.

Systematic Observation and Methodology. The hallmark of empiricism is “repeated or reinforced observation of the facts or phenomena” (Holosko, 2006, p. 6). In empirical literature, established research methodologies and procedures are systematically applied to answer the questions of interest.

Objectivity. Gathering “facts,” whatever they may be, drives the search for empirical evidence (Holosko, 2006). Authors of empirical literature are expected to report the facts as observed, whether or not these facts support the investigators’ original hypotheses. Research integrity demands that the information be provided in an objective manner, reducing sources of investigator bias to the greatest possible extent.

Transparency and Replicability/Reproducibility.   Empirical literature is reported in such a manner that other investigators understand precisely what was done and what was found in a particular research study—to the extent that they could replicate the study to determine whether the findings are reproduced when repeated. The outcomes of an original and replication study may differ, but a reader could easily interpret the methods and procedures leading to each study’s findings.

What is NOT Empirical Literature

By now, it is probably obvious to you that literature based on “evidence” that is not developed in a systematic, objective, transparent manner is not empirical literature. On one hand, non-empirical types of professional literature may have great significance to social workers. For example, social work scholars may produce articles that are clearly identified as describing a new intervention or program without evaluative evidence, critiquing a policy or practice, or offering a tentative, untested theory about a phenomenon. These resources are useful in educating ourselves about possible issues or concerns. But, even if they are informed by evidence, they are not empirical literature. Here is a list of several sources of information that do not meet the standard of being called empirical literature:

• your course instructor’s lectures
• political statements
• advertisements
• newspapers & magazines (journalism)
• television news reports & analyses (journalism)
• many websites, Facebook postings, Twitter tweets, and blog postings
• the introductory literature review in an empirical article

You may be surprised to see the last two included in this list. Like the other sources of information listed, these sources also might lead you to look for evidence. But, they are not themselves sources of evidence. They may summarize existing evidence, but in the process of summarizing (like your instructor’s lectures), information is transformed, modified, reduced, condensed, and otherwise manipulated in such a manner that you may not see the entire, objective story. These are called secondary sources, as opposed to the original, primary source of evidence. In relying solely on secondary sources, you sacrifice your own critical appraisal and thinking about the original work—you are “buying” someone else’s interpretation and opinion about the original work, rather than developing your own interpretation and opinion. What if they got it wrong? How would you know if you did not examine the primary source for yourself? Consider the following as an example of “getting it wrong” being perpetuated.

Example: Bullying and School Shootings . One result of the heavily publicized April 1999 school shooting incident at Columbine High School (Colorado), was a heavy emphasis placed on bullying as a causal factor in these incidents (Mears, Moon, & Thielo, 2017), “creating a powerful master narrative about school shootings” (Raitanen, Sandberg, & Oksanen, 2017, p. 3). Naturally, with an identified cause, a great deal of effort was devoted to anti-bullying campaigns and interventions for enhancing resilience among youth who experience bullying.  However important these strategies might be for promoting positive mental health, preventing poor mental health, and possibly preventing suicide among school-aged children and youth, it is a mistaken belief that this can prevent school shootings (Mears, Moon, & Thielo, 2017). Many times the accounts of the perpetrators having been bullied come from potentially inaccurate third-party accounts, rather than the perpetrators themselves; bullying was not involved in all instances of school shooting; a perpetrator’s perception of being bullied/persecuted are not necessarily accurate; many who experience severe bullying do not perpetrate these incidents; bullies are the least targeted shooting victims; perpetrators of the shooting incidents were often bullying others; and, bullying is only one of many important factors associated with perpetrating such an incident (Ioannou, Hammond, & Simpson, 2015; Mears, Moon, & Thielo, 2017; Newman &Fox, 2009; Raitanen, Sandberg, & Oksanen, 2017). While mass media reports deliver bullying as a means of explaining the inexplicable, the reality is not so simple: “The connection between bullying and school shootings is elusive” (Langman, 2014), and “the relationship between bullying and school shooting is, at best, tenuous” (Mears, Moon, & Thielo, 2017, p. 940). The point is, when a narrative becomes this publicly accepted, it is difficult to sort out truth and reality without going back to original sources of information and evidence.

What May or May Not Be Empirical Literature: Literature Reviews

Investigators typically engage in a review of existing literature as they develop their own research studies. The review informs them about where knowledge gaps exist, methods previously employed by other scholars, limitations of prior work, and previous scholars’ recommendations for directing future research. These reviews may appear as a published article, without new study data being reported (see Fields, Anderson, & Dabelko-Schoeny, 2014 for example). Or, the literature review may appear in the introduction to their own empirical study report. These literature reviews are not considered to be empirical evidence sources themselves, although they may be based on empirical evidence sources. One reason is that the authors of a literature review may or may not have engaged in a systematic search process, identifying a full, rich, multi-sided pool of evidence reports.

There is, however, a type of review that applies systematic methods and is, therefore, considered to be more strongly rooted in evidence: the systematic review .

Systematic review of literature. A systematic reviewis a type of literature report where established methods have been systematically applied, objectively, in locating and synthesizing a body of literature. The systematic review report is characterized by a great deal of transparency about the methods used and the decisions made in the review process, and are replicable. Thus, it meets the criteria for empirical literature: systematic observation and methodology, objectivity, and transparency/reproducibility. We will work a great deal more with systematic reviews in the second course, SWK 3402, since they are important tools for understanding interventions. They are somewhat less common, but not unheard of, in helping us understand diverse populations, social work problems, and social phenomena.

Locating Empirical Evidence

Social workers have available a wide array of tools and resources for locating empirical evidence in the literature. These can be organized into four general categories.

Journal Articles. A number of professional journals publish articles where investigators report on the results of their empirical studies. However, it is important to know how to distinguish between empirical and non-empirical manuscripts in these journals. A key indicator, though not the only one, involves a peer review process . Many professional journals require that manuscripts undergo a process of peer review before they are accepted for publication. This means that the authors’ work is shared with scholars who provide feedback to the journal editor as to the quality of the submitted manuscript. The editor then makes a decision based on the reviewers’ feedback:

• Accept as is
• Accept with minor revisions
• Request that a revision be resubmitted (no assurance of acceptance)

When a “revise and resubmit” decision is made, the piece will go back through the review process to determine if it is now acceptable for publication and that all of the reviewers’ concerns have been adequately addressed. Editors may also reject a manuscript because it is a poor fit for the journal, based on its mission and audience, rather than sending it for review consideration.

Indicators of journal relevance. Various journals are not equally relevant to every type of question being asked of the literature. Journals may overlap to a great extent in terms of the topics they might cover; in other words, a topic might appear in multiple different journals, depending on how the topic was being addressed. For example, articles that might help answer a question about the relationship between community poverty and violence exposure might appear in several different journals, some with a focus on poverty, others with a focus on violence, and still others on community development or public health. Journal titles are sometimes a good starting point but may not give a broad enough picture of what they cover in their contents.

In focusing a literature search, it also helps to review a journal’s mission and target audience. For example, at least four different journals focus specifically on poverty:

• Journal of Children & Poverty
• Journal of Poverty
• Journal of Poverty and Social Justice
• Poverty & Public Policy

Let’s look at an example using the Journal of Poverty and Social Justice . Information about this journal is located on the journal’s webpage: http://policy.bristoluniversitypress.co.uk/journals/journal-of-poverty-and-social-justice . In the section headed “About the Journal” you can see that it is an internationally focused research journal, and that it addresses social justice issues in addition to poverty alone. The research articles are peer-reviewed (there appear to be non-empirical discussions published, as well). These descriptions about a journal are almost always available, sometimes listed as “scope” or “mission.” These descriptions also indicate the sponsorship of the journal—sponsorship may be institutional (a particular university or agency, such as Smith College Studies in Social Work ), a professional organization, such as the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) or the National Association of Social Work (NASW), or a publishing company (e.g., Taylor & Frances, Wiley, or Sage).

Indicators of journal caliber.  Despite engaging in a peer review process, not all journals are equally rigorous. Some journals have very high rejection rates, meaning that many submitted manuscripts are rejected; others have fairly high acceptance rates, meaning that relatively few manuscripts are rejected. This is not necessarily the best indicator of quality, however, since newer journals may not be sufficiently familiar to authors with high quality manuscripts and some journals are very specific in terms of what they publish. Another index that is sometimes used is the journal’s impact factor . Impact factor is a quantitative number indicative of how often articles published in the journal are cited in the reference list of other journal articles—the statistic is calculated as the number of times on average each article published in a particular year were cited divided by the number of articles published (the number that could be cited). For example, the impact factor for the Journal of Poverty and Social Justice in our list above was 0.70 in 2017, and for the Journal of Poverty was 0.30. These are relatively low figures compared to a journal like the New England Journal of Medicine with an impact factor of 59.56! This means that articles published in that journal were, on average, cited more than 59 times in the next year or two.

Impact factors are not necessarily the best indicator of caliber, however, since many strong journals are geared toward practitioners rather than scholars, so they are less likely to be cited by other scholars but may have a large impact on a large readership. This may be the case for a journal like the one titled Social Work, the official journal of the National Association of Social Workers. It is distributed free to all members: over 120,000 practitioners, educators, and students of social work world-wide. The journal has a recent impact factor of.790. The journals with social work relevant content have impact factors in the range of 1.0 to 3.0 according to Scimago Journal & Country Rank (SJR), particularly when they are interdisciplinary journals (for example, Child Development , Journal of Marriage and Family , Child Abuse and Neglect , Child Maltreatmen t, Social Service Review , and British Journal of Social Work ). Once upon a time, a reader could locate different indexes comparing the “quality” of social work-related journals. However, the concept of “quality” is difficult to systematically define. These indexes have mostly been replaced by impact ratings, which are not necessarily the best, most robust indicators on which to rely in assessing journal quality. For example, new journals addressing cutting edge topics have not been around long enough to have been evaluated using this particular tool, and it takes a few years for articles to begin to be cited in other, later publications.

Beware of pseudo-, illegitimate, misleading, deceptive, and suspicious journals . Another side effect of living in the Age of Information is that almost anyone can circulate almost anything and call it whatever they wish. This goes for “journal” publications, as well. With the advent of open-access publishing in recent years (electronic resources available without subscription), we have seen an explosion of what are called predatory or junk journals . These are publications calling themselves journals, often with titles very similar to legitimate publications and often with fake editorial boards. These “publications” lack the integrity of legitimate journals. This caution is reminiscent of the discussions earlier in the course about pseudoscience and “snake oil” sales. The predatory nature of many apparent information dissemination outlets has to do with how scientists and scholars may be fooled into submitting their work, often paying to have their work peer-reviewed and published. There exists a “thriving black-market economy of publishing scams,” and at least two “journal blacklists” exist to help identify and avoid these scam journals (Anderson, 2017).

This issue is important to information consumers, because it creates a challenge in terms of identifying legitimate sources and publications. The challenge is particularly important to address when information from on-line, open-access journals is being considered. Open-access is not necessarily a poor choice—legitimate scientists may pay sizeable fees to legitimate publishers to make their work freely available and accessible as open-access resources. On-line access is also not necessarily a poor choice—legitimate publishers often make articles available on-line to provide timely access to the content, especially when publishing the article in hard copy will be delayed by months or even a year or more. On the other hand, stating that a journal engages in a peer-review process is no guarantee of quality—this claim may or may not be truthful. Pseudo- and junk journals may engage in some quality control practices, but may lack attention to important quality control processes, such as managing conflict of interest, reviewing content for objectivity or quality of the research conducted, or otherwise failing to adhere to industry standards (Laine & Winker, 2017).

One resource designed to assist with the process of deciphering legitimacy is the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ). The DOAJ is not a comprehensive listing of all possible legitimate open-access journals, and does not guarantee quality, but it does help identify legitimate sources of information that are openly accessible and meet basic legitimacy criteria. It also is about open-access journals, not the many journals published in hard copy.

An additional caution: Search for article corrections. Despite all of the careful manuscript review and editing, sometimes an error appears in a published article. Most journals have a practice of publishing corrections in future issues. When you locate an article, it is helpful to also search for updates. Here is an example where data presented in an article’s original tables were erroneous, and a correction appeared in a later issue.

• Marchant, A., Hawton, K., Stewart A., Montgomery, P., Singaravelu, V., Lloyd, K., Purdy, N., Daine, K., & John, A. (2017). A systematic review of the relationship between internet use, self-harm and suicidal behaviour in young people: The good, the bad and the unknown. PLoS One, 12(8): e0181722. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5558917/
• Marchant, A., Hawton, K., Stewart A., Montgomery, P., Singaravelu, V., Lloyd, K., Purdy, N., Daine, K., & John, A. (2018).Correction—A systematic review of the relationship between internet use, self-harm and suicidal behaviour in young people: The good, the bad and the unknown. PLoS One, 13(3): e0193937.  http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0193937

Search Tools. In this age of information, it is all too easy to find items—the problem lies in sifting, sorting, and managing the vast numbers of items that can be found. For example, a simple Google® search for the topic “community poverty and violence” resulted in about 15,600,000 results! As a means of simplifying the process of searching for journal articles on a specific topic, a variety of helpful tools have emerged. One type of search tool has previously applied a filtering process for you: abstracting and indexing databases . These resources provide the user with the results of a search to which records have already passed through one or more filters. For example, PsycINFO is managed by the American Psychological Association and is devoted to peer-reviewed literature in behavioral science. It contains almost 4.5 million records and is growing every month. However, it may not be available to users who are not affiliated with a university library. Conducting a basic search for our topic of “community poverty and violence” in PsychINFO returned 1,119 articles. Still a large number, but far more manageable. Additional filters can be applied, such as limiting the range in publication dates, selecting only peer reviewed items, limiting the language of the published piece (English only, for example), and specified types of documents (either chapters, dissertations, or journal articles only, for example). Adding the filters for English, peer-reviewed journal articles published between 2010 and 2017 resulted in 346 documents being identified.

Just as was the case with journals, not all abstracting and indexing databases are equivalent. There may be overlap between them, but none is guaranteed to identify all relevant pieces of literature. Here are some examples to consider, depending on the nature of the questions asked of the literature:

• Academic Search Complete—multidisciplinary index of 9,300 peer-reviewed journals
• AgeLine—multidisciplinary index of aging-related content for over 600 journals
• Campbell Collaboration—systematic reviews in education, crime and justice, social welfare, international development
• Google Scholar—broad search tool for scholarly literature across many disciplines
• MEDLINE/ PubMed—National Library of medicine, access to over 15 million citations
• Oxford Bibliographies—annotated bibliographies, each is discipline specific (e.g., psychology, childhood studies, criminology, social work, sociology)
• PsycINFO/PsycLIT—international literature on material relevant to psychology and related disciplines
• SocINDEX—publications in sociology
• Social Sciences Abstracts—multiple disciplines
• Social Work Abstracts—many areas of social work are covered
• Web of Science—a “meta” search tool that searches other search tools, multiple disciplines

Placing our search for information about “community violence and poverty” into the Social Work Abstracts tool with no additional filters resulted in a manageable 54-item list. Finally, abstracting and indexing databases are another way to determine journal legitimacy: if a journal is indexed in a one of these systems, it is likely a legitimate journal. However, the converse is not necessarily true: if a journal is not indexed does not mean it is an illegitimate or pseudo-journal.

Government Sources. A great deal of information is gathered, analyzed, and disseminated by various governmental branches at the international, national, state, regional, county, and city level. Searching websites that end in.gov is one way to identify this type of information, often presented in articles, news briefs, and statistical reports. These government sources gather information in two ways: they fund external investigations through grants and contracts and they conduct research internally, through their own investigators. Here are some examples to consider, depending on the nature of the topic for which information is sought:

• Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) at https://www.ahrq.gov/
• Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) at https://www.bjs.gov/
• Census Bureau at https://www.census.gov
• Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report of the CDC (MMWR-CDC) at https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/index.html
• Child Welfare Information Gateway at https://www.childwelfare.gov
• Children’s Bureau/Administration for Children & Families at https://www.acf.hhs.gov
• Forum on Child and Family Statistics at https://www.childstats.gov
• National Institutes of Health (NIH) at https://www.nih.gov , including (not limited to):
• National Institute on Aging (NIA at https://www.nia.nih.gov
• National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) at https://www.niaaa.nih.gov
• National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) at https://www.nichd.nih.gov
• National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) at https://www.nida.nih.gov
• National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences at https://www.niehs.nih.gov
• National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) at https://www.nimh.nih.gov
• National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities at https://www.nimhd.nih.gov
• National Institute of Justice (NIJ) at https://www.nij.gov
• Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) at https://www.samhsa.gov/
• United States Agency for International Development at https://usaid.gov

Each state and many counties or cities have similar data sources and analysis reports available, such as Ohio Department of Health at https://www.odh.ohio.gov/healthstats/dataandstats.aspx and Franklin County at https://statisticalatlas.com/county/Ohio/Franklin-County/Overview . Data are available from international/global resources (e.g., United Nations and World Health Organization), as well.

Other Sources. The Health and Medicine Division (HMD) of the National Academies—previously the Institute of Medicine (IOM)—is a nonprofit institution that aims to provide government and private sector policy and other decision makers with objective analysis and advice for making informed health decisions. For example, in 2018 they produced reports on topics in substance use and mental health concerning the intersection of opioid use disorder and infectious disease,  the legal implications of emerging neurotechnologies, and a global agenda concerning the identification and prevention of violence (see http://www.nationalacademies.org/hmd/Global/Topics/Substance-Abuse-Mental-Health.aspx ). The exciting aspect of this resource is that it addresses many topics that are current concerns because they are hoping to help inform emerging policy. The caution to consider with this resource is the evidence is often still emerging, as well.

Numerous “think tank” organizations exist, each with a specific mission. For example, the Rand Corporation is a nonprofit organization offering research and analysis to address global issues since 1948. The institution’s mission is to help improve policy and decision making “to help individuals, families, and communities throughout the world be safer and more secure, healthier and more prosperous,” addressing issues of energy, education, health care, justice, the environment, international affairs, and national security (https://www.rand.org/about/history.html). And, for example, the Robert Woods Johnson Foundation is a philanthropic organization supporting research and research dissemination concerning health issues facing the United States. The foundation works to build a culture of health across systems of care (not only medical care) and communities (https://www.rwjf.org).

While many of these have a great deal of helpful evidence to share, they also may have a strong political bias. Objectivity is often lacking in what information these organizations provide: they provide evidence to support certain points of view. That is their purpose—to provide ideas on specific problems, many of which have a political component. Think tanks “are constantly researching solutions to a variety of the world’s problems, and arguing, advocating, and lobbying for policy changes at local, state, and federal levels” (quoted from https://thebestschools.org/features/most-influential-think-tanks/ ). Helpful information about what this one source identified as the 50 most influential U.S. think tanks includes identifying each think tank’s political orientation. For example, The Heritage Foundation is identified as conservative, whereas Human Rights Watch is identified as liberal.

While not the same as think tanks, many mission-driven organizations also sponsor or report on research, as well. For example, the National Association for Children of Alcoholics (NACOA) in the United States is a registered nonprofit organization. Its mission, along with other partnering organizations, private-sector groups, and federal agencies, is to promote policy and program development in research, prevention and treatment to provide information to, for, and about children of alcoholics (of all ages). Based on this mission, the organization supports knowledge development and information gathering on the topic and disseminates information that serves the needs of this population. While this is a worthwhile mission, there is no guarantee that the information meets the criteria for evidence with which we have been working. Evidence reported by think tank and mission-driven sources must be utilized with a great deal of caution and critical analysis!

In many instances an empirical report has not appeared in the published literature, but in the form of a technical or final report to the agency or program providing the funding for the research that was conducted. One such example is presented by a team of investigators funded by the National Institute of Justice to evaluate a program for training professionals to collect strong forensic evidence in instances of sexual assault (Patterson, Resko, Pierce-Weeks, & Campbell, 2014): https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/247081.pdf . Investigators may serve in the capacity of consultant to agencies, programs, or institutions, and provide empirical evidence to inform activities and planning. One such example is presented by Maguire-Jack (2014) as a report to a state’s child maltreatment prevention board: https://preventionboard.wi.gov/Documents/InvestmentInPreventionPrograming_Final.pdf .

When Direct Answers to Questions Cannot Be Found. Sometimes social workers are interested in finding answers to complex questions or questions related to an emerging, not-yet-understood topic. This does not mean giving up on empirical literature. Instead, it requires a bit of creativity in approaching the literature. A Venn diagram might help explain this process. Consider a scenario where a social worker wishes to locate literature to answer a question concerning issues of intersectionality. Intersectionality is a social justice term applied to situations where multiple categorizations or classifications come together to create overlapping, interconnected, or multiplied disadvantage. For example, women with a substance use disorder and who have been incarcerated face a triple threat in terms of successful treatment for a substance use disorder: intersectionality exists between being a woman, having a substance use disorder, and having been in jail or prison. After searching the literature, little or no empirical evidence might have been located on this specific triple-threat topic. Instead, the social worker will need to seek literature on each of the threats individually, and possibly will find literature on pairs of topics (see Figure 3-1). There exists some literature about women’s outcomes for treatment of a substance use disorder (a), some literature about women during and following incarceration (b), and some literature about substance use disorders and incarceration (c). Despite not having a direct line on the center of the intersecting spheres of literature (d), the social worker can develop at least a partial picture based on the overlapping literatures.

Figure 3-1. Venn diagram of intersecting literature sets.

Take a moment to complete the following activity. For each statement about empirical literature, decide if it is true or false.

Social Work 3401 Coursebook Copyright © by Dr. Audrey Begun is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Writing the literature review for empirical papers

Related Papers

International Journal of P R O F E S S I O N A L Business Review

With a view to examining the entire proposed structure for an empirical article, this editorial focuses on the Literature Review, also known as the Theoretical Framework. The literature review may be defined as “a documented review of published or unpublished works (articles, books, etc.) in specific fields of interest to the work of the researcher” (Ferreira, 2015: 36). It is to be found in conceptual articles such as empirical articles, whether qualitative or quantitative. It has a clear link to the article as a whole and provides support for the section on the development of the concept and the hypotheses/propositions that follow it in the structure of an empirical article.

Abdullah Ramdhani , Tatam Chiway , Muhammad Ali Ramdhani

• Learning outcomes • The nature of a literature review • Identifying the main subject and themes • Reviewing previous research • Emphasizing leading research studies • Exploring trends in the literature • Summarizing key ideas in a subject area • Summary A literature review is usually regarded as being an essential part of student projects, research studies and dissertations. This chapter examines the reasons for the importance of the literature review, and the things which it tries to achieve. It also explores the main strategies which you can use to write a good literature review.

Publications

Cherley C Du Plessis

The ability to conduct an explicit and robust literature review by students, scholars or scientists is critical in producing excellent journal articles, academic theses, academic dissertations or working papers. A literature review is an evaluation of existing research works on a specific academic topic, theme or subject to identify gaps and propose future research agenda. Many postgraduate students in higher education institutions lack the necessary skills and understanding to conduct in-depth literature reviews. This may lead to the presentation of incorrect, false or biased inferences in their theses or dissertations. This study offers scientific knowledge on how literature reviews in different fields of study could be conducted to mitigate against biased inferences such as unscientific analogies and baseless recommendations. The literature review is presented as a process that involves several activities including searching, identifying, reading, summarising, compiling, analysing, interpreting and referencing. We hope this article serves as reference material to improve the academic rigour in the literature review chapters of postgraduate students' theses or dissertations. This article prompts established scholars to explore more innovative ways through which scientific literature reviews can be conducted to identify gaps (empirical, knowledge, theoretical, methodological, application and population gap) and propose a future research agenda.

Rebekka Tunombili

Auxiliadora Padilha

Journal of Asian Development

Erni Murniarti

A debatable consensus on and appropriate approaches to literature review function as the theoretical background of the paper. It redefines the literature review substance, synthesis, and procedure to literature matrix, and literature review assessment. In addition, some implications are to interpret the discussion. Finally, finding of the present study is applicable to any study fields at it generally provides matrix for which writing literature review can be easily conducted. Suggestions, identical to the potential of further studies and its application by ongoing researcher and writer, are holistically provided.

Nirmal Kumar Raut

Amanda Bolderston

A literature review can be an informative, critical, and useful synthesis of a particular topic. It can identify what is known (and unknown) in the subject area, identify areas of controversy or debate, and help formulate questions that need further research. There are several commonly used formats for literature reviews, including systematic reviews conducted as primary research projects; reviews written as an introduction and foundation for a research study, such as a thesis or dissertation; and reviews as secondary data analysis research projects. Regardless of the type, a good review is characterized by the author’s efforts to evaluate and critically analyze the relevant work in the field. Published reviews can be invaluable, because they collect and disseminate evidence from diverse sources and disciplines to inform professional practice on a particular topic. This directed reading will introduce the learner to the process of conducting and writing their own literature review.

yakubu nawati

RELATED PAPERS

Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications

Alex Arenas

PRAMESTY ARDHIA

Pramesty ardhia

Selvie Anis

秋 Q 微 2 1 1 4 5 7 0 0 4 办 理 国 外 各 大 学 毕 业 证 成 绩 单 真 实 留 信 认 证 1 0 0 % 可 查 月

Journal of Translational Medicine

Falk Nimmerjahn

Ife Journal of Science

Debo Adeyewa

Thomas Pullum

Luigigiovanni Quarta

Revista de estudios latinos: RELat

Joan Gómez Pallarès

Physical Review E

Vazha Berezhiani

Malaria Journal

David Otieno

Scientific Data

Fabian Ugwu

erwin hadisantoso

Sarhad Journal of Agriculture

Abdul Qahar

Bulletin de la Société Royale des Sciences de Liège

Amina Chaker

Jurnal Surya Medika

yetti purnama

Professional Paper

John Schmidt

Muhammad Nur Habib

Electrochemistry Communications

María Dolores RUBIANES

Annals of Oncology

Noel Clarke

Pak. J. Bot

Irfana Mariam

Pantel Vokonas

Journal of Neurosurgical Anesthesiology

Fernanda Nunes

PROMET - Traffic&Transportation

Fernando Laxe

Journal of Molecular Structure

Peter Wolschann

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

Information and Communication Technology in Sudan pp 43–73 Cite as

Conceptual Framework and Reviews of Theoretical and Empirical Literature

• Samia Mohamed Nour 2 , 3 , 4  
• First Online: 19 December 2014

458 Accesses

Part of the book series: Contributions to Economics ((CE))

This chapter presents the conceptual and theoretical framework and theoretical and empirical literature that emphasize the positive effects of ICT in enhancing knowledge and economic growth and the negative effects of ICT through exacerbating the digital divide. We explain the debate on the effects of ICT and the economic opportunities and the challenges that ICT imposes on the production and dissemination of knowledge in the world economy. We illustrate that on the one hand, some studies provide robust results showing the various influences of ICT on enhancing economic growth and development, not only directly, but also indirectly through enhancing knowledge and through the complementary relationships between ICT, human capital and skill upgrading. We explain that on the other hand, several studies discuss the hazards ICT creates for economic development. In particular, the rapid progress in ICT will make it harder for the developing countries to bridge the already existing and widening gap and digital divide between the developed and developing countries. Based on our findings from the existing studies in the literature we highlight the need for improvement of investment in ICT to alleviate the digital divide, enhance production, creation and transfer of knowledge in higher education institutions and to enhance economic growth and sustainable development in Sudan.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution .

Buying options

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology .

See Oxford dictionaries: http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/digital-divide , accessed on September 08, 2014 .

See http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/digital+divide , accessed on September 08, 2014.

See OECD ( 2001 ), p.5.

See (NTIA) ( 1999 ), p. xiii.

See: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_divide , accessed September 09, 2014.

See DiMaggio and Hargittai ( 2001 ).

See ITU ( 2007 ) “Bridging the digital divide,” chapter two in “World Information Society Report 2007,” p. 21.

See ITU ( 2013 ), pp. 39–40.

See Hilbert ( 2011a , b ).

For all this part see Norris, P. (2001) “Social inequalities” Chapter 4 in Norris, P. (2001) “Digital Divide,” Chapter 4 , pp. 1– 4.

See Norris ( 2001 ) “Digital Divide” Chap. 4 , pp. 1–4.

See OECD ( 2001 ), p. 5.

ICT Development Index (IDI) is a composite index, it consolidates several ICT indicators into one single value.

For all this part see ITU ( 2013 ), pp. 39–40.

See ITU ( 2013 ), p. 43.

See Chinn and Fairlie ( 2004 ).

See ITU ( 2013 ), p. 12.

See Seybert ( 2007 ).

See for instance, Quah ( 2001 ), Pohjola ( 2001 ) and Smith ( 2000 ).

See for instance, Smith ( 2000 ), p. 4. See Smith ( 2000 ) “Innovation indicators and the knowledge economy: concepts, results and policy challenges” Group for Studies in Technology, Innovation and Economic Policy, Oslo, Norway, November 2000.

See B-Å. Lundvall and D. Foray, ‘The knowledge-based economy: from the economics of knowledge to the learning economy’, OECD Employment and Growth in the Knowledge-Based Economy (OECD: Paris), 1996 , p. 14. See also Smith ( 2000 ), pp. 4–5.

This literature on the impacts of ICT begins in the late 1980s, and is continuing. For an early example, see Martin Neil Bailey and Robert Gordon, ‘The productivity slowdown, measurement issues and the explosion of computer power’, Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2 ( 1988 ), pp. 347–423; a recent contribution is D. Jorgensen and K. Stiroh, ‘Information technology and growth’, American Economic Review (May 1999 ), pp. 109–116. For a comprehensive discussion see Daniel Sichel, The Computer Revolution. An Economic Perspective (Washington: Brookings Institution), 1997 . See also Smith ( 2000 ), pp. 7–8.

See Asian Development Bank ( 2009 ).

See Carnoy ( 2004 ).

See Oliver ( 2002 ).

See for example, ASC Thematic Research project on Connections and Transformations: Linking Technologies and Society in Africa and Beyond, Subgroup 4: Connections in African Knowledge.

See Ahwireng-Obeng ( 2000 ), pp. 3–9.

See Unwin ( 2004 ), pp. 150–160.

See Durrant ( 2004 ), pp. 63–79.

See Olukoshi and Zeleza ( 2004 ), p. 611.

See Beebe et al. ( 2003 ).

See Adei ( 2003 ), pp. 90, 108–109.

See Radwan ( 2003 ), pp. 387, 399, 400–401.

See Thairu ( 2003 ).

See Massingue ( 2003 ).

See Oyeyinka and Adeya ( 2003 ).

See Mutagahywa (2003).

See Mwenechanya ( 2003 ).

Acemoglu D (1998) Why do new technologies complement skills? Directed technical change and wage inequality. Q J Econ 113(4):1055–1089

Article   Google Scholar  

Adei S (2003) Overview of university level education in Africa, chapter 4. In: Beebe MA, Kouakou KM, Oyeyinka BO, Rao M (eds) Africa dot Edu: IT opportunities and higher ED in Africa. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, pp 90, 108–109, http://www.africadotedu.org/

Aghion P, Howitt P (1998) Endogenous growth theory. The MIT, Cambridge, MA, 1998

Google Scholar  

Ahwireng-Obeng F (2000) The knowledge revolution and African development. Afr Insights 30(3–4):3–9

Aqili S, Moghaddam A (2008) Bridging the digital divide: the role of librarians and information professionals in the third millennium. Electron Libr 26(2):226–237. doi: 10.1108/02640470810864118

Arun S, Arun T (2002) ICTs, gender and development: women in software production in Kerala. J Int Dev 14(1):39–50

Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2008) Education and skills. Strategies for accelerated development in Asia and the Pacific. ADB, Manila. Available at: www.adb.org/Documents/Studies/Education-Skills-Strategies-Development/Education-Skills-Strategies-Development.pdf

Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2009) Good practice in information and communication technology for education. Asian Development Bank, Philippines. http://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/pub/2009/Good-Practice-in-ICT-for-Education.pdf . Accessed on 11 Sept 2014

Attewell P, Battle J (1999) Home computers and school performance. Inf Soc 15:1–10

Autor DH, Katz LF, Krueger AB (1998) Computing inequality: have computers changed the labour market? Q J Econ 113(4):1169–1213

Bailey MN, Gordon R (1988) The productivity slowdown, measurement issues and the explosion of computer power. Brook Pap Econ Act 2:347–423

Barro RJ (1991) Economic growth in a cross section of countries. Q J Econ 106(2):407–443

Beebe MA, Kouakou KM, Oyeyinka BO, Rao M (eds) (2003) Africa dot Edu: IT opportunities and higher ED in Africa. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, India. http://www.africadotedu.org/

Berman E, Bound J, Griliches Z (1994) Change in the demand for skilled labour within U.S. manufacturing industries: evidence from the annual survey of manufacturing. Q J Econ 109(2):367–398

Best ML, Maier SG (2007) Gender, culture and ICT use in rural South India. Gend Technol Dev 11(2):137–155

Bimber B (2000) Measuring the gender gap on the internet. Soc Sci Q 81(3):868–876

Bonfadelli H (2002) The internet and knowledge gaps: a theoretical and empirical investigation. Eur J Commun 17(1):65–84

Bound J, Johnson G (1992) Change in the structure of wages in the 1980s: an evaluation of alternative explanations. Am Econ Rev 82(3):371–392

Bresnahan TF (1999) Computerization and wage dispersion an analytical interpretation. Econ J 109(456):390–415

Bresnahan TF, Brynjolfsson E, Hitt LM (1999) Information technology, workplace organization, and the demand for skilled labour: firm level evidence. National Bureau of Economic Research NBER working paper no. 7136

Brynjolfsson E, Yang S (1996) Information technology and productivity: a review of the literature. Adv Comput 43:179–214

Buente W, Robbin A (2008) Trends in internet information behavior, 2000–2004. J Am Soc Inf Sci Technol 59(11):1743–1760, www.interscience.wiley.com

Carnoy M (2004) ICT in education: possibilities and challenges. Inaugural lecture of the UOC 2004–2005 academic year, Barcelona [online]. UOC. http://www.uoc.edu/inaugural04/dt/eng/carnoy1004.pdf . Accessed on 11 Sept 2014

Carr D (2007) The global digital divide. Contexts 6(3):58–58

Chinn MD, Fairlie RW (2004) The determinants of the global digital divide: a cross-country analysis of computer and internet penetration. Economic Growth Center, Yale University, Center discussion paper no. 881. http://www.econ.yale.edu/growth_pdf/cdp881.pdf

Collis B (2002) Information technologies for education and training. In: Adelsberger H, Collis B, Pawlowski J (eds) Handbook on technologies for information and training. Springer, Berlin

Compaine BM (2001) The digital divide: facing a crisis or creating a myth? illustratedth edn. The MIT, Cambridge, MA

Cullen R (2001) Addressing the digital divide. Online Inf Rev 25(5):311–320

Dasgupta S, Lall S, Wheeler D (2001) Policy reform, economic growth and the digital divide: an econometric analysis. World Bank working paper no. 2567 (March)

Deen-Swarray M, Gillwald A, Morrell A (2013) Lifting the veil on ICT gender indicators. Evidence for ICT policy action. Policy paper no. 13. Available at: http://www.researchICTafrica.net

DiMaggio P, Hargittai E (2001) From the ‘digital divide’ to ‘digital inequality’: studying internet use as penetration increases. Working paper #15, summer 2001, working paper series, 15. Center for Arts and Cultural Policy Studies, Princeton University

Durrant S (2004) Sharing Information: African perspectives: bridging the knowledge divide. African research and documentation. J Stand Conf Libr Mater Africa 96:63–79

Dutton WH, Gillett SE, McKnight LW, Peltu M (2004) Bridging broadband internet divides. J Inf Technol 19(1):28–38

Fallows D (2005) How women and men use the internet pew internet & American life project. Pew internet and American life project. Retrieved 16 Aug 2009, from http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2005/How-Women-and-Men-Use-the-Internet.aspx

Freeman C, Soete L (1985) Information technology and employment: an assessment. SPRU, Sussex

Freeman C, Soete L (1994) Work for all or mass unemployment? Computerized technical change into the twenty–first century. Printer, London

Freeman C, Soete L (1997) The economic of industrial innovation, 3rd edn. Cassell, London

Galperin H (2010) Goodbye digital divide, Hello digital confusion? A critical embrace of the emerging ICT4D consensus. Inf Technol Int Dev 6(Special Edition):53–55

Goldin C, Katz LF (1998) The origin of technology skill complementarity. Q J Econ 113(3):693–732

Guillen MF, Suárez SL (2005) Explaining the global digital divide: economic, political and sociological drivers of cross-national internet use. Soc Forces 84(2):681–708

Hall R, Jones CI (1999) Why do some countries produce so much more output per worker than others? Q J Econ 114(1):83–116

Hilbert M (2010) When is cheap, cheap enough to bridge the digital divide? Modeling income related structural challenges of technology diffusion in Latin America. World Dev 38(5):756–770. Free access to the study here: http://martinhilbert.net/CheapEnoughWD_Hilbert_pre-print.pdf

Hilbert M (2011a) Digital gender divide or technologically empowered women in developing countries? A typical case of lies, damned lies, and statistics. Women’s Stud Int Forum 34(6):79–489. doi: 10.1016/j.wsif.2011.07.001 . www.martinhilbert.net/DigitalGenderDivide.pdf

Hilbert M (2011b) The end justifies the definition: the manifold outlooks on the digital divide and their practical usefulness for policy-making. Telecommun Policy 35(8):715–736

Hilbert M (2013) Technological information inequality as an incessantly moving target: the redistribution of information and communication capacities between 1986 and 2010. J Am Soc Inf Sci Technol. Free access to the article through this link: www.martinhilbert.net/TechInfoInequality.pdf

Hitt L, Brynjolfsson E (1996) Productivity, business profitability, and consumer surplus: three different measures of information technology value. MIS Q 20:121–142

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_and_communications_technology

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/digital+divide . Accessed on 08 Sept 2014

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_divide . Accessed 09 Sept 2014

Huang C-Y, Chen H-N (2010) Global digital divide: a dynamic analysis based on the bass model. J Public Policy Market 29(2):248–264. doi: 10.1509/jppm.29.2.248

Hwang G-H (2000) Diffusion of information and communication technologies and changes in skills. Electronic working paper series, no. 48. SPRU, Sussex. Oct 2000

International Telecommunications Union (ITU) (2003) Cited in Chinn MD, Fairlie RW (2004) “The Determinants of the Global Digital Divide: A Cross-Country Analysis of Computer and Internet Penetration,” Economic Growth Center, Yale University, Center Discussion Paper No. 881. http://www.econ.yale.edu/growth_pdf/cdp881.pdf . March 2004, p 1

International Telecommunication Union (ITU) (2007) Bridging the digital divide, chapter 2. In: World information society report 2007, p 21. http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/publications/worldinformationsociety/2007/WISR07-chapter2.pdf

International Telecommunication Union (ITU) (2013) Measuring the information society 2013. Geneva, Switzerland, pp 12, 24, 39–40, 43

Jorgensen D, Stiroh K (1999) Information technology and growth. Am Econ Rev 89:109–116

Jorgenson DW, Stiroh K (1995) Computers and Growth. Econ Innov New Technol 3:295–316

Kennedy D, McNaught C (1997) Design elements for interactive multimedia. Aust J Educ Technol 13(1):1–22

Kenny C (2002) The Internet and economic growth in least developed countries. UNU- WIDER discussion paper series DP2002/75. UNU-WIDER, Helsinki, Finland

Krueger AB (1993) How computers have changed the wage structure: evidence from micro data. Q J Econ 108:33–60

Lawton T (2012) Pretty graphs on Chinese internet user demographics. Jan, 2012

Lenhart A, Lewis O, Rainie L (2001) Teenage life online. Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved 16 Aug 2009, from http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2001/Teenage-Life-Online.aspx

Lundvall B-Å, Foray D (1996) The knowledge-based economy: from the economics of knowledge to the learning economy. In: OECD employment and growth in the knowledge-based economy. OECD, Paris, p 14

Massingue V (2003) ICT in Mozambique: the role of Eduardo Mondlane University, chapter 20. In Beebe MA, Kouakou KM, Oyeyinka BO, Rao M (eds) Africa dot Edu: IT opportunities and higher ED in Africa. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, India. http://www.africadotedu.org/

Ming-te L (2001) Digital divide in developing countries. J Glob Inf Technol Manag 4(3):1–4

Mossberger K, Tolbert CJ, Stansbury M (2003) Virtual inequality: beyond the digital divide, 1st edn. Georgetown University Press, Washington, DC

Mossberger K, Tolbert CJ, Gilbert M (2006) Race, place, and information technology (IT). Urban Aff Rev 41:583–620. Retrieved from http://uar.sagepub.com/content/41/5/583

Mun-cho K, Jong-Kil K (2001) Digital divide: conceptual discussions and prospect. In: Kim W, Wang Ling T, Lee YJ, Park SS (eds) The human society and the Internet: Internet related socio-economic issues. First international conference, Seoul, Korea: proceedings. Springer, New York

Mutagahywa B (2003) Information and communication technology in Tanzania: the role of the university of Dar es Salaam. In: Beebe M, Kouakou K, Oyeyinka B, Rao M (eds) Africa dot edu; IT opportunities and higher education in Africa. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi

Mwenechanya J (2003) Pioneering the Internet in Zambia: university role and challenges. In: Beebe MA, Kouakou KM, Oyeyinka BO, Rao M (eds) Africa dot Edu: IT opportunities and higher ED in Africa. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi

Ng C, Mitter MS (2005) Gender and the digital economy: perspectives from the developing world. Sage, London

Book   Google Scholar  

Norris P (2001) “Social Inequalities” Chapter 4 in Norris, P. (2001). Digital divide: civic engagement, information poverty and the internet worldwide. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (2001) Understanding the digital divide. OECD Publications: OECD, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris, France, p 5

OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development) (2002) Measuring the information economy 2002. OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development), Paris, France, p 94

Oliver R (2002) The role of ICT in higher education for the 21st century: ICT as a change agent for education. Edith Cowan University, Perth, Western Australia: http://www.academia.edu/467397/The_role_of_ICT_in_higher_education_for_the_21st_century_ICT_as_a_change_agent_for_education . Accessed on 11 Sept 2014

Oliver R, Towers S (2000) Benchmarking ICT literacy in tertiary learning settings. In: Sims R, O’Reilly M, Sawkins S (eds) Learning to choose: choosing to learn, Proceedings of the 17th annual ASCILITE conference. Southern Cross University Press, Lismore, pp 381–390

Olukoshi A, Zeleza PT (2004) The African universities in the twenty-first century: future challenges and research agenda, conclusion. In: Zeleza PT, Olukoshi A (eds) African universities in the twenty-first century. Volume II: knowledge and society, council for the development of social science research in Africa CODERSRIA, p 611

Ono H, Zavodny M (2003) Gender and the Internet. Soc Sci Q 84(1):111–121

OSILAC (Observatory for the Information Society in Latin America and the Caribbean) (2007) Monitoring eLAC2007: progress and current state of development of Latin American and Caribbean information societies. United Nations, Santiago Chile: United Nations ECLAC, Information Society Programme, OSILAC. Retrieved August 6, 2009, from http://www.cepal.org/SocInfo/publicaciones

Oyeyinka BO, Adeya C (2003) Internet access in Nigerian and Kenyan universities, chapter 22. In: Beebe MA, Kouakou KM, Oyeyinka BO, Rao M (eds) Africa dot Edu: IT opportunities and higher ED in Africa. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, India. http://www.africadotedu.org/

Park S (2009) Concentration of Internet usage and its relation to exposure to negative content: does the gender gap differ among adults and adolescents? Women’s Stud Int Forum 32(2):98–107

Pohjola M (2000) Information technology and economic growth: a cross- country analysis. WIDER/UNU working paper series: WP173, Jan 2000

Pohjola M (ed) (2001) Information technology, productivity and economic growth: international evidence and implications for economic growth. Oxford University Press, Oxford

Pohjola M (2002) New economy in growth and development. UNU- WIDER discussion paper series no. DP2002/67

Quah D (2001) The weightless economy in economic development, chapter 4. In: Pohjola M (ed) Information technology, productivity and economic growth: international evidence and implications for economic growth. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 72–99

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Quibria MG, Ahmed SN, Tschang T, Reyes-Macasaquit M-L (2002) Digital divide: determinants and policies with special reference to Asia. Economics and research department working paper no. 27. Asia Development Bank, Manila

Radwan R (2003) IT and higher education: the case of Egypt, chapter 18. In: Beebe MA, Kouakou KM, Oyeyinka BO, Rao M (eds) Africa dot Edu: IT opportunities and higher ED in Africa. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, India, pp 387, 399, 400–401. http://www.africadotedu.org/

Resnick D (1998) Politics on the Internet: the normalization of cyberspace. In: Chris T, Luke TW (eds) The politics of cyberspace. Routledge, New York

Roberts DF, Foehr UG, Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation (2004) Kids and media in America. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p 380

Rogers EM (1995) Diffusion of innovations, 4th edn. Free Press, New York, pp 269, 435–442

Rubin RE (2010) Foundations of library and information science. Neal-Schuman, New York, pp 178–179

Seybert H (2007) Gender differences in the use of computers and the Internet. Statistics in focus, population and social conditions, no 119/2007

Sichel D (1997) Computer revolution. An economic perspective. Brookings Institution, Washington, DC

Smith K (2000) What is the ‘knowledge economy’? Knowledge-intensive industries and distributed knowledge bases. Paper presented to DRUID summer conference on the learning economy—firms, regions and nation specific institutions, 15–17 June 2000

Soloway E, Pryor A (1996) The next generation in human-computer interaction. Commun ACM 39(4):16–18

Starr L (2001) Same time this year [on-line]. Available at http://www.education-world.com/a_tech/tech075.shtml . Accessed Jul 2002

Thairu H (2003) The Kenya education network (KENET), chapter 19. In: Beebe MA, Kouakou KM, Oyeyinka BO, Rao M (eds) Africa dot Edu: IT opportunities and higher ED in Africa. Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, India. http://www.africadotedu.org/

The U.S. Department of Commerce—National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) (1995) Falling through the Net: a survey of the “Have Nots” in rural and Urban America. Retrieved 2 Aug 2009, from http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/fallingthru.html

The U.S. Department of Commerce—National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) (1999) Falling through the Net: defining the digital divide, chapter 4. A report on the telecommunications and information technology gap in America, p xiii, Jul 1999

The U.S. Department of Commerce—National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) (2002) A nation online: how Americans are expanding their use of the Internet. U.S. GPO, Washington, DC

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2002) Open and distance learning. Trends, policy and strategy considerations. UNESCO, Paris. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001284/128463e.pdf

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2003) Analytical survey. The use of ICTs in technical and vocational education and training. UNESCO, Paris. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001330/133024eo.pdf

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) (2008) Towards information literacy indicators. UNESCO, Paris. Available at: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001587/158723e.pdf

Unwin T (2004) ICT and education in Africa: partnership, practices and knowledge sharing. In: Cline-Cole R, Powell M (eds) ICTs,‘Virtual Colonisation and Political Economy’. Review of African political economy, vol 31(99). Carfax; Taylor and Francis, Basingstoke, pp 150– 160

Oxford dictionaries: US, British and World English dictionary: http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/american_english/digital-divide ; http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/digital-divide . Accessed on 08 Sept 2014

Van Dijk JA (2005) The deepening divide: inequality in the information society, 1st edn. Sage, London

Wallsten S (2003) Regulation and internet use in developing countries. AEI-Brookings joint center for regulatory studies related publication 03–8. AEI and Brookings Institution, Washington, DC, May 2003

Warschauer M (2003) Technology and social inclusion: rethinking the digital divide. The MIT, Cambridge

Wasserman IM, Richmond-Abbott M (2005) Gender and the Internet: causes of variation in access, level, and scope of use. Soc Sci Q 86(1):252–270

Wensheng, W (2001) Impact of ICTs on farm households in China. ZEF of University Bonn

World Internet Project (2009) World Internet international Report 2009. USC Annenberg School Center for the Digital Future. Retrieved 18 Aug 2009, from http://store.digitalcenter.org/world-internet-report.html

Wilson EJ III (2004) The information revolution and developing countries. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA

Wilson K, Wallin J, Reiser C (2003) Social science computer review. Social Sci Comput Rev 21.2:133–143. http://ssc.sagepub.com/content/21/2/133.full.pdfhtml. Accessed 7 Nov 2012

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Economics, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan

Samia Mohamed Nour

UNU-MERIT - School of Business and Economics, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands

Department of Economics, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter.

Mohamed Nour, S. (2015). Conceptual Framework and Reviews of Theoretical and Empirical Literature. In: Information and Communication Technology in Sudan. Contributions to Economics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13999-9_3

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13999-9_3

Published : 19 December 2014

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-319-13998-2

Online ISBN : 978-3-319-13999-9

eBook Packages : Business and Economics Business and Management (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• My Account Login
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 16 April 2024

Designing a framework for entrepreneurship education in Chinese higher education: a theoretical exploration and empirical case study

• Luning Shao 1 ,
• Yuxin Miao 2 ,
• Shengce Ren 3 ,
• Sanfa Cai 4 &
• Fei Fan   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8756-5140 5 , 6  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  519 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

476 Accesses

1 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Business and management

Entrepreneurship education (EE) has rapidly evolved within higher education and has emerged as a pivotal mechanism for cultivating innovative and entrepreneurial talent. In China, while EE has made positive strides, it still faces a series of practical challenges. These issues cannot be effectively addressed solely through the efforts of universities. Based on the triple helix (TH) theory, this study delves into the unified objectives and practical content of EE in Chinese higher education. Through a comprehensive literature review on EE, coupled with educational objectives, planned behavior, and entrepreneurship process theories, this study introduces the 4H objective model of EE. 4H stands for Head (mindset), Hand (skill), Heart (attitude), and Help (support). Additionally, the research extends to a corresponding content model that encompasses entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup services, and the entrepreneurial climate as tools for achieving the objectives. Based on a single-case approach, this study empirically explores the application of the content model at T-University. Furthermore, this paper elucidates how the university plays a role through the comprehensive development of entrepreneurial learning, practices, services, and climate in nurturing numerous entrepreneurs and facilitating the flourishing of the regional entrepreneurial ecosystem. This paper provides important contributions in its application of TH theory to develop EE within the Chinese context, and it provides clear guidance by elucidating the core objectives and practical content of EE. The proposed conceptual framework serves not only as a guiding tool but also as a crucial conduit for fostering the collaborative development of the EE ecosystem. To enhance the robustness of the framework, this study advocates strengthening empirical research on TH theory through multiple and comparative case studies.

Similar content being viewed by others

Extra-curricular support for entrepreneurship among engineering students: development of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intentions

Deepa Subhadrammal, Martin Bliemel, … Helene de Burgh-Woodman

The mediating effects of entrepreneurial self-efficacy in the relationship between entrepreneurship education and start-up readiness

Adeshina Olushola Adeniyi

Individual entrepreneurial orientation for entrepreneurial readiness

Adeshina Olushola Adeniyi, Vangeli Gamede & Evelyn Derera

Introduction

In the era of the knowledge economy, entrepreneurship has emerged as a fundamental driver of social and economic development. As early as 1911, Schumpeter proposed the well-known theory of economic development, wherein he first introduced the concepts of entrepreneurship and creative destruction as driving forces behind socioeconomic development. Numerous endogenous growth theories, such as the entrepreneurial ecosystem mechanism of Acs et al. ( 2018 ), which also underscores the pivotal role of entrepreneurship in economic development, are rooted in Schumpeter’s model. Recognized as a key means of cultivating entrepreneurs and enhancing their capabilities (Jin et al., 2023 ), entrepreneurship education (EE) has received widespread attention over the past few decades, especially in the context of higher education (Wong & Chan, 2022 ).

Driven by international trends and economic demands, China places significant emphasis on nurturing innovative talent and incorporating EE into the essential components of its national education system. The State Council’s “Implementation Opinions on Deepening the Reform of Innovation and Entrepreneurship Education in Higher Education” (hereafter referred to as the report) underscores the urgent necessity for advancing reforms in innovation and EE in higher education institutions. This initiative aligns with the national strategy of promoting innovation-driven development and enhancing economic quality and efficiency. Furthermore, institutions at various levels are actively and eagerly engaging in EE.

Despite the positive strides made in EE in China, its development still faces a series of formidable practical challenges. As elucidated in the report, higher education institutions face challenges such as a delay in the conceptualization of EE, inadequate integration with specialized education, and a disconnect from practical applications. Furthermore, educators exhibit a deficiency in awareness and capabilities, which manifests in a singular and less effective teaching methodology. The shortage of practical platforms, guidance, and support emphasizes the pressing need for comprehensive innovation and EE systems. These issues necessitate collaborative efforts from universities, industry, and policymakers.

Internationally established solutions for the current challenges have substantially matured, providing invaluable insights and guidance for the development of EE in the Chinese context. In the late 20th century, the concept of the entrepreneurial university gained prominence (Etzkowitz et al., 2000 ). Then, entrepreneurial universities expanded their role from traditional research and teaching to embrace a “third mission” centered on economic development. This transformation entailed fostering student engagement in entrepreneurial initiatives by offering resources and guidance to facilitate the transition of ideas into viable entrepreneurial ventures. Additionally, these entrepreneurial universities played a pivotal role in advancing the triple helix (TH) model (Henry, 2009 ). The TH model establishes innovation systems that facilitate knowledge conversion into economic endeavors by coordinating the functions of universities, government entities, and industry. The robustness of this perspective has been substantiated through comprehensive theoretical and empirical investigations (Mandrup & Jensen, 2017 ).

Therefore, this study aims to explore how EE in Chinese universities can adapt to new societal trends and demands through the guidance of TH theory. This research involves two major themes: educational objectives and content. Educational objectives play a pivotal role in regulating the entire process of educational activities, ensuring alignment with the principles and norms of education (Whitehead, 1967 ), while content provides a practical pathway to achieving these objectives. Specifically, the study has three pivotal research questions:

RQ1: What is the present landscape of EE research?

RQ2: What unified macroscopic goals should be formulated to guide EE in Chinese higher education?

RQ3: What specific EE system should be implemented to realize the identified goals in Chinese higher education?

The structure of this paper is as follows: First, we conduct a comprehensive literature review on EE to answer RQ1 , thereby establishing a robust theoretical foundation. Second, we outline our research methodology, encompassing both framework construction and case studies and providing a clear and explicit approach to our research process. Third, we derive the objectives and content model of EE guided by educational objectives, entrepreneurial motivations, and entrepreneurial process theories. Fourth, focusing on a typical university in China as our research subject, we conduct a case study to demonstrate the practical application of our research framework. Finally, we end the paper with the findings for RQ2 and RQ3 , discussions on the framework, and conclusions.

Literature review

The notion of TH first appeared in the early 1980s, coinciding with the global transition from an industrial to a knowledge-based economy (Cai & Etzkowitz, 2020 ). At that time, the dramatic increase in productivity led to overproduction, and knowledge became a valuable mechanism for driving innovation and economic growth (Mandrup & Jensen, 2017 ). Recognizing the potential of incorporating cutting-edge university technologies into industry and facilitating technology transfer and innovation, the US government took proactive steps to enhance the international competitiveness of American industries. This initiative culminated in the enactment of relevant legislation in 1980, which triggered a surge in technology transfer, patent licensing, and the establishment of new enterprises within the United States. Subsequently, European and Asian nations adopted similar measures, promoting the transformation of universities’ identity (Grimaldi et al., 2011 ). Universities assumed a central role in technology transfer, the formation of businesses, and regional revitalization within the knowledge society rather than occupying a secondary position within the industrial community. The conventional one-to-one relationships between universities, companies, and the government evolved into a dynamic TH model (Cai & Etzkowitz, 2020 ). Beyond their traditional roles in knowledge creation, wealth production, and policy coordination, these sectors began to engage in multifaceted interactions, effectively “playing the role of others” (Ranga & Etzkowitz, 2013 ).

The TH model encompasses three fundamental elements: 1) In a knowledge-based society, universities assume a more prominent role in innovation than in industry; 2) The three entities engage in collaborative relationships, with innovation policies emerging as a result of their mutual interactions rather than being solely dictated by the government; and 3) Each entity, while fulfilling its traditional functions, also takes on the roles of the other two parties (Henry, 2009 ). This model is closely aligned with EE.

On the one hand, EE can enhance the effectiveness of TH theory by strengthening the links between universities, industry, and government. The TH concept was developed based on entrepreneurial universities. The emerging entrepreneurial university model integrates economic development as an additional function. Etzkowitz’s research on the entrepreneurial university identified a TH model of academia-industry-government relations implemented by universities in an increasingly knowledge-based society (Galvao et al., 2019 ). Alexander and Evgeniy ( 2012 ) articulated that entrepreneurial universities are crucial to the implementation of triple-helix arrangements and that by integrating EE into their curricula, universities have the potential to strengthen triple-helix partnerships and boost the effectiveness of the triple-helix model.

On the other hand, TH theory also drives EE to achieve high-quality development. Previously, universities were primarily seen as sources of knowledge and human resources. However, they are now also regarded as reservoirs of technology. Within EE and incubation programs, universities are expanding their educational capabilities beyond individual education to shaping organizations (Henry, 2009 ). Surpassing their role as sources of new ideas for existing companies, universities blend their research and teaching processes in a novel way, emerging as pivotal sources for the formation of new companies, particularly in high-tech domains. Furthermore, innovation within one field of the TH influences others (Piqué et al., 2020 ). An empirical study by Alexander and Evgeniy ( 2012 ) outlined how the government introduced a series of initiatives to develop entrepreneurial universities, construct innovation infrastructure, and foster EE growth.

Overview of EE

EE occupies a crucial position in driving economic advancement, and this domain has been the focal point of extensive research. Fellnhofer ( 2019 ) examined 1773 publications from 1975 to 2014, introducing a more closely aligned taxonomy of EE research. This taxonomy encompasses eight major clusters: social and policy-driven EE, human capital studies related to self-employment, organizational EE and TH, (Re)design and evaluation of EE initiatives, entrepreneurial learning, EE impact studies, and the EE opportunity-related environment at the organizational level. Furthermore, Mohamed and Sheikh Ali ( 2021 ) conducted a systematic literature review of 90 EE articles published from 2009 to 2019. The majority of these studies focused on the development of EE (32%), followed by its benefits (18%) and contributions (12%). The selected research also addressed themes such as the relationship between EE and entrepreneurial intent, the effectiveness of EE, and its assessment (each comprising 9% of the sample).

Spanning from 1975 to 2019, these two reviews offer a comprehensive landscape of EE research. The perspective on EE has evolved, extending into multiple dimensions (Zaring et al., 2021 ). However, EE does not always achieve the expected outcomes, as challenges such as limited student interest and engagement as well as persistent negative attitudes are often faced (Mohamed & Sheikh Ali, 2021 ). In fact, the challenges faced by EE in most countries may be similar. However, the solutions may vary due to contextual differences (Fred Awaah et al., 2023 ). Furthermore, due to this evolution, there is a need for a more comprehensive grasp of pedagogical concepts and the foundational elements of modern EE (Hägg & Gabrielsson, 2020 ). Based on the objectives of this study, four specific themes were chosen for an in-depth literature review: the objectives, contents and methods, outcomes, and experiences of EE.

Objectives of EE

The objectives of EE may provide significant guidance for its implementation and the assessment of its effectiveness, and EE has evolved to form a diversified spectrum. Mwasalwiba ( 2010 ) presented a multifaceted phenomenon in which EE objectives are closely linked to entrepreneurial outcomes. These goals encompass nurturing entrepreneurial attitudes (34%), promoting new ventures (27%), contributing to local community development (24%), and imparting entrepreneurial skills (15%). Some current studies still emphasize particular dimensions of these goals, such as fostering new ventures or value creation (Jones et al., 2018 ; Ratten & Usmanij, 2021 ). These authors further stress the significance of incorporating practical considerations related to the business environment, which prompts learners to contemplate issues such as funding and resource procurement. This goal inherently underscores the importance of entrepreneurial thinking and encourages learners to transition from merely being students to developing entrepreneurial mindsets.

Additionally, Kuratko and Morris ( 2018 ) posit that the goal of EE should not be to produce entrepreneurs but to cultivate entrepreneurial mindsets in students, equipping them with methods for thinking and acting entrepreneurially and enabling them to perceive opportunities rapidly in uncertain conditions and harness resources as entrepreneurs would. While the objectives of EE may vary based on the context of the teaching institution, the fundamental goal is increasingly focused on conveying and nurturing an entrepreneurial mindset among diverse stakeholders. Hao’s ( 2017 ) research contends that EE forms a comprehensive system in which multidimensional educational objectives are established. These objectives primarily encompass cultivating students’ foundational qualities and innovative entrepreneurial personalities, equipping them with essential awareness of entrepreneurship, psychological qualities conducive to entrepreneurship, and a knowledge structure for entrepreneurship. Such a framework guides students towards independent entrepreneurship based on real entrepreneurial scenarios.

Various studies and practices also contain many statements about entrepreneurial goals. The Entrepreneurship Competence Framework, which was issued by the EU in 2016, delineates three competency domains: ideas and opportunities, resources and action. Additionally, the framework outlines 15 specific entrepreneurship competencies (Jun, 2017 ). Similarly, the National Content Standards for EE published by the US Consortium encompass three overarching strategies for articulating desired competencies for aspiring entrepreneurs: entrepreneurial skills, ready skills, and business functions (Canziani & Welsh, 2021 ). First, entrepreneurial skills are unique characteristics, behaviors, and experiences that distinguish entrepreneurs from ordinary employees or managers. Second, ready skills, which include business and entrepreneurial knowledge and skills, are prerequisites and auxiliary conditions for EE. Third, business functions help entrepreneurs create and operate business processes in business activities. These standards explain in the broadest terms what students need to be self-employed or to develop and grow a new venture. Although entrepreneurial skills may be addressed in particular courses offered by entrepreneurship faculties, it is evident that business readiness and functional skills significantly contribute to entrepreneurial success (Canziani & Welsh, 2021 ).

Contents and methods of EE

The content and methods employed in EE are pivotal factors for ensuring the delivery of high-quality entrepreneurial instruction, and they have significant practical implications for achieving educational objectives. The conventional model of EE, which is rooted in the classroom setting, typically features an instructor at the front of the room delivering concepts and theories through lectures and readings (Mwasalwiba, 2010 ). However, due to limited opportunities for student engagement in the learning process, lecture-based teaching methods prove less effective at capturing students’ attention and conveying new concepts (Rahman, 2020 ). In response, Okebukola ( 2020 ) introduced the Culturo-Techno-Contextual Approach (CTCA), which offers a hybrid teaching and learning method that integrates cultural, technological, and geographical contexts. Through a controlled experiment involving 400 entrepreneurship development students from Ghana, CTCA has been demonstrated to be a model for enhancing students’ comprehension of complex concepts (Awaah, 2023 ). Furthermore, learners heavily draw upon their cultural influences to shape their understanding of EE, emphasizing the need for educators to approach the curriculum from a cultural perspective to guide students in comprehending entrepreneurship effectively.

In addition to traditional classroom approaches, research has highlighted innovative methods for instilling entrepreneurial spirit among students. For instance, students may learn from specific university experiences or even engage in creating and running a company (Kolb & Kolb, 2011 ). Some scholars have developed an educational portfolio that encompasses various activities, such as simulations, games, and real company creation, to foster reflective practice (Neck & Greene, 2011 ). However, some studies have indicated that EE, when excessively focused on applied and practical content, yields less favorable outcomes for students aspiring to engage in successful entrepreneurship (Martin et al., 2013 ). In contrast, students involved in more academically oriented courses tend to demonstrate improved intellectual skills and often achieve greater success as entrepreneurs (Zaring et al., 2021 ). As previously discussed, due to the lack of a coherent theoretical framework in EE, there is a lack of uniformity and consistency in course content and methods (Ribeiro et al., 2018 ).

Outcomes of EE

Research on the outcomes of EE is a broad and continually evolving field, with most related research focusing on immediate or short-term impact factors. For example, Anosike ( 2019 ) demonstrated the positive effect of EE on human capital, and Chen et al. ( 2022 ) proposed that EE significantly moderates the impact of self-efficacy on entrepreneurial competencies in higher education students through an innovative learning environment. In particular, in the comprehensive review by Kim et al. ( 2020 ), six key EE outcomes were identified: entrepreneurial creation, entrepreneurial intent, opportunity recognition, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and orientation, need for achievement and locus of control, and other entrepreneurial knowledge. One of the more popular directions is the examination of the impact of EE on entrepreneurial intentions. Bae et al. ( 2014 ) conducted a meta-analysis of 73 studies to examine the relationship between EE and entrepreneurial intention and revealed little correlation. However, a meta-analysis of 389 studies from 2010 to 2020 by Zhang et al. ( 2022 ) revealed a positive association between the two variables.

Nabi et al. ( 2017 ) conducted a systematic review to determine the impact of EE in higher education. Their findings highlight that studies exploring the outcomes of EE have primarily concentrated on short-term and subjective assessments, with insufficient consideration of longer-term effects spanning five or even ten years. These longer-term impacts encompass factors such as the nature and quantity of startups, startup survival rates, and contributions to society and the economy. As noted in the Eurydice report, a significant impediment to advancing EE is the lack of comprehensive delineation concerning education outcomes (Bourgeois et al., 2016 ).

Experiences in the EE system

With the deepening exploration of EE, researchers have turned to studying university-centered entrepreneurship ecosystems (Allahar and Sookram, 2019 ). Such ecosystems are adopted to fill gaps in “educational and economic development resources”, such as entrepreneurship curricula. A growing number of universities have evolved an increasingly complex innovation system that extends from technology transfer offices, incubators, and technology parks to translational research and the promotion of EE across campuses (Cai & Etzkowitz, 2020 ). In the university context, the entrepreneurial ecosystem aligns with TH theory, in which academia, government, and industry create a trilateral network and hybrid organization (Ranga & Etzkowitz, 2013 ).

The EE system is also a popular topic in China. Several researchers have summarized the Chinese experience in EE, including case studies and overall experience, such as the summary of the progress and system development of EE in Chinese universities over the last decade by Weiming et al. ( 2013 ) and the summary of the Chinese experience in innovation and EE by Maoxin ( 2017 ). Other researchers take an in-depth look at the international knowledge of EE, such as discussions on the EE system of Denmark by Yuanyuan ( 2015 ), analyzes of the ecological system of EE at the Technical University of Munich by Yubing and Ziyan ( 2015 ), and comparisons of international innovation and EE by Ke ( 2017 ).

In general, although there has been considerable discussion on EE, the existing body of work has not properly addressed the practical challenges faced by EE in China. On the one hand, the literature is fragmented and has not yet formed a unified and mature theoretical framework. Regarding what should be taught and how it can be taught and assessed, the answers in related research are ambiguous (Hoppe, 2016 ; Wong & Chan, 2022 ). On the other hand, current research lacks empirical evidence in the context of China, and guidance on how to put the concept of EE into practice is relatively limited. These dual deficiencies impede the effective and in-depth development of EE in China. Consequently, it is imperative to comprehensively redefine the objectives and contents of EE to provide clear developmental guidance for Chinese higher education institutions.

Research methodology

To answer the research questions, this study employed a comprehensive approach by integrating both literature-based and empirical research methods. The initial phase focused on systematically reviewing the literature related to entrepreneurial education, aiming to construct a clear set of frameworks for the objectives and content of EE in higher education institutions. The second phase involved conducting a case study at T-University, in which the theoretical frameworks were applied to a real-world context. This case not only contributed to validating the theoretical constructs established through the literature review but also provided valuable insights into the practical operational dynamics of entrepreneurial education within the specific university setting.

Conceptual framework stage

This paper aims to conceptualize the objective and content frameworks for EE. The methodology sequence is as follows: First, we examine the relevant EE literature to gain insights into existing research themes. Subsequently, we identify specific research articles based on these themes, such as “entrepreneurial intention”, “entrepreneurial self-efficacy”, and “entrepreneurial approach”, among others. Third, we synthesize the shared objectives of EE across diverse research perspectives through an analysis of the selected literature. Fourth, we construct an objective model for EE within higher education by integrating Bloom’s educational objectives ( 1956 ) and Gagne’s five learning outcomes ( 1984 ), complemented by entrepreneurship motivation and process considerations. Finally, we discuss the corresponding content framework.

Case study stage

To further elucidate the conceptual framework, this paper delves into the methods for the optimization of EE in China through a case analysis. Specifically, this paper employs a single-case approach. While a single case study may have limited external validity (Onjewu et al., 2021 ), if a case study informs current theory and conceptualizes the explored issues, it can still provide valuable insights from its internal findings (Buchanan, 1999 ).

T-University, which is a comprehensive university in China, is chosen as the subject of the case study for the following reasons. First, T-University is located in Shanghai, which is a Chinese international technological innovation center approved by the State Council. Shanghai’s “14th Five-Year Plan” proposes the establishment of a multichannel international innovation collaboration platform and a global innovation cooperation network. Second, T-University has initiated curriculum reforms and established a regional knowledge economy ecosystem by utilizing EE as a guiding principle, which aligns with the characteristics of its geographical location, history, culture, and disciplinary settings. This case study will showcase T-University’s experiences in entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup services, and the entrepreneurial climate, elucidating the positive outcomes of this triangular interaction and offering practical insights for EE in other contexts.

The data collection process of this study was divided into two main stages: field research and archival research. The obtained data included interview transcripts, field notes, photos, internal documents, websites, reports, promotional materials, and published articles. In the initial stage, we conducted a 7-day field trip, including visits to the Innovation and Entrepreneurship Institute, the Career Development Centre, the Academic Affairs Office, and the Graduate School. Moreover, we conducted semistructured interviews with several faculty members and students involved in entrepreneurship education at the university to understand the overall state of implementation of entrepreneurship education at the university. In the second stage, we contacted the Academic Affairs Office and the Student Affairs Office at the university and obtained internal materials related to entrepreneurship education. Additionally, we conducted a comprehensive collection and created a summary of publicly available documents, official school websites, public accounts, and other electronic files. To verify the validity of the multisource data, we conducted triangulation and ultimately used consistent information as the basis for the data analysis.

For the purpose of our study, thematic analysis was employed to delve deeply into the TH factors, the objective and content frameworks, and their interrelationships. Thematic analysis is a method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns within data. This approach emphasizes a comprehensive interpretation of the data, as it extracts information from multiple perspectives and derives valuable conclusions through summary and induction (Onjewu et al., 2021 ). Therefore, thematic analysis likely serves as the foundation for most other qualitative data analysis methods (Willig, 2013 ). In this study, three researchers individually conducted rigorous analyses and comprehensive reviews to ensure the accuracy and reliability of the data. Subsequently, they engaged in collaborative discussions to explore their differences and ultimately reach a consensus.

Framework construction

Theoretical basis of ee in universities.

The study is grounded in the theories of educational objectives, planned behavior, and the entrepreneurial process. Planned behavior theory can serve to elucidate the emergence of entrepreneurial activity, while entrepreneurial process theory can be used to delineate the essential elements of successful entrepreneurship.

Theory of educational objectives. The primary goal of education is to assist students in shaping their future. Furthermore, education should directly influence students and facilitate their future development. Education can significantly enhance students’ prospects by imparting specific skills and fundamental principles and cultivating the correct attitudes and mindsets (Bruner, 2009 ). According to “The Aims of Education” by Whitehead, the objective of education is to stimulate creativity and vitality. Gagne identifies five learning outcomes that enable teachers to design optimal learning conditions based on the presentation of these outcomes, encompassing “attitude,” “motor skills,” “verbal information,” “intellectual skills,” and “cognitive strategies”. Bloom et al. ( 1956 ) argue that education has three aims, which concern the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains. Gedeon ( 2017 ) posits that EE involves critical input and output elements. The key objectives encompass mindset (Head), skill (hand), attitude (heart), and support (help). The input objectives include EE teachers, resources, facilities, courses, and teaching methods. The output objectives encompass the impacts of the input factors, such as the number of students, the number of awards, and the establishment of new companies. The primary aims of Gedeon ( 2017 ) correspond to those of Bloom et al. ( 1956 ).

Theory of planned behavior. The theory of planned behavior argues that human behavior is the outcome of well-thought-out planning (Ajzen, 1991 ). Human behavior depends on behavioral intentions, which are affected by three main factors. The first is derived from the individual’s “attitude” towards taking a particular action; the second is derived from the influence of “subjective norms” from society; and the third is derived from “perceived behavioral control” (Ajzen, 1991 ). Researchers have adopted this theory to study entrepreneurial behavior and EE.

Theory of the entrepreneurship process. Researchers have proposed several entrepreneurial models, most of which are processes (Baoshan & Baobao, 2008 ). The theory of the entrepreneurship process focuses on the critical determinants of entrepreneurial success. The essential variables of the entrepreneurial process model significantly impact entrepreneurial performance. Timmons et al. ( 2004 ) argue that successful entrepreneurial activities require an appropriate match among opportunities, entrepreneurial teams, resources, and a dynamic balance as the business develops. Their model emphasizes flexibility and equilibrium, and it is believed that entrepreneurial activities change with time and space. As a result, opportunities, teams, and resources will be unbalanced and need timely adjustment.

4H objective model of EE

Guided by TH theory, the objectives of EE should consider universities’ transformational identity in the knowledge era and promote collaboration among students, faculty, researchers, and external players (Mandrup & Jensen, 2017 ). Furthermore, through a comprehensive analysis of the literature and pertinent theoretical underpinnings, the article introduces the 4H model for the EE objectives, as depicted in Fig. 1 .

The 4H objective model of entrepreneurship education.

The model comprises two levels. The first level pertains to outcomes at the entrepreneurial behavior level, encompassing entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial performance. These two factors support universities’ endeavors to nurture individuals with an entrepreneurial mindset and potential and contribute to the region’s growth of innovation and entrepreneurship. The second level pertains to fundamentals, which form the foundation of the first level. The article defines these as the 4H model, representing mindset (Head), skill (Hand), attitude (Heart), and support (Help). This model integrates key theories, including educational objectives, the entrepreneurship process, and planned behavior.

First, according to the theory of educational objectives, the cognitive, emotional, and skill objectives proposed by Bloom et al. ( 1956 ) correspond to the key goals of education offered by Gedeon ( 2017 ), namely, Head, Hand, and Heart; thus, going forward, in this study, these three objectives are adopted. Second, according to the theory of planned behavior, for the promotion of entrepreneurial intention, reflection on the control of beliefs, social norms, and perceptual behaviors must be included. EE’s impact on the Head, Hand, and Heart will promote the power of entrepreneurs’ thoughts and perceptual actions. Therefore, this approach is beneficial for enhancing entrepreneurial intentions. Third, according to entrepreneurship process theory, entrepreneurial performance is affected by various factors, including entrepreneurial opportunities, teams, and resources. Consideration of the concepts of Head, Hand, and Heart can enhance entrepreneurial opportunity recognition and entrepreneurial team capabilities. However, as the primary means of obtaining external resources, social networks play an essential role in improving the performance of innovation and entrepreneurship companies (Gao et al., 2023 ). Therefore, an effective EE program should tell students how to take action, connect them with those who can help them succeed (Ronstadt, 1985 ), and help them access the necessary resources. If EE institutions can provide relevant help, they will consolidate entrepreneurial intentions and improve entrepreneurial performance, enabling the EE’s objective to better support the Head, Hand, and Heart.

Content model of EE

EE necessitates establishing a systematic implementation framework to achieve the 4H objectives. Current research on EE predominantly focuses on two facets: one focuses on EE methods to improve students’ skills, and the other focuses on EE outcome measurements, which consider the impact of EE on different stakeholders. Based on this, to foster innovation in EE approaches and enable long-term sustainable EE outcomes, the 4H Model of EE objectives mandates that pertinent institutions provide entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup services, and a suitable entrepreneurial climate. These components constitute the four integral facets of the content model for EE, as depicted in Fig. 2 .

The content model of entrepreneurship education.

Entrepreneurial learning

Entrepreneurial learning mainly refers to the learning of innovative entrepreneurial knowledge and theory. This factor represents the core of EE and can contribute significantly to the Head component. It can also improve the entrepreneurial thinking ability of academic subjects through classroom teaching, lectures, information reading and analysis, discussion, debates, etc. Additionally, it can positively affect the Hand and Heart elements of EE.

Entrepreneurial practice

Entrepreneurial practice mainly refers to academic subjects comprehensively enhancing their cognition and ability by participating in entrepreneurial activities. This element is also a key component of EE and plays a significant role in the cultivation of the Hand element. Entrepreneurial practice is characterized by participation in planning and implementing entrepreneurial programs, competitions, and simulation activities. Furthermore, it positively impacts EE’s Head, Heart, and Help factors.

Startup services

Startup services mainly refer to entrepreneurial-related support services provided by EE institutions, which include investment and financing, project declaration, financial and legal support, human resources, marketing, and intermediary services. These services can improve the success of entrepreneurship projects. Therefore, they can reinforce the expectations of entrepreneurs’ success and positively impact the Heart, Hand, and Head objectives of EE.

Entrepreneurial climate

The entrepreneurial climate refers to the entrepreneurial environment created by EE institutions and their community and is embodied mainly in the educational institutions’ external and internal entrepreneurial culture and ecology. The environment can impact the entrepreneurial attitude of educated individuals and the Heart objective of EE. Additionally, it is beneficial for realizing EE’s Head, Hand, and Help goals.

Case study: EE practice of T-University

Overview of ee at t-university.

T-University is one of the first in China to promote innovation and EE. Since the 1990s, a series of policies have been introduced, and different platforms have been set up. After more than 20 years of teaching, research, and practice, an innovation and entrepreneurship education system with unique characteristics has gradually evolved. The overall goal of this system is to ensure that 100% of students receive such education, with 10% of students completing the program and 1% achieving entrepreneurship with a high-quality standard. The overall employment rate of 2020 graduates reached 97.49%. In recent years, the proportion of those pursuing entrepreneurship has been more than 1% almost every year. The T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle, an industrial cluster formed around knowledge spillover from T-University’s dominant disciplines, employs more than 400 T-University graduates annually.

In 2016, T-University established the School of Innovation & Entrepreneurship, with the president serving as its dean. This school focuses on talent development and is pivotal in advancing innovation-driven development strategies. It coordinates efforts across various departments and colleges to ensure comprehensive coverage of innovation and EE, the integration of diverse academic disciplines, and the transformation of interdisciplinary scientific and technological advancements (see Fig. 3 ).

T-University innovation and entrepreneurship education map.

T-University is dedicated to integrating innovation and EE into every stage of talent development. As the guiding framework for EE, the university has established the Innovation and EE sequence featuring “three-dimensional, linked, and cross-university cooperation” with seven educational elements. These elements include the core curriculum system of innovation and entrepreneurship, the “one top-notch and three excellences” and experimental zones of innovation and entrepreneurship talent cultivation model, the four-level “China-Shanghai-University-School” training programs for innovation and entrepreneurship, four-level “International-National-Municipal-University” science and technology competitions, four-level “National-Municipal-University-School” innovation and entrepreneurship practice bases, three-level “Venture Valley-Entrepreneurship Fund-Industry Incubation” startup services and a high-level teaching team with both full-time and part-time personnel.

T-University has implemented several initiatives. First, the university has implemented 100% student innovation and EE through reforming the credit setting and curriculum system. Through the Venture Valley class, mobile class, and “joint summer school”, more than 10% of the students completed the Innovation and EE program. Moreover, through the professional reform pilot and eight professional incubation platforms in the National Science and Technology Park of T-University and other measures, 1% of the students established high-quality entrepreneurial enterprises. Second, the university is committed to promoting the integration of innovation and entrepreneurship and training programs, exploring and practising a variety of innovative talent cultivation models, and adding undergraduate innovation ability development as a mandatory component of the training program. In addition, pilot reforms have been conducted in engineering, medicine, and law majors, focusing on integrating research and education.

T-University has constructed a high-level integrated innovation and entrepreneurship practice platform by combining internal and external resources. This platform serves as the central component in Fig. 3 , forming a sequence of innovation and entrepreneurship practice opportunities, including 1) the On-and-off Campus Basic Practice Platform, 2) the Entrepreneurship Practice Platform with the Integration of Production, Learning, and Research, 3) the Transformation Platform of Major Scientific Research Facilities and Achievements, and 4) the Strategic Platform of the T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle. All these platforms are accessible to students based on their specific tasks and objectives.

Moreover, the university has reinforced its support for entrepreneurship and collaborated with local governments in Sichuan, Dalian, and Shenzhen to establish off-campus bases jointly. In 2016, in partnership with other top universities in China, the university launched the Innovation and Entrepreneurship Alliance of Universities in the Yangtze River Delta. This alliance effectively brings together government bodies, businesses, social communities, universities, and funding resources in the Yangtze River Delta, harnessing the synergistic advantages of these institutions. In 2018, the university assumed the director role for the Ministry of Education’s Steering Committee for Innovation and Entrepreneurship. Through collaborations with relevant government agencies and enterprises, T-University has continued its efforts to reform and advance innovation and EE, establishing multiple joint laboratories to put theory into practice.

Startup service

In terms of entrepreneurial services, T-University has focused on the employment guidance center and the science and technology Park, working closely with the local industrial and commercial bureaus in the campus area to provide centralized entrepreneurial services. Through entities such as the Shanghai Municipal College Entrepreneurship Guidance Station, entrepreneurship seedling gardens, the science and technology park, and off-campus bases such as the entrepreneurship valley, the university has established a full-cycle service system that is tailored to students’ innovative and entrepreneurial activities, providing continuous professional guidance and support from the early startup stage to maturity.

Notably, the T-University Science and Technology Park has set up nine professional incubation service platforms that cover investment and financing, human resources, entrepreneurship training, project declaration, financial services, professional intermediaries, market promotion, advanced assessment, and the labor union. Moreover, the Technology Park has established a corporate service mechanism for liaison officers, counselors, and entrepreneurship mentors to ensure that enterprises receive comprehensive support and guidance. Through these services, T-University has successfully cultivated numerous high-tech backbone enterprises, such as New Vision Healthcare, Zhong Hui Ecology, Tongjie Technology, Tonglei Civil Engineering, and Tongchen Environmental Protection, which indicates the positive effect of these entrepreneurial services.

T-University places significant emphasis on fostering the entrepreneurial climate, which is effectively nurtured through the T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle and on-campus entrepreneurship activities. Moreover, T-University is dedicated to establishing and cultivating a dynamic T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle in strategic alignment with the district government and key agencies. This innovative ecosystem strategically centers around three prominent industrial clusters: the creative and design industry, the international engineering consulting services industry, and the new energy/materials and environmental technology industry. These industrial clusters provide fertile ground for graduates’ employment and entrepreneurial pursuits and have yielded remarkable economic outputs. In 2020, the combined value of these clusters surged to a staggering RMB 50 billion, with 80% of entrepreneurs being teachers, students, or alumni from T-University.

This commitment has led to the establishment of an intricate design industry chain featuring architectural design and urban planning design; it also supports services in automobile design, landscape design, software design, environmental engineering design, art media design, and associated services such as graphic production, architectural modeling, and engineering consulting.

The EE system at T-University

T-University has undertaken a comprehensive series of initiatives to promote EE, focusing on four key aspects: entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup service, and the entrepreneurial climate. As of the end of 2021, the National Technology Park at T-University has cumulatively supported more than 3000 enterprises. Notably, the park has played a pivotal role in assisting more than 300 enterprises established by college students.

In its commitment to EE, the university maintains an open approach to engaging with society. Simultaneously, it integrates innovative elements such as technology, information, and talent to facilitate students’ entrepreneurial endeavors. Through the synergy between the university, government entities, and the market, EE cultivates a cadre of entrepreneurial talent. The convergence of these talents culminates in the formation of an innovative and creative industry cluster within the region, representing the tangible outcome of the university’s “disciplinary chain—technology chain—industry chain” approach to EE. This approach has gradually evolved into the innovative ecosystem of the T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle.

Findings and discussion

Unified macroscopic objectives of ee.

To date, a widespread consensus on defining EE in practical terms has yet to be achieved (Mwasalwiba, 2010 ; Nabi et al., 2017 ). Entrepreneurial education should strive towards a common direction, which is reflected in the agreement on educational objectives and recommended teaching methods(Aparicio et al., 2019 ). Mason and Arshed ( 2013 ) criticized that entrepreneurial education should teach about entrepreneurship rather than for entrepreneurship. Therefore, EE should not only focus on singular outcome-oriented aspects but also emphasize the cultivation of fundamental aspects such as cognition, abilities, attitudes, and skills.

This study embarks on a synthesis of the EE-related literature, integrating educational objective theory, planned behavior theory, and entrepreneurial process theory. The 4H model of EE objectives, which consists of basic and outcome levels, is proposed. This model aims to comprehensively capture the core elements of EE, addressing both students’ performance in entrepreneurial outcomes and their development of various aspects of foundational cognitive attributes and skills.

The basic level of the EE objective model includes the 4Hs, namely Head (mindset), Hand (skill), Heart (attitude), and Help (support). First, Head has stood out as a prominent learning outcome within EE over the past decade (Fretschner & Lampe, 2019 ). Attention given to the “Head” aspect not only highlights the development of individuals recognized as “entrepreneurs” (Mitra, 2017 ) but also underscores its role in complementing the acquisition of skills and practical knowledge necessary for initiating new ventures and leading more productive lives (Neck & Corbett, 2018 ).

Second, the Hand aspect also constitutes a significant developmental goal and learning outcome of EE. The trajectory of EE is evolving towards a focus on entrepreneurial aspects, and the learning outcomes equip students with skills relevant to entrepreneurship (Wong & Chan, 2022 ). Higher education institutions should go beyond fundamental principles associated with knowledge and actively cultivate students’ entrepreneurial skills and spirit.

Third, Heart represents EE objectives that are related to students’ psychological aspects, as students’ emotions, attitudes, and other affective factors impact their perception of entrepreneurship (Cao, 2021 ). Moreover, the ultimate goal of EE is to instill an entrepreneurial attitude and pave the way for future success as entrepreneurs in establishing new businesses and fostering job creation (Kusumojanto et al., 2021 ). Thus, the cultivation of this mindset is not only linked to the understanding of entrepreneurship but also intricately tied to the aspiration for personal fulfillment (Yang, 2013 ).

Fourth, entrepreneurship support (Help) embodies the goal of providing essential resource support to students to establish a robust foundation for their entrepreneurial endeavors. The establishment of a comprehensive support system is paramount for EE in universities. This establishment encompasses the meticulous design of the curriculum, the development of training bases, and the cultivation of teacher resources (Xu, 2017 ). A well-structured support system is crucial for equipping students with the necessary knowledge and skills to successfully navigate the complexities of entrepreneurship (Greene & Saridakis, 2008 ).

The outcome level of the EE objective model encompasses entrepreneurial intention and entrepreneurial performance, topics that have been extensively discussed in the previous literature. Entrepreneurial intention refers to individuals’ subjective willingness and plans for entrepreneurial behavior (Wong & Chan, 2022 ) and represents the starting point of the entrepreneurial process. Entrepreneurial performance refers to individuals’ actual behaviors and achievements in entrepreneurial activities (Wang et al., 2021 ) and represents the ultimate manifestation of entrepreneurial goals. In summary, the proposed 4H model of the EE objectives covers fundamental attitudes, cognition, skills, support, and ultimate outcomes, thus answering the question of what EE should teach.

Specific implementable system of EE

To facilitate the realization of EE goals, this study developed a corresponding content model as an implementable system and conducted empirical research through a case university. Guided by the 4H objectives, the content model also encompasses four dimensions: entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup service, and entrepreneurial climate. Through a detailed exposition of the practical methods at T-university, this study provides support for addressing the question of how to teach EE.

In the traditional EE paradigm, there is often an overreliance on the transmission of theoretical knowledge, which leads to a deficiency in students’ practical experience and capabilities (Kremel and Wetter-Edman, 2019 ). Moreover, due to the rapidly changing and dynamic nature of the environment, traditional educational methods frequently become disconnected from real-world demands. In response to these issues, the approach of “learning by doing” has emerged as a complementary and improved alternative to traditional methods (Colombelli et al., 2022 ).

The proposed content model applies the “learning by doing” approach to the construction of the EE system. For entrepreneurial learning, the university has constructed a comprehensive innovation and EE chain that encompasses courses, experimental areas, projects, competitions, practice bases, and teaching teams. For entrepreneurial practice, the university has built a high-level, integrated innovation and entrepreneurship practice platform that provides students with the opportunity to turn their ideas into actual projects. For startup services, the university has established close collaborative relationships with local governments and enterprises and has set up nine professional incubation service platforms. For the entrepreneurial climate, the university cultivated a symbiotic innovation and EE ecosystem by promoting the construction of the T-Rim Knowledge-Based Economic Circle. Through the joint efforts of multiple parties, the entrepreneurial activities of teachers, students, and alumni have become vibrant and have formed a complete design industry chain and an enterprise ecosystem that coexists with numerous SMEs.

Development of a framework based on the TH theory

Through the exploration of the interactive relationships among universities, governments, and industries, TH theory points out a development direction for solving the dilemma of EE. Through the lens of TH theory, this study developed a comprehensive framework delineating the macroscopic objectives and practical methods of EE, as depicted in Fig. 4 . In this context, EE has become a common undertaking for multiple participants. Therefore, universities can effectively leverage the featured external and internal resources, facilitating the organic integration of entrepreneurial learning, practice, services, and climate. This, in turn, will lead to better achievement of the unified goals of EE.

Practical contents and objectives based on the triple helix theory.

Numerous scholars have explored the correlation between EE and the TH theory. Zhou and Peng ( 2008 ) articulated the concept of an entrepreneurial university as “the university that strongly influences the regional development of industries as well as economic growth through high-tech entrepreneurship based on strong research, technology transfer, and entrepreneurship capability.” Moreover, Tianhao et al. ( 2020 ) emphasized the significance of fostering collaboration among industry, academia, and research as the optimal approach to enhancing the efficacy of EE. Additionally, Ribeiro et al. ( 2018 ) underscored the pivotal role of MIT’s entrepreneurial ecosystem in facilitating startup launches. They called upon educators, university administrators, and policymakers to allocate increased attention to how university ecosystems can cultivate students’ knowledge, skills, and entrepreneurial mindsets. Rather than viewing EE within the confines of universities in isolation, we advocate for establishing an integrated system that encompasses universities, government bodies, and businesses. Such a system would streamline their respective roles and ultimately bolster regional innovation and entrepreneurship efforts.

Jones et al. ( 2021 ) reported that with the widespread embrace of EE by numerous countries, the boundaries between universities and external ecosystems are becoming increasingly blurred. This convergence not only fosters a stronger entrepreneurial culture within universities but also encourages students to actively establish startups. However, these startups often face challenges related to limited value and long-term sustainability. From the perspective of TH theory, each university can cultivate an ecosystem conducive to specialized entrepreneurial activities based on its unique resources and advantages. To do so, universities should actively collaborate with local governments and industries, leveraging shared resources and support to create a more open, inclusive, and innovation-supporting ecosystem that promotes lasting reform and sustainability.

There are two main ways in which this paper contributes to the literature. First, this study applies TH theory to both theoretical and empirical research on EE in China, presenting a novel framework for the operation of EE. Previous research has applied TH theory in contexts such as India, Finland, and Russia, showcasing the unique contributions of TH in driving social innovation. This paper introduces the TH model to the Chinese context, illustrating collaborative efforts and support for EE from universities, industries, and governments through the construction of EE objectives and content models. Therefore, this paper not only extends the applicability of the TH theory globally but also provides valuable insights for EE in the Chinese context.

Second, the proposed conceptual framework clarifies the core goals and practical content of EE. By emphasizing the comprehensive cultivation of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and resources, this framework provides a concrete reference for designing EE courses, activities, and support services. Moreover, the framework underscores the importance of collaborative efforts among stakeholders, facilitating resource integration to enhance the quality and impact of EE. Overall, the conceptual framework presented in this paper serves not only as a guiding tool but also as a crucial bridge for fostering the collaborative development of the EE ecosystem.

While EE has widespread global recognition, many regions still face similar developmental challenges, such as a lack of organized objectives and content delivery methods. This article, grounded in the context of EE in Chinese higher education institutions, seeks to address the current challenges guided by TH theory. By aligning EE with socioeconomic demands and leveraging TH theory, this study offers insights into the overall goals and practical content of EE.

This study presents a 4H objective model of EE comprising two levels. The first level focuses on outcomes related to entrepreneurial behavior, including entrepreneurial intentions and performance, which highlight the practical effects of EE. The second level is built as the foundation of the outcomes and encompasses the four elements of mindset, skill, attitude, and support. This multilayered structure provides a more systematic and multidimensional consideration for the cultivation of entrepreneurial talent. The framework offers robust support for practical instructional design and goal setting. Additionally, the research extends to the corresponding content model, incorporating four elements: entrepreneurial learning, entrepreneurial practice, startup services, and the entrepreneurial climate. This content model serves as a practical instructional means to achieve EE goals, enhancing the feasibility of implementing these objectives in practice.

Moreover, this study focused on a representative Chinese university, T-University, to showcase the successful implementation of the 4H and content models. Through this case, we may observe how the university, through comprehensive development in entrepreneurial learning, practice, services, and climate, nurtured many entrepreneurs and facilitated the formation of the innovation and entrepreneurship industry cluster. This approach not only contributes to the university’s reputation and regional economic growth but also offers valuable insights for other regions seeking to advance EE.

This study has several limitations that need to be acknowledged. First, the framework proposed is still preliminary. While its application has been validated through a case study, further exploration is required to determine the detailed classification and elaboration of its constituent elements to deepen the understanding of the EE system. Second, the context of this study is specific to China, and the findings may not be directly generalizable to other regions. Future research should investigate the adaptability of the framework in various cultural and educational contexts from a broader international perspective. Finally, the use of a single-case approach limits the generalizability of the research conclusions. Subsequent studies can enhance comprehensiveness by employing a comparative or multiple-case approach to assess the framework’s reliability and robustness.

In conclusion, this study emphasizes the need to strengthen the application of TH theory in EE and advocates for the enhancement of framework robustness through multiple and comparative case studies. An increase in the quantity of evidence will not only generate greater public interest but also deepen the dynamic interactions among universities, industries, and the nation. This, in turn, may expedite the development of EE in China and foster the optimization of the national economy and the overall employment environment.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available. Making the full data set publicly available could potentially breach the privacy that was promised to participants when they agreed to take part, in particular for the individual informants who come from a small, specific population, and may breach the ethics approval for the study. The data are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Acs ZJ, Estrin S, Mickiewicz T et al. (2018) Entrepreneurship, institutional economics, and economic growth: an ecosystem perspective. Small Bus Econ 51(2):501–514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-018-0013-9

Article   Google Scholar  

Ajzen I (1991) The theory of planned behavior. Organ Behav Hum Decis Process 50(2):179–211

Alexander U, Evgeniy P (2012) The entrepreneurial university in Russia: from idea to reality. Paper presented at the 10TH triple helix conference 2012

Allahar H, Sookram R (2019) Emergence of university-centred entrepreneurial ecosystems in the Caribbean. Ind Higher Educ 33(4):246–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950422219838220

Anosike P (2019) Entrepreneurship education as human capital: Implications for youth self-employment and conflict mitigation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Ind Higher Educ 33(1):42–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0950422218812631

Aparicio G, Iturralde T, Maseda A (2019) Conceptual structure and perspectives on entrepreneurship education research: A bibliometric review. Eur res on manage and bus econ 25(3):105–113

Awaah F, Okebukola P, Shabani J et al. (2023) Students’ career interests and entrepreneurship education in a developing country. High Educ Skills Work-Based Learn 13(1):148–160

Awaah F (2023) In the classroom I enhance students understanding of entrepreneurship development—the culturo–techno-contextual approach. J Res Innov Teach Learn https://doi.org/10.1108/JRIT-08-2022-0047

Bae TJ, Qian S, Miao C et al. (2014) The relationship between entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intentions: a meta–analytic review. Entrep Theory Pract 38(2):217–254

Baoshan G, Baobao D (2008) 创业模型比较研究 [A comparative retrospective study of classic entrepreneurial models]. Foreign Econ Manag. 3:19–28

Google Scholar  

Bloom BS, Engelhart MD, Furst EJ, Hill WH, Krathwohl DR (1956) Taxonomy of educational objectives: the classification of educational goals. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. David McKay, New York

Bourgeois A, Balcon M-P & Riiheläinen JM (2016) Entrepreneurship education at school in Europe. Eurydice Report. Education, Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency, European Commission

Bruner JS (2009) The process of education. Harvard University Press

Buchanan DA (1999) The Logic of Political Action: an experiment with the epistemology of the particular. Br J Manag 10(s1):73–88. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.10.s1.7

Cai Y, Etzkowitz H (2020) Theorizing the triple helix model: past, present, and future. Triple Helix J 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1163/21971927-bja10003

Canziani BF, Welsh DHB (2021) How entrepreneurship influences other disciplines: an examination of learning goals. Int J Manag Educ 19(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2019.01.003

Cao Q (2021) Entrepreneurial psychological quality and quality cultivation of college students in the higher education and moral education perspectives. Front Psychol 12:700334

Article   ADS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Chen H, Tang Y, Han J (2022) Building students’ entrepreneurial competencies in Chinese universities: diverse learning environment, knowledge transfer, and entrepreneurship education. Sustainability 14(15). https://doi.org/10.3390/su14159105

Colombelli A, Panelli A, Serraino F (2022) A learning-by-doing approach to entrepreneurship education: evidence from a short intensive online international program. Admin Sci 12(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci12010016

Etzkowitz H, Webster A, Gebhardt C et al. (2000) The future of the university and the university of the future: evolution of ivory tower to entrepreneurial paradigm. Res Policy 29(2):313–330. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-7333(99)00069-4

Fellnhofer K (2019) Toward a taxonomy of entrepreneurship education research literature: a bibliometric mapping and visualization. Educ Res Rev 27:28–55

Fretschner M, Lampe HW (2019) Detecting hidden sorting and alignment effects of entrepreneurship education. J Small Bus Manage 57(4):1712–1737

Gagne RM (1984) Learning outcomes and their effects: useful categories of human performance. Am Psychol 39(4):377

Galvao A, Mascarenhas C, Marques C et al. (2019) Triple helix and its evolution: a systematic literature review. J Sci Technol Policy Manag 10(3):812–833. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSTPM-10-2018-0103

Gao J, Cheng Y, He H et al. (2023) The mechanism of entrepreneurs’ Social Networks on Innovative Startups’ innovation performance considering the moderating effect of the entrepreneurial competence and motivation. Entrep Res J 13(1):31–69. https://doi.org/10.1515/erj-2020-0541

Gedeon SA (2017) Measuring student transformation in entrepreneurship education programs. Educ Res Int 2017:8475460. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/8475460

Greene FJ, Saridakis G (2008) The role of higher education skills and support in graduate self-employment. Stud High Educ 33(6):653–672. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070802457082

Grimaldi R, Kenney M, Siegel DS et al. (2011) 30 years after Bayh–Dole: reassessing academic entrepreneurship. Res Policy 40(8):1045–1057

Hägg G, Gabrielsson J (2020) A systematic literature review of the evolution of pedagogy in EE research. Int J Entrep Behav Res 26(5):829–861

Hao Y (2017) Research on building curriculum system of entrepreneurship education for college students in China. In: Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 7th international conference on education, management, computer and medicine (EMCM 2016)

Henry E (2009) The entrepreneurial university and the triple helix model of innovation. Stud Sci Sci 27(4):481–488

Hoppe M (2016) Policy and entrepreneurship education. Small Bus Econ. 46(1):13–29

Jin D, Liu X, Zhang F et al. (2023) Entrepreneurial role models and college students’ entrepreneurial calling: a moderated mediation model. Front Psychol 14:1129495

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Jones C, Penaluna K, Penaluna A et al. (2018) The changing nature of enterprise: addressing the challenge of Vesper and Gartner. Ind High Educ 32(6):430–437

Jones P, Maas G, Kraus S et al. (2021) An exploration of the role and contribution of entrepreneurship centres in UK higher education institutions. J Small Bus Enterp Dev 28(2):205–228. https://doi.org/10.1108/JSBED-08-2018-0244

Jun C (2017) 欧盟创业能力框架: 创业教育行动新指南 [EU’s entrepreneurship competence framework: a new guide to entrepreneurship education]. Int Comp Educ 1:45–51

MathSciNet   Google Scholar  

Ke L (2017) 创新创业教育的国际比较与借鉴 [International comparison and reference of innovation and entrepreneurship education]. Stud Dialect Nat 9:73–78

Kim G, Kim D, Lee WJ, et al (2020) The effect of youth entrepreneurship education programs: two large-scale experimental studies. Sage Open 10(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020956976

Kolb A, Kolb D (2011) Experiential learning theory: a dynamic, holistic approach to management learning, education and development. In Armstrong SJ, Fukami C (Eds) Handbook of management learning, education and development. https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857021038.n3

Kremel A, Wetter-Edman K (2019) Implementing design thinking as didactic method in entrepreneurship education, the importance of through. Des J 22:163–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/14606925.2019.1595855

Kuratko DF, Morris MH (2018) Examining the future trajectory of entrepreneurship. J Small Bus Manag 56(1):11–23. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12364

Kusumojanto DD, Wibowo A, Kustiandi J, et al (2021) Do entrepreneurship education and environment promote students’ entrepreneurial intention? The role of entrepreneurial attitude. Cogent Educ 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2021.1948660

Mandrup M, Jensen TL (2017) Educational Action Research and Triple Helix principles in entrepreneurship education: introducing the EARTH design to explore individuals in Triple Helix collaboration. Triple Helix 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40604-017-0048-y

Maoxin Y (2017) 创业教育的中国经验 [“China’s experiences” of entrepreneurship education]. Educ Res 38(9):70–75

Martin BC, McNally JJ, Kay MJ (2013) Examining the formation of human capital in entrepreneurship: a meta-analysis of entrepreneurship education outcomes. J Bus Ventur 28(2):211–224

Mason C, Arshed N (2013) Teaching entrepreneurship to university students through experiential Learning: a case study. Ind High Educ 27(6):449–463

Mitra J (2017) Holistic experimentation for emergence: a creative approach to postgraduate entrepreneurship education and training. Ind High Educ 31(1):34–50

Mohamed NA, Sheikh Ali AY (2021) Entrepreneurship education: systematic literature review and future research directions. World J Entrep Manag Sustain Dev 17(4):644–661

Mwasalwiba ES (2010) Entrepreneurship education: a review of its objectives, teaching methods, and impact indicators. Educ+ Train 52(1):20–47

Nabi G, Liñán F, Fayolle A et al. (2017) The impact of entrepreneurship education in higher education: a systematic review and research agenda. Acad Manag Learn Educ 16(2):277–299. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2015.0026

Neck HM, Greene PG (2011) Entrepreneurship education: known worlds and new frontiers. J Small Bus Manag 49(1):55–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-627X.2010.00314.x

Neck HM, Corbett AC (2018) The scholarship of teaching and learning entrepreneurship. Entrep Educ Pedagog 1(1):8–41

Okebukola P (2020) Breaking barriers to learning: the culture techno-contextual approach (CTCA). Sterling Publishers, Slough

Onjewu AKE, Sukumar A, Prakash KVD et al (2021) The triple helix: a case study of Centurion University of Technology and Management. In Jones P, Apostolopoulos N, Kakouris A, Moon C, Ratten V & Walmsley A (Eds), Universities and entrepreneurship: meeting the educational and social challenges (Vol 11, pp 199–218)

Piqué JM, Berbegal-Mirabent J, Etzkowitz H (2020) The role of universities in shaping the evolution of Silicon Valley’s ecosystem of innovation. Triple Helix J 1–45. https://doi.org/10.1163/21971927-bja10009

Rahman S (2020) Improving the power of lecture method in higher education. In Teaching learning and new technologies in higher education (pp 135–147)

Ranga M, Etzkowitz H (2013) Triple helix systems: an analytical framework for innovation policy and practice in the knowledge society. Ind. High Educ. 27(4):237–262. https://doi.org/10.5367/ihe.2013.0165

Ratten V, Usmanij P (2021) Entrepreneurship education: time for a change in research direction? Int J Manag Educ 19(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2020.100367

Ribeiro ATVB, Uechi JN, Plonski GA (2018) Building builders: entrepreneurship education from an ecosystem perspective at MIT. Triple Helix 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40604-018-0051-y

Ronstadt R (1985) The educated entrepreneurs: a new era of EE is beginning. Am J Small Bus 10(1):7–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/104225878501000102

Tianhao L, Beiwei L, Yang L (2020) 国外创新创业教育发展述评与启示 [The development of innovation and entrepreneurship education in foreign countries: review and enlightenment]. Manag Innov Entrep 1:23–36

Timmons JA, Spinelli S, Tan Y (2004) New venture creation: entrepreneurship for the 21st century (Vol 6). McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New York

Wang SY, Wu XL, Xu M et al. (2021) The evaluation of synergy between university entrepreneurship education ecosystem and university students’ entrepreneurship performance. Math Probl Eng, https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/3878378

Weiming L, Chunyan L, Xiaohua D (2013) 我国高校创业教育十年: 演进, 问题与体系建设 [Research on ten-year entrepreneurship education in Chinese universities: evolution, problems and system construction]. Educ Res 6:42–51

Whitehead AN (1967) Aims of education: Simon and Schuster

Willig C (2013) EBOOK: introducing qualitative research in psychology. McGraw-Hill Education, UK

Wong HY, Chan CK (2022) A systematic review on the learning outcomes in entrepreneurship education within higher education settings. Assess Eval High Educ 47(8):1213–1230

Xu Y (2017) Research on the Construction of Support System of University Students’ Entrepreneurship Education under the Background of the New Normal [Proceedings Paper]. 2017 INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON FRONTIERS IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGIES AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES (FETMS 2017)

Yang J (2013) The theory of planned behavior and prediction of entrepreneurial intention among Chinese undergraduates. Soc Behav Personal Int J 41(3):367–376

Yuanyuan C (2015) 从 ABC 到 PhD: 丹麦创业教育体系的框架设计与特点 [From ABC to PhD: the guiding ideas and development framework of Danish EE (Entrepreneurship Education) system]. Int Comp Educ 8:7–13

Yubing H, Ziyan G (2015) 慕尼黑工业大学创业教育生态系统建设及启示 [The EE ecosystem of TUM and some recommendations to China]. Sci Sci Manag 10:41–49

Zaring O, Gifford E, McKelvey M (2021) Strategic choices in the design of entrepreneurship education: an explorative study of Swedish higher education institutions. Stud High Educ 46(2):343–358

Zhang W, Li Y, Zeng Q, et al. (2022) Relationship between entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intention among college students: a meta-analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 19(19) https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191912158

Zhou C, Peng X-M (2008) The entrepreneurial university in China: nonlinear paths. Sci Public Policy 35(9):637–646

Download references

Acknowledgements

We express our sincere gratitude to all individuals who contributed to the data collection process. Furthermore, we extend our appreciation to Linlin Yang and Jinxiao Chen from Tongji University for their invaluable suggestions on the initial draft. Special thanks are also due to Prof. Yuzhuo Cai from Tampere University for his insightful contributions to this paper. Funding for this study was provided by the Chinese National Social Science Funds [BIA190205] and the Shanghai Educational Science Research General Project [C2023033].

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of Economics and Management, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

Luning Shao

Shanghai International College of Design & Innovation, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

Shanghai International College of Intellectual Property, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

Shengce Ren

Institute of Higher Education, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

College of Design and Innovation, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

Shanghai Industrial Innovation Ecosystem Research Center, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

All the authors contributed to the study’s conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analysis were performed by Luning Shao, Yuxin Miao, Sanfa Cai and Fei Fan. The first Chinese outline and draft were written by Luning Shao, Yuxin Miao, and Shengce Ren. The English draft of the manuscript was prepared by Fei Fan. All the authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Fei Fan .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval

This research was approved by the Tongji University Ethics Committee for Human Research (No. tjdxsr079). The procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all participants.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Shao, L., Miao, Y., Ren, S. et al. Designing a framework for entrepreneurship education in Chinese higher education: a theoretical exploration and empirical case study. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 519 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03024-2

Download citation

Received : 22 May 2023

Accepted : 03 April 2024

Published : 16 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03024-2

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies