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Principles of Multimedia Learning

Richard Mayer’s seminal book Multimedia Learning details his extensive research on how to structure multimedia materials effectively to maximize learning. Relying on numerous experiments, he distills his findings into 12 principles that constitute (in part) what he refers to as the “cognitive theory of multimedia learning.” This theory and its principles provide guidance on how to create effective multimedia presentations for learning.

This article introduces the cognitive psychology foundation upon which Mayer’s principles are built and then summarizes each principle. Let’s begin by discussing Mayer’s assumptions on how people learn.

Information Processing

Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning makes three assumptions about how humans process information: the dual-channel assumption, the limited-capacity assumption, and the active-processing assumption.

The Dual-Channel Assumption

According to Mayer (2009), the dual-channel assumption dictates that “humans possess separate channels for processing visual and auditory information” (p. 63). The first is the visual–pictorial channel, which processes images seen through the eyes (including words displayed on a screen). The other channel is the auditory–verbal channel, which processes spoken words.

The Limited-Capacity Assumption

The limited-capacity assumption suggests that humans have a hard limit on the amount of information they can process at any given moment. This is probably intuitive to anyone who’s sat in a sports bar and tried to watch several games at the same time or tried to listen to the news while having a conversation.

Although it’s difficult to nail it down, Mayer suggests that most people can maintain maybe five to seven “chunks” of information in working memory at a given time (p. 67). He also indicates that individuals at the higher end of that range may have stronger metacognitive strategies, which allow them to manage their limited cognitive resources more efficiently.

The Active-Processing Assumption

The active-processing assumption asserts that humans don’t learn by just passively absorbing information. Instead, they need to engage in active cognitive processes, namely identifying and selecting relevant material, organizing it into visual and/or verbal models, and integrating those new models with prior knowledge (p. 70). The cognitive theory of multimedia learning fundamentally argues against a “knowledge transmission” approach to learning in favor of a student-centered “knowledge construction” model. Students, he argues, are not “empty vessels” waiting to be filled up with information but must instead work to synthesize words and pictures into meaningful information that is stored in long-term memory.

Cognitive Load Theory

In some ways, we can see cognitive load theory as being an extension of the limited-capacity assumption. Given that we have a limited ability to process information in real time, instructors should aim to construct multimedia that manage intrinsic load, optimize germane load, and minimize extraneous load to ensure maximum storage in long-term memory. So while Mayer’s principles provide insight on how to effectively construct multimedia messages for learning, each also maps to a best practice in managing cognitive load.

In short, the cognitive theory of multimedia learning assumes that the human mind is a dual-channel, limited-capacity, active-processing system, and that presenters must construct multimedia messages to manage all three types of cognitive load accordingly. Mayer adopts a constructivist view of learning in which multimedia are not simply information delivery systems, but rather cognitive aids for knowledge construction (p. 14).

Now that we’ve established the cognitive psychology foundation, let’s move on to summarizing each principle.

Principles That Minimize Extraneous Load

The coherence principle.

“People learn better when extraneous material is excluded rather than included.” (p. 89)

The coherence principle is about minimizing extraneous processing. Instructors should not include information in their multimedia messages that will not be assessed, is merely intended to “spice up” the presentation, or distracts from learning goals overall.

Mayer also warns against including seductive details (interesting but irrelevant material that the presenter might include to re-engage the audience or create emotional responses), which the audience often retains better than the intended core message (p. 97). Given that learning is an active process, these extraneous details may interfere with learners’ construction of mental models to represent the material.

To address this principle:

• Include only graphics, text, and narration that support learning goals (i.e., don’t use decorative images or supplemental materials).
• Don’t use background music.
• Use simple visuals (as opposed to realistic or detailed visuals).

The Signaling Principle

“People learn better when cues that highlight the organization of the essential material are added.” (p. 108)

Particularly when multiple pieces of information are on-screen, learners need to know what to pay attention to, where they are in the presentation, and how to integrate the information to construct their own mental models. Accordingly, the signaling principle recommends that instructors add cues that direct learners’ attention to salient material. Mayer is careful to point out that this can be overdone, so presenters should use signals sparingly.

• Use arrows, highlighting, and other signals to draw attention to important information.
• Include an advance organizer (content that presents the organizational structure of your multimedia presentation) and refer back to it when you advance to a new section.

The Redundancy Principle

“People learn better from graphics and narration than some graphics, narration, and printed text.” (p. 118)

Many multimedia presentations involve a combination of spoken words, graphics, and on-screen text. However, the redundancy principle suggests that multimedia messages are most effective when learners encounter just spoken words and graphics. When instructors include text on-screen, they risk overwhelming their learners’ visual channels with both pictures and words, and inadvertently direct their cognitive processes to resolving differences between the spoken text and the printed text.

• When delivering a narrated presentation, use either graphics or text, but not both.
• Minimize the use of text during a narrated presentation.

The Spatial Contiguity Principle

“Students learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented near rather than far from each other on the page or screen.” (p. 135)

The specifics of the spatial contiguity principle may be somewhat more intuitive than Mayer’s other principles. In short, it suggests that instructors should keep text (such as labels or captions) near to the graphics that they describe. If they do so, they minimize the cognitive effort that learners must expend to align the meaning of text and images themselves. Thus, instead of scanning the screen to make such connections, learners can devote that cognitive effort to integration and connection building.

• Place text in close proximity with the graphics it refers to.
• Provide feedback close to the questions or answers it refers to.
• Present directions on the same screen as an activity.
• Have people read any text before beginning an animated graphic.

The Temporal Contiguity Principle

“Students learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than successively.” (p. 153)

To maximize learning, the temporal contiguity principle dictates that narration and animation should be delivered concurrently. For example, students shouldn’t hear about a process and then watch an animation of it afterward; instead, instructors should time the narration to play along with the animation.

• Time narration appropriately to play along with animations.

Principles That Manage Intrinsic Load

The segmenting principle.

“People learn better when a multimedia message is presented in user-paced segments rather than as a continuous unit.” (p. 175)

Mayer’s experiments involved presenting asynchronous multimedia messages to research subjects (messages that largely focused on describing processes, such as how lightning forms). He determined that when students had the ability to control the pace of the lesson, they performed better on recall and transfer tests. Thus, the segmenting principle has two implications: (a) users should have control over the pace of the multimedia lesson, and (b) instructors should chunk material appropriately to allow for adequate processing on each slide or screen.

• Allow users to control the pace of the lesson, such as speed controls or “next” buttons.
• Break down long segments of material into smaller pieces.

The Pre-Training Principle

“People learn more deeply from a multimedia message when they know the names and characteristics of the main concepts.” (p. 189)

The necessity of managing essential (or intrinsic) load suggests that it’s easy for novice learners to become overwhelmed by the quantity or complexity of the information in a multimedia message. The pre-training principle accordingly recommends that instructors define key terms or concepts before diving into descriptions of processes. Otherwise, students will be stuck trying to learn a process’s component parts while also attempting to build a mental model of the process itself, which may hinder learning. In essence, pre-training is about scaffolding learning and helping students establish appropriate prior knowledge before beginning a multimedia lesson.

• Define key terms (such as names, definitions, locations, and characteristics) before beginning a process-based presentation, either in a separate presentation, handout, or similar material.
• Ensure people know how to use a tool (such as Excel) before asking them to perform learning activities within it.

The Modality Principle

“People learn more deeply from pictures and spoken words than from pictures and printed words.” (p. 200)

The dual-channel and limited-capacity assumptions lead in part to the modality principle, which recommends that instructors use narration instead of on-screen text when pictures are present. If multimedia messages contain pictures and on-screen text, the combination may overwhelm learners’ visual channels. Instead, instructors should only speak words (rather than include them on-screen), which spreads the load across both the visual and the verbal channels (also known as “modality offloading”; p. 204).

• Lists key steps
• Provides directions
• Provides references
• Presents important information to non-native English speakers

Principles That Optimize Germane Load

The multimedia principle.

“People learn better from words and pictures than from words alone.” (p. 223)

You could argue that the multimedia principle is a starting point for all the other principles, given that it indicates that learners perform better when exposed to words and pictures rather than just words. Given that multimedia presentations may or may not be narrated, it’s important to underscore that the “words” in this case should be either printed or spoken, but not both (in keeping with the other multimedia principles). Effectively leveraging pictures and words together fosters generative processing.

• Include images to illustrate key points.
• Ensure that all images enhance or clarify meaning (rather than being purely decorative).
• Favor static images over animations (with some exceptions).

The Personalization Principle

“People learn better from multimedia presentations when words are in conversational style rather than formal style.” (p. 242)

According to the personalization principle, having a more relaxed tone in an online class can actually positively impact learning. Thus, instructors should avoid stiff, academic language, and instead use more approachable colloquial language. Try to think of the presentation as a one-on-one conversation with each student. Informal language has the effect of creating social cues within the presentation that “prime the activation of a social response in the learner—such as the commitment to try to make sense out of what the speaker is saying” (p. 247).

• Use contractions.
• Use first and second person (“I,” “you,” “we,” “our,” etc.).
• If using a script, try to make an extemporaneous-sounding performance.
• Use polite speech (“please,” “you might like to,” “let’s,” etc.).

The Voice Principle

“People learn better when narration is spoken in a human voice rather than in a machine voice.” (p. 242)

The voice principle is perhaps the oddest of the group, but it is still worthy of mention, particularly given the speed at which technology is developing. This principle suggests that narration is better done by a human than a computer. Mayer stresses that the research on this principle is still preliminary.

• Include narration that’s performed by a human rather than a computer.

The Image Principle

“People do not necessarily learn better when the speaker’s image is added to the screen.” (p. 242)

The image principle is the only multimedia principle that’s not affirmative in its phrasing. It states that including an image of an instructor’s “talking head” during a multimedia presentation doesn’t necessarily improve learning outcomes. Just as with the voice principle, Mayer is careful to point out that the research on the image principle is still preliminary. Nonetheless, early results suggest that you don’t necessarily add value by showing your face during a narrated presentation.

• Avoid including a video of yourself during an asynchronous multimedia presentation containing pictures and words.
• There are no words or pictures.
• You wish to establish instructor or social presence.

Boundary Conditions

Mayer is careful to set “boundary conditions” for his multimedia principles—situations in which the principles may not apply as strongly. For example, with respect to the segmenting principle (which advises multimedia designers to chunk their materials and allow users to control pacing), Mayer’s research suggested that its effects may not be as strong when the material is simple, when the material is slow paced, or when learners are experienced with the material.

Although each principle has its own set of these conditions (which we encourage you to read about in Mayer’s book if you’re interested), there is at least one high-level qualification that’s worth mentioning. Mayer proposes an overarching individual differences principle , which suggests that “certain of the twelve design principles reviewed in this book may help low-experience learners but not help high-experience learners” (pp. 271–272). This speaks strongly to the role of prior knowledge in multimedia learning—indeed, in learning overall. Mayer argues, in fact, “prior knowledge is the single most important individual difference dimension in instructional design. If you could know just one thing about a learner, you would want to know the learner’s prior knowledge in the domain” (p. 193).

You may be wondering about what kind of media Mayer is addressing in his research. Although generally his experiments involved asynchronously produced multimedia presentations (that is, there were no live lectures), they were presented across a variety of media. Accordingly, he believes these principles embody best practices across a variety of media:

The cognitive theory of multimedia learning is based on a knowledge-construction view in which learners actively build mental representations in an attempt to make sense out of their experiences. Instead of asking which medium makes the best deliveries, we might ask which instructional techniques help guide the learner’s cognitive processing of the presented material. (p. 231)

With these conditions in mind, it’s important to sum up the conditions that make up the cognitive theory of multimedia learning:

• The principles apply to low-knowledge learners.
• The principles apply to multimedia messages that describe processes.
• The principles are medium agnostic.

Mayer’s overarching thesis—that people learn better when you use pictures and words together—may be intuitive to many instructors. What may be less intuitive, however, is how to maximize the efficacy of multimedia messages based on the specifics of how humans process information during learning. Mayer’s theories are a rejection of multimedia learning as knowledge transmission (transplanting information from instructor to learner) and response strengthening (promoting recall through drill and practice methods). Instead, the theory embraces a knowledge construction perspective: “that multimedia learning is a sense-making activity in which the learner seeks to build a coherent mental representation from the presented material” (p. 17).

Here are the big takeaways from this article:

• When it comes to learning, the human mind is a dual-channel, limited-capacity, active-processing system.
• Instructors should manage their learners’ essential processing, optimize their generative processing, and minimize their extraneous processing through thoughtful construction of multimedia presentations.
• These principles are most applicable when the multimedia messages describe processes and when learners are inexperienced.

Clearly, Mayer’s multimedia principles provide quite a few guidelines for the design of multimedia presentations. For convenience, we’ve summarized them in a table in a separate document, which you can download here .

Mayer’s theory aligns with contemporary thinking on effective learning, which embraces a constructivist perspective: Students learn most effectively when they have to construct their own knowledge structures and mental models. As Mayer tells us, “instructional design involves not just presenting information, but also presenting it in a way that encourages learners to engage in appropriate cognitive processing” (p. 168). By following the principles of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, instructors can help ensure that their multimedia presentations will enhance student learning.

Mayer, R. E. (2009).  Multimedia learning  (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

How to use Mayer’s 12 Principles of Multimedia [Examples Included]

by Andrew DeBell | Dec 11, 2019

If you’re creating a training video,  PowerPoint presentation, or eLearning course, how do you ensure your final product will be an effective learning resource?

You don’t want to spend hundreds of hours developing an eLearning only to find that your audience thinks it confusing and uninteresting.

To help us create the most effective multimedia learning experiences, Richard Mayer has developed a theory of 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning. Think of these principles as ‘guidelines’ as you develop your digital learning experiences – learning videos, eLearning courses, and instructor-led PowerPoint presentations.

As you begin building your next multimedia learning experience, we suggest printing out the 12 principles as a checklist. Keep the checklist next to your computer as a helpful reference to design and develop your learning experience.

Instead of flooding your audience with paragraphs of Arial text, why not use a little science theory to help you stay on track.

Let’s start by defining some terms.

What is multimedia learning?

Multimedia learning can be defined as a form of computer-aided instruction that uses two modalities concurrently. This means learning through the combined use of visuals (through pictures, animations, text, and videos) and audio (through narrated voiceover).

Since the 1970’s, the science has been well established that visual elements such as images are far more effective for learning compared to text alone. Fast forward to the modern digital age, and we all experience multimedia learning every single day – through YouTube videos, eLearning courses, PowerPoint decks, free online MOOCs. The list goes on and on.

Researcher Richard Mayer wrote a book called Multimedia Learning where he explains his research on how best to structure multimedia learning experiences to maximize learner comprehension. Today, we’re going to cover the basics of his 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning.

1. The Coherence Principle

First up is the Coherence Principle, which states that humans learn best when extraneous, distracting material is not included.

Simply said, cut out the extras. Use only the information that the learner needs. And most often, that means simple text and simple visuals that relate directly to the learning topic. Remove all the fluff.

How to use the Coherence Principle:

You can use the Coherence Principle as you’re planning your visual elements. Ask yourself, “Is this image 100% necessary to help with comprehension? Or could you find a better one? Does this message use simple enough language so the audience will understand? Maybe I could trim down a few words.”

The Coherence Principle is also quite helpful when you’re editing your training video or eLearning course. As you re-watch the experience, make sure to watch with a critical “Coherence Principle” eye. Determine how you can reduce, simplify, and clarify.

2. The Signaling Principle

Next up is the Signaling Principle, which essentially means that humans learn best when they are shown exactly what to pay attention to on the screen. If there is a ton of information on the screen, how is the learner supposed to know what is the most important part?

How to use the Signaling Principle:

As a learning developer, this is where you can utilize the signaling principle by thoughtfully using features such as highlighting important words and using animated arrows to point out significant information. Another way you can use the signaling principle is by having slides or scenes that separate learning sections. This is a quick and easy way to signal to the learner that we’re moving on to the next topic.

3. The Redundancy Principle

Next up? The Redundancy Principle. This principle suggests that humans learn best with narration and graphics, as opposed to narration, graphics, and text. The theory here is that if you already have narration and graphics, then the text on top is just redundant information. And this can be overwhelming for a learner.

How to use the Redundancy Principle:

You can use this principle for videos or eLearning courses that have narrated audio. Try to only include graphics or text, but not both together. Or if they are together, make the text minimal.

Personally, from a learning perspective, I enjoy reading text on screen so I what I suggest whenever possible is to include closed captioning that can be optionally turned on and off. This can’t be done in all cases, but I definitely suggest that whenever possible.

4. The Spatial Contiguity Principle

The Spatial Contiguity Principle is about the actual space in between your text and visuals on the screen, stating that humans learn best when relevant text and visuals are physically close together.

How to use the Spatial Contiguity Principle:

This one makes sense intuitively. You should keep all related text and graphics physically close together in your frame. This makes it much easier for learners to process the information, using less energy to decipher meaning. This principle is pretty straight forward. Make it easy for your audience to know where to look for information.

5. The Temporal Contiguity Principle

The Temporal Contiguity Principle states that humans learn best when corresponding words and visuals are presented together, instead of in consecutive order.

How to use the Temporal Contiguity Principle:

If you’re introducing a new process, the animation (or visual) should be occurring at the same time as the voiceover audio. This is preferred to having the voiceover audio play first, and then watching a visual after. You can use this by making sure your voiceover audio is always timed well with your visuals or animations.

6. The Segmenting Principle

Next is the Segmenting Principle which states that humans learn best when information is presented in segments, rather than one long continuous stream. Mayer found that when learners can control the pace of their learning, they performed better on recall tests.  

How to use the Segmenting Principle:

You can use this principle by providing learners with more control over their learning. This is done by adding next buttons or allowing the speed which a video plays.

This principle also suggests that learning is broken up into smaller, bite-sized chunks. Make sure that no one lesson, slide, or video has too much information packed in it.

7. The Pre-Training Principle

The Pre-training Principle states that humans learn more efficiently if they already know some of the basics.  This often means understanding basic definitions, terms, or concepts before beginning the learning experience.

And this makes intuitive sense. If a learner starts an eLearning course knowing about the topic, they can easily become overwhelmed once complex visuals and definitions start being thrown their way. A bit of pre-training before starting the course really would have helped.

How to use the Pre-Training Principle:

You can use this principle by creating an introductory “guide” or “cheat sheet” for learners to use throughout the course. Or you can create an entire lesson up front dedicated to understanding the basics, before the learner moves into the actual course.

8. The Modality Principle

The Modality Principle states that humans learn best from visuals and spoken words than from visuals and printed words. This doesn’t mean that you should never use text on screen, it simply means that if there are visuals and too much text, learners will be overwhelmed.

How to use the Modality Principle:

Try to limit the amount of text you use on screen overall. Rely more on visuals, unless you need to define key terms, list steps, or provide directions.

9. The Multimedia Principle

The Multimedia Principle states that humans learn best from words and pictures than just words alone. This principle is sort of the foundation of all Mayer’s principles, that images and words are more effective than words alone.

How to use the Multimedia Principle:

You can use this principle by being very thoughtful about the images you select. Remember that these images need to enhance or clarify the information.

10. The Personalization Principle

The Personalization Principle says that humans learn best from a more informal, conversational voice than an overly formal voice. Having a more casual voice actually improves the learning experience.

How to use the Personalization Principle:

You can use this by keeping your language simple and casual. Try to avoid overly professional sounding text, or long, complex words. It also helps to use the first person (you, I, we, our). This is where it helps to consider your audience demographics and try to match the tone of your voiceover to enhance personalization.

11. The Voice Principle

The Voice Principle states that humans learn best from a human voice than a computer voice. While Siri and Alexa are getting pretty close, there is no substitution for a human voice. It’s important to note that the studies are still rather preliminary for the Voice Principle. But even so, it makes sense to use a human for your voiceover.

How to use the Voice Principle:

You can use this principle by recording your own professional narration, or hiring a professional to create an audio voiceover. Make sure your audio is high quality by using a professional microphone and mastering in audio editing software.

12. The Image Principle

The Image Principle states that humans do not necessarily learn better from a talking head video. Talking head videos are incredibly common in eLearning courses and MOOCs. The research on this one is also still in its early phases, so take this principle with a grain of salt.

The thinking here is that if there is important information to be learned, relevant visuals on the screen will be more effective than showing a talking head of an instructor.

How to use the Image Principle:

Instead of having a talking head of the instructor, use relevant animations and visuals that help reinforce the audio voiceover. Note that talking heads can provide some value for the instructor by building credibility and trust. This is especially useful to establish at the beginning of your learning experience. Just try to limit your use of talking heads as your video or course dives deeper into the learning content.

About the Author:

Andrew DeBell is a learning experience strategist and content developer on the customer education team at Atlassian. Connect with him on LinkedIn for more.

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Mayer’s 12 Principles of Multimedia Learning

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Richard Mayer’s multimedia learning theory is a must-read for instructional designers, eLearning developers and L&D professionals everywhere. Mayer’s principles of multimedia learning provide a blueprint for how to structure multimedia elements to maximise learning outcomes.

A distinguished professor of psychology at the University of California, Mayer published his cognitive theory of multimedia learning in 2001. And the principles he developed after several years of research are just as relevant today. From images and video to AR and VR, multimedia is now integral to digital education. And learners find it a more engaging and enjoyable way to learn. According to one survey , 70% of students prefer digital learning to traditional classrooms.

Mayer’s multimedia learning theory is based on three assumptions:

Dual-channel assumption: According to Mayer, people have two separate channels for processing auditory and visual information.

Limited-capacity assumption: The theory recognises that individuals have a limited ability to absorb information at any one time.

Active-processing assumption: The multimedia learning theory suggests that people should be actively engaged in the learning process rather than passive receivers of information.

From these assumptions, Mayer goes on to identify 12 principles of multimedia learning. And these principles provide an invaluable checklist for designers wanting to optimise learning with multimedia.

Today’s post examines Mayer’s principles of multimedia learning and shares some practical ways they can be incorporated into eLearning.

Learn more about Multimedia Learning with our Professional Diploma in Digital Learning Design

What are mayer’s 12 principles of multimedia learning.

The principles are grounded in cognitive science and how people process information. They provide a checklist on how to structure multimedia learning experiences.

Tick off the following principles as you design your program to ensure you maximise learner comprehension, improve retention and enhance the learning outcomes.

1. Multimedia Principle

What it means: People learn best from a combination of words and pictures. Instructional designers should use words (text or narration) and visuals (images, animations, or videos) rather than only one channel. Presenting information in multiple formats helps learners process and integrate information more effectively.

How to apply the multimedia principle:

Use a mix of text and images.

Incorporate visuals to illustrate key points in the eLearning program.

Instead of using images for the sake of it, double-check that the visuals clarify meaning or enhance comprehension.

2. Coherence Principle

What it means: Learning is more effective if unnecessary information is excluded rather than included. eLearning developers should ensure that words and visuals are closely aligned and complement each other. Do away with irrelevant information or fluff that might distract learners from the main message.

How to apply the coherence principle:

Only include graphics, text or narratives if they are on point and support the learning goals.

Avoid using background music.

Use simple diagrams and infographics.

3. Signalling Principle

What it means: Learning is enhanced when cues are added to draw attention to vital information. Online learning designers should make it easy for students by highlighting what’s important. Too much information on the screen confuses the learner, making it harder to work out the most critical elements.

How to apply the signalling principle:

Emphasise key points with arrows, callouts, highlights or bold text.

4. Redundancy Principle

What it means: The redundancy principle suggests that we learn best from a combination of spoken words and graphics. Add on-screen text, and you risk overwhelming students. Therefore, designers should avoid presenting the same information in multiple formats simultaneously. Redundant information can create overload and gets in the way of learning.

How to apply the redundancy principle:

Use either graphics or text to complement spoken presentations. Never use both at the same time.

Minimise the use of on-screen text in narrated presentations. Instead, focus on images or graphics.

5. Spatial Contiguity Principle

What it means: Mayer says text and visuals should be presented close together on the screen to maximise learning. L&D professionals should align visuals and text, so learners can more easily understand the relationships between them. Avoid spatially separating text from related graphics or animations.

How to apply the spatial contiguity principle:

Keep text and visuals close to each other in the frame.

Place any feedback next to the relevant questions or answers.

Ensure directions are presented on the same screen as an activity.

6. Temporal Contiguity Principle

What it means: This principle suggests that students learn best when words and pictures are presented at the same time rather than sequentially. Simultaneous presentation allows learners to process the information together and build meaningful connections. For example, students shouldn’t learn about a process and then watch an animation about it afterwards. Instead, designers should ensure the voiceover plays along with the animation.

How to apply the temporal contiguity principle:

Ensure voiceovers are timed with visuals or animations.

Place related text and pictures on the same screen.

7. Segmenting Principle

What it means: Mayer found that better learning outcomes are achieved when information is segmented, and students have control over the pace. For developers, this means breaking down complex information into smaller, manageable chunks. Present the information in a step-by-step approach, allowing learners to process each segment independently and build understanding gradually.

How to apply the segmenting principle:

Organise content in manageable, coherent bite-sized chunks.

Ensure no one lesson, module, or slide has too much information packed in.

Allow users to control the pace of instruction with next buttons or speed controls.

8. Pre-training Principle

What it means: When it comes to multimedia learning, this principle states that people learn better when they already know the basics. Often, this means understanding definitions, terms or critical concepts before diving into the details. For example, you can’t expect a student to complete a task using Excel if they have no experience in the software.

Instructional designers should give learners an overview of key concepts before presenting the main content. Pre-training activates prior knowledge and primes learners to understand better and retain new information.

How to apply the pre-training principle:

Develop an introductory module to explain key concepts before starting the main program.

Consider preparing a cheat sheet of terms and definitions to accompany the course.

Ensure students know how to use any tools needed to complete tasks within the course.

9. Modality Principle

What it means: The modality principle says that students experience deeper learning from visuals and spoken words than text and visuals. This doesn’t mean you shouldn’t have text on the screen. It’s more about ensuring a balance, as too much text can overwhelm students.

Designers should use visual and auditory channels based on the content and the learner’s preferences. Consider using animations or images to illustrate dynamic processes and narration to explain complex concepts.

How to apply the modality principle:

Try to limit your use of text. Instead, rely on visuals, images and voice overs.

During a narrated presentation with visuals, only use text to list steps or provide directions.

10. Voice Principle

What it means: This principle is straightforward. People learn better when real presenters rather than machines make voice overs. Although we are all used to Siri and Alexa, it seems we still prefer a friendly, human touch.  

How to apply the voice principle:

This one is simple. Narrate your own audio content or use a voiceover professional.

If doing it yourself, ensure you have a high-quality microphone and use audio editing software.

11. Personalisation Principle

What it means: The personalisation principle is another common sense one. Learning with multimedia works best when it’s personalised and focused on the user. For designers, this means speaking in the first person (I, you, we, our). Avoid formal language and instead use a conversational tone to engage learners. Imagine you are in the room speaking with students.

How to apply the personalisation principle

Use accessible, everyday language in your content.

Consider the demographics of your target audience and tailor your language accordingly.

12. Image Principle

What it means: Mayer points out that the research is still in its early stages. However, the image principle suggests people may not learn better from talking head videos. High-quality, complementary visuals can often be more effective than having a speaker’s image.

Consider using talking head videos initially to develop connections and build trust only.

After that, select relevant and meaningful images that align with the instructional content.

Multimedia Learning Theory: final thoughts

Mayer’s 12 principles of multimedia learning are an essential resource for instructional designers and eLearning developers. Use them to guide your course development and get the most out of multimedia materials. That way, you will enhance learner engagement, comprehension, and retention, leading to improved outcomes for your organisation.

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Multimedia Learning Theory

Wayan K. Yana

Multimedia Learning Theory (MMLT) was originally developed by Richard Mayer in 1997. It falls under the grand theory of Cognitivism. According to Mayer (1997), multimedia learning theory consists of three aspects that help students learn more effectively. The first one is that there are two channels, namely audio and visual, for information processing; this is also known as the multimedia principle. This principle states that students may learn better from images and words than just from words. The second aspect is that each channel has a limited capacity to process information. In other words, human beings can only process information in limited amounts, and they try to understand the information by creating mental representations from the information sources. The last aspect is that learning is an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating information based on existing knowledge.

Mayer (2002) also stated that the process of transferring knowledge from two channels (audio and visual) could be successful when information is integrated with existing knowledge. So, when students are actively processing incoming information, they also use their existing knowledge to help the process. For example, a group of tourists taking a tour in London will benefit more when a tour guide is explaining what they see around them. In other words, multimedia does not necessarily mean technology, instead whatever involves two channels is what defines multimedia.

Previous Studies

Researchers have investigated the role of multimedia learning on students’ achievement, and many studies provide evidence that MMLT is still valid and evolving in current educational practice. Several studies have shown that students tend to have positive learning experiences using multimedia learning materials. For example, a study conducted by Ercan (2014) showed that multimedia has an important role for students’ achievement. The researcher examined the effect of multimedia learning material on 62 5th grade students’ academic achievement and attitudes toward science courses. The participants were divided into control and experimental groups and were given a test on the topic of “Food and Healthy Nutrition.” The findings showed a significant difference in the achievement post-test between the two groups. The experimental group had higher score than the control group. The findings align with what Mayer (2002) said about multimedia learning, that students learn more effectively with multimedia materials.

McTigue (2009) conducted another study that shows the significance of MMLT. The purpose of her study was to measure the importance of multimedia presentations to students’ reading. Students in the experimental group read a science text with an illustration or diagram, while the other read text only. The study showed that students benefited more when reading with diagrams or illustrations. These findings raise concerns about the implementation of multimedia uses in classroom practice; the scant use of multimedia is the main concern that educators need to address in classroom settings. Teachers should present their materials in more attractive ways such as using more media to optimize students’ learning experiences.

Further, Chang et al. (2010) conducted a study that applied multimedia material. They investigated the effects of multimedia uses on 7th-grade students’ academic performance in science class. The researchers administered basic science tests to three different groups of participants. Findings showed that the students in the experimental group, taught with multimedia materials, had a higher score on the test. In other words, the findings indicated that the students taught with multimedia learned more successfully than the groups taught with traditional methods.

Model of MMLT

Figure 1 presents a model of MMLT.

As can be seen in Figure 1, there are two channels used to process information, the auditory and visual channels.  The auditory channel processes information in the form of sounds, and the visual channel processes visible objects.  In MMLT, these two channels combine to process the incoming multimedia information.

Visual and auditory information is taken in and transferred to sensory memory (short term memory). Mayer (2002) explains that short term memory is the first place where information is processed. After that, all the information (sounds and pictures) is transferred to the working memory. The working memory is where learners actively select the materials and organize them. The purpose of the selecting and organizing process is to dynamically produce logical mental constructs. The two memories have similar functions, however, the sensory memory process information temporarily until it reaches long-term memory. Mayer also stated that integrating the information with prior knowledge is significant to successfully transfer the knowledge.   

Proposition

The theory proposes that, by combining information from the two channels, the information is transferred from short-term to working memory to be processed in-depth with the help of prior knowledge, and that processing helps the information stay in the learners’ long-term memory (Yue et al., 2013). The key idea of the theory is that students can learn more effectively when they are given two or more media and are engaged in processes of selecting the most relevant materials, organizing them into cognitive mental representations, and finally integrating them with their prior knowledge .  In short, multimedia learning occurs when people build mental representations from words (such as spoken text or printed text) and pictures (such as illustrations, photos, animation, or video) to process information and integrate them with prior knowledge. This process improves the possibility that the information will go to long-term memory.

Using the Model

In classroom practice, this model can be used in many ways, for example, to help students explore the world. In geography class, teachers can apply this model to teach geographical areas such as the highest mountain or the longest river using a digital world map that uses both audio and visual information. This may promote deeper understanding as students can process more than one source of information. Most students cannot easily process information from texts only because it is difficult from them to process the information without visualization. Teachers should be aware that two sources of information help students learn more effectively, as they can process more information at the same time. This process will help them transfer the knowledge to long-term memory.

Researchers can use the model to examine the role of auditory and visual sources such as 3D videos to promote effective learning. Today, we live in an era where technology is booming. There are many sources of teaching materials that provide two or more information sources to create more attractive teaching and learning process. Furthermore, the model can also be used to measure the theory’s effectiveness for different kinds of populations and media tools.

To sum up, MMLT suggests a way that can help students learn more effectively as they are more engaged in processing information. It will also create more fun in the learning activities as they find the materials interesting and engaging.

R eferences

Chang, H. Y., Quintana, C., & Krajcik, J. S. (2010). The impact of designing and evaluating molecular animations on how well middle school students understand the particulate nature of matter.  Science Education , 94 (1), 73-94

Ercan, O. (2014). The effect of multimedia learning on students’ academic achievement and attitudes towards science courses.  Journal of Baltic of Science Education ,  13 (5), 608-622.

Mayer, R. E. (2002). Multimedia learning.  Psychology of Learning and Motivation ,  41 , 85-139.

Mayer, R. E. (1997). Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions?  Educational Psychologist ,  32 (1), 1-19.

McTigue, E. (2009). Does multimedia learning theory extend to middle-school students?  Contemporary Educational Psychology ,  34 (2), 143-153.

Yue, C., Kim, J., Ogawa, R., Stark, E., & Kim, S. (2013). Applying the cognitive theory of multimedia learning: An analysis of medical animations.  Medical Education , 47 , 375-387.

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Multimedia Learning Principles

The effective design and use of multimedia materials requires an understanding of some basic cognitive psychology principles.

Current best practices for creating effective course videos rely heavily on our understanding of cognitive psychology. It makes sense; the mechanisms by which we process pictures and words and store them in short- and long-term memory provides guidance on how to effectively craft educational "multimedia messages" (pictures and words seen by the eyes and narration heard by the ears).

In this article we’ll discuss the main psychological components of learning through multimedia. Understanding at a core level how the brain processes pictures and words lead to fundamental principles for how to create effective instructional multimedia.

The Short Version

We first start with three assumptions about how we process information, namely:

• The dual channel assumption : We primarily use two channels to learn: a verbal channel for spoken words and a visual channel for images.
• The limited capacity assumption : We have limits on how much we can perceive at any given time.
• The active processing assumption : Actual learning requires effort.
• Selecting : The learner must identify and select the most important pieces of information.
• Organizing : Learners must then organize that selected information into a model that makes sense to them.
• Integrating : Finally, they have to integrate that model with what they already know (their prior knowledge).

Active processing, though, is one of three main kinds of cognitive effort we can expend during learning. Cognitive load theory suggests that there are three:

• Generative load : the effort involved in active processing.
• Intrinsic load : the effort required to represent the material in working memory (based on its complexity).
• Extraneous load : cognitive effort wasted on things that don't support learning goals.

Understanding the details of this cognitive theory of multimedia learning will help to provide a framework for how to leverage what we know about human perception and cognition to design effective multimedia.

The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

In his book Multimedia Learning , Richard Mayer wishes to develop what he calls a cognitive theory of multimedia learning . In order to do so, he relies on three main assumptions about how we process information when the brain perceives a multimedia message:

• The dual channel assumption
• The limited capacity assumption
• The active processing assumption

The Dual Channel Assumption

We have two separate intakes or "channels" for processing a multimedia message: the visual channel and the auditory channel.

The Limited Capacity Assumption

We have a limit on how much information we can process at any given moment.

The Active Processing Assumption

In order for learning to occur, the learner must expend cognitive effort.

Active Processing

One of the assumptions within the cognitive theory of multimedia learning is that learners must expend effort in order to learn. So let's look closer at what occurs during "active processing." As suggested earlier, learners aren't "empty vessels" waiting to be filled up with information by an expert.

At a high, level, there are three sequential activities that occur during active processing of new information:

• Selecting relevant material
• Organizing the selected material into coherent representations
• Integrating those representations with prior knowledge

Selecting Relevant Material

The learner must first select the most important pieces of information.

Organizing Selected Material

Learners must then represent those selected materials in a verbal and/or pictorial model that makes sense to them.

Integrating Representations

Lastly, learners must integrate the representations of selected material with what they already know.

Cognitive Load

The limited capacity assumption suggests that both the visual and auditory channels can be oversaturated by excessive cognitive load. As Ambrose et al describe it, cognitive load refers to "the total information-processing demands imposed by a given task or set of tasks," and when there are too many, students don't have enough attention left to attend to the material properly (2010). Partly because of its strong implications for instructional design, cognitive load theory has become foundational in multimedia learning research.

There are three types of cognitive load: intrinsic , generative , and extraneous . All are the result of the arrangement and relationship of the components of the multimedia message (i.e. its words and pictures). Because cognitive load is the product of instructional design, understanding the learning impact of and management strategy for each type of cognitive load is crucial for creating effective course videos.

Although segmenting (or "chunking") is a good instructional design strategy, there's admittedly only so much that instructors can do to reduce the intrinsic load of their material - that is, the inherent complexity of the subject. Signaling and weeding, however, are lower-hanging fruit, so to speak, particularly if you have existing material with which you're working (e.g. a script or a PowerPoint presentation).

Admittedly, however, weeding can sometimes be difficult. For example, perhaps you intend to tell a humorous anecdote during your course video that used to get some good laughs when you performed the lecture in person. The danger is that sometimes extraneous materials like these are better retained than the essential material! Mayer refers to these as seductive details : "interesting but irrelevant material that is added to a passage in order to spice it up" (2009). Common sense might suggest that arousal promotes engagement, which in turn helps students learn, but the research is clear that extraneous materials just compete for our limited cognitive resources and take away from meaningful, active learning.

Understanding how we process information is crucial for developing effective course videos; indeed, for developing effective multimedia presentations of any kind. The assumptions on how we process spoken words and pictures , for example, suggest that we should reduce the amount of information we present at any given time and split (not duplicate) multimedia messages between the visual and auditory channels effectively. The mechanisms of active processing suggest that we need to help learners make sense of the material and create conceptual scaffolds. Lastly, cognitive load theory suggests that we should chunk our materials and draw learners' attention to what's most important and relevant.

Overall, the cognitive psychology underpinning multimedia learning theory strongly - if implicitly - advocates for a constructivist approach to teaching and learning. Instead of dumping knowledge into students, instructors must instead tactically encourage students to engage in active learning through the design of their materials while being mindful of how much information that they, as presumed novices, can process.

Check out our presentation design guide , which leverages these and other psychological principles to offer practical tips on how to design visual aids.

Ambrose, Susan A., Bridges, Michael W., DiPietro, Michele, Lovett, Marsha C., & Norman, Marie K. (2010). How learning works: 7 research-based principles for smart teaching . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Brame, C. J. (2016). Effective educational videos: Principles and guidelines for maximizing student learning from video content. CBE—Life Sciences Education , 15(4). https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.16-03-0125

Mayer, R. E. (2009). Multimedia learning (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

Have additional questions about video? Contact Multimedia Services at [email protected] .

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Multimedia Learning

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Cognitive theory of multimedia learning (ctml).

Multimedia learning describes learning through the use of pictures and words. Examples of multimedia learning include watching a PowerPoint presentation, watching a pre-recorded lecture or reading a physics textbook.

Multimedia Principle

The multimedia principle serves as the foundation for Multimedia Design Theory. This principle asserts that deeper learning occurs from words and pictures than from just words. Simply adding images or graphics to words does not assure a deeper level of learning, however. Multimedia instructional content is more likely to create a meaningful learning experience if the content is developed with the following assumptions from cognitive science in mind:

• Active processes assumption Active learning entails carrying out a coordinated set of cognitive processes during learning.
• Dual-channel assumption Dual channels, one for visual/pictorial and one for auditory/verbal processing.
• Limited-capacity assumption Each channel has limited capacity for processes.

From Mayer, 2005, Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.

Why should I use Multimedia Design Theory?

Working memory.

Working memory is the part of memory that consciously processes information. Working memory is severely limited (see Memory and Learning ). Because much of the instructional content presented to students is novel, faculty must remember the limitations of working memory when they design instructional materials. Lessons developed with consideration for the limitations of students working memory are more likely to be effective than lessons developed without. For example, if you provide students with written instructions for small-group activities, instead of simply stating the instructions one time, students will not need to remember the instructions as they work.

Cognitive Load

One problem that can arise when words and pictures are presented together is a situation called cognitive overload. In this scenario, the processing demands associated with the learning task exceed the learner’s cognitive processing capacity. There are three types of cognitive load: extraneous, intrinsic and germane. Poor instructional design can increase each of these.

• Extraneous cognitive load This type of cognitive load results when students are asked to use working memory for tasks other than the primary learning objective. Such designs fail to steer working memory resources towards schema construction and automation. From the example above, students must use working memory to remember the instructions for the small-group activity, instead of focusing on the key concepts that the faculty just taught.
• Intrinsic cognitive load This type of cognitive load result from the inherent complexity of the information that must be processed. For example, understanding a complex equation that includes Greek symbols means the student must be able to remember and keep track of the mathematical meaning of each symbol. Instructional design can’t eliminate intrinsic load, but faculty should realize that they have automated many skills and concepts that students must still use working memory to understand and process.
• Germane cognitive load This type of cognitive load results from effortful learning, leading to schema production and automation. This is different from intrinsic load which is the inherent work involved in the task, while germane cognitive load is the work involved in learning from the task. For example, a multiplication problem has the same intrinsic load for a fifth grade student and a teacher, but higher germane cognitive load for the young student who is learning more from the task.

Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning

When presenting multimedia content to students, faculty can take certain steps to reduce cognitive load and to help ensure an effective transmission of the material. Mayer & Moreno (2003) outline nine specific strategies to reduce the cognitive load of multimedia presentations:

• Off-loading Move some essential processing from the visual channel to the auditory channel, or vice versa if there is too much verbal explanation given. Learning is more effective when information is presented as audio rather than as text on the screen.
• Segmenting Take time to pause between small content segments to allow students time to process information. Learning is more effective when a lesson is presented in small pieces rather than as a continuous entity.
• Pre-training Include relevant names and characteristics of system components. Learning is better when students are aware of names and behaviors of various system components.
• Weeding Eliminate extraneous, albeit interesting, material. Learning is more effective without the inclusion of extraneous information. At least one study has shown, however, that up to 50% additional extraneous material did not harm learner performance if it was interesting or motivating.
• Signaling Include cues for how to process material to avoid processing extraneous material. Learning is more effective when signals are included. For example, add directions for how to move through a system diagram that does not have a clear linear path.
• Aligning Place written words near corresponding graphics to reduce the need for visual scanning. Learning is more effective when words are placed near corresponding image parts.
• Eliminate redundancy Don’t present identical streams of spoken or written words. Learning is more effective when information is presented as audio as opposed to as audio and on-screen text. For example, don’t read your PowerPoint slides to students.
• Synchronizing Present audio and corresponding images simultaneously. Learning is more effective when images and narration are presented simultaneously as opposed to successively.
• Individualizing Assure that students possess skill for holding mental representations.
• Research-Based Principles for Designing Multimedia Instruction (Chapter)
• Application of Multimedia Design Principles to Visuals used in Course-Books: An Evaluation Tool (Article)
• Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning.  Educational psychologist ,  38 (1), 43-52.
• Mayer, R. E. (2005). Introduction to Multimedia Learning & Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. In The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (pp. 1–48). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
• Muller, D. A.; Lee, K. J.; Sharma, M. D. (2008). "Coherence or interest: Which is most important in online multimedia learning?" (PDF). Australasian Journal of Educational Technology. 24 (2): 211–221. Retrieved October 19, 2008.

Multimedia Learning

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• Helmut M. Niegemann 2 &
• Steffi Heidig 3  

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Audio-visual learning (older) ; Multicodal learning ; Multimodal learning

Multimedia learning refers to situations in which people learn from words and pictures; also optionally, using other modes, such as haptic devices, smells, or tastes. As the latter are rather seldom used, research on multimedia learning refers almost exclusively to learning with texts and pictures. Texts comprise material that is presented in verbal form and include printed and spoken words. Pictures refer to the pictorial form and include static pictures, such as graphics, diagrams, illustrations, photos, and maps, as well as dynamic pictures, such as animations, films, or videos.

The term “multimedia” in its current definition emerged at the end of the 1980s and was adapted from marketing into educational psychology. Even so, there are three different approaches to what is meant by “multimedia”: first, it is the delivery device used to display the information, such as a computer screen, a...

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Effective Presentations: Optimize the Learning Experience With Evidence-Based Multimedia Principles [Incl. Seminar]

TABLE OF CONTENTS

What is an effective presentation.

Professional education requires presentations, from a small discussion or a short video to speaking to a lecture hall with an audience of hundreds.  In fact, presentations are at the core of the educational process. With the effort to view all our educational efforts through an evidence-based lens, the construction of an effective presentation needs to undergo the same scrutiny. Whether a presenter intends to share plans, teach educational information, give updates on project progress, or convey the results of research, the extent to which the audience understands and remembers the presentation relies not only on the quality of the content but also the manner in which that content is presented. While the medium of the presentation may range from written content to graphics, videos, live presentations, or any combination of these and more, each of these mediums can be enhanced and made more effective by the use of evidence-based practices for presenting. Regardless of the medium, effective presentations have the same key features: they are appealing, engaging, informative, and concise. Effective presentations gain attention and captivate the audience, but most importantly, they convey information and ideas memorably.

With the integration of technology and online learning, educators have more opportunities than ever to present rich content that enhances and supports student learning. However, these opportunities can be intimidating to educators striving to engage students, as it can be daunting to create visually appealing and informative materials. Additionally, many educators feel pressured by the continued myth of learning styles: the widespread misconception that learning materials should match students’ visual, auditory, or kinesthetic “styles” to optimize learning (1). Despite being featured in many articles and discussions, there is no compelling evidence that matching educational content to learner’s style preferences increases educational outcomes. However, using multiple modes of delivery such as visuals, audio, and active learning has been shown to benefit all learners. In other words, no matter their stated preference, all learners benefit from a variety of media. Using evidence-based principles for multimedia content such as the principles found in Richard Mayer’s multimedia learning as well as the principles of graphic design and universal design supports learning and increases educational outcomes.

Why effective presentations work

What makes a presentation effective? Is an appealing and engaging presentation also an effective one? Research from cognitive science provides a foundation for understanding how verbal and pictorial information are processed by the learner’s mind during a presentation.

Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Based in cognitive science research, Mayer’s evidence-based approach to multimedia and cognition has greatly influenced both instructional design and the learning sciences. Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning comprises three learning principles: the dual channel principle, the limited capacity principle, and the active processing principle. Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning lays the theoretical foundation that underlies the practical applications to boost cognitive processes (2).

The dual channel principle proposes that learners process verbal and pictorial information via two separate channels (see figure below). Within each channel, learners can process limited amounts of information simultaneously due to limits in working memory, a phenomenon known as the limited capacity principle . In addition to these principles describing learning via the verbal and pictorial channels, the active processing principle proposes deeper learning occurs when learners are actively engaged in cognitive processing, such as attending to relevant information, creating mental schema to organize the material cognitively, and then relating to prior knowledge (3). These three principles work in tandem to describe the learning process that occurs when an audience of learners experiences a multimedia presentation.

Cognitive Load Theory, Adapted from Mayer (3) . Depicting how verbal and visual information is processed in dual channels through sensory, working, and long-term memory to create meaningful learning.

As learners listen to a lecture or watch a video, words and images are detected in the sensory memory and held for a very brief period of time. As the learners attend to relevant information, they are selecting words and images , which allows the selected information to move into the working memory where it may be held for a short period of time. However, working memory is limited to about 30 seconds and can only hold a few bits of information at a time. Organizing the words and images creates a coherent cognitive representation (schema) of these bits of information in the working memory. After the words and images are selected and then organized into schema, integrating these bits of information with prior knowledge from long term memory creates meaningful learning.

Cognitive Capacity . Three types of processing combine to determine cognitive capacity. To improve essential processing and generative processing, extraneous processing should be limited as much as possible .

No matter how important the content may be, the capacity of learners to retain ideas from a single presentation is limited. The amount of information a learner can process as they select, organize, and integrate the ideas in a presentation relates to the cognitive load, which includes Essential, Extraneous, and Generative cognitive processing. Essential cognitive processing is required for the learner to create a cognitive representation of necessary and relevant information. This is the desired part of processing but should be managed to not overload the cognitive process. Extraneous processing refers to cognitive processing that does not contribute to learning and is often caused by poor design. Extraneous processing should be eliminated whenever possible to free up cognitive resources. Generative cognitive processing gives meaning to the material and creates deep learning. Learners must be motivated to engage and understand the information for this type of processing to occur.

Foundations in neuroscience

What we know about cognition and learning has been supported and informed by research in neuroscience (4). Neuroscience advances have also allowed us to gain deeper understanding into cognitive science principles, including those on multimedia learning. Researchers have been increasingly tracking learner eye movements to study learners’ attention and interest as a method of validating the impact of multimedia principles, and the results have supported the benefits of proper multimedia design on learner performance (5). Another avenue of research with great potential includes functional MRI (fMRI) readings or electroencephalography (EEG) (6). It has long been established that verbal and pictorial data is processed in different parts of the brain. More recently however, by examining changes in blood flow in different regions of the brain, researchers in Sweden were able to demonstrate that increased extraneous load could impact the effectiveness of learning, in line with the dual channel principle (7).

Evidence for effective presentations

Mayer’s multimedia principles.

Mayer’s Multimedia Principles.

Mayer’s multimedia principles are a set of evidence-based guidelines for producing multimedia based on facilitating essential processing, reducing extraneous processing, and promoting generative processing (8). Mayer’s list of principles often includes fifteen principles, some of which have changed over time, and in a study conducted with medical students, the following nine principles were found to be particularly effective (3). The first three of these principles are used to reduce extraneous processing.

Principles for reducing extraneous processing:

• Coherence principle: eliminate extraneous material 
• Signaling principle: highlight essential material 
• Spatial contiguity principle: place printed words near corresponding graphics

To illustrate these principles, we will use a lesson about the kidneys. The instructor wants to make diagrams of the anatomy to use during discussion. The coherence principle says to only include the information necessary to the lesson. Graphics such as clip art, information that does not relate to anatomy, or unnecessary music reduces cognitive capacity. The signaling principle says to highlight essential material; this might include putting important content in bold or larger font. Or, if the kidney is shown in situ , the rest of the anatomy may be shown in grayscale or a much lighter color to de-emphasize it. The spatial contiguity principle says to place printed words, such as the labels, near the graphics.

Reduce extraneous processing .  Do : keep labels next to diagrams, use only essential material, highlight essential material such as titles.  Don’t: separate labels from diagrams, include extra facts, or have excessive text on a slide, especially with no indication of what is most important.

Principles for managing essential processing:

• Pre-training principle: provide pre-training in names and characteristics of key concepts
• Segmenting principle: break lessons into learner-controlled segments 
• Modality principle: present words in spoken form

The next three principles are used to manage essential processing. If the kidney lesson moves into diseased states or diagnostics, the pre-training principle says that learners should be given information on any unfamiliar terminology before the lesson begins. To satisfy the segmenting principle , the learner should be able to control each piece of the lesson. For example, a “next” button may allow them to progress from pre-training to anatomy to diseased states and then diagnostics. The modality principle says that words should be spoken when possible. Voice-over can be used and text can be limited to essential material such as key definitions or lists.

Manage essential processing.   Do: Present terms and key concepts first, break lessons into user-controlled segments, and present words in spoken form.  Don’t: Give long blocks of text for students to read without priming students for key concepts.

Principles for fostering generative processing: 

• Multimedia principle: present words and pictures rather than words alone 
• Personalization principle: present words in conversational or polite style 
• Voice principle: use a human voice rather than a machine voice

Mayer’s work also includes principles to increase generative processing. The multimedia principle is a direct result of the dual channel principle and limited capacity principle. Words and pictures together stimulate both channels and allow the memory to process more information than words alone. To adhere to the personalization principle to promote deeper learning, a case study is better presented as a story than a page of diagnostics and patient demographics. Finally, the voice principle says that a human voice is more desirable, so it is better to use the instructor’s voice when doing voice-overs rather than auto-generated readers.

Foster generative processing. Do: Present words and pictures, present words in conversational style, and use a human voice.  Don’t: Present text only, present words as a list of facts or overly technical language, or use a computer-generated voice.

Additional multimedia principles: 

• Temporal contiguity principle: present words and pictures simultaneously rather than successively
• Redundancy principle: for a fast paced lesson, people learn better from graphics and narration rather than graphics, narration, and text 
• Image principle: people do not learn better if a static image of the instructor is added to the presentation

Additional principles include the temporal contiguity principle , which states that words and pictures should be shown simultaneously rather than successively. This also includes narration and images or animation. For example, if an animation demonstrates normal cell division, the narration should be given during the animation, not after. The redundancy principle states that people do not necessarily learn better if text is added to graphics and narration. The duplication of information creates extraneous processing as learners try to process print and spoken text. The image principle states that learners do not learn better if a static image of the instructor is added to a presentation. For example, if students are watching an animation with normal cell division, they do not learn better if an image of their instructor is placed next to the animation.

Additional principles for fostering generative processing: 

• Embodiment principle: onscreen instructors should display high embodiment not low
• Immersion principle: 3D virtual reality is not necessarily better than 2D presentations 
• Generative activity principle: use generative learning activities during learning

In the newest edition of Mayer’s Multimedia Learning (8), three additional principles have been added. The embodiment principle states that onscreen instructors should display high embodiment rather than low embodiment, meaning they should use natural gestures, look at the camera as if making eye contact, and if drawing, show the image being drawn. If demonstrating something like a surgical procedure, a first-person perspective should be used so the learner sees the perspective of the person performing. Low embodiment would include standing still, lack of eye contact, and using a third-person perspective. The immersion principle states that 3D immersive virtual reality is not necessarily more effective than 2D presentations, such as on a computer screen. This is thought to be caused by the cognitive load on the learning involved in using 3D immersive technology but more studies are needed. Lastly, the generative activity principle states that learners should use generative learning activities while learning such as summarizing, mapping, drawing, imagining, self-testing, self-explaining, teaching, and enacting. These activities help learners cognitively select and organize new material and then integrate with prior knowledge.

Other Design Principles

Mayer’s design principles are functional but do not address aesthetics per se . Anyone can master the basic graphic design principles as discussed by Reynolds (9) to captivate and engage an audience. 

• Create graphics that are designed for the back of the room. Whatever the venue, the person in the back needs to be able to see and gather information from the graphics. Ensure font size is appropriate, image size and clarity is sufficient, and that font type and spacing allow words to be seen clearly from a distance. For online materials, this principle may mean designing for the person who will be viewing on the smallest screen (such as a phone) rather than assuming viewers will use a large monitor (10).
• Limit the types of fonts. Too many fonts or fonts that don’t coordinate well can make graphics seem jarring and unpleasant. Some programs will suggest font families that are appealing, and a safe guideline is to limit to two or three fonts maximum per graphic. 
• Use contrasting colors. Colors that are too similar or using type on top of images that lack contrast can make type difficult to read. Color family suggestions can be found online or in software such as Powerpoint.

Graphic design principles.  Do: Use coordinating fonts and color schemes with contrasting colors.  Don’t: use multiple fonts, excessive colors, and/or non-contrasting colors that may be difficult to distinguish.

In addition to singular graphics or presentations, online course presentation makes a difference in how learners perceive and utilize a course. When designing online learning experiences, consider using guidelines such as Quality Matters to assess the functionality. Quality Matters rubrics look at key components that have been proven to facilitate learning by making navigation and presentation of course elements explicit. Key components include providing information on how to get started, including learning objectives, allowing learners to track their progress, and using learning activities and technology tools that support active learning. Navigation among course components should facilitate access to materials.

In addition to all of these principles, accessibility must be considered in all forms of presentation. In education, designing for accessibility can be guided by universal design principles . Some schools may even require all courses and materials to be fully accessible. Providing accessible options has been shown to benefit all learners, not just those with a documented need for accommodations (11). Some basic accommodations that should be offered in any class include offering media in multiple modes. For example, videos should have the option of captioning and/or access to a transcript, and photos and graphics should have captions that describe the image. Many learning management systems and software programs now have options to check for accessibility. Additionally, most schools can provide assistance in assessing and developing accessible materials.

Practical Applications for Presentations in Health Professions Education

Implementation in the classroom.

When planning how to present materials in the classroom, first consider the most effective form of presentation for the given information. It may be a Powerpoint, a video, a graphic, or a handout. Consider using a variety of media appropriate for the intended outcomes. Creating high quality materials may seem daunting, but quality content can be reused, shared, and has been shown to enhance student learning.

Powerpoint has been much maligned for overuse and abuse, but well-designed presentations can be remarkably effective (12). When designing in Powerpoint, limit the amount of text per slide. One rule to remember is the 5/5/5 rule: Use no more than 5 lines of text with 5 words each or 5 text-heavy slides in a row and try to avoid bullets (13). Graphics are preferable to text or tables when representing data, but graphs and labels should be kept as simple as possible using 2D graphics and simplified labels that are easy for viewers to see (14). When presenting, refrain from reading from the slides. Slides should highlight important concepts and provide visual aids, not present everything. In addition, keep Powerpoint and video presentations short; most listeners will lose attention in 6–10 minutes (15,16). Whenever possible, engage the audience by interspersing active learning elements. Between sections or topics, transition slides can be used to indicate pauses for activity or reflection or to cue students to changes in topic (14).

When planning a presentation, consider presenting some of the information online before class for students to review. This flipped classroom technique allows for more class to be spent using active learning and facilitates the presentation of multiple forms of media and accessible options. 

Implementation online

Videos often become an integral part of the online learning experience. To facilitate learning, consider the following tips for your own video production (17,18): 

• Align the video with learning objectives and course outcomes. Focus on pertinent instructional points to reduce extraneous processing and thereby reduce cognitive load. 
• Limit the length of videos and use interactive elements to promote active learning. To help maintain student engagement and deepen learning, include interactive elements such as discussions, quizzes or embedded questions to maintain student attention. 
• Limit extraneous information, graphics, and sounds that do not pertain to the learning goals (19). Busy backgrounds, music, or animations that don’t contribute to understanding concepts unnecessarily add to a learner’s cognitive load.
• When using existing videos, ensure the source is reliable and the video is high quality. Video production can take time, so using professional videos can be beneficial if they come from credible sources that target the learning objectives with up-to-date and accurate information.

Additionally, Schooley et al. (18) have proposed a 25-item quality checklist that can help educators create and curate high-quality videos. Many of the items in the checklist have been discussed here such as length, captioning, using relevant graphics, and self-assessment opportunities, but also included are other points an educator should consider, such as the offering learners the ability to download files and adjust playback speed as well as providing them with recommendations for further reading.

For a course in any modality, creating and curating content online can save time and facilitate student learning. As you consider what material to create and use for your courses, assess existing material using the guidelines above to determine if it could be made more beneficial to learners. Does it follow Mayer’s principles? Does it follow graphic design principles and universal design principles? Consider using a Quality Matters rubric to check the course design for best practices.

Recommendations

Educator’s perspective.

• Use Mayer’s multimedia design principles to revise existing presentations and review new creations for simple changes that can make a big difference (12).
• When delivering a presentation, start by discussing an unusual case, presenting an interesting story or an unexpected statistic, or explain how the topic impacts the listeners. This personalization will help gain their attention from the start (13).
• When designing your own materials and graphics, “less is more” is often a good guideline: limit the amount of information on slides, limit the types of fonts, and limit the excessive use of colors (9,12).
• Videos should be limited to 5–6 minutes when possible and avoid exceeding 10 minutes. Break up longer videos and intersperse interactive elements to keep students engaged (15–17).
• When using technology and online delivery, universal design and accessibility considerations can be complicated. See if your school has an expert that can review your materials to ensure all students will benefit.

Student perspective

• When creating presentations, reports, and charts, follow Mayer’s multimedia design principles to ensure your audience gets the most from your presentation.
• Avoid copy/pasting but rather try and present concepts in an original way in order to augment your understanding of the material.
• When looking at materials online, look for options such as captioning, transcripts, or audio buttons for accessing additional media output.
• If a presentation is lengthy, pause and insert your own activities to help yourself stay focused. Taking notes, pausing for reflection, and self-quizzing can help deepen your learning and keep your mind from wandering.
• If a variety of media aren’t offered, consider finding your own to supplement your learning. Credible sources with learning objectives that align with your course can augment your learning experience.

(Please select all that apply) 

1. When creating a graphic about the current status of heart disease in the US, which of the following would align with best practices?

a. Gaining the audience’s attention with a picture of your dog.

b. Using 3 colors that coordinate well on a contrasting background.

c. A 2D graph with simple labels rather than a table of data.

d. An image on the left with labels listed separately on the right.

e. An image next to a paragraph of text that you will read for the audience.

2. Which of the following are true about educational videos?

a. They need to be created by professionals to be high-quality.

b. They should be less than 10 minutes.

c. There should be an option for closed captioning or a written transcript.

d. Longer videos may be used but should be broken up with active learning elements.

e. Videos don’t need to align to objectives as long as they’re well-made.

3. Which of the following would be examples of Mayer’s multimedia principles?

a. Using a human voice rather than a machine voice.

b. Using formal language instead of conversational language.

c. Playing soothing music in the background of a video.

d. Providing new words and definitions before the presentation begins.

e. Putting important words in bold for emphasis.

4. Which of these would follow best practices for online content?

a. Creating a module where all the material is on one page for easy access.

b. Adding buttons for next, back, and table of contents options for students to navigate.

c. Breaking material into 7-minute videos with practice questions between them.

d. Adding fun clip art and cool images to the pages even if it doesn’t directly relate to the content.

e. Having text only because images are distracting.

Answers: (1) b,c. (2) b,c,d. (3) a,d,e. (4) b,c.

Online Seminar

This online seminar and its accompanying article will focus on the topic of Effective Presentations, which have a set of key qualities: they are appealing, engaging, informative, and concise. Effective presentations gain attention and captivate the audience, but most importantly, they convey information and ideas memorably and efficiently. Using evidence-based principles in educational multimedia can ensure the development of high-quality learning experiences. Our host, Dr. Peter Horneffer will be sharing with us some key multimedia concepts that can help facilitate the development and implementation of effective multimedia into the educational process.

Watch the seminar recording:

Would you like to learn more? Explore the Pulse Seminar Library.

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Meredith Ratliff is a doctoral student in Instructional Design and Technology at the University of Central Florida. Her research interests include evidence-based medical education, branching scenarios, and faculty development. She has received her B.S. and M.A.T. in Mathematics at the University of Florida and her MA in Instructional Design and Technology from UCF. She has been an Associate Faculty member in the mathematics department at Valencia College in Kissimmee, Florida for the past nine years. As part of the Learning Science team at Lecturio, she serves as an educational consultant helping to design and develop materials for medical educators.

Satria Nur Sya’ban is a doctor from Indonesia who graduated from Universitas Airlangga. While a student, he served as the president of CIMSA, a national medical student NGO, working on a diverse range of issues that included medical education and curriculum advocacy by medical students. Before graduating, he took two gap years to serve as a Regional Director, and subsequently as Vice-President, of the International Federation of Medical Students’ Associations (IFMSA)*, working on and developing various initiatives to better empower medical student organizations to make a change at the national level. At Lecturio, he serves as a Medical Education Consultant, supporting Lecturio in developing and maintaining partnerships with student organizations and universities in Asia, as well as providing counsel on how Lecturio can fit in existing teaching models and benefit students’ learning experience.

*IFMSA has been one of the leading global health organizations worldwide since 1951, representing over 1.3 million medical students as members spanning over 123 countries.

Adonis is a doctor from Lebanon who graduated from the University of Balamand. He was a research fellow at the Department of Emergency Medicine at the American University of Beirut Medical Center and has worked with the World Health Organization Regional Office of the Eastern Mediterranean. During his studies, Adonis served as the president of the Lebanese Medical Students’ International Committee (LeMSIC), a national medical student organization in Lebanon, and moved on to serve as the Regional Director of the Eastern Mediterranean Region of the IFMSA*. Among his roles as Regional Director, he focused on medical education advocacy, oversaw collaborations with external partners, and undertook several medical education projects and initiatives around the region. As a Medical Education Consultant at Lecturio, he advises the Lecturio team on how the platform can fit in existing teaching models and benefit students’ learning experience, develops and maintains partnerships with student organizations and universities in the MENA region, and conducts research on learning science and evidence-based strategies.

Sarah Haidar is an educator and educational specialist from Lebanon who has graduated with a BA in English Linguistics and a Secondary Teaching Diploma (T.D.) from  Haigazian University in Beirut, Lebanon. She has received her M.Ed. in Teaching English as a Second Language (TESOL)  from the Lebanese International University. She has been teaching ESL classrooms at the Deutsche Internationale Schule for four years. As part of the administrative team at the All American Institute of Medical Sciences (AAIMS), she is working on the design and implementation of a set of academic and administrative reforms that can help both faculty and students in their professional and academic endeavors. She has joined Lecturio to support the Learning Science team in the writing and communication based tasks that might be needed to announce and market their services and events that are targeted at medical educators. She is also supporting the Learning Science team with her perspective on educational and pedagogical topics that will inform the general audience of educators.

Sara Keeth is a Ph.D. and certified PMP (Project Management Professional) who graduated from the University of Texas at Dallas. As an educator, she has worked as a Teaching Fellow at  the University of Texas at Dallas, as a full-time professor at Richland College (now Dallas College’s Richland Campus), and has also taught at Austin College. Dr. Keeth has also worked as a consultant for Parker University’s Research Center and has a decade of experience as an operations manager for an advertising agency. As Senior Learning Science and Research Project Manager at Lecturio, she manages the Learning Science department’s activities, shares her education expertise and best practices for medical educators, and develops evidence-based content for both students and faculty.

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How Audio Visual Design Software is Revolutionizing Education

In the ever-evolving landscape of education, the integration of technology has become increasingly crucial for enhancing learning experiences and engaging students. One area that has seen significant growth and innovation is the use of audio visual design software. From interactive multimedia presentations to immersive virtual reality simulations, these powerful tools are revolutionizing the way educational content is created, delivered, and consumed. As educators and instructional designers strive to create captivating and effective learning experiences, understanding the importance of an audio visual setup and leveraging the capabilities of audio visual design software has become paramount.

What is an Audio Visual Setup?

An audio visual setup refers to the combination of hardware and software components used to create, display, and deliver multimedia content in an educational setting. This typically includes projectors, displays, speakers, microphones, and other audio and video equipment, as well as the software tools used to design and manage the audio visual content. A well-designed audio visual setup can enhance the learning experience by providing engaging and immersive multimedia presentations, interactive simulations, and collaborative learning environments.

Interactive and Engaging Presentations

Audio visual design software has revolutionized the way educational presentations are created and delivered.

With tools for incorporating multimedia elements, animations, and interactive components, educators can create dynamic and engaging presentations that captivate students' attention and promote active learning.

Immersive Virtual and Augmented Reality Experiences

One of the most exciting applications of audio visual design software in education is the creation of immersive virtual and augmented reality (VR/AR) experiences.

These technologies allow students to explore simulated environments, visualize complex concepts, and engage in hands-on learning activities, fostering a deeper understanding and retention of knowledge.

Personalized and Adaptive Learning

Audio visual design software can be leveraged to create personalized and adaptive learning experiences tailored to individual students' needs and learning styles.

By incorporating interactive elements, branching scenarios, and real-time assessments, educators can provide customized learning paths and ensure that each student receives the support they need to succeed.

Collaborative Learning Environments

Audio visual design software can facilitate collaborative learning environments by enabling real-time communication, screen sharing, and co-creation of multimedia content.

Students can work together on projects, share their ideas, and receive instant feedback, fostering teamwork, communication skills, and a deeper understanding of the subject matter.

Accessibility and Inclusivity

Audio visual design software can play a crucial role in making educational content more accessible and inclusive for students with diverse needs and abilities.

By incorporating features such as closed captioning, audio descriptions, and alternative input methods, educators can ensure that all students have equal access to learning materials and can engage with the content in a meaningful way.

Distance and Remote Learning

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, audio visual design software has become an essential tool for enabling distance and remote learning.

Educators can create high-quality multimedia content, deliver virtual lectures and presentations, and facilitate online discussions and collaborations, ensuring continuity of education despite physical limitations.

Data Analytics and Learning Insights

Many audio visual design software solutions offer built-in data analytics and learning insights capabilities.

By tracking student engagement, performance, and interaction with the multimedia content, educators can gain valuable insights into learning patterns and make informed decisions to improve the effectiveness of their instructional materials.

Professional Development and Training

Audio visual design software is not limited to classroom settings; it also plays a vital role in professional development and corporate training.

Instructional designers can create interactive training modules, simulations, and assessments, ensuring that employees and professionals receive engaging and effective training experiences.

Gamification and Motivation

Audio visual design software can incorporate gamification elements, such as points, badges, and leaderboards, to enhance motivation and engagement among students.

By turning learning into an interactive and rewarding experience, educators can foster a love for learning and encourage students to actively participate in their educational journey.

Future-Proofing and Scalability

As technology continues to evolve, audio visual design software is constantly adapting to incorporate new advancements and emerging trends in education.

From advanced artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning capabilities to the integration of extended reality (XR) technologies, these software solutions are designed to be future-proof and scalable, ensuring that educators can stay ahead of the curve and provide cutting-edge learning experiences.

The integration of audio visual design software in education is revolutionizing the way we teach, learn, and engage with educational content. By leveraging the power of multimedia, interactive elements, and immersive technologies, educators can create captivating and effective learning experiences that cater to diverse learning styles and preferences.

As you explore the possibilities of audio visual design software in education, it is crucial to emphasize the importance of a well-designed audio visual setup. A seamless integration of hardware and software components can ensure that multimedia content is delivered with optimal quality, enhancing the overall learning experience.

Highlight the ability of audio visual design software to create interactive and engaging presentations, immersive virtual and augmented reality simulations, and personalized and adaptive learning experiences. Showcase how these tools can facilitate collaborative learning environments, promote accessibility and inclusivity, and enable distance and remote learning opportunities.

Additionally, emphasize the data analytics and learning insights capabilities of audio visual design software, which can provide valuable insights into student engagement and learning patterns, enabling educators to make informed decisions and continuously improve their instructional materials.

Furthermore, highlight the applications of audio visual design software in professional development and corporate training, as well as its potential for incorporating gamification elements to enhance motivation and engagement among learners.

Lastly, paint a compelling vision of the future of audio visual design software in education, where advancements in artificial intelligence, machine learning, and extended reality technologies will further revolutionize the learning experience, ensuring that educators and students alike are equipped with cutting-edge tools and immersive environments for effective and engaging education.

By embracing audio visual design software and leveraging its capabilities, educators and instructional designers can create transformative learning experiences that inspire, engage, and empower students to reach their full potential. With the right tools and a commitment to innovation, the future of education is poised to be a dynamic and captivating journey, where learning transcends traditional boundaries and becomes an immersive and rewarding experience for all.

CoVar: A generalizable machine learning approach to identify the coordinated regulators driving variational gene expression

Add to collection, downloadable content.

• Affiliation: School of Medicine, Department of Genetics
• Affiliation: School of Medicine, Department of Medicine
• Network inference is used to model transcriptional, signaling, and metabolic interactions among genes, proteins, and metabolites that identify biological pathways influencing disease pathogenesis. Advances in machine learning (ML)-based inference models exhibit the predictive capabilities of capturing latent patterns in genomic data. Such models are emerging as an alternative to the statistical models identifying causative factors driving complex diseases. We present CoVar, an ML-based framework that builds upon the properties of existing inference models, to find the central genes driving perturbed gene expression across biological states. Unlike differentially expressed genes (DEGs) that capture changes in individual gene expression across conditions, CoVar focuses on identifying variational genes that undergo changes in their expression network interaction profiles, providing insights into changes in the regulatory dynamics, such as in disease pathogenesis. Subsequently, it finds core genes from among the nearest neighbors of these variational genes, which are central to the variational activity and influence the coordinated regulatory processes underlying the observed changes in gene expression. Through the analysis of simulated as well as yeast expression data perturbed by the deletion of the mitochondrial genome, we show that CoVar captures the intrinsic variationality and modularity in the expression data, identifying key driver genes not found through existing differential analysis methodologies.
• upregulation
• Metabolites
• Gene expression
• gene expression
• signal transduction
• regulatory mechanism
• Network inference
• machine learning
• Signaling interactions
• mitochondrial membrane potential
• Biological pathways
• controlled study
• Transcriptional signaling
• Genes expression
• Inference models
• decision tree
• mitochondrial biogenesis
• Metabolic interactions
• nuclear reprogramming
• Machine learning
• Expression data
• Machine-learning
• Machine learning approaches
• differential gene expression
• principal component analysis
• RNA sequence
• mitochondrial genome
• https://doi.org/10.17615/s1ew-as71
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1012016
• Attribution 4.0 International
• PLoS Computational Biology
• Public Library of Science

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• PLoS Articles

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