inductive route to problem solving in geography

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Fieldwork Methodology

The two dominant methodologies of fieldwork practice, the traditional and the scientific, have different aims implicit within them. The traditional approaches, sometimes termed 'fieldwork excursions' have aims rooted in the development of content knowledge. The scientific approach of data collection/hypothesis testing and field enquiry extend the learning opportunities available and promote the application of learning objectives to the planning of fieldwork. Using the scientific methodology, learning in the field becomes as rigorous as learning in the classroom from a planning perspective.

These two approaches can be complimentary, with the scientific approach placing a high value on the development of numeracy and analytical thinking skills and the more humanistic fieldwork excursion approach emphasizing and fostering the development of oracy and literacy, and a sense of place.

It can be concluded that fieldwork may be categorised according to its degree of student-centredness. The more traditional, teacher-centred approaches to fieldwork, centre on explanation/lecture, note-taking and directed observation. Under such conditions there is less scope for active student involvement. At best they are required to observe, describe and explain features of the environment using previously acquired knowledge. A more effective, but time-consuming approach is one that incorporates the processes of field research. While still incorporating the elements of observation, description and explanation it adopts a problem-solving focus. Students identify a geographical issue or problem as a result of their observations or studies; they formulate a hypothesis; design a research methodology; collect and record data; process and analyse the information and draw conclusions that result in the acceptance or rejection of the original hypothesis. The type of fieldwork undertaken ultimately depends on the purpose of the activity. Many activities will contain elements of both approaches. The field research approach, where time is available, is our preferred methodology, enhancing the students’ ability to apply inquiry-based skills in different geographical contexts.

We adopt one of three possible approaches to fieldwork, depending upon the curricular requirements of the visiting staff.

A deductive approach, where students generate aims and hypotheses based upon prior theoretical knowledge, select appropriate methods, collect data and carry out analysis. An inductive or 'enquiry' approach, as generally understood in the context of 16-19 U.K. geography. Issues are introduced, key questions raised, and students select methods to investigate and develop possible solutions to these. An 'Individual Inquiry' approach, whereby students have the opportunity to select their own topic, adopt their own approach and complete an independent project or field investigation. Staff act as supervisors and advisors, providing equipment, advice and ensuring safe working.

Most commonly, teachers select from our range of field studies that have been designed to meet the requirements of the AS/A2 level U.K. and IB syllabuses. These field studies lend themselves to both deductive and inductive or enquiry approaches.

The deductive method The deductive method works from the more general to the more specific. For example, we might begin with a theory about expected downstream changes in river channel characteristics. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further when we collect data to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data - a confirmation (or not) of the original theory. The deductive field study method The inductive method Inductive reasoning works the other way round, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. This approach works well with many issues-based studies, for example, an investigation of the impact of urban renewal schemes in inner-city Barcelona. In inductive reasoning, we begin with the exploration of an area, recording specific observations and data. An analysis of the data enables the identification of patterns and the formulation of some tentative hypotheses that we can explore. The inductive approach ends with the development of some general conclusions or theories. The inductive field study method Inductive reasoning, by its very nature, is more open-ended and exploratory. Deductive reasoning is more narrow in nature and tends to be focused explicitly on testing or confirming hypotheses. Many students enjoy a more exploratory approach, yet limited time and examination board requirements often lead teachers to prefer the deductive route. The inductive method can be more intellectually satisfying, lending itself to a wide range of student study topics and where a field study has been piloted, risk assessed and has known outcomes, the approach can also be a very effective use of the time available. Even though a particular study may look purely deductive, most geographical research involves both inductive and deductive reasoning at some point. Even in the most constrained studies, students may observe patterns in the data that lead them to develop new theories.

The Usefulness of Fieldwork

Improving observation skills and a better understanding of the processes that contributed to the development of environmental features.

Experiential learning: fieldwork provides opportunities to learn through direct, concrete experiences, enhancing the understanding that comes from observing 'real world' manifestations of abstract geographical concepts and processes.

Increasing geographical interest through interacting with the environment.

Directly involving students in responsibility for learning: fieldwork requires that students plan and carry out learning in an independent manner.

Developing and applying analytical skills: fieldwork relies on a range of skills, many of which are not used in the classroom.

Experiencing real-life research: developing investigative, communicative and participatory skills.

Developing environmental ethics and increasing the appreciation of the aesthetic qualities of the biophysical and built environments.

Teamwork: fieldwork experiences provide an important teamwork element, with social benefits derived from working cooperatively with others in a setting outside the classroom.

Skill development: observation, synthesis, evaluation, reasoning, instrumentation skills, practical problem solving, adaptability to new demands that call upon creative solutions, etc.

Uses of technology: applying technology to investigate problems and issues.

U.K. Key Skill development, namely communication, application of number, information technology, working with others, improving own learning performance and problem solving.

Effective Fieldwork

To be effective fieldwork should:

Inquiry Centred Learning

This approach has a number of stages, but should not be viewed as a rigid formula. The intent is to enable students to become adept scientific investigators. The steps are as follows:

stating the problem;

formulating the hypotheses;

designing the experiment or fieldwork;

making observations;

interpreting the data;

proposing conclusions.

Bartlett and Cox (1982) applied the scientific inquiry process to field study and developed a schema for field based inquiry. The strength of the schema is that it results in two forms of field based analysis of spatial information. One is the enhanced knowledge and understanding of a particular problem or issue, whilst the other is the enhanced knowledge and explanation of a particular problem or issue leading to theory building or modeling with far greater reaching explanatory powers.

Geofile (A level) and GeoActive (GCSE), (pub. Stanley Thornes U.K.) are excellent sources for advice on investigative enquiry techniques, with Stephen Burton's fieldwork techniques series being particularly detailed. 

'Fieldwork in Geography' (GeoJournal Library, Pub. Kluwer Academic, 2000), includes a range of methodologies and alternative strategies, with the aim of reaffirming the centrality of fieldwork in geographical and wider education.

It offers fresh ideas for both promoting fieldwork and for maintaining its place in the geography curriculum.

Geography Department Penn State

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Geospatial Reasoning

The three well known reasoning processes trace the development of analytic beliefs along different paths. Inductive reasoning reveals “that something is probably true," deductive reasoning demonstrates “that something is necessarily true.” It is generally accepted that both are limited: inductive reasoning leads to multiple, equally likely solutions, and deductive reasoning is subject to error. Therefore, a third aid to judgment, abductive reasoning, showing “that something is plausibly true,” is used to offset the limitations of the others. While analysts who employ all three guides to sound judgment stand to be the most persuasive, fallacious reasoning or mischaracterization of rules, cases, or results in any of the three can affect reasoning using the others.

• Inductive reasoning , moving from the specific case to the general rule, suggests many possible outcomes, or the range of what might happen in the future. However, inductive reasoning lacks a means to distinguish among outcomes. An analyst has no way of knowing whether a solution is correct.
• Deductive reasoning , on the other hand, moves from the general to the specific. Deductive reasoning becomes essential for predictions. Based on past perceptions, certain facts indicate specific outcomes. If, for example, troops are deployed to the border, communications are increased, and leadership is in defensive bunkers, then war is imminent. However, if leadership remains in the public eye, then these preparations indicate that an exercise is imminent.
• Abductive reasoning reveals plausible outcomes. Abductive reasoning is the process of generating the best explanation for a set of observations. When actions defy accurate interpretation through existing paradigms, abductive reasoning generates novel means of explanation. In the case of predictions, an abductive process presents an “assessment of probabilities.” Although abduction provides no guarantee that the analyst has chosen the correct hypothesis, the probative force of the accompanying argument indicates that the most likely hypothesis is known and that actionable intelligence is being developed.

It is not too far of a stretch to say that people who are drawn to the discipline of geography have minds accustomed to assembling information into three-dimensional mental schemas. We construct schemas in our mind, rotate them, and view them from many angles. Furthermore, the experienced geospatial professional imagines spatial schemas influenced in the fourth dimension, time. We mentally replay time series of the schema. So easy is the geospatial professional’s ability to assemble multidimensional models that the expert does it with incomplete data. We mentally fill in gaps, making an intuitive leap toward a working schema with barely enough data to perceive even the most rudimentary spatial patterns. This is a sophisticated form of geospatial reasoning. Expertise increases with experience because as we come across additional schemas, our mind continuously expands to accommodate them. This might be called spatial awareness. Being a visual-spatial learner, instead of feeling daunted by the abundance and complexity of data, we find pleasure in recognizing the patterns. Are we crazy? No, this is what is called a visual-spatial mind. Some also call these people right brain thinkers.

The concept of right brain and left brain thinking developed from the research of psychobiologist Roger W. Sperry. Sperry discovered that the human brain has two different ways of thinking. The right brain is visual and processes information in an intuitive and simultaneous way, looking first at the whole picture then the details. The left brain is verbal and processes information in an analytical and sequential way, looking first at the pieces then putting them together to get the whole. Some individuals are more whole-brained and equally adept at both modes.

The qualities of the Visual-Spatial person are well documented but not well known ( Visual-Spatial Resource ). Visual-spatial thinkers are individuals who think in pictures rather than in words. They have a different brain organization than sequential thinkers. They are whole-part thinkers who think in terms of the big picture first before they examine the details. They are non-sequential, which means that they do not think and learn in the step-by-step manner. They arrive at correct solutions without taking steps. They may have difficulty with easy tasks, but show a unique ability with difficult, complex tasks. They are systems thinkers who can orchestrate large amounts of information from different domains, but they often miss the details.

Sarah Andrews likens some contrasting thought processes to a cog railway. Data must be in a set sequence in order to process it through a workflow. In order to answer a given question, the thinker needs information fed to him in order. He will apply a standardized method towards arriving at a pragmatic answer, check his results, and move on to the next question. In order to move comfortably through this routine, he requires that a rigid set of rules be in place. This is compared with the geospatial analyst who grabs information in whatever order, and instead of crunching down a straight-line, formulaic route toward an answer, makes an intuitive, mental leap toward the simultaneous perception of a group of possible answers. The answers may overlap, but none are perfect. In response to this ambiguity, the geospatial analyst develops a risk assessment, chooses the best working answer from this group, and proceeds to improve the estimate by gathering further data. Unlike, the engineer, whose formulaic approach requires that the unquestioned authority of the formula exist in order to proceed, the geospatial intelligence professional questions all authority, be it in the form of a human or acquired data.

Problem-solving with a geographic approach

As we confront the greatest issues of our time, one factor is crucial—geography.

What is the geographic approach?

Our most serious challenges—such as climate change, sustainability, social inequity, and global public health—are inherently spatial. To solve such complex problems, we must first understand their geography.

The geographic approach is a way of thinking and problem-solving that integrates and organizes all relevant information in the crucial context of location. Leaders use this approach to reveal patterns and trends; model scenarios and solutions; and ultimately, make sound, strategic decisions.

Monitoring the earth’s health

The European Environment Agency tracks air quality and pollution levels to better inform policy decisions across the continent.

A geographic approach provides clarity

Geography is a way of pulling all key information about an issue together, expanding the questions we can ask about a place or a problem and the creative solutions we can bring to bear. 

Science based and data driven

A geographic approach relies on science and data to understand problems and reveal solutions.

Holistic and inclusive

A geographic approach considers how all factors are interconnected, uniting data types by what they have in common—location.

Collaborative

Maps are a powerful foundation for communication and action—a way to create shared understanding, explore alternatives, and find solutions.

Making the most out of complex data

Mapping all kinds of data about a system such as the Port of Rotterdam offers a full perspective, revealing opportunities to operate more efficiently.

Mapping transforms data into understanding

With so much data having a location component, a geographic approach provides a logical foundation for organizing, analyzing, and applying it. When we visualize and analyze data on a map, hidden relationships and insights emerge.

Geography delivers a dynamic narrative

Maps tell stories about places—what's happening there now, what has happened, and what will happen next.

Maps are an accessible analytic platform

Maps help us grasp concepts and tap into a visual storytelling language we intuitively understand.

High-resolution imagery comes to life

When viewed on a map, imagery transforms from static snapshots to compelling stories that enhance understanding.

Visualizing how to improve mobility

This 3D map of San Francisco demonstrates how walkability and transportation access (shown in pink) improve with planned transit service expansions.

Cutting-edge technology magnifies the power of geography

Geography is being revitalized by a world of sensors and connectivity and made more powerful by modern geographic information system (GIS) software. With today's sophisticated digital maps, we can apply our best data science and analysis to convert raw data into location intelligence—insights that empower real-time understanding and transform decision-making.

Managing real-time operations

This live dashboard view of buses and traffic incidents in New York City combines historical and real-time data to avoid delays and keep people safe.

Global challenges require a geographic approach

Sustainability, infrastructure, climate impacts.

Leaders use a geographic approach to guide the most successful sustainability projects and actualize resilience.

A geographic approach to planning, prioritization, and operations helps leaders understand how infrastructure projects relate to surrounding environments.

Leaders who need to understand climate change impacts rely on a geographic approach to build actionable climate change solutions.

Location matters more than ever

Geographic knowledge creates essential context. We can't manage our world without it—whether it's global supply chain issues, equitable internet access in the US, or energy consumption for a multinational company. As we work together to address today’s challenges, a geographic approach, powered by GIS, will help map the common ground we need to inspire effective action.

Applying a geographic approach across all sectors

Businesses use a geographic approach to streamline operations, develop strategy, and achieve sustainable prosperity.

Governments use a geographic approach to build resilient, equitable infrastructure and improve disaster preparedness.

Nonprofit organizations use a geographic approach to maximize their effectiveness and make the most of limited resources.

Find out how a geographic approach can elevate your organization's work.