types of biography text

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Definition of biography text, the function of biography text (social function/purpose of biography text).

• To know a person’s story about his/her life outside of any accomplishments this person may be known for.
• To give many information easily and educate the readers.

Types Of Biography Text

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Biographies: What are the Types of Biographies?

• What are the Types of Biographies?
• Biography Websites
• Electronic Databases
• Books & E-Books at the Library

Introduction to Biographies

Search for books in the library with moecat.

Searching for Books using   MOECAT

( MO nro E  College Library Book  CAT alog )

1.   Open MOECAT either on MyMonroe’s Library Resource Gadget or using this link .

* Library Name: Monroe College   No Password Required*

2.   For a simple search - type your keywords in the search box then click the magnifying glass.

3 .    For a more advanced search: Choose " Subject " from the first dropdown menu --> then enter " biography " or " autobiography "

4.   Once the results appear, click the title link of your desired book.

5.   Check the status bar, located at the bottom of the screen for the status, branch, location and call number of the book.

6.   Some results may be e-Books or DVD’s.

Types of Biographies

Autobiography:

A narrative of a person's life, written by, or as having been written by that person. (May have a professional co-author)

A history of a person’s life. It could be written by one or more authors.

A narrative recollection of the writer's earlier experiences, especially those involving unusual people, places, or events.

Using Google for Biographies

It is okay to use a G oogle  search to find quick information about anything, especially biographies.

Feel free to use the search box below to retrieve quick information.

*Quick Tip*

The first result will most likely be  Wikipedia . Wikipedia should NEVER be used as a one of your sources for a paper, or even for homework.

Wikipedia does have its uses though. If you are reading a Wikipedia entry, scroll down to the bottom to " References. " Most of the blue links listed should take you to the original source the author used to write the Wikipedia article. Cite the ORIGINAL SOURCE NOT WIKIPEDIA !

A Monroe College Research Guide

                 THIS RESEARCH OR "LIBGUIDE" WAS PRODUCED BY THE LIBRARIANS OF MONROE COLLEGE                    

• Next: Biography Websites >>
• Last Updated: Jan 4, 2024 11:53 AM
• URL: https://monroecollege.libguides.com/biographies
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Definition of Biography

A biography is the non- fiction , written history or account of a person’s life. Biographies are intended to give an objective portrayal of a person, written in the third person. Biographers collect information from the subject (if he/she is available), acquaintances of the subject, or in researching other sources such as reference material, experts, records, diaries, interviews, etc. Most biographers intend to present the life story of a person and establish the context of their story for the reader, whether in terms of history and/or the present day. In turn, the reader can be reasonably assured that the information presented about the biographical subject is as true and authentic as possible.

Biographies can be written about a person at any time, no matter if they are living or dead. However, there are limitations to biography as a literary device. Even if the subject is involved in the biographical process, the biographer is restricted in terms of access to the subject’s thoughts or feelings.

Biographical works typically include details of significant events that shape the life of the subject as well as information about their childhood, education, career, and relationships. Occasionally, a biography is made into another form of art such as a film or dramatic production. The musical production of “Hamilton” is an excellent example of a biographical work that has been turned into one of the most popular musical productions in Broadway history.

Common Examples of Biographical Subjects

Most people assume that the subject of a biography must be a person who is famous in some way. However, that’s not always the case. In general, biographical subjects tend to be interesting people who have pioneered something in their field of expertise or done something extraordinary for humanity. In addition, biographical subjects can be people who have experienced something unusual or heartbreaking, committed terrible acts, or who are especially gifted and/or talented.

As a literary device, biography is important because it allows readers to learn about someone’s story and history. This can be enlightening, inspiring, and meaningful in creating connections. Here are some common examples of biographical subjects:

• political leaders
• entrepreneurs
• historical figures
• serial killers
• notorious people
• political activists
• adventurers/explorers
• religious leaders
• military leaders
• cultural figures

Famous Examples of Biographical Works

The readership for biography tends to be those who enjoy learning about a certain person’s life or overall field related to the person. In addition, some readers enjoy the literary form of biography independent of the subject. Some biographical works become well-known due to either the person’s story or the way the work is written, gaining a readership of people who may not otherwise choose to read biography or are unfamiliar with its form.

Here are some famous examples of biographical works that are familiar to many readers outside of biography fans:

• Alexander Hamilton (Ron Chernow)
• Prairie Fires: The American Dreams of Laura Ingalls Wilder (Caroline Fraser)
• Steve Jobs (Walter Isaacson)
• Churchill: A Life (Martin Gilbert)
• The Professor and the Madman: A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary (Simon Winchester)
• A Beautiful Mind (Sylvia Nasar)
• The Black Rose (Tananarive Due)
• John Adams (David McCullough)
• Into the Wild ( Jon Krakauer )
• John Brown (W.E.B. Du Bois)
• Frida: A Biography of Frida Kahlo (Hayden Herrera)
• The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (Rebecca Skloot)
• Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln (Doris Kearns Goodwin)
• Shirley Jackson : A Rather Haunted Life ( Ruth Franklin)
• the stranger in the Woods: The Extraordinary Story of the Last True Hermit (Michael Finkel)

Difference Between Biography, Autobiography, and Memoir

Biography, autobiography , and memoir are the three main forms used to tell the story of a person’s life. Though there are similarities between these forms, they have distinct differences in terms of the writing, style , and purpose.

A biography is an informational narrative and account of the life history of an individual person, written by someone who is not the subject of the biography. An autobiography is the story of an individual’s life, written by that individual. In general, an autobiography is presented chronologically with a focus on key events in the person’s life. Since the writer is the subject of an autobiography, it’s written in the first person and considered more subjective than objective, like a biography. In addition, autobiographies are often written late in the person’s life to present their life experiences, challenges, achievements, viewpoints, etc., across time.

Memoir refers to a written collection of a person’s significant memories, written by that person. Memoir doesn’t generally include biographical information or chronological events unless it’s relevant to the story being presented. The purpose of memoir is reflection and an intention to share a meaningful story as a means of creating an emotional connection with the reader. Memoirs are often presented in a narrative style that is both entertaining and thought-provoking.

Examples of Biography in Literature

An important subset of biography is literary biography. A literary biography applies biographical study and form to the lives of artists and writers. This poses some complications for writers of literary biographies in that they must balance the representation of the biographical subject, the artist or writer, as well as aspects of the subject’s literary works. This balance can be difficult to achieve in terms of judicious interpretation of biographical elements within an author’s literary work and consideration of the separate spheres of the artist and their art.

Literary biographies of artists and writers are among some of the most interesting biographical works. These biographies can also be very influential for readers, not only in terms of understanding the artist or writer’s personal story but the context of their work or literature as well. Here are some examples of well-known literary biographies:

Example 1:  Savage Beauty: The Life of Edna St. Vincent Millay  (Nancy Milford)

One of the first things Vincent explained to Norma was that there was a certain freedom of language in the Village that mustn’t shock her. It wasn’t vulgar. ‘So we sat darning socks on Waverly Place and practiced the use of profanity as we stitched. Needle in, . Needle out, piss. Needle in, . Needle out, c. Until we were easy with the words.’

This passage reflects the way in which Milford is able to characterize St. Vincent Millay as a person interacting with her sister. Even avid readers of a writer’s work are often unaware of the artist’s private and personal natures, separate from their literature and art. Milford reflects the balance required on the part of a literary biographer of telling the writer’s life story without undermining or interfering with the meaning and understanding of the literature produced by the writer. Though biographical information can provide some influence and context for a writer’s literary subjects, style, and choices , there is a distinction between the fictional world created by a writer and the writer’s “real” world. However, a literary biographer can illuminate the writer’s story so that the reader of both the biography and the biographical subject’s literature finds greater meaning and significance.

Example 2:  The Invisible Woman: The Story of Nelly Ternan and Charles Dickens  (Claire Tomalin)

The season of domestic goodwill and festivity must have posed a problem to all good Victorian family men with more than one family to take care of, particularly when there were two lots of children to receive the demonstrations of paternal love.

Tomalin’s literary biography of Charles Dickens reveals the writer’s extramarital relationship with a woman named Nelly Ternan. Tomalin presents the complications that resulted for Dickens from this relationship in terms of his personal and family life as well as his professional writing and literary work. Revealing information such as an extramarital relationship can influence the way a reader may feel about the subject as a person, and in the case of literary biography it can influence the way readers feel about the subject’s literature as well. Artists and writers who are beloved , such as Charles Dickens, are often idealized by their devoted readers and society itself. However, as Tomalin’s biography of Dickens indicates, artists and writers are complicated and as subject to human failings as anyone else.

Example 3:  Virginia Woolf  (Hermione Lee)

‘A self that goes on changing is a self that goes on living’: so too with the biography of that self. And just as lives don’t stay still, so life-writing can’t be fixed and finalised. Our ideas are shifting about what can be said, our knowledge of human character is changing. The biographer has to pioneer, going ‘ahead of the rest of us, like the miner’s canary, testing the atmosphere , detecting falsity, unreality, and the presence of obsolete conventions’. So, ‘There are some stories which have to be retold by each generation’. She is talking about the story of Shelley, but she could be talking about her own life-story.

In this passage, Lee is able to demonstrate what her biographical subject, Virginia Woolf, felt about biography and a person telling their own or another person’s story. Literary biographies of well-known writers can be especially difficult to navigate in that both the author and biographical subject are writers, but completely separate and different people. As referenced in this passage by Lee, Woolf was aware of the subtleties and fluidity present in a person’s life which can be difficult to judiciously and effectively relay to a reader on the part of a biographer. In addition, Woolf offers insight into the fact that biographers must make choices in terms of what information is presented to the reader and the context in which it is offered, making them a “miner’s canary” as to how history will view and remember the biographical subject.

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What Is Biography? Definition, Usage, and Literary Examples

Biography definition.

A  biography  (BYE-og-ruh-fee) is a written account of one person’s life authored by another person. A biography includes all pertinent details from the subject’s life, typically arranged in a chronological order. The word  biography  stems from the Latin  biographia , which succinctly explains the word’s definition:  bios  = “life” +  graphia  = “write.”

Since the advent of the written word, historical writings have offered information about real people, but it wasn’t until the 18th century that biographies evolved into a separate literary genre.  Autobiographies  and memoirs fall under the broader biography genre, but they are distinct literary forms due to one key factor: the subjects themselves write these works. Biographies are popular source materials for documentaries, television shows, and motion pictures.

The History of Biographies

The biography form has its roots in Ancient Rome and Greece. In 44 BCE, Roman writer Cornelius Nepos published  Excellentium Imperatorum Vitae  ( Lives of the Generals ), one of the earliest recorded biographies. In 80 CE, Greek writer Plutarch released  Parallel Lives , a sweeping work consisting of 48 biographies of famous men. In 121 CE, Roman historian Suetonius wrote  De vita Caesarum  ( On the Lives of the Caesars ), a series of 12 biographies detailing the lives of Julius Caesar and the first 11 emperors of the Roman Empire. These were among the most widely read biographies of their time, and at least portions of them have survived intact over the millennia.

During the Middle Ages, the Roman Catholic Church had a notable influence on biographies. Historical, political, and cultural biographies fell out of favor. Biographies of religious figures—including saints, popes, and church founders—replaced them. One notable exception was Italian painter/architect Giorgio Vasari’s 1550 biography,  The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects , which was immensely popular. In fact, it is one of the first examples of a bestselling book.

Still, it wasn’t until the 18th century that authors began to abandon multiple subjects in a single work and instead focus their research and writing on one subject. Scholars consider James Boswell’s 1791  The Life of Samuel Johnson  to be the first modern biography. From here, biographies were established as a distinct literary genre, separate from more general historical writing.

As understanding of psychology and sociology grew in the 19th and early 20th centuries, biographies further evolved, offering up even more comprehensive pictures of their subjects. Authors who played major roles in this contemporary approach to biographing include Lytton Strachey, Gamaliel Bradford, and Robert Graves.

Types of Biographies

While all biographical works chronicle the lives of real people, writers can present the information in several different ways.

• Popular biographies are life histories written for a general readership.  The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks  by Rebecca Skloot and  Into the Wild  by Jon Krakauer are two popular examples.
• Critical biographies discuss the relationship between the subject’s life and the work they produced or were involved in; for example,  The Billionaire Who Wasn’t: How Chuck Feeney Secretly Made and Gave Away a Fortune  by Conor O’Clery and  Unpresidented: A Biography of Donald Trump  by Martha Brockenbrough.
• Historical biographies put greater understanding on how the subject’s life and contributions affected or were affected by the times in which they lived; see  John Adams  by David McCullough and  Catherine the Great  by Peter K. Massie.
• Literary biographies concentrate almost exclusively on writers and artists, blending a conventional  narrative  of the historical facts of the subject’s life with an exploration of how these facts impacted their creative output. Some examples include  Savage Beauty: The Life of Edna St. Vincent Millay  by Nancy Milford and  Jackson Pollock: An American Saga  by Gregory White Smith and Steven Naifeh.
• Reference biographies are more scholarly writings, usually written by multiple authors and covering multiple lives around a single topic. They verify facts, provide background details, and contribute supplemental information resources, like bibliographies, glossaries, and historical documents; for example,  Black Americans in Congress, 1870-2007  and the  Dictionary of Canadian Biography .
• Fictional biographies, or biographical novels, like  The Other Boleyn Girl  by Philippa Gregory, incorporate creative license into the retelling of a real person’s story by taking on the structure and freedoms of a novel. The term can also describe novels in which authors give an abundance of background information on their characters, to the extent that the novel reads more like a biography than fiction. An example of this is George R.R. Martin’s  Fire and Blood , a novel detailing the history of a royal family from his popular  A Song of Ice and Fire

Biographies and Filmed Entertainment

Movie makers and television creators frequently produce biographical stories, either as dramatized productions based on real people or as nonfiction accounts.

Documentary

This genre is a nonfictional movie or television show that uses historical records to tell the story of a subject. The subject might be a one person or a group of people, or it might be a certain topic or theme. To present a biography in a visually compelling way, documentaries utilize archival footage, recreations, and interviews with subjects, scholars, experts, and others associated with the subject.

Famous film documentaries include  Grey Gardens,  a biography of two of Jacqueline Kennedy’s once-wealthy cousins, who, at the time of filming, lived in squalor in a condemned mansion in the Hamptons; and  I Am Not Your Negro , a biography of the life and legacy of pioneering American author James Baldwin.

Television documentary series tell one story over the course of several episodes, like  The Jinx :  The Life and Deaths of Robert Durst , a biography of the real estate heir and alleged serial killer that focused on his suspected crimes. There are many nonfiction television shows that use a documentary format, but subjects typically change from one episode to the next, such as A&E’s  Biography  and PBS’s  POV .

These films are biographical motion pictures, written by screenwriters and performed by actors. They often employ a certain amount of creative liberty in their interpretation of a real life. This is largely done to maintain a feasible runtime; capturing all of the pivotal moments of a subject’s life in a 90- or 120-minute movie is all but impossible. So, filmmakers might choose to add, eliminate, or combine key events and characters, or they may focus primarily on one or only a few aspects of the subject’s life. Some popular examples:  Coal Miner’s Daughter , a biography of country music legend Loretta Lynn;  Malcom X , a biopic centered on the civil rights leader of the same name; and  The King’s Speech , a dramatization of Prince Albert’s efforts to overcome a stutter and ascend the English throne.

Semi-fictionalized account

This approach takes a real-life event and interprets or expands it in ways that stray beyond what actually happened. This is done for entertainment and to build the story so it fits the filmmaker’s vision or evolves into a longer form, such as a multi-season television show. These accounts sometimes come with the disclaimer that they are “inspired by true events.” Examples of semi-fictionalized accounts are the TV series  Orange Is the New Black ,  Masters of Sex , and  Mozart of the Jungle —each of which stem from at least one biographical element, but showrunners expounded upon to provide many seasons of entertainment.

The Functions of Biography

Biographies inform readers about the life of a notable person. They are a way to introduce readers to the work’s subject—the historical details, the subject’s motivations and psychological underpinnings, and their environment and the impact they had, both in the short and long term.

Because the author is somewhat removed from their subject, they can offer a more omniscient, third-person narrative account. This vantage point allows the author to put certain events into a larger context; compare and contrast events, people, and behaviors predominant in the subject’s life; and delve into psychological and sociological themes of which the subject may not have been aware.

Also, a writer structures a biography to make the life of the subject interesting and readable. Most biographers want to entertain as well as inform, so they typically use a traditional  plot  structure—an introduction,  conflict , rising of tension, a climax, a resolution, and an ending—to give the life story a narrative shape. While the ebb and flow of life is a normal day-to-day rhythm, it doesn’t necessarily make for entertaining reading. The job of the writer, then, becomes one of shaping the life to fit the elements of a good plot.

Writers Known for Biographies

Many modern writers have dedicated much of their careers to biographies, such as:

• Kitty Kelley, author of  Jackie Oh! An Intimate Biography; His Way: The Unauthorized Biography of Frank Sinatra ; and  The Family: The Real Story of the Bush Dynasty
• Antonia Fraser, author of  Mary Queen of Scots ;  Cromwell; Our Chief of Men ; and  The Gunpowder Plot: Terror and Faith in 1605
• David McCullough, author of  The Path Between the Seas; Truman ; and  John Adams
• Andrew Morton, author of  Diana: Her True Story in Her Own Words; Madonna ; and  Tom Cruise: An Unauthorized Biography
• Alison Weir, author of  The Six Wives of Henry VIII; Eleanor of Aquitaine: By the Wrath of God; Queen of England ; and  Katherine Swynford: The Story of John of Gaunt and His Scandalous Duchess

Examples of Biographies

1. James Boswell,  The Life of Samuel Johnson

The biography that ushered in the modern era of true-life writing,  The Life of Samuel Johnson  covered the entirety of its subject’s life, from his birth to his status as England’s preeminent writer to his death. Boswell was a personal acquaintance of Johnson, so he was able to draw on voluminous amounts of personal conversations the two shared.

What also sets this biography apart is, because Boswell was a contemporary of Johnson, readers see Johnson in the context of his own time. He wasn’t some fabled figure that a biographer was writing about centuries later; he was someone to whom the author had access, and Boswell could see the real-world influence his subject had on life in the here and now.

2. Sylvia Nasar,  A Beautiful Mind

Nasar’s 1998 Pulitzer Prize-nominated biography of mathematician John Nash introduced legions of readers to Nash’s remarkable life and genius. The book opens with Nash’s childhood and follows him through his education, career, personal life, and struggles with schizophrenia. It ends with his acceptance of the 1994 Nobel Prize for Economics. In addition to a Pulitzer nomination,  A Beautiful Mind  won the National Book Critics Circle Award for Biography, was a  New York Times  bestseller, and provided the basis for the Academy Award-winning 2001 film of the same name.

3. Catherine Clinton,  Harriet Tubman: The Road to Freedom

Clinton’s biography of the abolitionist icon is a large-scale epic that chronicles Tubman’s singular life. It starts at her birth in the 1820s as the slave Araminta Ross, continuing through her journey to freedom; her pivotal role in the Underground Railroad; her Moses-like persona; and her death in 1913.

Because Tubman could not read or write, she left behind no letters, diaries, or other personal papers in her own hand and voice. Clinton reconstructed Tubman’s history entirely through other source material, and historians often cite this work as the quintessential biography of Tubman’s life.

4. Megan Mayhew Bergman,  Almost Famous Women

Almost Famous Women  is not a biography in the strictest sense of the word; it is a fictional interpretation of real-life women. Each short story revolves around a woman from history with close ties to fame, such as movie star Marlene Dietrich, Standard Oil heiress Marion “Joe” Carstairs, aviatrix Beryl Markham, Oscar Wilde’s niece Dolly, and Lord Byron’s daughter Allegra. Mayhew Bergman imagines these colorful women in equally colorful episodes that put them in a new light—a light that perhaps offers them the honor and homage that history denied them.

Further Resources on Biography

Newsweek  compiled their picks for the  75 Best Biographies of All Time .

The Open Education Database has a list of  75 Biographies to Read Before You Die .

Goodreads put together a list of readers’  best biography selections .

If you’re looking to write biographies,  Infoplease  has instructions for writing shorter pieces, while  The Writer   has practical advice for writing manuscript-length bios.

Ranker  collected  a comprehensive list of famous biographers .

Related Terms

• Autobiography
• Short Story

What Is a Biography?

Learning from the experiences of others is what makes us human.

At the core of every biography is the story of someone’s humanity. While biographies come in many sub-genres, the one thing they all have in common is loyalty to the facts, as they’re available at the time. Here’s how we define biography, a look at its origins, and some popular types.

“Biography” Definition

A biography is simply the story of a real person’s life. It could be about a person who is still alive, someone who lived centuries ago, someone who is globally famous, an unsung hero forgotten by history, or even a unique group of people. The facts of their life, from birth to death (or the present day of the author), are included with life-changing moments often taking center stage. The author usually points to the subject’s childhood, coming-of-age events, relationships, failures, and successes in order to create a well-rounded description of her subject.

Biographies require a great deal of research. Sources of information could be as direct as an interview with the subject providing their own interpretation of their life’s events. When writing about people who are no longer with us, biographers look for primary sources left behind by the subject and, if possible, interviews with friends or family. Historical biographers may also include accounts from other experts who have studied their subject.

The biographer’s ultimate goal is to recreate the world their subject lived in and describe how they functioned within it. Did they change their world? Did their world change them? Did they transcend the time in which they lived? Why or why not? And how? These universal life lessons are what make biographies such a meaningful read.

Origins of the Biography

Greco-Roman literature honored the gods as well as notable mortals. Whether winning or losing, their behaviors were to be copied or seen as cautionary tales. One of the earliest examples written exclusively about humans is Plutarch’s Parallel Lives (probably early 2 nd century AD). It’s a collection of biographies in which a pair of men, one Greek and one Roman, are compared and held up as either a good or bad example to follow.

In the Middle Ages, Einhard’s The Life of Charlemagne (around 817 AD) stands out as one of the most famous biographies of its day. Einhard clearly fawns over Charlemagne’s accomplishments throughout, yet it doesn’t diminish the value this biography has brought to centuries of historians since its writing.

Considered the earliest modern biography, The Life of Samuel Johnson (1791) by James Boswell looks like the biographies we know today. Boswell conducted interviews, performed years of research, and created a compelling narrative of his subject.

The genre evolves as the 20th century arrives, and with it the first World War. The 1920s saw a boom in autobiographies in response. Robert Graves’ Good-Bye to All That (1929) is a coming-of age story set amid the absurdity of war and its aftermath. That same year, Mahatma Gandhi wrote The Story of My Experiments with Truth , recalling how the events of his life led him to develop his theories of nonviolent rebellion. In this time, celebrity tell-alls also emerged as a popular form of entertainment. With the horrors of World War II and the explosion of the civil rights movement, American biographers of the late 20 th century had much to archive. Instantly hailed as some of the best writing about the war, John Hersey’s Hiroshima (1946) tells the stories of six people who lived through those world-altering days. Alex Haley wrote the as-told-to The Autobiography of Malcom X (1965). Yet with biographies, the more things change, the more they stay the same. One theme that persists is a biographer’s desire to cast its subject in an updated light, as in Eleanor and Hick: The Love Affair that Shaped a First Lady by Susan Quinn (2016).

Types of Biographies

Contemporary Biography: Authorized or Unauthorized

The typical modern biography tells the life of someone still alive, or who has recently passed. Sometimes these are authorized — written with permission or input from the subject or their family — like Dave Itzkoff’s intimate look at the life and career of Robin Williams, Robin . Unauthorized biographies of living people run the risk of being controversial. Kitty Kelley’s infamous His Way: The Unauthorized Biography of Frank Sinatra so angered Sinatra, he tried to prevent its publication.

Historical Biography

The wild success of Lin-Manuel Miranda’s Hamilton is proof that our interest in historical biography is as strong as ever. Miranda was inspired to write the musical after reading Ron Chernow’s Alexander Hamilton , an epic 800+ page biography intended to cement Hamilton’s status as a great American. Paula Gunn Allen also sets the record straight on another misunderstood historical figure with Pocahontas: Medicine Woman, Spy, Entrepreneur, Diplomat , revealing details about her tribe, her family, and her relationship with John Smith that are usually missing from other accounts. Historical biographies also give the spotlight to people who died without ever getting the recognition they deserved, such as The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks .

Biography of a Group

When a group of people share unique characteristics, they can be the topic of a collective biography. The earliest example of this is Captain Charles Johnson’s A General History of the Pirates (1724), which catalogs the lives of notorious pirates and establishes the popular culture images we still associate with them. Smaller groups are also deserving of a biography, as seen in David Hajdu’s Positively 4th Street , a mesmerizing behind-the-scenes look at the early years of Bob Dylan, Joan Baez, Mimi Baez Fariña, and Richard Fariña as they establish the folk scene in New York City. Likewise, British royal family fashion is a vehicle for telling the life stories of four iconic royals – Queen Elizabeth II, Diana, Kate, and Meghan – in HRH: So Many Thoughts on Royal Style by style journalist Elizabeth Holmes.

Autobiography

This type of biography is written about one’s self, spanning an entire life up to the point of its writing. One of the earliest autobiographies is Saint Augustine’s The Confessions (400), in which his own experiences from childhood through his religious conversion are told in order to create a sweeping guide to life. Maya Angelou’s I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings is the first of six autobiographies that share all the pain of her childhood and the long road that led to her work in the civil rights movement, and a beloved, prize-winning writer.

Memoirs are a type of autobiography, written about a specific but vital aspect of one’s life. In Toil & Trouble , Augusten Burroughs explains how he has lived his life as a witch. Mikel Jollett’s Hollywood Park recounts his early years spent in a cult, his family’s escape, and his rise to success with his band, The Airborne Toxic Event. Barack Obama’s first presidential memoir, A Promised Land , charts his path into politics and takes a deep dive into his first four years in office.

Fictional Biography

Fictional biographies are no substitute for a painstakingly researched scholarly biography, but they’re definitely meant to be more entertaining. Z: A Novel of Zelda Fitzgerald by Therese Anne Fowler constructs Zelda and F. Scott’s wild, Jazz-Age life, told from Zelda’s point of view. The Only Woman in the Room by Marie Benedict brings readers into the secret life of Hollywood actress and wartime scientist, Hedy Lamarr. These imagined biographies, while often whimsical, still respect the form in that they depend heavily on facts when creating setting, plot, and characters.

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Literary Devices

Literary devices, terms, and elements, definition of biography.

A biography is a description of a real person’s life, including factual details as well as stories from the person’s life. Biographies usually include information about the subject’s personality and motivations, and other kinds of intimate details excluded in a general overview or profile of a person’s life. The vast majority of biography examples are written about people who are or were famous, such as politicians, actors, athletes, and so on. However, some biographies can be written about people who lived incredible lives, but were not necessarily well-known. A biography can be labelled “authorized” if the person being written about, or his or her family members, have given permission for a certain author to write the biography.

The word biography comes from the Greek words bios , meaning “life” and – graphia , meaning “writing.”

Difference Between Biography and Autobiography

A biography is a description of a life that is not the author’s own, while an autobiography is the description of a writer’s own life. There can be some gray area, however, in the definition of biography when a ghostwriter is employed. A ghostwriter is an author who helps in the creation of a book, either collaborating with someone else or doing all of the writing him- or herself. Some famous people ask for the help of a ghostwriter to create their own autobiographies if they are not particularly gifted at writing but want the story to sound like it’s coming from their own mouths. In the case of a ghostwritten autobiography, the writer is not actually writing about his or her own life, but has enough input from the subject to create a work that is very close to the person’s experience.

Common Examples of Biography

The genre of biography is so popular that there is even a cable network originally devoted to telling the stories of famous people’s lives (fittingly called The Biography Channel). The stories proved to be such good television that other networks caught on, such as VH1 producing biographies under the series name “Behind the Music.” Some examples of written biographies have become famous in their own right, such as the following books:

• Alexander Hamilton by Ron Chernow (made even more famous by the musical “Hamilton,” created by Lin-Manuel Miranda)
• Unbroken by Laura Hillenbrand
• Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson
• Into the Wild by Jon Krakauer
• The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks by Rebecca Skloot
• Mountains Beyond Mountains: The Quest of Dr. Paul Farmer, A Man Who Would Cure the World by Tracy Kidder
• Three Cups of Tea: One Man’s Mission to Promote Peace … One School at a Time by Greg Mortenson

Significance of Biography in Literature

The genre of biography developed out of other forms of historical nonfiction, choosing to focus on one specific person’s experience rather than all important players. There are examples of biography all the way back to 44 B.C. when Roman biographer Cornelius Nepos wrote Excellentium Imperatorum Vitae (“Lives of those capable of commanding”). The Greek historian Plutarch was also famous for his biographies, creating a series of biographies of famous Greeks and Romans in his book Parallel Lives . After the printing press was created, one of the first “bestsellers” was the 1550 famous biography Lives of the Artists by Giorgio Vasari. Biography then got very popular in the 18th century with James Boswell’s 1791 publication of The Life of Samuel Johnson . Biography continues to be one of the best selling genres in literature, and has led to a number of literary prizes specifically for this form.

Examples of Biography in Literature

And I can imagine Farmer saying he doesn’t care if no one else is willing to follow their example. He’s still going to make these hikes, he’d insist, because if you say that seven hours is too long to walk for two families of patients, you’re saying that their lives matter less than some others’, and the idea that some lives matter less is the root of all that’s wrong with the world.

( Mountains Beyond Mountains: The Quest of Dr. Paul Farmer, A Man Who Would Cure the World by Tracy Kidder)

Tracy Kidder’s wonderful example of biography, Mountains Beyond Mountains , brought the work of Dr. Paul Farmer to a wider audience. Dr. Farmer cofounded the organization Partners in Health (PIH) in 1987 to provide free treatment to patients in Haiti; the organization later created similar projects in countries such as Russia, Peru, and Rwanda. Dr. Farmer was not necessarily a famous man before Tracy Kidder’s biography was published, though he was well-regarded in his own field. The biography describes Farmer’s work as well as some of his personal life.

On July 2, McCandless finished reading Tolstoy’s “Family Happiness”, having marked several passages that moved him: “He was right in saying that the only certain happiness in life is to live for others…” Then, on July 3, he shouldered his backpack and began the twenty-mile hike to the improved road. Two days later, halfway there, he arrived in heavy rain at the beaver ponds that blocked access to the west bank of the Teklanika River. In April they’d been frozen over and hadn’t presented an obstacle. Now he must have been alarmed to find a three-acre lake covering the trail.

( Into the Wild by Jon Krakauer)

Jon Krakauer is a writer and outdoorsman famous for many nonfiction books, including his own experience in a mountaineering disaster on Mount Everest in 1996. His book Into the Wild is a nonfiction biography of a young boy, Christopher McCandless who chose to donate all of his money and go into the wilderness in the American West. McCandless starved to death in Denali National Park in 1992. The biography delved into the facts surrounding McCandless’s death, as well as incorporating some of Krakauer’s own experience.

A commanding woman versed in politics, diplomacy, and governance; fluent in nine languages; silver-tongued and charismatic, Cleopatra nonetheless seems the joint creation of Roman propagandists and Hollywood directors.

( Cleopatra: A Life by Stacy Schiff)

Stacy Schiff wrote a new biography of Cleopatra in 2010 in order to divide fact from fiction, and go back to the amazing and intriguing personality of the woman herself. The biography was very well received for being both scrupulously referenced as well as highly literary and imaginative.

Confident that he was clever, resourceful, and bold enough to escape any predicament, [Louie] was almost incapable of discouragement. When history carried him into war, this resilient optimism would define him.

( Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption by Laura Hillenbrand)

Laura Hillenbrand’s bestselling biography Unbroken covers the life of Louis “Louie” Zamperini, who lived through almost unbelievable circumstances, including running in the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, being shot down as a bomber in WWII, surviving in a raft in the ocean for 47 days, and then surviving Japanese prisoner of war camps. Zamperini’s life story is one of those narratives that is “stranger than fiction” and Hillenbrand brings the drama brilliantly to the reader.

I remember sitting in his backyard in his garden, one day, and he started talking about God. He [Jobs] said, “ Sometimes I believe in God, sometimes I don’t. I think it’s 50/50, maybe. But ever since I’ve had cancer, I’ve been thinking about it more, and I find myself believing a bit more, maybe it’s because I want to believe in an afterlife, that when you die, it doesn’t just all disappear. The wisdom you’ve accumulated, somehow it lives on.”

( Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson)

Steve Jobs is one of the most famous cultural icons of modern-day America and, indeed, around the world, and thus his biography was eagerly awaited. The author, Walter Isaacson, was able to interview Jobs extensively during the writing process. Thus, the above excerpt is possible where the writer is a character in the story himself, asking Jobs about his views on life and philosophy of the world.

Test Your Knowledge of Biography

1. Which of the following statements is the best biography definition? A. A retelling of one small moment from another person’s life. B. A novel which details one specific character’s full life. C. A description of a real person’s entire life, written by someone else.

2. Which of the following scenarios qualifies as a biography? A. A famous person contracts a ghostwriter to create an autobiography. B. A famous author writes the true and incredible life story of a little known person. C. A writer creates a book detailing the most important moments in her own life.

3. Which of the following statements is true? A. Biographies are one of the best selling genres in contemporary literature. B. Biographies are always written about famous people. C. Biographies were first written in the 18th century.

What Is a Biography? Definition & 25+ Examples

Have you ever wondered what lies beneath the surface of history’s most influential figures?

Imagine a chance to delve into the intricate tapestry of their lives, unraveling the threads that have woven together the very essence of their character, and unearthing the pivotal moments that shaped their destinies.

Welcome to the enthralling world of biographies, where you are invited to embark on a captivating journey into the lives of the extraordinary. Prepare to be captivated by the compelling tales of human resilience, ingenuity, and ambition that lie at the heart of each biography.

Table of Contents

Defining Biography

A biography is a detailed account of a person’s life, written by someone other than the subject. The term “biography” is derived from two Greek words: “bio,” which means life, and “graphy,” which signifies writing. Thus, a biography is the written history of someone’s life, offering an in-depth look at their experiences, achievements, and challenges.

Biographies typically focus on the life of notable individuals, such as historical figures or celebrities, and provide a comprehensive view of their personal and professional journey.

Biographers, the authors of these works, aim to offer an accurate, well-researched portrayal of their subjects by studying various sources and conducting interviews if possible. This thorough research and attention to detail ensure that the resulting narrative is both informative and engaging.

Biographies are a subgenre of non-fiction literature, as they chronicle the lives of real people. However, not all life stories fall under the category of biography.

Autobiographies and memoirs, for instance, focus on the author’s own experiences and are written from a first-person perspective. While autobiographies aim to present an overarching narrative of the author’s life, memoirs tend to focus on specific incidents or periods.

When crafting a biography, it is essential for the biographer to maintain a neutral tone, avoiding any judgment or personal bias. This objectivity allows readers to form their opinions based on the presented facts, gaining a broader understanding of the subject.

Elements of a Biography

A well-crafted biography contains several key elements that provide a comprehensive picture of the subject’s life. These elements help readers gain a deeper understanding of the subject while fostering an emotional connection. Below are some essential aspects of a biography:

Personal and Family Background

The personal and family background section of a biography provides an essential foundation for understanding the subject’s journey and the factors that shaped their life. By exploring the subject’s early years, readers gain insight into the environment and experiences that influenced their character, values, and aspirations.

This section typically begins with an overview of the subject’s birthplace, family origins, and cultural heritage. It delves into the family dynamics, including descriptions of the subject’s parents, siblings, and extended family, shedding light on the relationships that played a crucial role in their development.

The personal and family background section also addresses significant life events, challenges, and milestones that occurred during the subject’s upbringing. These formative experiences may include pivotal moments, such as moving to a new city, attending a particular school, or encountering a mentor who had a lasting impact on their life.

Education and Career

The education and career section of a biography is crucial for understanding the intellectual and professional development of the subject. By tracing the subject’s academic journey and career progression, readers gain a clearer picture of the knowledge, skills, and experiences that shaped their path and contributed to their success.

This section begins by outlining the subject’s educational background, including the schools they attended, the degrees or qualifications they obtained, and any specialized training they received. It also highlights the subject’s academic achievements, such as scholarships, awards, or distinctions, and any influential mentors or teachers who played a significant role in their intellectual growth.

The education and career section also delves into the subject’s professional life, chronicling their work history, job titles, and key responsibilities. It explores the subject’s career trajectory, examining how they transitioned between roles or industries and the factors that influenced their choices.

Major Events and Turning Points

The major events and turning points section of a biography delves into the pivotal moments and experiences that significantly influenced the subject’s life, shaping their character, values, and destiny.

By exploring these transformative events, readers gain a deeper understanding of the forces and circumstances that drove the subject’s actions and choices, as well as the challenges and triumphs they faced along the way.

This section encompasses a wide range of events, which could include personal milestones, such as marriage, the birth of children, or the loss of a loved one.

These personal events often provide insights into the subject’s emotional landscape and reveal the support systems, relationships, and personal values that sustained them through difficult times or propelled them to greater heights.

Influences and Inspirations

The influences and inspirations section of a biography delves into the individuals, ideas, and events that had a profound impact on the subject’s beliefs, values, and aspirations.

By understanding the forces that shaped the subject’s worldview, readers gain a deeper appreciation for the motivations driving their actions and decisions, as well as the creative and intellectual foundations upon which their accomplishments were built.

This section often begins by identifying the key figures who played a significant role in the subject’s life, such as family members, mentors, peers, or historical figures they admired.

It explores the nature of these relationships and how they shaped the subject’s perspectives, values, and ambitions. These influential individuals can provide valuable insights into the subject’s personal growth and development, revealing the sources of inspiration and guidance that fueled their journey.

The influences and inspirations section also delves into the ideas and philosophies that resonated with the subject and shaped their worldview. This could include an exploration of the subject’s religious, political, or philosophical beliefs, as well as the books, theories, or artistic movements that inspired them.

This section examines the events, both personal and historical, that impacted the subject’s life and inspired their actions. These could include moments of personal transformation, such as a life-altering experience or an epiphany, or broader societal events, such as wars, social movements, or technological innovations.

Contributions and Impact

The contributions and impact section of a biography is pivotal in conveying the subject’s lasting significance, both in their chosen profession and beyond. By detailing their achievements, innovations, and legacies, this section helps readers grasp the extent of the subject’s influence and the ways in which their work has shaped the world around them.

This section begins by highlighting the subject’s key accomplishments within their profession, such as breakthroughs, discoveries, or innovative techniques they developed. It delves into the processes and challenges they faced along the way, providing valuable insights into their creativity, determination, and problem-solving abilities.

The contributions and impact section also explores the subject’s broader influence on society, culture, or the world at large. This could include their involvement in social or political movements, their philanthropic endeavors, or their role as a cultural icon.

In addition to discussing the subject’s immediate impact, this section also considers their lasting legacy, exploring how their work has continued to inspire and shape subsequent generations.

This could involve examining the subject’s influence on their successors, the institutions or organizations they helped establish, or the enduring relevance of their ideas and achievements in contemporary society.

Personal Traits and Characteristics

The personal traits and characteristics section of a biography brings the subject to life, offering readers an intimate glimpse into their personality, qualities, and views.

This section often begins by outlining the subject’s defining personality traits, such as their temperament, values, and passions. By exploring these attributes, readers gain insight into the subject’s character and the motivations driving their actions and decisions.

These qualities could include their perseverance, curiosity, empathy, or sense of humor, which may help explain their achievements, relationships, and outlook on life.

The personal traits and characteristics section also delves into the subject’s views and beliefs, offering a window into their thoughts and opinions on various topics. This could include their perspectives on politics, religion, culture, or social issues, providing readers with a clearer understanding of the context in which they operated and the factors that shaped their worldview.

Anecdotes and personal stories play a crucial role in illustrating the subject’s personality and characteristics, as they offer concrete examples of their behavior, actions, or interactions with others.

Quotes and first-hand accounts from the subject or those who knew them well can also be invaluable in portraying their personal traits and characteristics. These accounts offer unique insights into the subject’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences, allowing readers to see the world through their eyes and better understand their character.

Types of Biographies

Biographies come in various forms and styles, each presenting unique perspectives on the lives of individuals. Some of the most common types of biographies are discussed in the following sub-sections.

Historical Fiction Biography

Historical fiction biographies artfully weave together factual information with imaginative elements, creating a vibrant tapestry of the past. By staying true to the core of a historical figure’s life and accomplishments, these works offer a unique window into their world while granting authors the creative freedom to delve deeper into their emotions, relationships, and personal struggles.

Such biographies strike a delicate balance, ensuring that the essence of the individual remains intact while allowing for fictional embellishments to bring their story to life. This captivating blend of fact and fiction serves to humanize these iconic figures, making their experiences more relatable and engaging for readers who embark on a journey through the pages of history.

Here are several examples of notable historical fiction biographies:

• “Wolf Hall” by Hilary Mantel (2009)
• “The Paris Wife” by Paula McLain (2011)
• “Girl with a Pearl Earring” by Tracy Chevalier (1999)
• “The Other Boleyn Girl” by Philippa Gregory (2001)
• “Loving Frank” by Nancy Horan (2007)

Academic Biography

Academic biographies stand as meticulously researched and carefully crafted scholarly works, dedicated to presenting an accurate and comprehensive account of a subject’s life.

Authored by experts or researchers well-versed in their field, these biographies adhere to rigorous standards of accuracy, sourcing, and objectivity. They delve into the intricacies of a person’s life, achievements, and impact, scrutinizing every aspect with scholarly precision.

Intended for an educated audience, academic biographies serve as valuable resources for those seeking a deeper understanding of the subject’s contributions and influence. By placing the individual within the broader context of their time, these works illuminate the complex web of factors that shaped their lives and legacies.

While academic biographies may not always carry the same narrative flair as their fictional counterparts, their commitment to factual integrity and thorough analysis make them indispensable resources for scholars, students, and enthusiasts alike

Here are several examples of notable academic biographies:

• “Einstein: His Life and Universe” by Walter Isaacson (2007)
• “Steve Jobs” by Walter Isaacson (2011)
• “John Adams” by David McCullough (2001)
• “Alexander the Great” by Robin Lane Fox (1973)
• “Marie Curie: A Life” by Susan Quinn (1995)

Authorized Biographies

Authorized biographies offer a unique perspective on the lives of their subjects, as they are written with the explicit consent and, often, active participation of the individual in question.

This collaboration between the biographer and the subject can lead to a more accurate, detailed, and intimate portrayal of the person’s life, as the author is granted access to a wealth of personal information, documents, and anecdotes that might otherwise be inaccessible.

When working on an authorized biography, the biographer is typically given permission to access personal documents, such as letters, diaries, and photographs, which can provide invaluable insights into the subject’s thoughts, emotions, and experiences.

This primary source material allows the biographer to construct a narrative that is grounded in fact and captures the essence of the individual’s life and personality.

Here are several examples of notable authorized biographies:

• “Mandela: The Authorized Biography” by Anthony Sampson (1999)
• “Marilyn Monroe: The Biography” by Donald Spoto (1993)
• “Joni Mitchell: In Her Own Words” by Malka Marom (2014)
• “The Snowball: Warren Buffett and the Business of Life” by Alice Schroeder (2008)
• “Notorious RBG: The Life and Times of Ruth Bader Ginsburg” by Irin Carmon and Shana Knizhnik (2015)

Fictionalized Academic Biography

Fictionalized academic biographies merge the best of both worlds, combining the rigorous research and scholarly integrity of academic biographies with the engaging storytelling of historical fiction.

Authors of these works expertly navigate the delicate balance between maintaining factual accuracy and venturing into the realm of imagination.

This approach allows them to explore the subject’s personal life, relationships, and the broader historical context in a compelling manner, while ensuring the narrative remains firmly rooted in well-researched facts.

Here are several examples of notable fictionalized academic biographies:

• “The Women” by T.C. Boyle (2009)
• “Z: A Novel of Zelda Fitzgerald” by Therese Anne Fowler (2013)
• “The Marriage of Opposites” by Alice Hoffman (2015)
• “Vanessa and Her Sister” by Priya Parmar (2014)
• “The Last Days of Night” by Graham Moore (2016)

Prophetic Biography

Prophetic biographies delve into the rich and profound narratives of religious figures or prophets, meticulously weaving together insights from sacred texts, religious traditions, and historical accounts.

By providing a comprehensive portrayal of the individual’s life, teachings, and impact on society, these biographies serve as an invaluable resource for understanding the pivotal role these figures played in shaping the course of religious history and the lives of the faithful.

Here are several examples of notable prophetic biographies:

• “Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources” by Martin Lings (1983)
• “The Life of Moses” by F.B. Meyer (1893)
• “The Life of the Buddha: According to the Pali Canon” by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli (1972)
• “The Quest of the Historical Jesus” by Albert Schweitzer (1906)
• “The Lives of the Saints” by Alban Butler (1756)

Biography Development Process

A biography is a comprehensive written account of an individual’s life, and the development process involves several essential components to ensure the biography’s accuracy and readability.

A biographer’s primary responsibility is to conduct extensive research in order to gather a comprehensive array of facts about the subject. This meticulous process involves reviewing various documents and sources that shed light on the individual’s life and experiences, as well as the historical context in which they lived.

Key documents, such as birth and death certificates, provide essential information about the subject’s origins and family background. Personal correspondence, letters, and diaries offer invaluable insights into the subject’s thoughts, emotions, relationships, and experiences. News articles, on the other hand, can reveal public perceptions of the subject, as well as their impact on society and culture.

Archives often serve as treasure troves of information for biographers, as they contain a wealth of primary sources that can help illuminate the subject’s life and times. These archives may include collections of personal papers, photographs, audio recordings, and other materials that offer first-hand accounts of the individual’s experiences or shed light on their accomplishments and impact.

Consulting relevant books and articles is another crucial aspect of a biographer’s research process, as these secondary sources provide context, analysis, and interpretation of the subject’s life and work.

By delving into the existing scholarship and engaging with the works of other researchers, biographers can solidify their understanding of the individual and the historical circumstances in which they lived.

Interviewing people who knew the subject personally is a vital component of a biographer’s research process, as it allows them to access unique insights, personal stories, and firsthand accounts of the individual’s life.

Friends, family members, co-workers, and colleagues can all offer valuable perspectives on the subject’s character, relationships, achievements, and challenges, thereby enriching the biographer’s understanding of their life and experiences.

While subjective anecdotes offer a more intimate glimpse into the subject’s personality and personal life, it is essential for biographers to balance these accounts with factual research.

By corroborating and contextualizing personal stories with objective information gleaned from primary and secondary sources, biographers can ensure that their portrayal of the individual’s life remains accurate and well-rounded.

This process of balancing subjective anecdotes with factual research also allows biographers to present a more nuanced and comprehensive view of their subject. By weaving together personal stories with historical context, biographers can create a richer and more engaging narrative that captures the complexity and multifaceted nature of the individual’s life.

In addition, by considering various perspectives and sources of information, biographers can address potential biases or discrepancies in their account, resulting in a more reliable and credible portrayal of the subject.

This careful attention to detail and commitment to accuracy not only enhances the quality of the biography but also helps establish trust between the biographer and their readers.

Chronological Narration

Organizing a biography in a chronological manner is a highly effective approach, as it allows readers to follow the subject’s life events in a logical and coherent sequence.

By presenting the information in a linear fashion, the biographer enables readers to trace the subject’s journey from their early years to their later accomplishments, making it easier to understand the context and progression of their life.

To effectively arrange a chronological narrative, the biographer should begin by highlighting significant milestones and accomplishments in the subject’s life. These key events serve as anchor points in the story, helping to structure the narrative and maintain the reader’s interest.

By focusing on these pivotal moments, the biographer can illustrate the subject’s growth, development, and achievements over time, providing a clear and engaging overview of their life’s trajectory.

Contextualization

Contextualizing the subject within their historical and cultural framework is a crucial aspect of biographical writing, as it enables readers to gain a deeper understanding of the individual’s life, choices, and significance.

Embedding the subject within their historical context involves examining the political, social, and economic landscape of the time. This includes exploring major events, trends, and issues that affected the subject’s life and decisions, such as wars, social movements, technological advancements, or cultural shifts.

Additionally, considering the subject’s cultural context is essential for understanding their beliefs, values, and creative expression. This involves examining the artistic, intellectual, and philosophical currents of the time, which may have influenced the subject’s work, ideas, or relationships.

Moreover, contextualizing the subject within their historical and cultural framework can help to humanize them, revealing the complexities, contradictions, and struggles that are often inherent in the human experience.

This approach offers readers a more nuanced and empathetic understanding of the subject, allowing them to see the person as a product of their time and circumstances, rather than as an isolated figure.

Famous Biographies and Biographers

The life of samuel johnson, ll.d. by james boswell (1791).

“The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.” is a biography of the English writer and literary critic Samuel Johnson, written by his friend and contemporary James Boswell. Published in 1791, it is often considered one of the greatest biographies in the English language and a pioneering work in the development of modern biography as a literary genre.

Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) was a prominent figure in 18th-century English literature, known for his wide-ranging knowledge, wit, and moral authority. He is best remembered for his dictionary, “A Dictionary of the English Language,” published in 1755, which became the standard English dictionary for over a century. He was also a prolific essayist, poet, and critic.

James Boswell (1740-1795) was a Scottish lawyer, diarist, and author who became friends with Johnson in 1763. Over the course of their friendship, Boswell made detailed notes of their conversations and observations, which he later used as the basis for his biography.

“The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D.” is a comprehensive and vivid portrait of Johnson’s life, character, and work. Boswell covers Johnson’s early years, education, and struggles with poverty and illness, as well as his rise to prominence as a writer and his involvement in the vibrant literary circles of 18th-century London.

The biography also delves into Johnson’s friendships and relationships, including his long association with Hester Thrale, a prominent society hostess, and writer.

What sets Boswell’s biography apart is his skill in capturing Johnson’s personality, wit, and conversation. By presenting Johnson’s thoughts and opinions on a wide range of topics, as well as anecdotes and reminiscences from those who knew him, Boswell creates a vivid and engaging portrait of his subject.

The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks (2010)

“The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks” is a non-fiction book written by Rebecca Skloot, published in 2010. The book tells the story of Henrietta Lacks, an African American woman whose cancer cells were taken without her knowledge or consent during a biopsy in 1951. These cells, known as HeLa cells, became the first immortal human cell line, reproducing indefinitely under laboratory conditions.

HeLa cells have been used extensively in medical research, contributing to significant scientific breakthroughs, such as the development of the polio vaccine, gene mapping, and cancer research.

Henrietta Lacks was a young mother of five when she was diagnosed with an aggressive form of cervical cancer at the age of 31. She received treatment at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, where a sample of her cancerous tissue was taken without her knowledge. Henrietta passed away in 1951, but her cells continued to live on, revolutionizing medical research.

Rebecca Skloot spent more than a decade researching Henrietta Lacks’ life and the scientific history of HeLa cells. Skloot also interviewed Lacks’ surviving family members, who were unaware of Henrietta’s contribution to science until the 1970s.

The book explores the ethical issues surrounding the use of human tissue in research, the question of consent, and the lack of compensation for the Lacks family.

Alexander Hamilton by Ron Chernow (2004)

“Alexander Hamilton” is a comprehensive biography of the American Founding Father Alexander Hamilton, written by historian and biographer Ron Chernow. Published in 2004, the book provides an in-depth look into Hamilton’s life, from his humble beginnings in the West Indies to his significant contributions as a statesman, economist, and influential figure in early American history.

Chernow’s biography delves into Hamilton’s early life as an orphan in the Caribbean, his immigration to the American colonies, and his education. It also explores his involvement in the American Revolutionary War, where he served as an aide to General George Washington and later as an artillery officer.

The book details Hamilton’s role in the development of the United States Constitution and his work as the first Secretary of the Treasury under President Washington, where he was instrumental in establishing the nation’s financial system.

“Alexander Hamilton” also examines Hamilton’s personal life, including his relationships, marriage, and infamous extramarital affair, as well as his longstanding political rivalries with figures such as Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and Aaron Burr. The biography concludes with the story of Hamilton’s tragic death in a duel with Burr in 1804.

It received critical acclaim and won several awards, including the George Washington Book Prize. The biography also inspired Lin-Manuel Miranda to create the hit Broadway musical “Hamilton,” which premiered in 2015 and went on to achieve widespread popularity and numerous accolades, further solidifying Alexander Hamilton’s place in popular culture and history.

Notable Biographies in Different Fields

Science and technology.

Biographies in the field of science and technology offer fascinating insights into the lives and minds of extraordinary individuals who have made significant advancements in their respective fields.

These biographies often provide an in-depth look at the personal and professional lives of scientists, inventors, engineers, and other innovators, highlighting their discoveries, inventions, and contributions to human knowledge and progress.

Arts and Literature

Biographies of artists, actors, and writers often provide captivating and inspiring accounts of the lives of these creative individuals. By examining their personal and professional journeys, these biographies allow readers to gain a deeper understanding of the inspirations, motivations, and challenges that have shaped their subjects’ artistic achievements.

These biographies often delve into the early lives of their subjects, exploring formative experiences that may have influenced their creative paths. They also examine the artistic processes and the development of the subjects’ distinctive styles, providing valuable insights into their creative methodologies, influences, and inspirations.

Sports and Athletics

Biographies of athletes provide riveting accounts of the lives and careers of remarkable individuals who have achieved greatness in the world of sports. These stories often serve as powerful sources of inspiration, showcasing the dedication, perseverance, and triumphs of athletes who have overcome obstacles and pushed the boundaries of human potential.

These biographies delve into the formative experiences of their subjects, exploring how early influences, innate talent, and personal motivations led them to pursue athletic excellence. They also provide insights into the rigorous training regimens, discipline, and sacrifices that athletes make to achieve their goals, highlighting the incredible determination and work ethic that underpin their success.

Additionally, biographies of athletes often touch on the personal challenges and setbacks these individuals have faced, such as injuries, controversies, or personal struggles.

Historical Figures

Biographies of historical figures offer a unique window into the lives, personalities, and experiences of individuals who have left lasting impacts on the world. By delving into the stories of these influential people, readers can gain a deeper understanding of the political, social, and cultural contexts that shaped their actions and decisions, as well as the lasting legacies they left behind.

These biographies often provide richly detailed accounts of their subjects’ lives, including their upbringing, education, relationships, and personal struggles. By exploring the complex facets of these individuals, biographies help to humanize historical figures, providing a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of their motivations, beliefs, and actions.

In addition to personal narratives, biographies of historical figures often weave together broader historical contexts and events. This allows readers to gain valuable insights into the social, political, and cultural forces that influenced their subjects’ lives and decisions.

Writing a Compelling Biography

A captivating biography requires more than just a simple retelling of a person’s life events. It delves into their personal experiences, relationships, and accomplishments, while maintaining an objective and authentic approach.

Being Objective and Authentic

An essential aspect of a well-written biography is its objectivity. The narrative should portray the real person, depicting their experiences and beliefs accurately.

While it can be tempting to embellish facts or minimize flaws, striving for authenticity is crucial in presenting a credible account. This involves thorough research and verification of facts, even when they contradict the author’s initial assumptions.

Authenticity also extends to the respectful portrayal of a subject’s relationships and exploration of their inner world, while avoiding speculation or gossip.

Balancing Personal and Public Life

When writing a biography, one must strike a balance between the subject’s personal and public life. This includes weaving together stories from their childhood, personal relationships, and major life events that may have shaped their character. The integration of both personal and public aspects contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of their vita.

However, careful consideration must be given to privacy concerns, and it is important to determine which aspects of the individual’s life are appropriate to disclose. Ultimately, the reader should gain insight into the person’s journey without feeling intrusive.

Creating Engaging Storylines

Just as in a novel, a great biography should feature engaging storylines that keep readers interested. This can be achieved by organizing the narrative around important events, challenges, and accomplishments that are relevant and compelling. To maintain a smooth flow, strategically transitioning between these key moments helps maintain reader interest.

The use of different perspectives, anecdotes, and historical context can also enhance the storyline. Paint vivid pictures of the settings, allowing readers to immerse themselves in the subject’s world. Furthermore, showcasing the subject’s resilience, growth, and impact, can contribute to a powerful and memorable biography.

Frequently Asked Questions

Can biographies be fictional or purely factual.

Biographies usually aim to present an accurate and factual representation of someone’s life. However, some authors might take creative liberties and incorporate fictionalized elements for dramatic or storytelling purposes.

It is crucial for readers to be aware of the author’s intentions and approach when reading such biographical works.

Can biographies be biased?

Biographies, like any form of writing, can be subject to biases depending on the author’s perspective, beliefs, or intentions.

It is essential for readers to critically evaluate biographies by considering factors such as the author’s credentials, potential biases, and the sources used in the research process.

By comparing multiple biographies on the same subject or cross-referencing with other sources, readers can develop a more comprehensive and balanced understanding of the individual’s life and achievements.

Are biographies always based on famous or historical figures?

While biographies often focus on famous or historical figures, they can also be written about lesser-known individuals with compelling stories or unique experiences.

These “everyday” biographies can provide valuable insights into the lives of ordinary people and the challenges they face, offering a broader understanding of the human experience and fostering empathy and connection among readers.

Are there any ethical considerations when writing a biography?

Yes, ethical considerations play a significant role in writing biographies.

Biographers must respect the privacy and dignity of their subjects, particularly when dealing with sensitive or personal information. They should also strive for accuracy and fairness, avoiding sensationalism or misrepresentation of facts.

Additionally, biographers should acknowledge and address any potential biases or conflicts of interest that may affect their portrayal of the subject.

Biographies offer us unparalleled access to the lives and legacies of remarkable individuals, spanning diverse genres and approaches.

From historical fiction to academic rigor, prophetic accounts to fictionalized narratives, biographies captivate our imagination and enrich our understanding of the human experience. These literary gems remind us that behind every great achievement lies a story of struggle, triumph, and unwavering determination.

So, let us continue to explore these remarkable journeys, as we delve deeper into the pages of history and the hearts of those who have shaped our world.

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Biography Text Features

Biography text features are the aspects of a biography that make it unique. These features include the style of writing, the narrative structure, the format, the topics discussed, and the characters or individuals featured. Biography text features also focus on the use of language, imagery, details, and other techniques to create a vivid and engaging story. Biography text features are essential to the success of a biography, as they ensure that the reader is invested in the narrative and can clearly understand the events of the story.

Definition of Biography Text Features

Biography Text Features are characteristics or qualities that make a piece of writing a biography. These features include the use of specific language, the inclusion of personal details, the use of chronological events, and the use of anecdotes. A biography is a piece of writing that tells the life story of someone, usually a person of some note or importance. A biography is not simply a recounting of events, but also an opportunity to explore the motives, thoughts, and feelings of the subject. To achieve this, a biography must include certain features.

The first feature of a biography is the use of specific language. The biographer must use language that accurately conveys the thoughts and feelings of the subject. This includes the use of appropriate vocabulary, syntax, and imagery. The biographer should also use language that reflects the subject’s personality and beliefs.

Another feature of a biography is the inclusion of personal details. The biographer should seek to include details that give the reader a more in-depth understanding of the subject. This includes details such as the subject’s hobbies, interests, likes, and dislikes. Details of the subject’s family or close friends can also be included.

A third feature of a biography is the use of chronological events. The biographer should make sure to include important events in the subject’s life in chronological order. This helps to provide the reader with a timeline of the subject’s life and to give the reader a better understanding of the subject’s life journey.

Finally, the biographer should use anecdotes to illustrate points or add color to the biography. Anecdotes are stories that help to convey the subject’s personality, beliefs, or history. Anecdotes can come from the subject’s family, friends, or even the subject themselves.

In conclusion, Biography Text Features are the specific characteristics or qualities that make a piece of writing a biography. These features include the use of specific language, the inclusion of personal details, the use of chronological events, and the use of anecdotes. Understanding and implementing these features is key to creating a successful biography.

Types of Biography Text Features

Biographies are a classic literary genre that document the life stories of famous people. It is an important part of the historical and literary record, as it provides insight into the lives of those who have shaped our world. While there are some common features to every biography, there are also distinct types of biography text features that help bring the story to life.

One of the most important biography text features is narrative structure. This involves the use of stories, anecdotes, and conversations to illustrate the life of the subject. It can be a linear structure or a more complex one, with multiple points of view. Another type of biography text feature is sensory detail, which utilizes language that evokes the senses and helps the reader really feel the story.

In addition to narrative and sensory detail, biographies often include descriptions of the subject’s physical appearance, personality traits, and emotional states. These features help to give the reader a better understanding of the person’s life. Furthermore, biographies often include historical context to help the reader understand the subject’s place in time. This often includes information about the time period, political events, and other influential figures.

Ultimately, these biography text features come together to create a vivid and engaging portrait of the subject’s life. When used effectively, they can truly bring the subject to life and create an unforgettable reading experience.

Examples of Biography Text Features in Practice

Biographies can be informative, intriguing, and entertaining. However, it takes more than just words to write a captivating biography. Knowing the features that make up a good biography can help you craft an engaging one. Here are a few examples of biography text features in action.

One of the most important elements of a biography is facts. Facts provide readers with the necessary information to understand the subject of the biography. When researching a subject, use primary sources to get the most accurate information. Additionally, be sure to include the subject’s full name, date of birth, and any awards they have received.

Another key feature of a biography is storytelling. This involves using vivid language to paint a picture of the subject’s life and experiences. To enhance storytelling, use quotes from the subject or people that they have worked with in the past. This can help to provide a personal touch to the biography and make the story even more engaging.

Finally, it’s important to consider the structure of the biography. A well-structured biography should be organized in chronological order, beginning with the subject’s early life and progressing to their later years. While it’s important to provide an overarching narrative, it’s also important to break up the biography with interesting facts and stories that give readers more insight into the subject.

By considering these key features of a biography, you can craft an engaging and informative biography that readers will enjoy. With the proper research and storytelling techniques, you’ll be able to create a biography that is both captivating and informative.

Benefits of Incorporating Biography Text Features

Biographies can be powerful tools for understanding the lives of famous and influential people. They provide a detailed look at the individual’s life, including their successes, challenges, and accomplishments. But, there are many other benefits to incorporating biography text features into your writing. Not only do they provide a more complete and accurate account of the individual’s life, but they also add a unique perspective to your work.

Biography text features can help to add a human touch to your writing. By incorporating details about the individual’s life, you can create a more personal story and bring out the unique qualities of the subject. Additionally, biography text features can help to illustrate the individual’s impact on history. By including anecdotes and stories about the individual’s life, you can highlight their accomplishments and demonstrate how they changed the course of history.

Biography text features can also be used to create an engaging narrative. By incorporating interesting facts and stories, you can create a compelling story that readers will want to follow. Additionally, biography text features can help to add context to the individual’s life. By including details about their upbringing, family, and experiences, you can provide a more complete picture of the individual’s life and how it shaped them.

In conclusion, incorporating biography text features into your writing can provide many benefits. Not only do they provide a more complete account of the individual’s life, but they also add a human touch and create a compelling narrative. Furthermore, biography text features can help to illustrate the individual’s impact on history and provide context to their life.

Challenges in Implementing Biography Text Features

Biographies are a great way to learn more about a person’s life and accomplishments, but implementing text features that make them both engaging and informative can be a challenge. With the right tools, however, the task of creating biographies with compelling text features can be made much easier. Text features such as headings, subheadings, bolding, italicizing, and other formatting techniques can draw the reader’s attention and make the text easier to read. Additionally, including quotes, facts, and statistics can help to boost the credibility of the text. Images, video, and audio clips can also be used to add further interest and detail to the biography. Incorporating interactive elements, such as quizzes or polls, can also be a great way to engage the reader. Finally, ensuring that the biography is optimized for search engine visibility will help to ensure that it stands out from the competition. With the right strategy, the challenge of implementing biography text features can be met with ease.

Best Practices for Promoting Biography Text Features

Biographies are an essential part of understanding a person’s life and accomplishments. To truly appreciate the life of a person, it’s important to understand the context in which they lived their life and the various features that made them unique. Text features in biographies are the elements that help to paint a vivid picture of a person’s life. These features can include quotes, photographs, timelines, and other visuals that bring a biography to life. Promoting the text features in a biography can help to make it more engaging and informative. Here are some of the best practices for promoting biography text features:

1. Use visuals – Visuals can be an effective way to bring a biography to life, so consider using images, charts, and other visuals to highlight key aspects of the subject’s life.

2. Highlight quotes – Quotes from the subject or those close to them can be a powerful way to bring the biography to life. Be sure to choose quotes that are relevant to the subject and that capture the essence of their life.

3. Create a timeline – Timelines are a great way to organize the key events in a person’s life. A timeline can help to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the subject’s accomplishments and journey.

4. Utilize SEO – Utilizing SEO techniques can help to make the biography more visible and accessible online. Include keywords and phrases related to the subject to help the biography get more exposure.

By following these best practices, biographies can be more informative and engaging, helping to ensure that readers have a better understanding of the subject’s life.

FAQs About the Biography Text Features

1. What are the key components of a biography text feature? A biography text feature typically includes information about a person’s life, including their family, education, work experience, significant achievements, and any awards or honors they have received.

2. How does a biography text feature differ from a biography book? A biography text feature is typically a shorter and more concise summary of a person’s life compared to a full biography book. It usually focuses on the most significant aspects of the person’s life.

3. How can I make sure my biography text feature is effective? To ensure your biography text feature is effective, be sure to include relevant information about the person’s life, such as dates and places, and to focus on the most significant and noteworthy aspects. Additionally, be sure to keep the text concise and engaging.

Biography text features provide the reader with an in-depth look into the life of a person, often including facts, events, and experiences that are not as easily accessible through other sources. Through the use of biography text features, readers can gain a better understanding of the person’s life, and can gain a better appreciation for their contributions. Biography text features can also be used to inspire readers, and can help to share a person’s story in a more meaningful and impactful way.

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• UOW Library

Finding historical information

• Finding biographies
• Starting your research
• Searching collections
• Identifying historical evidence

About biographies and biographical information

How to search for biographies.

• Catalogues and databases

Additional biographical resources

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What you can learn from this page:

• How to search for biographies of well-known people and less well-known people (both recent and historical)
• How to search for biographies relating to particular professions or themes
• Which databases and catalogues are useful for searching biographies.

Types of biographies

A biography tells you a story about a person’s life, personality, character, attitudes, or impact on their community and broader society. It can talk about their childhood, education, career, family relationships and friendships.

There are three main types of biography:

• A biography is where the author writes about someone else’s life (usually someone who is very well known such as a historical figure, a prominent world leader or a famous celebrity)
• An autobiography is where the author writes about their own life (usually narrating their lifetime story) 
• A memoir is a specific type of autobiography, where a writer or speaker focuses on particular aspects of their life, such as key events or relationships. Examples of ‘memoirs’ can include diaries, letters, interviews, and oral histories.

It’s important to be aware that:

• Longer biographies are often published or produced as a single work.
• Shorter biographies are usually published within collections of personal stories, anecdotes, reminiscences and recollections.
• Biographical profiles (summary details about a person's life/background) are often included on relevant websites.

Searching by individual names

• Prime Minister Bob Hawke was formally referred to as “Robert J Hawke”
• Elizabeth Jessie Hickman had the alias or pseudonym "The Lady Bushranger"
• Wartime doctor Edward Dunlop was commonly known by the nickname "Weary Dunlop"
• 'Bill' or 'Will' are popular nicknames for William. Older publications sometimes abbreviated William to "Wm.".
• Hawke AND (biography OR autobiography OR memoir)

Searching by themes

When you don't have a specific person's name:

• Search for relevant professions or occupations,  e.g. artists, teachers, nurses
• Search for relevant broader theme keywords, e.g. women, indigenous, wartime, activism
• nurse* AND (biograph* OR autobiograph*)
• (indigenous OR aborigin*) AND (biograph* OR autobiograph*)
• artist* AND memoir*
• (soldier* OR “prisoners of war”) AND “personal narrative” (catalogues often use this phrase when describing wartime biographies)
• travel* AND anecdote*

No results?

Try some of these more specific terms, especially when searching for very old references or more obscure names or topics. Not all books have the word 'biography' or 'memoir' in their title or catalogue description.

For examples of written recollections try:

• (diar* OR letter* OR correspondence OR account* OR travel* OR notebook* OR observations) AND ("women explorer*")

For examples of verbal recollections try:

• ("oral histor*" OR interview* OR reminisc* OR recollect* OR anecdote*) AND Illawarra

Databases and catalogues for biographies

Use the following databases and catalogues to search for nationally or internationally well known individuals. If your person is less well known outside their immediate area (geographic and/or subject wise) try more localised news sources or subject specific sources .

Don't forget to try a simple Google search to see what biographical information may be freely available on authoritative websites. e,g. Nelson Mandela , artist Ben Quilty

• UOW Library SEARCH Try this first for Australian and international biographies. Includes a range of encyclopedias, books, news sources and journal articles.
• Trove: People and organisations Use this for information about significant people and organisations in Australia. Searches across the Australian Dictionary of Biography, Australian Women’s Register, Dictionary of Australian Artists Online and Encyclopedia of Australian Science. Results may also include related material such as books, articles, images, recordings and older newspapers.
• People Australia Use this in addition to Trove (some content overlaps with Trove, other content is unique). Searches across entries from the Australian Dictionary of Biography, Obituaries Australia, Women Australia, Indigenous Australia, Labour Australia and other resources compiled by the National Centre of Biography.
• Oxford Reference Online Try this for biographical entries across a large number of different subject encyclopedias, both Australian and international.

Databases like this are not full-text but they are still extremely helpful as they will give you all the necessary publication details that you need to search for the item using UOW databases, local library catalogues or to request the item via Document Delivery.

• Ryerson Index Use this to identify details of death notices and obituaries in many newspapers around Australia. Much of this information is not available elsewhere online, especially for the period between 1955-1990s. Earliest entries date from the 1800s however years vary for each paper so check the details shown in its "Newspaper Coverage" list.

Further resources

• Biography Research Guide National Library of Australia's guide to researching Australian and overseas biographies.
• Previous: Identifying historical evidence
• Last Updated: Mar 4, 2024 5:41 PM
• URL: https://uow.libguides.com/finding-historical-information

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Biography: what is biography, definition, types of biography, characteristics, origin and more 

What is biography.

It is one of the most important subgenres of the didactic genre of literature, since it consists of the text of the history of the life of a person. It is a written narration in which the most important facts of a person’s life are related as a summary, starting with the birth, with the whole context of the place of origin, and in some cases even going back to family history. The narrator is not the protagonist.

As for the completion of the biography, many of them are written when the protagonist has already died, so that it covers his or her life from beginning to end. However, it is up to the writer to choose how far the biography will go, especially if the protagonist lives.

Meaning of the subgenre biography

The term comes from the union of the Greek bios, which refers to life, and graphein, which refers to writing. This is how the term is configured, giving rise to a form of writing focused on life, so that it can also be used in a symbolic sense.

Definition of the sub-genre biography

It is a type of text written in the third person, in which the content consists of a summary of the life of a person, however, it may include appreciations by the author in which aspects related to the context of the life of the protagonist of the biography are specified, in addition to information related to accurate data.

What is the function of a biography?

A text like this gathers a great amount of information about the life of a person, so that its purpose is, above all, to make known fundamental features of the life of the person about whom the biography is made, in most cases it is about public people in which their professional activity is highlighted, appreciations about their private life or other activities for which they have stood out, which are essential to understand their work.

History and origin of the biographical subgenre

It is considered that the biographical text type has its beginnings since Antiquity, however, it should be noted that at that time it had not been established as a literary subgenre, so it had not been formally classified. It was in the Middle Ages, with the Renaissance movement, that biography began to be recognized, since at that time it was necessary to provide specific information on the artists in order to gradually eliminate the ancient Greek models from which it sought to dissociate itself.

With the passage of time, biography, like humanity, achieved an important evolution, in which it gradually came to incorporate a desperate search for documents that would allow an approach to the lives of subjects and artists. This will be key to the realist movement, which we have already talked about in a previous article. Thus, by the present time, the biography manages to consolidate itself as a writing that allows us to know the life of a character from the most relevant and determining events for the activity for which he is publicly known, in the case of figures recognized in the political, social, cultural, etc. field.

Characteristics of the biography subgenre

Let us look at the essential characteristics of this literary subgenre:

The central theme that distinguishes the biography from other didactic subgenres is the narration of the most relevant facts of a person’s life, which is presented through a written text. It deals with real events in the life of an equally existing person. Its content goes from the birth of a person until the present time or the time of his death. Some authors write about the author even after death, especially if he left works that keep his name active.

Mode of composition

At the time when a biography is being written, as well as when it is read, the organization of the events that are exposed are arranged chronologically, following the line of life. Likewise, in the writing, the author maintains an objective and accurate look in which everything he mentions can be verified. However, the author may mention some particular assessments.

Another of the most relevant aspects of this type of subgenre has to do with the type of narrator who writes, since the story is narrated in the third person.

Mode of presentation

Although it is essentially a written text, so that it can be presented in documents and books, the truth is that these serve as a basis for the reproduction of the biography through other formats, as has happened in recent years where the lives of key characters are exposed through documentaries, films, programs, etc.

Historical content

A biography, although it has a series of data on important dates, also tends to make tours around important trips or journeys made by the character, so that it incorporates historical events during their travels, as many of them influence their activities and will have an important impact on decision making. This information also allows the reader to situate and contextualize the reader in relation to the time and space of the person’s life.

Structure of the biography subgenre

As for the structure of this type of text, it is similar to the organization usually used in narrative texts, since it has an opening section, an introduction and a closing section as a conclusion at the end of the text. Thus, the biography is organized as follows:

Introduction: as its name indicates, this initial part introduces the character about whom we are going to talk. Thus, the full name, date and place of birth (if desired date and place of death), and finally the activity he/she developed in life, that is to say, his/her profession and specialty, are mentioned.

Development: in this part begins as such the order of the biography. Here the author begins with the narration of all those events that were transcendental for the protagonist’s life, so he can start by pointing out particularities of his origin, the activity of his parents and siblings, if he focuses on the family circle, etc.

Conclusion : it is the closing of the text in which we reach the last years of the character’s life, if he/she has passed away, or the present time, if the author prefers. Often, in this part the author’s subjectivity is evident due to a series of evaluations that are made in relation to the transcendence of the protagonist.

Likewise, the structure of the biography usually includes other elements in its organization such as:

Dedication: this is a space that occupies one or two short sentences in which the author or writer of the biography allows himself to show affection, either to the protagonist of his biography or to people he esteems.

Preface: in this section the author can relate some of his or her personal experiences in relation to the moment prior to consolidating the biography to be presented. In this sense, he/she can address issues such as the reasons that prompted him/her to develop his/her work, the reasons and the research tools, for example.

Acknowledgements: in the final part of the biography, although it can also appear at the beginning, the author proceeds to thank different people, including those who helped him/her to find relevant information about the protagonist, as well as other people who have accompanied the process through complementary activities, company, photographic work, data collection, etc.

Annexes: in this section the author can include annexes such as photographs, articles and documents that have been mentioned during the course of the biography and that are duly indicated to lead the reader to them.

Types of the biography subgenre

According to the field in which a biography is developed, it is possible to identify some modalities that give rise to a number of types of biography. These are:

Authorized biography

These are all biographies that have been reviewed and validated by the author, who, once he/she has reviewed them, approves everything that is exposed within their content and allows the publication of the biography that has been written.

Unauthorized biography

In this case, the biography has not been reviewed by the author, in most cases without seeking the approval of the person whose life is narrated. Often this type of biography is part of the journalistic activity when reporting on a public person, especially when it is a political or social figure.

Book biography

It is given by the type of format in which the biography is presented. Its length allows for a much more detailed and thorough exploration of the protagonist. Often the person written about is a public personality of interest in a specific society and context. Its content includes background, moments prior to becoming known, work, etc.

Professional biography

In this type of biographies the content is focused on the exaltation of the person’s skills, as well as his or her knowledge, abilities, experience and other aspects that may increase the value of the proposal. It includes skills related to personality traits in the quality of the activity.

Informative biographies

They are usually biographies not marked within the literary world, but within the journalistic world, since they tend to emphasize in-depth research with the intention of informing a much wider audience. There is no deepening of the data presented, but they are exposed in an objective and concrete way where specific aspects are highlighted.

How to write a biography?

Now that we have seen what a biography consists of in broad strokes, it is time to see how to write such a text correctly:

Choosing the protagonist 

The first thing we must do when we plan to write a biography is to choose the person about whom we want to develop the text. We can practically choose any person, whether it is a friend, a relative, an acquaintance, an artist, a doctor, a lawyer, a teacher or any other person we want to write about.

Collecting the information 

Once you have chosen the person you are going to write the biography about, it is time to start gathering as much information about the person as possible. Gather information about their life, background, institutions they went through, their jobs, activities and so on, this will allow you to make a complete biography. If you can have contact with the person, interviewing him or her, for example, will be of great help.

If you choose a famous personality, you may find much of this information in audiovisual media, interviews, books, among others. If not, you can approach relatives, friends and people close to you to obtain much more information.

Asking important questions

As you collect information, it is important, at the same time, to keep in mind a series of key questions that will allow you to go deeper and collect baseline information to provide as much data as possible about your entire life. So some of these questions can be: Who were his parents and what did they do, what was the relationship with his family circle like, what was his childhood like, what led him to approach what would become his main activity in life, what are his first steps in his passion, etc.

Organization of the information

When you have all this information, it is time to organize it. Remember to keep a chronological order, even though there are connections between past and present directly, so you should go deeper into different moments that allow you to configure the future of the protagonist seen from the past.

Establish a central idea 

Many biographies maintain an order that revolves around a particular idea, it can be a particularity of the character, an activity or profession that he/she has developed, etc. Elaborating this central idea will allow you to develop the content around the character’s life, through which all the events will pass.

Start writing

It is time to get down to work. Start writing keeping the order you have chosen and the central idea you have set up, although you can indicate it from the beginning, you must take care that the information you add builds it during the course of the biography.

Adding the bibliography 

Because of the type of text you are writing, since it involves a large number of sources of information, it is necessary that each of the sources be added to the final document, including not only documents or books, but also interviews and people who gave you their word, online sources consulted, etc.

Final proofreading 

We have the whole document ready, now we just need to check again aspects such as spelling and grammar, as well as the coherence between paragraphs and other divisions you have decided to make within the biography. You can ask someone to read it so that they can give you their feedback, especially if the person you are talking about is of interest to them as well.

Remember to check some sources beforehand. You can refer to existing biographies of authors, artists, doctors, politicians or any other important personalities. This will allow you to have a closer guide to start writing the biography.

Example of the biography subgenre

The following is an excerpt from the authorized biography of Steve Jobs, one of the most well-known biographies of our times, written by Walter Isaacson:

“This is a book about the eventful life and searing, intense personality of a creative entrepreneur whose passion for perfection and fierce determination revolutionized six different industries: personal computers, animated films, music, telephony, electronic tablets, and digital publishing. We could even add a seventh: retail, which Jobs didn’t exactly revolutionize, but he did revamp. He also paved the way for a new digital content market based on applications rather than websites. Along the way, he has not only created products that have transformed the industry, but also, on his second try, an enduring company, imbued with his very DNA, filled with creative designers and daring engineers who will be able to carry his vision forward.”

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Text Types and Different Styles of Writing: The Complete Guide

A guide to understanding different types of writing and text types.

Reading and writing are complex skills that demand much from students. As they progress, we must assist them in going beyond grammar, punctuation, and spelling and understanding the conventions and structures of the various text types or genres.

By understanding the significance of each text type, educators can tailor their teaching strategies to meet the specific demands of different written contexts.

When students comprehend the purpose of an essay they have been assigned, they can approach it strategically and customize it to the intended audience.

Whether students are deciphering a Shakespearean sonnet, grappling with a scientific research paper, or crafting a persuasive argument, a nuanced understanding of text types will help them confidently navigate the intricacies of language.

In this article, we’ll explore the purpose of literary and factual text types. For greater insight, be sure to read the full guides attached to each type.

What are the main text types?

There are many ways to categorize the broad range of reading and writing materials we encounter daily. But, generally speaking, it’s helpful to think of them in terms of two overarching and broad categories:  factual  and  literary.

We will discuss various sub-categories that fall under these two broad categories. It’s worth noting that different curricula might refer to text types in varying ways. For instance, a recount is also known as a personal narrative in certain regions, and there are several text types with multiple names.

FACTUAL TEXTS

Endeavor to inform, instruct, or persuade through the use of facts and information., literary texts, seek to entertain, enlighten, or elicit emotion through a creative use of language and structure., daily quick writes for all text types.

Our FUN DAILY QUICK WRITE TASKS will teach your students the fundamentals of CREATIVE WRITING across all text types. Packed with 52 ENGAGING ACTIVITIES

Factual Text Types

Argumentative texts.

An argumentative essay is a type of writing in which the author takes a stance on a particular issue or topic and presents arguments and evidence to support that position.

The primary goal is to persuade the reader to adopt the author’s viewpoint or consider it seriously, at the least.

Argumentative Texts are commonly assigned to students in grades three and above. They require them to critically analyze information, develop a clear thesis or main idea, and present a well-structured and reasoned argument.

Argumentative essays are used for debates, policy advocacy, public discourse, critical thinking development, research, and expressing personal views, contributing to social and intellectual dialogue.

Quick Writing Activity: An effective way to lead to writing a discussion text is to hold a discussion or debate in the classroom on a contentious issue or a topic that piques the interest of your class. For example, Should video games be considered a sport? or should homeschooling replace traditional schooling due to technology?

The style of an argumentative essay is typically formal, and the tone is persuasive. The writer should aim to engage the reader and convey the issue’s importance.

Biographies

Biographies are written accounts of people’s lives, providing a comprehensive and detailed narrative of their experiences, achievements, and societal impact. These works offer insight into the individual’s character, contributions, and the historical or cultural context in which they lived. Biographies can take various forms, including books, articles, documentaries, or online profiles, and they are valuable for preserving and sharing the stories of notable individuals.

Examples of biographies include “The Diary of Anne Frank” by Anne Frank, “Steve Jobs” by Walter Isaacson, and “The Wright Brothers” by David McCullough. Biographies play a crucial role in documenting the lives of influential individuals, preserving their stories, and inspiring readers with accounts of human achievement and resilience.

Quick Writing Activity: As a warm-up to biographical writing, St udents imagine themselves as the subject of the biography and write diary entries from that person’s perspective. This activity encourages empathy, deepens understanding of the character’s emotions, and fosters creative expression while maintaining a connection to factual information.

DISCUSSIONS

A discussion essay is a type of academic writing that presents and explores different perspectives on a given topic.

Unlike an argumentative essay, where the author takes a specific stance and argues in favour of it, a discussion essay requires the writer to consider various viewpoints, analyze the strengths and weaknesses of each, and present a well-rounded view of the issue.

The goal is not necessarily to persuade the reader to adopt a particular position but to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Discussion essays are often assigned in academic settings to assess students’ ability to analyze complex issues, consider different perspectives, and present a well-reasoned discussion. They are commonly found in subjects such as philosophy, sociology, and political science, where exploring diverse viewpoints on a topic is crucial for a comprehensive understanding

EXPOSITORY TEXTS & Explanatory ESSAYS

Explanatory texts, expository texts, or explanatory essays are written compositions that aim to provide information, clarify concepts, or explain a particular subject to the reader. The primary purpose of explanatory texts is to convey factual information in a clear, organized, and easily understandable manner. These texts can be found in various forms, including essays, articles, manuals, textbooks, and reports.

Suggested Activity: Task students with going to the library and gathering a range of explanatory texts on various topics. In groups, students go through these texts analyzing the various features they have in common. From their findings, students draw up a detailed list of criteria they can use to write their explanatory texts later.

Information Reports

Information reports, often categorized as expository or informative writing, are compositions that present factual information on a specific topic in a clear, concise, and organized manner. These reports aim to provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of the subject, and they are commonly found in educational, scientific, and professional contexts. Information reports follow a structured format and are characterized by their focus on delivering objective information without personal opinions or biases

Examples of information reports include scientific research papers, academic reports, technical manuals, and informational articles. These reports serve the purpose of presenting information objectively, helping readers gain insights into a specific topic, and serving as a valuable resource for reference and learning.

Suggested Activity: Students will enjoy creating an information report about their favourite animal. Providing facts and information about aspects such as appearance, habitat, movement, food and life cycle. Images and Diagrams will significantly enhance the finished product.

Procedural Texts & INSTRUCTIONAL ESSAYS

Procedural texts, also known as procedural documents or instructional texts, are written compositions that provide step-by-step guidance on how to perform a specific task or achieve a particular goal. Their primary purpose is to inform the reader about a process, procedure, or set of instructions clearly and concisely. These texts are often found in instructional manuals, recipe books, user guides, technical documents, and other contexts where a systematic set of instructions is necessary.

Procedural texts are essential for conveying information in a format that is easily accessible to individuals who need to perform specific tasks or follow a particular process.

Suggested Activity: Partner students up for this writing task. Ask the students to think of something they know how to do well. It could be anything from how to tie shoelaces to how to perform a cartwheel. It doesn’t matter what it is, as long as the student clearly understands how to do it. Students then write an explanatory text that explains how to do it. Partners swap their work with each other. They then try to perform the task exclusively following the explanation within the text. If they can’t perform the task as it’s meant to be done, then the writer needs to redraft their work until it can be done.

Persuasive Texts / OPINION WRITING

Persuasive texts cover a broad collection of opinions, and argumentative writing styles are designed to sway the reader’s opinion towards a specific viewpoint or prompt them to undertake a particular action. These texts employ language, style, and tone strategically to present compelling arguments, evidence, and reasoning, aiming to convince the audience. They are prevalent in diverse contexts, encompassing academic writing, advertising, public speeches, and opinion pieces.

Examples of persuasive texts include opinion articles in newspapers or magazines, political speeches, advertising campaigns promoting products or services, letters of recommendation, and persuasive essays within academic settings.

Suggested Activity: Distribute copies of a persuasive text to students in groups. For example, this could be an advertisement or newspaper editorial. Challenge students in their groups to identify various persuasive strategies employed within the text, whether in terms of structure, presentation, visuals, or language. Students can compare and contrast their findings between groups.

Non-chronological reports

Non-chronological reports are informative writing that presents information about a particular topic without following a strict chronological order. Unlike narratives or historical accounts that organize information based on a sequence of events over time, non-chronological reports present facts, descriptions, and details in a logical and thematic structure. These reports are commonly used in educational contexts, informational articles, and reference materials.

Examples of non-chronological reports include scientific reports, encyclopedia entries, informational articles in magazines, and educational materials. These reports are valuable for presenting information in a structured and thematic manner, making them accessible for readers seeking specific details about a particular topic.

Suggested Activity: An informational leaflet is one form of a non-chronological report. Challenge students to produce an information leaflet on something they know, such as a local attraction or historical site. When students have completed their leaflets, please encourage them to review each other’s work and offer feedback.

Recounts are a form of writing that involves retelling past events or experiences. The primary purpose of a recount is to inform or entertain the reader by providing a detailed account of what happened. Recounts can take various forms, including personal narratives, diary entries, news reports, or historical retellings. They often use a chronological structure to present events in the order in which they occurred.

Personal narratives, autobiographical accounts, eyewitness testimonies, travel diaries, and historical retellings are examples of recounts. They serve as a means of sharing personal experiences, preserving memories, and conveying information about past events in a compelling and engaging way.

Suggested Activity: In the library, challenge students to gather as many different types of recounts as possible. In their groups, students review the various recounts and compile a list of criteria for this text type. As a whole class, the groups share their results. Encourage students to pay particular attention to the range of topics that can be presented as recounts and how this can affect the language style. For example, recounting a science experiment will use more technical and formal language than the informal and personal style that might be employed to recount a travel adventure.

Literary Text Types

Poetry is a form of artistic expression that uses language to evoke emotions, convey images, and create a rhythmic and musical effect. It is a genre of literature characterized by a heightened use of language, often employing techniques such as meter, rhyme, and metaphor. Poems come in various forms and styles, each with its own unique structure and purpose. Poetry is a rich and diverse literary tradition that allows for creatively exploring themes, emotions, and perspectives.

Examples of famous poets include William Shakespeare, Emily Dickinson, Langston Hughes, and Maya Angelou. Poetry can take various forms, including sonnets, haikus, free verse, and epic poems. Its versatility allows poets to experiment with language, form, and structure to create unique and expressive works.

Suggested Activity: Find an anthology of poetry that groups poems together according to themes. Task your students to look at poems exploring a common theme. Have the students look at the features these poems have in common and the features that differ. Can the students identify the different types of poems?

A narrative is a form of writing that tells a story or recounts a series of events. Narratives can take various forms, including short stories, novels, autobiographies, and even some types of essays. The primary goal of a narrative is to engage the reader by presenting a compelling and coherent sequence of events that unfold over time using the story elements of character, setting, plot, theme and conflict.

Examples of Narratives include Charlotte’s Web by E.B. White and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory by Roald Dahl.

Narratives entertain, inform, or convey a message through the artful arrangement of events and characters in a story.

Suggested Activity: This task can be completed using novels, short stories, or even concerning movies the students are familiar with. Have the students draw an x and a y-axis on a piece of paper. Students label the x-axis time and the y-axis action. Students then plot and label the narrative’s introduction, complication, rising action, climax, and resolution. The more intense the action at each point of the story, the higher on the y-axis the point will be plotted. The points are then joined with a line. This will give the students a sense of the ‘shape’ of the story. Internalizing an understanding of this general storytelling pattern will help students immensely in their writing.

Written drama, often known as a play or script, is a form of literature designed for performance on stage. It involves creating characters, dialogue, and a plot structure to convey a narrative through the characters’ interactions and conflicts.

Written drama incorporates dramatic elements, such as setting, conflict, climax, and resolution, to engage an audience emotionally and intellectually.

Playwrights employ unique techniques, including dialogue, stage directions, and sometimes monologues, to bring their stories to life in a theatrical context, offering a distinct blend of literary and performative artistry.

Suggested Activity: Students can explore the different conventions, similarities, and differences between prose and drama by taking a story written in a prose genre, such as a fable, short story, etc., and converting it into a script for a drama.

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In Conclusion

Understanding the various aspects of the different writing genres will help students navigate writing that serves a wide range of purposes.

It will also help students with their own text compositions. Understanding the various underlying text structures will provide students with an effective means of organizing their work, helping to ensure their writing is fit for purpose.

Exposing your students to as many different genres as possible and providing opportunities to explore how these text types operate will go a long way to helping them develop into adaptive and organized readers and writers in the future.

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The best AI image generators to try right now

If you've ever searched Google high and low to find an image you needed to no avail, artificial intelligence (AI) may be able to help. 

With AI image generators, you can type in a prompt as detailed or vague as you'd like to fit an array of purposes and have the image you were thinking of instantly pop up on your screen. These tools can help with branding, social media content creation, and making invitations, flyers, business cards, and more.

Also: ChatGPT no longer requires a login, but you might want one anyway. Here's why

Even if you have no professional use for AI, don't worry -- the process is so fun that anyone can (and should) try it out.

OpenAI's DALL-E 2 made a huge splash because of its advanced capabilities as the first mainstream AI image generator. However, since its initial launch, there have been many developments. Other companies have released models that rival DALL-E 2, and OpenAI even released a more advanced model known as DALL-E 3 , discontinuing its predecessor. 

To help you discover which models are the best for different tasks, I put the image generators to the test by giving each tool the same prompt: "Two Yorkies sitting on a beach that is covered in snow". I also included screenshots to help you decide which is best. 

Also: DALL-E adds new ways to edit and create AI-generated images. Learn how to use it

While I found the best overall AI image generator is Image Creator from Microsoft Designer , due to its free-of-charge, high-quality results, other AI image generators perform better for specific needs. For the full roundup of the best AI image generators, keep reading. 

The best AI image generators of 2024

Image creator from microsoft designer (formerly bing image creator), best ai image generator overall.

• Powered by DALL-E 3
• Convenient to access
• Need a Microsoft account
• In preview stage

Image Creator from Microsoft Designer is powered by DALL-E 3, OpenAI's most advanced image-generating model. As a result, it produces the same quality results as DALL-E while remaining free to use as opposed to the $20 per month fee to use DALL-E. 

All you need to do to access the image generator is visit the Image Creator website and sign in with a Microsoft account. 

Another major perk about this AI generator is that you can also access it in the same place where you can access Microsoft's AI chatbot, Copilot (formerly Bing Chat) . 

This capability means that in addition to visiting Image Creator on its standalone site, you can ask it to generate images for you in Copilot. To render an image, all you have to do is conversationally ask Copilot to draw you any image you'd like. 

Also:   How to use Image Creator from Microsoft Designer (formerly Bing Image Creator)

This feature is so convenient because you can satisfy all your image-generating and AI-chatting needs in the same place for free. This combination facilitates tasks that could benefit from image and text generation, such as party planning, as you can ask the chatbot to generate themes for your party and then ask it to create images that follow the theme.

Image Creator from Microsoft Designer f eatures:  Powered by:  DALL-E 3 |  Access via:  Copilot, browser, mobile |  Output:  4 images per prompt |  P rice:  Free 

DALL-E 3 by OpenAI

Best ai image generator if you want to experience the inspiration.

• Not copyrighted
• Accurate depictions
• Confusing credits

OpenAI, the AI research company behind ChatGPT, launched DALL-E 2 in November 2022. The tool quickly became the most popular AI image generator on the market. However, after launching its most advanced image generator, DALL-E 3, OpenAI discontinued DALL-E 2. 

DALL-E 3 is even more capable than the original model, but this ability comes at a cost. To access DALL-E 3 you must be a ChatGPT Plus subscriber, and the membership costs $20 per month per user. You can access DALL-E 3 via ChatGPT or the ChatGPT app.

Using DALL-E 3 is very intuitive. Type in whatever prompt you'd like, specifying as much detail as necessary to bring your vision to life, and then DALL-E 3 will generate four images from your prompt. As you can see in the image at the top of the article, the renditions are high quality and very realistic.

OpenAI even recently added new ways to edit an image generated by the chatbot, including easy conversational text prompts and the ability to click on parts of the image you want to edit. 

Like with Copilot, you can chat and render your images on the same platform, making it convenient to work on projects that depend on image and text generation. If you don't want to shell out the money,  Image Creator by Designer  is a great alternative since it's free, uses DALL-E 3, and can be accessed via Copilot.

DALL-E 3 features: Powered by:  DALL-E 3 by OpenAI |  Access via:  ChatGPT website and app |  Output:  4 images per credit |  Price:  ChatGPT Plus subscription, $20 per month

ImageFX by Google

The best ai image generator for beginners.

• Easy-to-use
• High-quality results
• Expressive chips
• Need a Google account
• Strict guardrails can be limiting

Google's ImageFX was a dark horse, entering the AI image generator space much later than its competition, over a year after DALL-E 2 launched. However, the generator's performance seems to have been worth the wait. The image generator can produce high-quality, realistic outputs, even objects that are difficult to render, such as hands. 

Also: I just tried Google's ImageFX AI image generator, and I'm shocked at how good it is

The tool boasts a unique feature, expressive chips, that make it easier to refine your prompts or generate new ones via dropdowns, which highlight parts of your prompt and suggest different word changes to modify your output.

ImageFX also includes suggestions for the style you'd like your image rendered in, such as photorealistic, 35mm film, minimal, sketch, handmade, and more. This combination of features makes ImageFX the perfect for beginners who want to experiment. 

ImageFX from Google: Powered by:  Imagen 2  | Access via:  Website |  Output:  4 images |  Price:  free 

DreamStudio by Stability AI

Best ai image generator for customization.

• Accepts specific instruction
• Open source
• More entries for customization
• Paid credits
• Need to create an account

Stability AI created the massively popular, open-sourced, text-to-image generator, Stable Diffusion. Users can download the tool and use it at no cost. However, using this tool typically requires technical skill. 

Also :  How to use Stable Diffusion AI to create amazing images

To make the technology readily accessible to everyone (regardless of skill level), Stability AI created DreamStudio, which incorporates Stable Diffusion in a UI that is easy to understand and use. 

One of the standouts of the platform is that it includes many different entries for customization, including a "negative prompt" where you can delineate the specifics of what you'd like to avoid in the final image. You can also easily change the image ratio -- that's a key feature, as most AI image generators automatically deliver 1:1. 

DreamStudio features: Powered by:  SDXL 1.0 by Stability AI  | Access via:  Website |  Output:  1 image per 2 credits |  Price:  $1 per 100 credits |  Credits:  25 free credits when you open an account; buy purchase once you run out

Dream by WOMBO

Best ai image generator for your phone.

• Remix your own images
• Multiple templates
• One image per prompt
• Subscription cost for full access

This app took the first-place spot for the best overall app in Google Play's 2022 awards , and it has five stars on Apple's App Store with 141.6K ratings. With the app, you can create art and images with the simple input of a quick prompt. 

An added plus is this AI image generator allows you to pick different design styles such as realistic, expressionist, comic, abstract, fanatical, ink, and more. 

Also :  How to use Dream by WOMBO to generate artwork in any style

In addition to the app, the tool has a free desktop mobile version that is simple to use. If you want to take your use of the app to the next level, you can pay $90 per year or $10 per month.

Dream by WOMBO f eatures: Powered by:  WOMBO AI's machine-learning algorithm |  Access via:  Mobile and desktop versions |  Output:  1 image with a free version, 4 with a paid plan |  Price:  Free limited access

Best no-frills AI image generator

• Unlimited access
• Simple to use
• Longer wait
• Inconsistent images

Despite originally being named DALL-E mini, this AI image generator is NOT affiliated with OpenAI or DALL-E 2. Rather, it is an open-source alternative. However, the name DALL-E 2 mini is somewhat fitting as the tool does everything DALL-E 2 does, just with less precise renditions. 

Also :  How to use Craiyon AI (formerly known as DALL-E mini)

Unlike DALL-E 2, the outputs from Craiyon lack quality and take longer to render (approximately a minute). However, because you have unlimited prompts, you can continue to tweak the prompt until you get your exact vision. The site is also simple to use, making it perfect for someone wanting to experiment with AI image generators. It also generates six images, more than any other chatbot listed. 

Craiyon f eatures: Powered by:  Their model |  Access via :  Craiyon website  |  Output:  6 images per prompt |  Price:  Free, unlimited prompts 

Best AI image generator for highest quality photos

• Very high-quality outputs
• Discord community
• Monthly cost
• Confusing to set up

I often play around with AI image generators because they make it fun and easy to create digital artwork. Despite all my experiences with different AI generators, nothing could have prepared me for Midjourney -- in the best way. 

The output of the image was so crystal clear that I had a hard time believing it wasn't an actual picture that someone took of my prompt. This software is so good that it has produced award-winning art .

However, I think Midjourney isn't user-friendly and it confuses me. If you also need extra direction, check out our step-by-step how-to here: How to use Midjourney to generate amazing images and art .

Another problem with the tool is that you may not access it for free. When I tried to render images, I got this error message: "Due to extreme demand, we can't provide a free trial right now. Please subscribe to create images with Midjourney."

To show you the quality of renditions, I've included a close-up below from a previous time I tested the generator. The prompt was: "A baby Yorkie sitting on a comfy couch in front of the NYC skyline." 

Midjourney f eatures: Powered by:  Midjourney; utilizes Discord |  Access via:  Discord |  Output:  4 images per prompt |  Price:  Starts at $10/month

Adobe Firefly

Best ai image generator if you have a reference photo.

• Structure and Style Reference
• Commercial-safe
• Longer lag than other generators
• More specific prompts required

Adobe has been a leader in developing creative tools for creative and working professionals for decades. As a result, it's no surprise that its image generator is impressive. Accessing the generator is easy. Just visit the website and type the prompt of the image you'd like generated. 

Also: This new AI tool from Adobe makes generating the images you need even simpler

As you can see above, the images rendered of the Yorkies are high-quality, realistic, and detailed. Additionally, the biggest standout features of this chatbot are its Structure Reference and Style Reference features. 

Structure Reference lets users input an image they want the AI model to use as a template. The model then uses this structure to create a new image with the same layout and composition. Style Reference uses an image as a reference to generate a new image in the same style. 

These features are useful if you have an image you'd like the new, generated image to resemble, for example, a quick sketch you drew or even a business logo or style you'd like to keep consistent. 

Another perk is that Adobe Firefly was trained on Adobe Stock images, openly licensed content, and public domain content, making all the images generated safe for commercial use and addressing the ethics issue of image generators. 

Adobe Firefly f eatures:  Powered by:  Firefly Image 2 |  Access via:  Website |  Output:  4 images per prompt |  P rice:  Free 

Generative AI by Getty Images

Best ai image generator for businesses.

• Commercially safe
• Contributor compensation program
• Personalized stock photos
• Not clear about pricing
• Not individual-friendly

One of the biggest issues with AI image generators is that they typically train their generators on content from the entirety of the internet, which means the generators use aspects of creators' art without compensation. This approach also puts businesses that use generators at risk of copyright infringement. 

Generative AI by Getty Images tackles that issue by generating images with content solely from Getty Images' vast creative library with full indemnification for commercial use. The generated images will have Getty Images' standard royalty-free license, assuring customers that their content is fair to use without fearing legal repercussions.

Another pro is that contributors whose content was used to train the models will be compensated for their inclusion in the training set. This is a great solution for businesses that want stock photos that match their creative vision but do not want to deal with copyright-related issues. 

ZDNET's Tiernan Ray went hands-on with the AI image generator. Although the tool did not generate the most vivid images, especially compared to DALL-E, it did create accurate, reliable, and useable stock images. 

Generative AI by Getty Images f eatures:  Powered by:  NVIDIA Picasso |  Access via:  Website |  Output:  4 images per prompt |  P rice:  Paid (price undisclosed, have to contact the team)

What is the best AI image generator?

Image Creator from Microsoft Designer is the best overall AI image generator. Like DALL-E 3, Image Creator from Microsoft Designer combines accuracy, speed, and cost-effectiveness, and can generate high-quality images in seconds. However, unlike DALL-E 3, this Microsoft version is entirely free.

Whether you want to generate images of animals, objects, or even abstract concepts, Image Creator from Microsoft Designer can produce accurate depictions that meet your expectations. It is highly efficient, user-friendly, and cost-effective.

Note: Prices and features are subject to change.

Which is the right AI image generator for you?

Although I crowned Image Creator from Microsoft Designer the best AI image generator overall, other AI image generators perform better for specific needs. For example, suppose you are a professional using AI image generation for your business. In that case, you may need a tool like Generative AI by Getty Images which renders images safe for commercial use. 

On the other hand, if you want to play with AI art generating for entertainment purposes, Craiyon might be the best option because it's free, unlimited, and easy to use. 

How did I choose these AI image generators?

To find the best AI image generators, I tested each generator listed and compared their performance. The factors that went into testing performance included UI/UX, image results, cost, speed, and availability. Each AI image generator had different strengths and weaknesses, making each one the ideal fit for individuals as listed next to my picks. 

What is an AI image generator?

An AI image generator is software that uses AI to create images from user text inputs, usually within seconds. The images vary in style depending on the capabilities of the software, but can typically render an image in any style you want, including 3D, 2D, cinematic, modern, Renaissance, and more. 

How do AI image generators work?

Like any other AI model, AI image generators work on learned data they are trained with. Typically, these models are trained on billions of images, which they analyze for characteristics. These insights are then used by the models to create new images.

Are there ethical implications with AI image generators?

AI image generators are trained on billions of images found throughout the internet. These images are often artworks that belong to specific artists, which are then reimagined and repurposed by AI to generate your image. Although the output is not the same image, the new image has elements of the artist's original work not credited to them. 

Are there DALL-E 3 alternatives worth considering?

Contrary to what you might think, there are many AI image generators other than DALL-E 3. Some tools produce even better results than OpenAI's software. If you want to try something different, check out one of our alternatives above or the three additional options below. 

Nightcafe is a multi-purpose AI image generator. The tool is worth trying because it allows users to create unique and original artwork using different inputs and styles, including abstract, impressionism, expressionism, and more.

Canva is a versatile and powerful AI image generator that offers a wide range of options within its design platform. It allows users to create professional-looking designs for different marketing channels, including social media posts, ads, flyers, brochures, and more. 

Artificial Intelligence

Google and mit launch a free generative ai course for teachers, google photos users will soon get the best ai editing tools on pixel devices for free, dall-e adds new ways to edit and create ai-generated images. learn how to use it.

• Open access
• Published: 08 April 2024

A comprehensive benchmark of graph-based genetic variant genotyping algorithms on plant genomes for creating an accurate ensemble pipeline

• Ze-Zhen Du 1 , 2 ,
• Jia-Bao He 1 , 2 &
• Wen-Biao Jiao   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8355-2959 1 , 2  

Genome Biology volume  25 , Article number:  91 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

251 Accesses

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Metrics details

Although sequencing technologies have boosted the measurement of the genomic diversity of plant crops, it remains challenging to accurately genotype millions of genetic variants, especially structural variations, with only short reads. In recent years, many graph-based variation genotyping methods have been developed to address this issue and tested for human genomes. However, their performance in plant genomes remains largely elusive. Furthermore, pipelines integrating the advantages of current genotyping methods might be required, considering the different complexity of plant genomes.

Here we comprehensively evaluate eight such genotypers in different scenarios in terms of variant type and size, sequencing parameters, genomic context, and complexity, as well as graph size, using both simulated and real data sets from representative plant genomes. Our evaluation reveals that there are still great challenges to applying existing methods to plants, such as excessive repeats and variants or high resource consumption. Therefore, we propose a pipeline called Ensemble Variant Genotyper (EVG) that can achieve better genotyping performance in almost all experimental scenarios and comparably higher genotyping recall and precision even using 5× reads. Furthermore, we demonstrate that EVG is more robust with an increasing number of graphed genomes, especially for insertions and deletions.

Conclusions

Our study will provide new insights into the development and application of graph-based genotyping algorithms. We conclude that EVG provides an accurate, unbiased, and cost-effective way for genotyping both small and large variations and will be potentially used in population-scale genotyping for large, repetitive, and heterozygous plant genomes.

Genetic variants are typically divided into single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), insertion or deletion (indels, 1–49 bp), and structural variation (SV, ≥ 50 bp, including insertion, deletion, inversion, duplication, translocation, and complex rearrangements) based on their size and type [ 1 , 2 ]. With the advances of high-throughput sequencing technologies, studies such as the 1000 Genomes Project and the Rice 3K Genomes Project have released large amounts of genetic variations, which contribute to the studies of pan-genomes, genome-wide associations, population genetics, and domestication [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. One of the essential requirements for these studies is the rapid and correct genotyping (determination of genotypes) of millions of genetic variations for hundreds or thousands of individuals [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Conventional genotyping strategies usually rely on short-read mapping against a linear reference genome [ 2 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. However, these methods often introduce alignment errors due to reference bias, leading to erroneous genotypes for some variants, particularly those from regions highly divergent from the reference [ 10 , 11 ]. In particular, genotyping SVs remains extremely challenging in population-scale studies where many individual genomes are sequenced solely using short-read sequencing technologies [ 3 , 5 , 11 ].

Recent advancements in pangenome graph-based genotyping algorithms are expected to mitigate reference bias and enhance the accuracy of genotyping across all types of genetic variations [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. In such a graph, nodes typically represent the sequences, and edges indicate the connections between the sequences. Variations manifest as “bubbles”, and a path through the graph can be transformed into a haplotype sequence that represents a combination of different sequence variations [ 15 ]. By incorporating the reference genome as well as non-reference alleles into sequence or variation graphs, these algorithms can precisely genotype variations for individual genomes based on short-read data. They use either read (e.g., vg and GraphTyper2) or k-mer (e.g., BayesTyper and PanGenie) alignments against the graphs to achieve high accuracy [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. However, the complex pangenome graph also expands the search space for read mapping. For instance, the original vg algorithm (vg map) maps short reads to arbitrary variation graphs using generalized compressed suffix arrays to remove reference bias and improve alignment accuracy. Nevertheless, it is at least an order of magnitude slower than linear genome mappers, making it challenging to apply to large genomes or complex graphs [ 16 ]. A more recent version, vg giraffe, based on the seed-and-extend algorithm, can accelerate mapping [ 20 ]. Unlike vg map and vg giraffe, which map reads to the whole-genome graph, only aligning reads to variant breakpoints (such as GraphTyper2) or comparing read k-mer coverages at k-mer represented variants (such as BayesTyper and PanGenie) can also reduce runtime [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Besides, the mapping accuracy of reads may decrease as the number of nodes (variants) in the graph increases [ 21 ].

Remarkably, most of these algorithms were initially developed and tested for human genomes [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 20 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]. Although some graph-based genotypers such as vg have been applied to variation genotyping for crop genomes like rice [ 25 ], soybean [ 26 ], tomato [ 27 ], etc., the detailed performance of these tools remains elusive for plants as the complexity of plant genomes varies greatly in terms of genome size, repeat content, heterozygosity, and polyploidy. For example, repeat-enriched SVs can introduce inaccurate coverages of k-mers or reads at variant sites, thereby affecting the performance of graph-based genotyping methods that rely on such coverages for genotyping [ 18 , 19 , 23 ].

To address these issues, we first investigate the impact of read length and depth, number of variants, repeat density, heterozygous rate, etc. on existing graph-based genotypers in plant genomes [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 24 , 28 ]. Our findings suggest that there are still some challenges in applying existing methods to plants, such as worse performance with excessive repeats and variants or high resource consumption. To overcome these challenges, we present an Ensemble Variant Graph-based tool, EVG, which can accurately genotype SNPs, indels, and SVs using short reads. Compared to other graph-based genotypers, EVG achieves higher genotyping accuracy and recall with only 5× sequencing data. Furthermore, the genotyping of EVG remains robust even as the number of nodes in the pangenome graph increases.

Graph-based variant genotyper selection

To our knowledge, there are currently twelve graph-based genotyping tools available (Additional file 1 : Table S1). For this study, we selected eight open-source graph-based genotyping tools that broadly fall into two categories: read alignment based (including vg map [ 16 ], vg giraffe [ 20 ], Paragraph [ 24 ], GraphTyper2 [ 17 ] and Gramtools [ 29 ]) and k-mers alignment based (including BayesTyper [ 18 ] and PanGenie [ 19 ]) (Additional file 1 : Table S1). We also conducted experiments to assess the performance of GraphAligner [ 28 ], a graph-based aligner that can utilize graphs constructed by vg to do alignment. Other tools were excluded from this study either because they are currently unsuitable for plant genomes (such as HISAT [ 30 ] and Minos [ 31 ]) or because they cannot genotype all types of genetic variations (like KAGE [ 32 ]). Among them, Minos is designed for bacterial genomes, while HISAT-genotype requires reconstruction of a typing database and complex conversion for plants in the algorithm.

These tools utilize different graph indexing approaches to improve alignment efficiency and/or support multiple graph manipulations (Additional file 1 : Table S1). Specifically, vg employs GBWT [ 33 ], GCSA2 [ 34 ], and Minimizers [ 35 ] for graph storage and searching, whereas BayesTyper relies on k-mer-based graph indexing. To avoid potential memory overload, BayesTyper leverages Bloom filters to screen read k-mers, storing only those present in the haplotype [ 18 ]. Similarly, PanGenie adopts k-mer-based graph indexing using De Bruijn graphs. Subsequently, the software either aligns reads to nodes or directly counts k-mer coverage at nodes [ 19 ]. The genotyping results are then probabilistically scored based on statistical distribution modeling of observed and noise read/k-mer coverages.

Overall performance on simulated data

To evaluate the performance of the tools, we first constructed a comprehensive simulation panel. Considering that plant genomes vary widely in size and repeats [ 36 , 37 ], a series of data sets of paired-end shorted reads were simulated for each of five representative plant genomes ( Arabidopsis thaliana , Oryza sativa , Glycine max , Zea mays , and Brassica napus ) with different genome sizes (135–2300 Mb) and repeat contents (21.42–88.9%) (Additional file 1 : Table S2). To generate simulated short reads from alternative (no-reference) genomes, we introduced different types (SNP, indels (< 50 bp), and SVs (≥ 50 bp)) and numbers of variants into the reference genome of each plant species [ 5 , 26 , 38 , 39 , 40 ] (see Methods for details). We repeat such a simulation of paired-end short reads with varying read lengths (100 bp, 150 bp, 250 bp), insert sizes (300 bp, 400 bp, 500 bp, 600 bp), and sequencing depths (5×, 10×, 20×, 30×, 50×) (Additional file 1 : Table S3). Precision and recall were used to assess the genotyping performance of different software, and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves were drawn according to the genotype quality (GQ) or read depth (DP).

As graph-based genotyping tools can leverage sequence information from multiple genomes, we first determined the overall performance of these tools based on the genome graph from eight A. thaliana genomes (one reference genome assembly, and all variants from the other seven genomes) (Fig. 1 a–c; Additional file 1 : Fig. S1a). For one genome to be genotyped, we simulated 467,512 SNPs, 38,207 indels, 4572 insertions, 4364 deletions, 232 inversions, and 100 duplications (Additional file 1 : Table S4). Note that all these variants are incorporated into the genome graph. To genotype this genome using each tool, we simulated 30× paired-end (2 × 150 bp) short reads. For SNP genotyping, all tools demonstrate high precision (> 0.97), while only BayesTyper (0.99), Paragraph (0.98), and GraphTyper2 (0.93) have a recall rate greater than 0.90 (Additional file 1 : Fig. S1a). Similarly, nearly all tools show high precision rates (0.80–0.99) and relatively lower recall rates (0.81–0.98) for indels genotyping. However, only BayesTyper (0.98), PanGenie (0.99), Gramtools (0.98), and Paragraph (0.97) maintain precision above 0.95 (Fig. 1 a). The performance of genotyping large insertions and deletions (≥ 50 bp) varies greatly among the tools. Despite different recall rates, all tools except Gramtools present genotyping precision above 0.8 (Fig. 1 b, c). Overall, Paragraph, GraphTyper2, and BayesTyper outperformed other tools in terms of genotyping performance (Fig. 1 b, c).

Overall genotyping performance of different graph-based tools based on simulated data. The genome graphs of Arabidopsis thaliana ( a , b , c ), Oryza sativa ( d , e , f ), Glycine max , ( g , h , i ), and Zea mays ( j , k , l ), are constructed based on one reference genome and seven alternative genomes derived by introducing known variants into the reference genome. Paired-end (2 × 150 bp) short reads with 30× depth are simulated for genotyping. For each genotyper, precision is plotted against recall as the genotyping quality threshold varies. Read Depth on variant sites is used as a substitution score when genotype quality is not available. Arrows indicate the circles hidden by other circles in the plot due to identical or nearly identical precision values. Detailed results are also provided in Additional file 2 : Table S5

We also evaluated these tools using the simulated data from rice, soybean, maize, and Brassica napus genomes (Additional file 1 : Tables S2, S3). Note that Gramtools is excluded from the assessment for other plant genomes due to potential issues related to excessive chromosome length. For the large maize genomes, we conducted our evaluation on chromosome 10 instead of the entire genome to reduce testing time. We observed a similar recall of genotyping all types of variants in rice genomes as in A. thaliana , but with slightly decreased precision. (Fig. 1 d–f; Additional file 1 : Fig. S1c). The genotyping performance in soybean genomes was better than that of maize, but worse than A. thaliana and rice genomes (Fig. 1 g–i; Additional file 1 : Fig. S1e). For genotyping in the maize genome, vg map and vg giraffe are the only tools that maintain high precision (0.93–0.98) and recall (0.72–0.80) in SV genotyping, while BayesTyper and Paragraph present high precision (0.87, 0.83) and recall (0.85, 0.83) for indel genotyping (Fig. 1 j–l; Additional file 1 : Fig. S1f). When genotyping in the allotetraploid Brassica napus , the performance is even worse, especially for SNPs and indels (Additional file 1 : Fig. S2). This may be due to the inference of homoeologous alleles between the two subgenomes of Brassica napus .

When genotyping complex SVs like inversions and duplications, the performance differences between the software are obvious. Although all software can detect inversion, vg map, vg giraffe, GraphAligner, and Gramtools only worked effectively when the number of genomes was one. On the other hand, Paragraph and BayesTyper demonstrated superior performance with F -scores over or around 0.8 when genotyping inversion and duplications in graphs containing multiple A. thaliana or rice genomes (Additional file 1 : Fig. S3a, b). Apparently, these tools presented lower F -scores for genotyping heterozygous SVs, especially the duplications (Additional file 1 : Fig. S3).

As a comparison, we also employed three linear reference-based genotypers including GATK [ 41 ] and DeepVariant [ 42 ] (for both SNPs and indels), and Delly [ 43 ] (for SV) to do genotyping using the same simulated short reads dataset. Both GATK and DeepVariant had a F -score above 0.9 for SNP genotyping in all plant genomes except the maize, but a relatively lower F -score in indel genotyping for the same plant genomes (Additional file 1 : Fig. S4a, b). We found that some graph-based tools have higher or very close F -scores compared to GATK and DeepVariant, although other tools presented relatively lower F -scores. However, the graph-based tools exhibited much better performance compared to the tool Delly, especially for the large insertions (Additional file 1 : Fig. S4c, d).

Performance on plant genomes with different complexity

Moreover, tests conducted across various plant genomes revealed that certain tools, such as GraphAligner and GraphTyper2, exhibited relatively poor performance when dealing with larger genomes. Conversely, BayesTyper were able to retain high precision and recall even when working with more complex genomes (Fig. 1 ; Additional file 1 : Fig. S1; Additional file 2 : Table S5).

As numerous plant genomes are heterozygous, we also simulated heterozygous A. thaliana and rice for the same test. Among the tools we evaluated, Paragraph, BayesTyper, and GraphTyper2 were less affected by heterozygosity, whereas other software experienced a decrease in recall for all variants (Additional file 1 : Fig. S1, S5). We also explored the influence of heterozygosity on genotyping by testing on synthetic diploid genomes with varying levels of heterozygosity (Fig. 2 ; Additional file 1 : Fig. S6; Additional file 2 : Table S6). The results showed that the damage to genotyping was proportional to the level of heterozygosity, especially for deletions and inversions. Paragraph and BayesTyper proved to be the most stable tools, both with high precision (0.75–0.97) and recall (0.79–0.96) for small and large indel genotyping (Fig. 2 ; Additional file 1 : Fig. S6). However, tools such as vg map, vg giraffe, GraphAligner, and Gramtools were relatively more influenced by heterozygosity (Fig. 2 ; Additional file 1 : Fig. S6), especially for genotyping in repetitive regions (Additional file 1 : Fig. S7b).

The effect of heterozygous rate on the performance of different graph-based genotyping methods. The six ROC curve plots correspond to the genotyping results for synthetic heterozygous A. thaliana genomes with different heterozygous rates (0%, 0.27%, 0.52%, 1.03%, 2.07%, and 2.35%). The genome graph for genotyping is constructed from the A. thaliana reference genome and seven alternative genomes. Paired-end (2 × 150 bp) short reads with 30× depth are simulated for genotyping. For each genotyper, precision is plotted against recall as the genotyping quality threshold varies. Read Depth on variant sites is used as a substitution score when genotype quality is not available. Arrows indicate the circles hidden by other circles in the plot due to identical or nearly identical precision values. Detailed results are also provided in Additional file 2 : Table S6

Influence of sequencing parameters

Next, we conducted a comparison of each genotyper’s performance across datasets of paired-end reads with a range of read lengths (100 bp, 150 bp, 250 bp), fragment size (300 bp, 400 bp, 500 bp, 600 bp), and sequencing depths (5×, 10×, 20×, 30×, 50×). When the read length was shorter, such as 100 bp, only Paragraph showed a similarly high F -score for both small and large variants compared to testing with longer reads (Additional file 1 : Fig. S8). Other tools, such as vg map and PanGenie, also had close F -scores with shorter (100 bp) or longer reads (150 bp, 250 bp) for variants except inversions. Additionally, a marginal effect could be observed when increasing the read length from 150 to 250 bp (Additional file 1 : Fig. S8). Apparently, various types of variants had similar requirements for sequencing length (Additional file 1 : Fig. S8). The performance on rice and heterozygous Arabidopsis genomes followed the same trend as A. thaliana , suggesting that genome size and complexity may not affect the read length requirement by software (Additional file 1 : Fig. S9, S10). In addition to using short reads, we also tested GraphAligner to map third-generation data against the genome graph, using long reads of 20 kb and 75 kb. The genotyping accuracy of 20 kb reads was superior to that of 75 kb reads, likely due to the former’s higher accuracy (0.96 vs. 0.85) (Additional file 1 : Fig. S8, S10). Furthermore, when the read length was 150 bp, fragment sizes (300–600 bp) had no obvious effect on the genotyping accuracy of these genotypers (Additional file 1 : Fig. S11).

Overall, when the sequencing depth was around 5–10×, Paragraph was able to achieve relatively high performance (precision > 0.81, recall > 0.91), whereas other software required more than 10× reads (Additional file 1 : Fig. S12). Besides, increasing the sequencing depth beyond 20×, only brought marginal improvements in genotyping performance across all variant types. With 30× data, all tested software almost reached the upper limit of genotyping precision and recall (Additional file 1 : Fig. S12). These findings were consistent across different genomes, including the rice and heterozygous A. thaliana genomes, suggesting that genome size and complexity may not affect the sequencing depth requirements of these genotypers (Additional file 1 : Fig. S13, S14). Besides, genotyping SVs requires more sequencing data than SNPs and indels (Additional file 1 : Fig. S12, S14).

Effects of genome number in the graph

As the search space of alignment may expand exponentially when more variants or genomes are graphed, we next evaluated how the number of graphed genomes affects variant genotyping. We reconstructed genome graphs for A. thaliana with a range (1, 7, 15, 30, 50) of individual genomes. From our evaluation, only tools Paragraph, BayesTyper, and GraphTyper2 demonstrated relatively stable precision and recall for SNP, indel, and insertion genotyping when graphed genomes increased (Fig. 3 a, c; Additional file 1 : Fig. S15a). When only seven alternative genomes’ variants were graphed, existing methods could still achieve a good genotyping F -score (0.85–0.99 for SNPs, 0.81–0.97 for indels, 0.73–0.93 for deletions, 0.79–0.98 for insertions, 0.01–0.89 for inversions). However, when 50 alternative genomes were incorporated into the genome graph, the F -scores of deletion genotyping decreased to only 0.4–0.74. The recall of genotyping for vg map, vg giraffe, and GraphAligner decreased as more genomes were incorporated. For example, as the number of graphed genomes increased from 1 to 50, the recall rate of vg giraffe decreased considerably (0.97 vs. 0.61 for SNPs, 0.99 vs. 0.66 for indels, 0.99 vs. 0.48 for deletions, and 0.92 vs. 0.53 for insertions, 0.55 vs. 0.23 for inversions), while the precision did not change much (Fig. 3 a; Additional file 1 : Fig. S15). In contrast, Paragraph, BayesTyper, and GraphTyper2 showed greater robustness in terms of recall (Fig. 3 a; Additional file 1 : Fig. S15). For example, BayesTyper’s recall rates remained above 0.95 for all types of variants except duplication (0.78), but the genotyping precision of deletions and inversions decreased by 0.52 (1.0 vs. 0.48) and 0.49 (1.0 vs. 0.51), respectively. Notably, the insertions precision of PanGenie was higher than that of deletions, possibly because PanGenie needs to count the number of k-mers for each haplotype at nodes. However, as only breakpoint sequences can be used for deletions, this will result in reduced genotyping precision.

The effect of genome number on the performance of different graph-based genotyping methods. The five ROC curve plots correspond to genotyping results with different numbers (1, 7, 15, 30, 50) of graphed genomes. The genome graph for genotyping is constructed from the A. thaliana reference genome and different numbers of alternative genomes. Paired-end (2 × 150 bp) short reads with 30× depth are simulated for genotyping. For each genotyper, precision is plotted against recall as the genotyping quality threshold varies. Read depth on variant sites is used as a substitution score when genotype quality is not available. Arrows indicate the circles hidden by other circles in the plot due to identical or nearly identical precision values. Detailed results are also provided in Additional file 2 : Tables S7–S8

Influence of breakpoint errors on SVs genotyping

The breakpoints of SVs often have some deviation to the true coordinates. To evaluate the tolerance of graph-based genotypers for such SV breakpoint errors, we introduced a 1–20-bp deviation to the true breakpoint coordinates of SVs. For almost all tools, a negative correlation was observed between F-scores and breakpoint deviations (Fig. 4 a; Additional file 1 : Fig. S16). Consistent with the previous report, BayesTyper, which is based on exact k-mer alignments, was more susceptible to breakpoint deviations. However, another k-mer alignment-based genotyper, PanGenie, performed much better than BayesTyper. This may be because PanGenie can also leverage already known haplotypes to infer genotypes [ 19 ].

The impact of sequence context and event size on different graph-based genotyping methods. a Impact of breakpoint errors on genotyping (0 bp, 1 bp, 3 bp, 5 bp, 10 bp, 20 bp). b Impact of variant length (alternative allele length minus reference allele length) on genotyping. c Impact of number of SNPs and indels around breakpoints on genotyping. d , e Effects of repeat sequence types around breakpoints on genotype, partitioned by variant type: d deletions and e insertions. Different types of repeat sequences are annotated by RepeatMasker. The genome graph for genotyping is constructed from the A. thaliana reference genome and seven alternative genomes. Paired-end (2 × 150 bp) short reads with 30× depth are simulated for genotyping. For each genotyper, precision is plotted against recall as the genotyping quality threshold varies. Read depth on variant sites is used as a substitution score when genotype quality is not available. Detailed results are also provided in Additional file 2 : Tables S9–S12

Overall, the performance on genotyping deletions was better than that of insertions, inversions, and duplications. For genotyping deletions, PanGenie, vg map, vg giraffe, Paragraph, and GraphAligner displayed consistent performance with breakpoint deviations smaller than 10 bp (Fig. 4 a). For genotyping insertions, the F -scores of vg map, GraphAligner, Paragraph, and Gramtools still had 50% to 90% of that of 0 bp when the breakpoint error reached 5 bp, while the F -scores of other software at 1 bp deviation were reduced by more than 50% (Fig. 4 a). Further, only Paragraph and vg giraffe maintained performance within a 10 bp error on the genotyping of inversions (Additional file 1 : Fig. S16a). However, none of the software was able to tolerate breakpoint errors in duplications (Additional file 1 : Fig. S16b).

Impact of event size and sequence context on SV genotyping

In addition, we stratified SVs based on event size, number of SNPs and indels within breakpoints of 100 bp, and families of repetitive sequences around to estimate the effect of sequence context on SV genotyping. Overall, Paragraph and BayesTyper demonstrated the best genotyping performance across different size ranges of SVs. Although the F -scores of both Paragraph and BayesTyper were lower (ranging from 0.17 to 0.81) for deletions larger than 5 kb, they still maintained high F -scores (≥ 0.95) for insertions (Fig. 4 b). Previous studies have reported that small variants near the breakpoints could affect the accuracy of SV calling [ 11 ]. However, our experiment showed that small variants had no serious damage on SV genotyping for these graph-based tools (Fig. 4 c), which might be attributed to the improved alignment accuracy as alternative alleles (small variants) are introduced into the graphs.

The genotyping performance of all methods was reduced in the repetitive regions compared to the non-repetitive regions (Fig. 4 d, e; Additional file 1 : Fig. S7). For example, the GraphAligner F -score was even 47% lower in deletions than in non-repetitive regions (Additional file 1 : Fig. S7). Compared to other software, Paragraph and BayesTyper demonstrated comparatively stable performance in repetitive regions (Additional file 1 : Fig. S7). Repeat sequences had a more severe influence on the genotyping of deletions (17%) than SNPs (9%), indels (11%) and insertions (8%) (Fig. 4 d, e; Additional file 1 : Fig. S7). Similar to the linear reference-based SV genotyping [ 11 ], LTRs had the greatest impact on genotyping. For example, the recalls of deletion genotyping for vg map, vg giraffe, and GraphAligner were reduced by 0.31, 0.31, and 0.36, respectively (Figs. 4 d, e).

Development of an ensemble genotyper

In summary, these graph-based genotypers performed differentially for small and large variants in terms of precision and recall. Further analysis on the overlap of true variant genotyping among the eight genotypers revealed that many variants were not correctly genotyped by some genotypers but were correctly genotyped by others (Additional file 1 : Fig. S17, an example shown in Additional file 1 : Fig. S18), suggesting an ensemble genotyping strategy may improve genotyping performance.

Here, we developed an Ensemble Variant Genotyper (EVG) by integrating various graph-based genotyping methods (Fig. 5 a). Before running the genotyping pipeline, EVG modifies VCF-formatted variants input files provided by users to a common format that can be used for downstream analysis (EVG convert). For instance, graph genotyping tools normally require sequence information from input files but not containing any special characters. Additionally, EVG could filter variants based on minor allele frequency (MAF) and missing rate, if indicated. The EVG pipeline starts with the selection of the most suitable software according to the reference genome size, sequencing data quality, type of variants, and software running requirements (Additional file 1 : Fig. S19, see the “ Methods ” section for details).

The workflow and performance of the ensemble variant genotyping method EVG. a The variant genotyping workflow of EVG mainly consists of three steps: (1) subsample sequencing reads, filter variants, and reformat the input variant VCF file; (2) select one or multiple suitable graph-based genotypers (shown as colored dots) and do genotyping with each of them in parallel; (3) merge the genotype results from step 2 and determine the final genotype for each variant. b Genotyping performance of SNPs, indels, ins & del (insertions and deletions), inversions, and duplications on simulated A. thaliana genomes under different sequencing depths (5×, 10×, 20×, 30×, 50×) and genome numbers (1, 15, 50). The genome graph for genotyping is constructed from the A. thaliana reference genome and different numbers of simulated alternative genomes. Paired-end short-reads (read length: 2 × 150 bp) are simulated for variant genotyping. For each genotyping scenario, the F-measure values of the other two best-performing genotypers are shown here. Transparent and solid bars represent the ability to predict variant “presence” (detection of variant regardless of the genotype) and exact “genotype” (requires both the detection of the variant and agreement between its called genotype and the true genotype). Detailed results are also provided in Additional file 2 : Table S13

To address the issue caused by inconsistent coordinates of the same variants from different software, EVG then clusters the outputs based on the size and position of variants and constructs a variant graph (EVG merge) (Additional file 1 : Fig. S20, see the “ Methods ” section for details). Finally, the most probable combination of genotypes is determined as the genotype with the most support by different genotyping tools at each node (Fig. 5 a). To accelerate genotyping, EVG can randomly downsample reads to default depth (15×) when sequencing data is high enough. For oversized genome graphs with numerous variants, EVG offers an optional fast mode where Paragraph is only used for SVs genotyping. These allow EVG to significantly accelerate genotyping while sacrificing very little precision and recall (Fig. 5 b).

To assess the performance of EVG, we tested it on all simulated datasets from this study. Firstly, unlike other graph-based genotypers, EVG achieved the highest F-score for both small and large variants with just 5 × 150 bp paired-end short-reads (Fig. 5 b; Additional file 1 : Fig. S21). Secondly, EVG’s performance was more robust when more genomes were graphed. Specifically, for genome graphs with 50 genomes, EVG achieved a F -score above 0.95 for SVs with only 5× short reads, while other best genotypers only reached 0.79 (Fig. 5 b; Additional file 1 : Fig. S21). In terms of SNP genotyping, the fast mode of EVG performed slightly lower than the best-performing software, as Paragraph is only used for SV genotyping in order to reduce CPU time consumption (Fig. 5 b).

Performance on real data

Finally, we carried out testing on real data consisting of 30× Illumina short reads from three diploid homozygous genomes ( A. thaliana , rice, and maize) [ 5 , 38 , 40 , 44 , 45 ] as well as one diploid heterozygous genome of Apricot ( Prunus armeniaca ) [ 46 , 47 ]. Testing was also performed on a genome graph of seven genomes for all genotypers. (Additional file 1 : Table S14). Notably, Gramtools was also excluded from the real data testing. The evaluation of maize was also limited to chromosome 10 to reduce resource consumption. In comparison to the simulated data, the F -score across genotypers in the real data was lower (Fig. 6 ). Such a reduction was even worse (< 0.65) for the maize genome, probably because of the high percent of repetitive sequences (Fig. 6 ; Additional file 1 : Fig. S22). For the heterozygous apricot genome, Paragraph had the highest average F-score in all types of variants compared to the other six graph-based genotypers, while BayesTyper was hardly able to genotype the SVs, perhaps due to inaccurate breakpoints (Fig. 6 ).

Overall genotyping performance of different graph-based methods based on real short-read data. The read lengths of rice ( Oryza Sativa ), maize ( Zea mays ), and apricot ( Prunus armeniaca ) are all 2 × 150 bp, except for A. thaliana (2 × 100 bp). For each plant genome to be genotyped, 30× short reads were used. Each plant graph was constructed from a reference genome and seven alternative genomes

We also tested EVG’s performance on all real data sets and found that for all four genomes, EVG achieved the best genotyping performance across all types of variants. Notably, for the largest genome, maize, EVG (precise model) reached the highest F -score (0.67 for SNPs, 0.72 for indels, 0.84 for deletions, and 0.81 for insertions) (Fig. 6 ). Similarly, for the heterozygous genome, EVG showed a comparably higher F -score ranging from 0.72 to 0.86 for genotyping small and large variants. More importantly, EVG’s performance in repeated regions was also better than other software, especially for deletion ( F -score, 0.82) and insertion ( F -score, 0.83) (Additional file 1 : Fig. S22). In summary, our pipeline can be applied to plant genomes with a range of genome sizes or repeat contents compared to the currently available graph-based variant genotypers.

Runtime and memory usage

The runtime and memory usage of all the methods were measured with the same number of CPUs. As expected, read alignment-based methods such as vg map and Paragraph require relatively more time compared to k-mer alignment-based methods, which were faster despite having larger memory consumption (Additional file 1 : Fig. S23a–c, Fig. S24a–c). Additionally, runtime and/or memory increase significantly when graphing more or larger genomes. For instance, the runtime of vg map in maize was more than 14.3 times longer compared to that in A. thaliana (Additional file 1 : Fig. S23). Compared to other tested tools, GraphTyper2 required the lowest runtime and memory usage for smaller genomes like A. thaliana and rice, because it only implemented local alignment in a streamlined sliding window of variants. When tested under the same conditions, EVG’s fast mode required only 6.8 CPU hours in A. thaliana and 28.6 CPU hours in rice, and its genotyping was more robust than that of existing methods. The precise mode of EVG further improved the genotyping performance, but it took 27.8 and 118 CPU hours in A. thaliana and rice. However, EVG could achieve very close genotyping performance only with 16.7 and 63.8 CPU hours for A. thaliana and rice when only 15× short reads were sampled (Additional file 1 : Fig. S23, S24).

In this study, we have conducted a comprehensive evaluation of the performance of eight popular graph-based genotypers on multiple representative plant genomes, which are mostly designed and tested only on human genomes. By conducting tests on 25 simulations and 10 real datasets, we have revealed the differences in precision and recall among these tools under different sequencing schemes, genomic context and complexity, and graph size for a spectrum of genetic variants. More importantly, the EVG pipeline developed here can achieve comparably higher genotyping recall and precision even when using 5× short reads and remain stable with an increased number of genomes, fitting the trend requiring population-level millions of variant genotyping.

Graph-based genotyping variants in plant genomes is challenging

Plant genomes frequently have a large genome size, enriched repetitive sequences, and high sequence diversity or heterozygosity [ 36 , 37 ]. However, it should be noted that the performance of graph-based genotypers in plants is lower compared to human genomes, particularly when the genome contains high levels of repetitive sequences. The plant genomes have relatively higher repetitiveness (estimated by the percentage of non-unique k-mers of all k-mers in genome) compared to their size-close animal genomes [ 48 ]. For example, the 2.3 GB maize genome has 68% such non-unique k-mer compared to that of 18% in human genomes (Additional file 1 : Fig. S25a). This poses significant challenges for existing genome graph software, such as those relying on minimizers (derived from k-mers) as seed, leading to imprecise read alignment during the alignment stage. Additionally, tools such as BayesTyper and PanGenie utilize k-mer frequencies for genotyping, but they rely on node-specific k-mers. This may limit the ability to genotype variants that lack enough region-specific k-mers. We also calculated the k-mer frequency at each node of genome graphs for plant and human genomes (Additional file 1 : Fig. S25b). It is evident that the proportion of k-mer with node frequency of one is highest in the human genome graph (0.62), while it is lowest in maize (0.17) (Additional file 1 : Fig. S25b). This means that if only such specific k-mers are used for genotyping, much few informative k-mers can be utilized in plant genome graphs. Besides, alignment-based software is also affected by repetitive sequences because current graph-based genotyping tools, whether based on the GBWT [ 33 ], GCSA2 [ 34 ], minimizer (from k-mers) [ 35 ], or other indexing algorithms, they followed a similar seed-and-extend alignment strategy. Therefore, the utilization of genome graphs in plants still poses significant challenges, requiring the development of efficient indexing methods tailored for plants.

Additionally, these plant genomic features seriously challenge the efficiency of constructing and indexing pangenome graphs and read alignments. For example, graphing seven maize (only chr10) genomes with vg map requires 90 GB memory (Additional file 1 : Fig. S24c). To address these challenges, BayesTyper genotypes local haplotypes by constructing a Bloom filter for selecting which read k-mers should be loaded into memory (i.e., those k-mers stored in the Bloom filter) [ 18 ]. However, storing k-mer counts and variant graphs in memory may lead to significant memory consumption, particularly when dealing with large amounts of sequencing data or reference genomes. Alternatively, implementing a Counting Bloom filter or Hierarchical Interleaved Bloom Filter (HIBF) instead of storing k-mer counts in memory may help reduce memory consumption while maintaining the desired level of accuracy [ 49 , 50 ]. PanGenie, another software program employing k-mer counts, exhibits significant memory consumption despite only considering unique k-mers [ 19 ]. While its memory footprint exceeds that of BayesTyper in A. thaliana , it is comparatively lower in rice (Additional file 1 : Fig. S24a, b). This phenomenon may be attributed to the abundance of repeated k-mers in these plant species that are filtered out during the analysis process.

Unlike k-mer alignment-based genotypers, the vg tool utilizes less memory during genome graph construction and relies on global read alignments [ 16 ]. However, the earlier version, vg map requires a significant amount of memory and CPU time for graph indexing, particularly when constructing GCSA2 indexes [ 34 ]. To address these issues, vg giraffe [ 20 ] (and GraphAligner [ 28 ]), use minimizers [ 35 ] for seeding to speed up the alignment and reduce memory consumption at the expense of the alignment rate for repeat sequences. In contrast to vg and GraphAligner, GraphTyper2 [ 17 ] and Paragraph [ 24 ] utilize a local variant realignment strategy based on pre-aligned reads, or solely mapping those around breakpoints. Although such an approach theoretically has the potential to markedly accelerate the genotyping process, our testing revealed that the runtime of Paragraph did not demonstrate significant improvement. This can be attributed primarily to the I/O overhead as three files are generated for each variant during the genotyping. Therefore, despite recent advances in genome graph software, the high variability of plant genomes remains a major challenge for current approaches.

Additionally, SV breakpoints often exhibit errors [ 10 ], particularly at repeat-enriched regions, which can affect some genotypers [ 24 ], especially those such as BayesTyper, that require long exact matches of k-mers or seeds for read mapping. However, another k-mer-based genotyper, PanGenie, performs much better than BayesTyper by integrating haplotype-resolved pan-genome references. The enriched heterozygous alleles and repetitive sequences will also affect the genotype effect of tools.

Most current graph-based genotypers require 10–20× of data to achieve satisfactory genotyping performance. However, the sequencing depth of early or large genome population sequencing projects in plants is low [ 39 , 51 ], even only 3–10× for wheat [ 52 ]. Future development should consider how to distinguish between sequence errors and real variants especially those in heterozygous loci and repetitive regions with low sequence depth of short reads. One potential approach similar to that implemented in PanGenie is to integrate the known haplotypes of more haplotype-resolved genome assemblies. Additionally, these tools lack stability for population-level pangenome graph-based genotyping. This study found that as the number of variants increased, the performance of some software for certain types of variants continuously decreased while the runtime and memory increased considerably. Taken together, existing methods either require excessive computational resources or sequencing costs or lack stable performance for plant genomes of different complexity, which may limit their applicability in plants.

Our EVG pipeline helps to do efficient and correct genotyping

It should be noted that these graph-based genotyping tools have complementary advantages (Additional file 1 : Fig S17), although they did not exhibit stable and excellent genotyping performance in all testing scenarios. To alleviate the problems of these tools, we have developed the EVG pipeline, which selects the most appropriate process based on reference genome size, sequencing read length, and read depth. EVG pipeline presents more robust genotyping performance compared to existing graph genome methods. More importantly, EVG can reach high F -scores of genotyping with only 5× reads, and achieve the peaks with 10× reads, which is normally the average depth of population-level resequencing in plants. Moreover, even with an increased number of nodes in the graph (up to 50 genomes), the genotyping F -score of EVG remains above 0.9. (Fig. 5 b). Most notably on maize (chr 10), the final genotyping results were better than those obtained using other software, requiring only 52.8 CPU hours (including the time of graph construction, graph indexing, read alignment, and genotyping, 111.3 CPU hours for vg map) (Additional file 1 : Fig. S23c). EVG also performs exceptionally well in maize repetitive regions, achieving F -scores for deletions and insertions of 0.82 and 0.83, respectively, while the highest values of other software were 0.59 and 0.55 (Additional file 1 : Fig. S22).

Although the EVG pipeline has several advantages compared to current graph-based genotypers, it can still be improved in terms of memory consumption and genotyping small variants in the future. The further application of graph-based genotyping in plants requires more consideration for complex regions with dense variants, highly similar regions due to whole genome duplication, and polyploidy genomes. As more high-quality genomes and variants are obtained by long-read sequencing technologies, population-level, and type-full variant genotyping with short reads will be practicable by using graph-based methods, thus facilitating population analysis or trait association studies. By comprehensively testing multiple plant genomes, we reveal the performance level of these graph-based genotypers in different scenarios. Our EVG pipeline with higher performance and stability can be applied to population-scale genotyping for millions of all types of genetic variations for genomes with lower sequencing costs. However, it should be noted that the utilization of genome graphs in plants will require the development of software specifically tailored for plant genomes.

This paper comprehensively evaluates multiple genome graph-based genotyping software packages using both simulated and real data sets. The results reveal significant challenges in applying existing genome graph software to plants, including resource-intensive computing, poor genotyping accuracy for repeat-related variants, and unstable genotyping performance. The EVG pipeline developed here delivers superior genotyping performance even in repeat regions with minimal increases in resource consumption when only 5× short reads are provided. Our EVG pipeline will be potentially used in population-scale variant genotyping and contribute to plant pan-genomic research.

Selection of variant genotyper

The following graph-based genotypers were selected: vg v1.37.0, GraphAligner v1.0.13, Paragraph v2.3, BayesTyper v1.5, GraphTyper2 v2.7.2, PanGenie v2.0.0, and Gramtools v1.10.0. Both vg map and vg giraffe are used for read alignment in the vg package. The EVG version 1.0.3 was tested in this study. There single reference-based genotyping tools were used including GATK [ 41 ] (version 4.2.6.0), DeepVariant [ 42 ] (version 1.5.0), and Delly [ 43 ] (version 1.1.7).

Simulated datasets

Overall, the simulated data include sequencing reads from different genomes ( A. thaliana , rice, maize, Glycine max, Brassica napus , heterozygous A. thaliana , and heterozygous rice) with different sequencing parameters (technologies, read length, fragment size, and sequencing depth) (Additional file 1 : Tables S3, S4). The sequencing reads were used for genotyping variants from public variation databases and/or resulting from genome comparisons.

We used the ART [ 53 ] software (version 2.1.8) to generate Illumina paired-end short reads for each of the alternative genomes derived by introducing variants into the reference genomes using the VarSim [ 54 ] (version 0.8.6) simulator. For A. thaliana , variants from the 1001 Genomes Project and one from our previous study [ 5 , 38 ] and the reference Col-0 from TAIR10 ( https://www.arabidopsis.org ) [ 55 ] were used. For rice, all types of variations from the Rice SNP-Seek Database ( https://snp-seek.irri.org/ ) [ 56 ] and the reference IRGSAP-1.0 ( https://rapdb.dna.affrc.go.jp/ ) [ 57 ] were used. For maize, variants are from whole genome comparisons between the reference B73 v5.0 ( https://www.maizegdb.org ) [ 40 , 45 ] and previously released assemblies of different accessions [ 40 , 45 ]. These assemblies were aligned to the reference using Minimap2 [ 58 ]. Show-snps from MUMmer4 [ 59 ] was used for calling SNPs and indels, and Assemblytics [ 60 ] was used for calling SVs. For Glycine max , variants from whole genome comparisons between the reference assembly ZH13 ( https://download.cncb.ac.cn/gwh/Plants/ ) [ 26 ] and previously released assemblies of different accessions [ 26 ]. For Brassica napus , variants from whole genome comparisons between the reference assembly ZS11 ( http://cbi.hzau.edu.cn/bnapus/ ) [ 61 ] and previously released assemblies of different accessions [ 61 ]. The method used for genome comparisons and variant callings was the same as in maize.

The number of introduced variants (Additional file 1 : Table S4) is similar to the average number of variants found in real A. thaliana accessions [ 38 ]. The same control of variant numbers was done for other plant genomes. To evaluate the genotyping when multiple genomes are graphed, we also introduced more variants obtained from the databases described above to simulate multiple genomes (Additional file 1 : Table S4).

To evaluate the genotypers’ performance on heterozygous genomes, we simulated heterozygous genomes for A. thaliana and rice. Because VarSim cannot specify the degree of heterozygosity, genome heterozygosity can only be controlled by adjusting the number of variants and the percentage of heterozygous variants (with parameters of “vc_prop_het” and “--sv_prop_het”). Finally, five genomes with different heterozygosity rates (0.27%, 0.52%, 1.03%, 2.07%, and 2.35%) were simulated.

To evaluate the genotypers’ performance under different sequencing parameters, we used the ART simulator to simulate short paired-end reads with a range of read length (2×100 bp, 2 × 150 bp, and 2 × 250 bp), fragment size (300 bp, 400 bp, 500 bp, 600 bp) and sequencing depth (5×, 10×, 20×, 30× and 50×). Simulated PacBio sequencing (P6C4 model) was generated using PBSIM [ 62 ] (version 2.0.1) with the simulated A. thaliana genome serving as the reference. Varying read lengths (20 kb and 75kb bp) and accuracies (0.96 for 20 kb and 0.85 for 75 kb bp) were generated.

Real datasets

A. thaliana real datasets were from the 1001 Genomes Project [ 5 ] and one previous study (with NCBI project ID PRJEB31147 [ 38 ]), including genome sequences, PacBio, and Illumina sequencing reads (accessions: An-1, C24, and Cvi). Rice real datasets were from the study Zhang et al. [ 44 ], downloaded from the CNCB (project ID: PRJCA005926) and TGSrice databases, including genomes, ONT, and Illumina sequencing reads (accessions: TG19, TG28, and TG78). Maize real datasets were from the study Hufford et al [ 45 ], downloaded from the ENA (project ID: PRJEB31061) and MaizeGDB databases [ 40 ], including genomes, ONT, and Illumina sequencing reads accessions: B97, CML52, and CML69).

To construct the benchmark variant dataset, we first map short reads with bwa [ 63 ] (version 0.7.17-r1198-dirty) and call SNPs and indels with GATK [ 41 ] (version 4.2.6.0) and BCFtools [ 64 ] (version 1.9). We kept variants shared by the two tools, quality score larger than 20 and a sequencing depth lower than 100. For the SV dataset, we mapped long reads using NGMLR [ 65 ] (version 0.2.7) with default parameters and subsequently detected SVs using Sniffles [ 65 ] (version 2.0.3). In addition, we utilized the nucmer tool [ 59 ] (version 4.0.0rc1, parameters: “-c 100,” “-b 500,” and “-l 50”) to align the alternative genome against the reference genome and subsequently identified SVs using Assemblytics [ 60 ] (version 1.2.1, parameters: unique sequence length of 10,000, minimum variant size of 50, and maximum variant size of 100,000). We identified those SV common between Sniffles and Assemblytics by filtering those with breakpoint differences of more than 200 bp or event size differences larger than 25% of the real event size. The resulting SVs shared by Sniffles and Assemblytics were used for genotyping.

For genotyping evaluation on heterozygous genomes, we used one haplotype-resolved and chromosome-level assembly of apricot ( P. armeniaca ; cultivar “Rojo Pasión”) from one previous study [ 46 ]. The Illumina short reads and PacBio long reads from this study were also used for building the variant dataset. The reference genome from the cultivar “Yinxiangbai” is used for the read mapping [ 47 ]. Variants shared by the two haplotypes are homozygous, and the specific ones are heterozygous. To obtain a high-quality variant dataset, we applied both read mapping and assembly comparison-based methods. Firstly, SNPs and indels were called by GATK and BCFtools based on short read mapping, and those common ones were retained, similar to what was described above. Secondly, SVs were called by Sniffles based on the PacBio read alignments resulting from NGMLR. Thirdly, the two haplotype assemblies were aligned to the reference by nucmer (parameters: “-c 100,” “-b 500,” and “-l 50”), followed by calling SNPs and indels with show-snps, and SV with Assemblytics (parameters: unique sequence length of 10,000, minimum variant size of 50, and maximum variant size of 100,000). Finally, variants shared by the read mapping method and the assembly comparison method were identified using the same criteria with other genomes as described above.

Variant genotyping with simulated and real datasets

For genotyping with simulated homozygous A. thaliana and rice genomes, different numbers of genomes (1, 7, 15, 30, and 50) were graphed. Variants across multiple samples were merged to obtain a non-redundant variant input data for downstream analysis of genotyping using VCFtools with the default parameter settings [ 66 ]. For genotyping with simulated heterozygous A. thaliana and rice, graphs with one and seven genomes were used. For genotyping with simulated maize, Glycine max and Brassica napus , graphs with one and seven genomes were used. For genotyping with real datasets from A. thaliana , rice, maize, and apricot, graphs with one and seven genomes were used. For genotyping evaluation in a real dataset from A. thaliana , rice, and maize, variants from three different accessions were genotyped individually. The detailed information on genome graphs and variants is included in Additional file 1 : Table S4, S14, S15 and Additional file 2 : Table S16, S17.

As genotypers Paragraph, BayesTyper, and GraphTyper2 require linear-reference-based read alignment BAM files, we used BWA to align paired-end short reads from each dataset and used SAMTools [ 8 ] (version 1.15) to sort and convert the alignment output into BAM format. vg map, vg giraffe, GraphAligner, PanGenie, and Gramtools all directly input read data, variant data, and reference genomes. For all software except GraphTyper2, we run the genotyping with the default parameters as recommended in their manuals. The detailed commands for running each genotyping tool on a Linux system are uploaded to the GitHub website ( https://github.com/JiaoLab2021/EVG/wiki/EVG-paper ).

To measure the genotyping precision, recall, and F-score, we compared each variant called by each genotyper with the true variant dataset by using the script graphvcf in EVG developed in this study. For SVs, if both the start breakpoint and the end breakpoint of one SV were within 200 bp of the true SV positions, and the SV sizes differed by at most 25% of the true size, such SV calling was considered correct presence. If the genotype of this SV calling also matched the true event, it is considered correct genotype. For an indel calling, the correct presence requires a position difference of less than 10 bp, while for a SNP calling, an exact position match is necessary.

The EVG workflow

EVG software takes as input a variant VCF file of the population, the reference genome, and a configuration file containing the sequencing reads path. The whole EVG workflow mainly contains three steps. EVG can support restarting the task from the point of failure by using the “--restart” parameter. The details of each step are described as follows:

Step 1: preprocessing

This preprocessing step mainly involves the read data subsampling, variant filtering, and VCF file reformatting. Firstly, to speed up read mapping against genome graphs, EVG offers a solution by first extracting a subset (default: 15×) of read data for downstream genotyping. Based on this study, acceptable genotyping results can be achieved with as little as 5× data. Secondly, to reduce resource consumption, variants can be filtered according to their Minor Allele Frequency (MAF) and missing rate using EVG. By default, variants are not filtered. Thirdly, to avoid throwing errors due to incompatible input variants in the VCF file provided by users, EVG automatically checks the VCF file and reformats any variants to be compatible with the software’s different requirements accordingly.

Step 2: select genotypers and do genotyping

EVG automatically selects the optimal genotyping process based on factors including the size of the reference genome, the sequencing depth of the individual genome to be genotyped, and the read length of the sequencing data. In particular, if long-read data are used for genotyping, EVG will run GraphAligner for aligning reads to the graph and vg for the downstream genotyping. For short reads-based genotyping, two modes EVG-fast and EVG-precise, are provided. BayesTyper is used for SNP, indels, and SV genotyping in both modes. In the EVG-fast mode, the tool Paragraph is only used for SV genotyping, and other tools are selected for SNP, indel, and SV genotyping according to the reference genome size, sequencing read length and depth. Specifically, if the genome size is larger than 1 GB, EVG will include vg giraffe; otherwise, vg map will be added. Additionally, EVG will also run GraphTyper2 when the read length is greater than 130 bp and the sequencing depth is greater than 5×. However, when the sequencing depth is less than 5× or read length is shorter than 130bp, EVG will employ PanGenie as well (Additional file 1 : Fig. S19; Additional file 2 : Table S18). In the EVG-precise mode, Paragraph is used for SNP, indels, and SV genotyping. Like in EVG-fast mode, other tools are selected for SNP, indel, and SV genotyping according to the reference genome size, sequencing read length and depth. Notably, EVG offers the option to customize the software for genotyping.

Remarkably, Paragraph generates three files for each variant during running, which will result in high disk I/O consumption if SNPs and indels are included. So, Paragraph is only used for SV genotyping in EVG-fast mode. After selecting, EVG submits all tasks in parallel. When all tasks are completed, EVG converts the output for subsequent merges.

Step 3: merge and finalize genotyping

For each sample, the input SVs to be genotyped are the same. But some graph-based programs may output different coordinates for some SVs. For example, variant coordinates obtained from vg may have some changes. Here, our EVG merge process aims to determine the true coordinates of the output SVs which they should correspond to. EVG employs a clustering approach based on variant size and position to cluster the output ( EVG merge ) (Additional file 1 : Fig. S20). For variants larger than 50 bp, EVG clusters them together if their positional differences are less than 200 bp. Similarly, for indels smaller than 50 bp, their positional differences should be less than 10 bp, while SNPs require precise positional matching. In addition to considering positional information, EVG also require that the length difference ratio of variants within the same cluster is less than 0.25.

EVG will first cluster all the variants to form a variant graph, with each node containing the variant’s location, length, variant type, genotyping, and depth information. The variants in the same position are put on the same branch. To keep the read depth of different software on the same order of magnitude, we use the Z -score to normalize the read depth for each variant:

where D' indicates the normalized read depth of a variant. D corresponds to this variant read depth calculated by genotypers and present in the genotyping output VCF file. μ and \(\sigma\) are the average and standard deviation of read depth for all variants genotyped by a genotyper. N is the number of variants.

EVG selects the most likely genotyping according to consistency across different genotypers and depth information. For small variants, including SNPs and indels, the genotype is determined as the one supported by most genotypers. When no genotype is supported by more than one genotyper, EVG will skip this variant. For SV genotyping, EVG also chose the genotype supported by most genotypers. In cases where all genotype frequencies are equal to 1, the genotype is the one with the smallest normalized absolute depth.

Availability of data and materials

The Arabidopsis thaliana data was obtained from the 1001 Genomes Project [ 5 ] and our previously published 7 A. thaliana genomes (An-1, C24, Cvi-0, Eri-1, Kyo, Ler, Sha) [ 38 ]. Re-sequencing and PacBio data were downloaded from the European Nucleotide Archive database (project ID: PRJEB31147) [ 38 ]. For the rice variation data, it was sourced from the Rice SNP-Seek Database [ 56 ], and the genome data was obtained from the TGSrice database [ 44 ], while the re-sequencing and ONT data were downloaded from the China National Center for Bioinformation database (project ID: PRJCA005926) [ 44 ]. The maize data was obtained from the MaizeGDB database [ 40 ], and the re-sequencing data was downloaded from the European Nucleotide Archive database (project ID: PRJEB31061) [ 45 ]. For the soybean population genome data, it was sourced from the China National Center for Bioinformation database (project ID: PRJCA002030) [ 26 ]. The Brassica napus genome data was obtained from the BnPIR database [ 61 ]. The apricot genome data was downloaded from the European Nucleotide Archive database (project ID: PRJEB37669) [ 46 ], and the reference apricot genome was downloaded from NCBI (project ID: PRJNA577047) [ 47 ]. The re-sequencing data was downloaded from the European Nucleotide Archive (project ID: PRJEB37669) [ 46 ] and CNGBdb (project ID: CNP0000718) [ 47 ]. The source code of EVG is publicly available under MIT license on GitHub [ 67 ] and Zenodo [ 68 ].

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Acknowledgements

We thank the high-performance computing platform at the National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement at Huazhong Agricultural University.

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Andrew Cosgrove was the primary editor of this article and managed its editorial process and peer review in collaboration with the rest of the editorial team.

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This work was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (no. 32270685), the National Natural Science Fund for Excellent Young Scientists Fund Program (Overseas), and the Huazhong Agricultural University Starting Grant (no. 11042110017).

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Ze-Zhen Du, Jia-Bao He & Wen-Biao Jiao

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W.B.J. conceived and designed the project. Z.Z.D. and J.B.H. collected the data. Z.Z.D. and J.B.H conducted the analyses. Z.Z.D. developed the EVG package. Z.Z.D. and W.B.J. wrote the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Additional file 1. supplementary figures and tables: supplementary figures s1-s25, and supplementary tables s1-s4 and s14-s15., additional file 2. supplementary tables: supplementary tables s5-s13 and s16-s18., additional file 3..

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Du, ZZ., He, JB. & Jiao, WB. A comprehensive benchmark of graph-based genetic variant genotyping algorithms on plant genomes for creating an accurate ensemble pipeline. Genome Biol 25 , 91 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-024-03239-1

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Received : 19 July 2023

Accepted : 04 April 2024

Published : 08 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-024-03239-1

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