case study format for psychiatric nursing

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Sample Case Presentation in Psychiatric Nursing Case Analysis

Because the pros and cons for the use of medicine in psychiatry are not absolutely clear or agreed upon, strong arguments have risen on all sides. The objective of this paper is not to create a division in the clinical practice. Rather, to present an example of how to use a model in the analysis of understanding the patient behavior.

Maryland Nursing Workforce Center

NextGen NCLEX

Faculty Case Studies

The purpose of this project was to develop a repository of NextGen NCLEX case studies that can be accessed by all faculty members in Maryland.

Detailed information about how faculty members can use these case students is in this PowerPoint document .

The case studies are in a Word document and can be modified by faculty members as they determine.

NOTE: The answers to the questions found in the NextGen NCLEX Test Bank are only available in these faculty case studies. When students take the Test Bank questions, they will not get feedback on correct answers. Students and faculty should review test results and correct answers together.

The case studies are contained in 4 categories: Family (13 case studies), Fundamentals and Mental Health (14 case studies) and Medical Surgical (20 case studies). In addition the folder labeled minireviews contains PowerPoint sessions with combinations of case studies and standalone items.

Family ▾

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - Pediatric
Ectopic Pregnancy
Febrile Seizures
Gestational Diabetes
Intimate Partner Violence
Neonatal Jaundice
Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome
Pediatric Hypoglycemia
Pediatric Anaphylaxis
Pediatric Diarrhea and Dehydration
Pediatric Intussusception
Pediatric Sickle Cell
Postpartum Hemmorhage
Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis Pediatric
Preeclampsia

Fundamentals and Mental Health ▾

Abdominal Surgery Postoperative Care
Anorexia with Dehydration
Catheter Related Urinary Tract Infection
Deep Vein Thrombosis
Dehydration Alzheimers
Electroconvulsive Therapy
Home Safety I
Home Safety II
Neuroleptic Maligant Syndrome
Opioid Overdose
Post Operative Atelectasis
Post-traumatic Stress
Pressure Injury
Substance Use Withdrawal and Pain Control
Suicide Prevention
Tardive Dyskinesia
Transfusion Reaction
Urinary Tract infection

Medical Surgical ▾

Acute Asthma
Acute Respiratory Distress
Breast Cancer
Chest Pain (MI)
Compartment Syndrome
Deep Vein Thrombosis II
End Stage Renal Disease and Dialysis
Gastroesphageal Reflux
Heart Failure
HIV with Opportunistic Infection
Ketoacidosis
Liver Failure
Prostate Cancer
Spine Surgery
Tension Pneumothorax
Thyroid Storm
Tuberculosis

Community Based ▾

Mini Review ▾

Comprehensive Review
Fundamentals
Maternal Newborn Review
Medical Surgical Nursing
Mental Health Review
Mini Review Faculty Summaries
Mini Review Training for Website
Mini Reviews Student Worksheets
Pediatric Review

Section One: Introduction
Section Two: Learning and Teaching Resources to Support Integration of Mental Health and Addiction in Curricula
Section Three: Faculty Teaching Modalities and Reflective Practice
Section Four: Student Reflective Practice and Self-Care in Mental Health and Addiction Nursing Education
Section Five: Foundational Concepts and Mental Health Skills in Mental Health and Addiction Nursing
Section Six: Legislation, Ethics and Advocacy in Mental Health and Addiction Nursing Practice
Section Seven: Clinical Placements and Simulations in Mental Health and Addiction Nursing Education
Section Eight: Reference and Bibliography
Section Nine: Appendices and Case Studies

Section Nine

Case studies, also in this section.

Alignment between CASN/ CFMHN Entry-to-Practice Mental Health and Addiction Competencies and Sections in the Nurse Educator Mental Health and Addiction Resource
Process Recording
Criteria for Validation: Process Recording
Criteria for Phase of Relationship: Process Recording
Journaling Activity
Safety and Comfort Plan Template
Advocacy Groups for Mental Health in Canada
Tips for Engaging Lived Experience
Glossary of Terms
Case Study 1
Case Study 2
Case Study 3
Case Study 4
Case Study 5
Case Study 6
Case Study 7
Case Study 8
Case Study 9

The case study is an effective teaching strategy that is used to facilitate learning, improve critical thinking, and enhance decision-making Sprang, (2010). Below are nine case studies that educators may employ when working with students on mental illness and addiction. The case studies provided cover major concepts contained in the RNAO Nurse Educator Mental Health and Addiction Resource.

While not exhaustive, the case studies were developed and informed by the expert panel. It is recommended that educators use the case studies and tweak or add questions as necessary to impart essential information to students. Also, educators are encouraged to modify them to suit the learning objective and mirror the region in which the studies are taking place. Potential modifications include:

demographics (age, gender, ethnicity);
illness and addiction, dual diagnosis or additional co-morbidities such as cardiovascular disease; and
setting (clinical, community).

Suggested “Student questions” explore areas of learning, while “Educator elaborations” recommend ways to modify the case study. Discussion topics are a limited list of suggested themes.

When using these case studies, it is essential that this resource is referenced.

See Engaging Clients Who Use Substances BPG appendices for examples

Printer-friendly version

A sample case study: Mrs Brown

On this page, social work report, social work report: background, social work report: social history, social work report: current function, social work report: the current risks, social work report: attempts to trial least restrictive options, social work report: recommendation, medical report, medical report: background information, medical report: financial and legal affairs, medical report: general living circumstances.

This is a fictitious case that has been designed for educative purposes.

Mrs Beryl Brown URN102030 20 Hume Road, Melbourne, 3000 DOB: 01/11/33

Date of application: 20 August 2019

Mrs Beryl Brown (01/11/33) is an 85 year old woman who was admitted to the Hume Hospital by ambulance after being found by her youngest daughter lying in front of her toilet. Her daughter estimates that she may have been on the ground overnight. On admission, Mrs Brown was diagnosed with a right sided stroke, which has left her with moderate weakness in her left arm and leg. A diagnosis of vascular dementia was also made, which is overlaid on a pre-existing diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease (2016). Please refer to the attached medical report for further details.

I understand that Mrs Brown has been residing in her own home, a two-story terrace house in Melbourne, for almost 60 years. She has lived alone since her husband died two years ago following a cardiac arrest. She has two daughters. The youngest daughter Jean has lived with her for the past year, after she lost her job. The eldest daughter Catherine lives on the Gold Coast with her family. Mrs Brown is a retired school teacher and she and both daughters describe her as a very private woman who has never enjoyed having visitors in her home. Mrs Brown took much encouragement to accept cleaning and shopping assistance once a week after her most recent admission; however, she does not agree to increase service provision. Jean has Enduring Power of Attorney (EPOA) paperwork that indicates that Mrs Brown appointed her under an EPOA two years ago. She does not appear to have appointed a medical treatment decision maker or any other decision-supporter.

I also understand from conversations with her daughters that Jean and Mrs Brown have always been very close and that there is a history of long-standing conflict between Catherine and Jean. This was exacerbated by the death of their father. Both daughters state they understand the impact of the stroke on their mother’s physical and cognitive functioning, but they do not agree on a discharge destination. Mrs Brown lacks insight into her care needs and says she will be fine once she gets back into her own home. Repeated attempts to discuss options with all parties in the same room have not resulted in a decision that is agreeable to all parties.

Mrs Brown has a history of Alzheimer’s disease; type II diabetes – insulin dependent; hypertension; high cholesterol and osteoarthritis. She has had two recent admissions to hospital for a urinary tract infection and a fall in the context of low blood sugars. She is currently requiring one to two people to assist her into and out of bed and one person with managing tasks associated with post-toilet hygiene. She can walk slowly for short distances with a four-wheel frame with one person to supervise. She benefits from prompting to use her frame; she needs someone to cut her food and to set her up to eat and drink regularly and to manage her medication routine. She requires one person to assist her to manage her insulin twice daily.

The team believe that Mrs Brown’s capacity for functional improvement has plateaued in the last ten days. They recommend that it is in her best interests to be discharged to a residential care setting due to her need for one to two people to provide assistance with the core tasks associated with daily living. Mrs Brown is adamant that she wants to return home to live with Jean who she states can look after her. Jean, who has a history of chronic back pain, has required several admissions to hospital over the past five years, and states she wants to be able to care for her mother at home. Jean states she is reluctant to agree to extra services as her mother would not want this. Her sister Catherine is concerned that Jean has not been coping and states that given this is the third admission to hospital in a period of few months, believes it is now time for her mother to enter residential care. Catherine states that she is very opposed to her mother being discharged home.

Mrs Brown is at high risk of experiencing falls. She has reduced awareness of the left side of her body and her ability to plan and process information has been affected by her stroke. She is now requiring one to two people to assist with all her tasks of daily living and she lacks insight into these deficits. Mrs Brown is also at risk of further significant functional decline which may exacerbate Jean’s back pain. Jean has stated she is very worried about where she will live if her mother is to enter residential care.

We have convened two family meetings with Mrs Brown, both her daughters and several members of the multi-disciplinary team. The outcome of the first meeting saw all parties agree for the ward to provide personalised carer training to Jean with the aim of trialling a discharge home. During this training Jean reported significant pain when transferring her mother from the bed and stated she would prefer to leave her mother in bed until she was well enough to get out with less support.

The team provided education to both Jean and Catherine about the progressive impact of their mother’s multiple conditions on her functioning. The occupational therapist completed a home visit and recommended that the downstairs shower be modified so that a commode can be placed in it safely and the existing dining room be converted into a bedroom for Mrs Brown. Mrs Brown stated she would not pay for these modifications and Jean stated she did not wish to go against her mother’s wishes. The team encouraged Mrs Brown to consider developing a back-up plan and explore residential care options close to her home so that Jean could visit often if the discharge home failed. Mrs Brown and Jean refused to consent to proceed with an Aged Care Assessment that would enable Catherine to waitlist her mother’s name at suitable aged care facilities. We proceeded with organising a trial overnight visit. Unfortunately, this visit was not successful as Jean and Catherine, who remained in Melbourne to provide assistance, found it very difficult to provide care without the use of an accessible bathroom. Mrs Brown remains adamant that she will remain at home. The team is continuing to work with the family to maximise Mrs Brown’s independence, but they believe that it is unlikely this will improve. I have spent time with Jean to explore her adjustment to the situation, and provided her with information on community support services and residential care services. I have provided her with information on the Transition Care Program which can assist families to work through all the logistics. I have provided her with more information on where she could access further counselling to explore her concerns. I have sought advice on the process and legislative requirements from the Office of the Public Advocate’s Advice Service. I discussed this process with the treating team and we decided that it was time to lodge an application for guardianship to VCAT.

The treating team believe they have exhausted all least restrictive alternatives and that a guardianship order is required to make a decision on Mrs Brown’s discharge destination and access to services. The team recommend that the Public Advocate be appointed as Mrs Brown’s guardian of last resort. We believe that this is the most suitable arrangement as her daughters are not in agreement about what is in their mother’s best interests. We also believe that there is a potential conflict of interest as Jean has expressed significant concern that her mother’s relocation to residential care will have an impact on her own living arrangements.

Mrs Brown’s medical history includes Alzheimer’s disease; type II diabetes; hypertension; high cholesterol and osteoarthritis. She was admitted to Hume Hospital on 3 March 2019 following a stroke that resulted in moderate left arm and leg weakness. This admission was the third hospital admission in the past year. Other admissions have been for a urinary tract infection, and a fall in the context hypoglycaemia (low blood sugars), both of which were complicated by episodes of delirium.

She was transferred to the subacute site under my care, a week post her admission, for slow-stream rehabilitation, cognitive assessment and discharge planning.

Mrs Brown was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease by Dr Joanne Winters, Geriatrician, in April 2016. At that time, Mrs Brown scored 21/30 on the Standardised Mini-Mental State Examination (SMMSE). During this admission, Mrs Brown scored 15/30. I have undertaken cognitive assessment and agree with the diagnosis; further cognitive decline has occurred in the context of the recent stroke. There are global cognitive deficits, but primarily affecting memory, attention and executive function (planning, problem solving, mental flexibility and abstract reasoning). The most recent CT-Brain scan shows generalised atrophy along with evidence of the new stroke affecting the right frontal lobe. My assessments suggest moderate to severe mixed Alzheimer’s and vascular dementia.

While able to recall some key aspects of her financial affairs, including the general monetary value of her pension and regular expenses, Mrs Brown was unable to account for recent expenditure (for repairs to her home) or provide an estimate of its value, and had difficulty describing her investments. In addition, I consider that she would be unable to make complex financial decisions due to her level of cognitive impairment. Accordingly, I am of the view that Mrs Brown now lacks capacity to make financial decisions.

Mrs Brown states that she previously made an Enduring Power of Attorney (EPOA) but could no longer recall aspects of the EPOA, such as when it would commence and the nature of the attorney’s powers. Moreover, she confused the EPOA with her will. Her understanding of these matters did not improve with education, and therefore I consider that she no longer has capacity to execute or revoke an EPOA.

Mrs Brown acknowledges that she needs some assistance but lacks insight into the type of assistance that she requires, apart from home help for cleaning and shopping. She does not appreciate her risk of falling. She is unable to get in and out of bed without at least one person assisting her. She frequently forgets to use her gait aid when mobilising and is not able to describe how she would seek help in the event of falling. She is not able to identify or describe how she would manage her blood sugar levels, and this has not improved with education. Accordingly, I consider that she lacks capacity to make decisions about accommodation arrangements and services.

Mrs Brown does not agree with the treating team’s recommendation to move into residential care and maintains her preference to return home. This is in spite of a failed overnight trial at home with both her daughters assisting her. Unfortunately, she was unable to get out of bed to get to the toilet and required two people to assist her to do so in the morning. In light of these matters, and in the context of family disagreement regarding the matter, the team recommends that the Office of the Public Advocate be appointed as a guardian of last resort.

Reviewed 22 July 2022

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Case Study 1: Psych Patient in ED

Aaron Smith, age 20, is a psychiatric patient with bipolar disorder. At the request of his father, he is brought by police to the Emergency Department. This is his third visit to the ED for psychiatric treatment this year.

Personal History and Recent Events

Last month, Aaron was expelled from his college dorm due to aggressive behavior and substance abuse. He has moved back into his parents' home. Today, in an outburst, he put his fist through a wall and then turned his rage toward his father. His parents suspect he has stopped taking his medication for bipolar disorder.

Aaron's Demeanor upon Arrival

Aaron displays classic signs of potential to become violent. These include:

disheveled appearance
clenched fists

Cues from Hospital Records

A quick look at Aaron's hospital records reveals a history of violent behavior:

Aaron is being treated for bipolar disorder with prescribed medications.
He has had two other recent ED visits before this one: once for disruptive, violent behavior, and once for a drug overdose.
He rated "high" for dangerousness on assessment from a previous visit.

Triage Reveals Suicidal Thoughts

The triage nurse questions Aaron to help determine the extent of present danger. After several prompts to get beyond surface answers, the nurse learns that besides his violent outburst at home, Aaron had planned to kill himself by crashing his car, which increases his risk of danger to others.

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Patient Case #1: 27-Year-Old Woman With Bipolar Disorder

Theresa Cerulli, MD
Tina Matthews-Hayes, DNP, FNP, PMHNP

Custom Around the Practice Video Series

Experts in psychiatry review the case of a 27-year-old woman who presents for evaluation of a complex depressive disorder.

case study format for psychiatric nursing

EP: 1 . Patient Case #1: 27-Year-Old Woman With Bipolar Disorder

Ep: 2 . clinical significance of bipolar disorder, ep: 3 . clinical impressions from patient case #1, ep: 4 . diagnosis of bipolar disorder, ep: 5 . treatment options for bipolar disorder, ep: 6 . patient case #2: 47-year-old man with treatment resistant depression (trd), ep: 7 . patient case #2 continued: novel second-generation antipsychotics, ep: 8 . role of telemedicine in bipolar disorder.

Michael E. Thase, MD : Hello and welcome to this Psychiatric Times™ Around the Practice , “Identification and Management of Bipolar Disorder. ”I’m Michael Thase, professor of psychiatry at the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Joining me today are: Dr Gustavo Alva, the medical director of ATP Clinical Research in Costa Mesa, California; Dr Theresa Cerulli, the medical director of Cerulli and Associates in North Andover, Massachusetts; and Dr Tina Matthew-Hayes, a dual-certified nurse practitioner at Western PA Behavioral Health Resources in West Mifflin, Pennsylvania.

Today we are going to highlight challenges with identifying bipolar disorder, discuss strategies for optimizing treatment, comment on telehealth utilization, and walk through 2 interesting patient cases. We’ll also involve our audience by using several polling questions, and these results will be shared after the program.

Without further ado, welcome and let’s begin. Here’s our first polling question. What percentage of your patients with bipolar disorder have 1 or more co-occurring psychiatric condition? a. 10%, b. 10%-30%, c. 30%-50%, d. 50%-70%, or e. more than 70%.

Now, here’s our second polling question. What percentage of your referred patients with bipolar disorder were initially misdiagnosed? Would you say a. less than 10%, b. 10%-30%, c. 30%-50%, d. more than 50%, up to 70%, or e. greater than 70%.

We’re going to go ahead to patient case No. 1. This is a 27-year-old woman who’s presented for evaluation of a complex depressive syndrome. She has not benefitted from 2 recent trials of antidepressants—sertraline and escitalopram. This is her third lifetime depressive episode. It began back in the fall, and she described the episode as occurring right “out of the blue.” Further discussion revealed, however, that she had talked with several confidantes about her problems and that she realized she had been disappointed and frustrated for being passed over unfairly for a promotion at work. She had also been saddened by the unusually early death of her favorite aunt.

Now, our patient has a past history of ADHD [attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder], which was recognized when she was in middle school and for which she took methylphenidate for adolescence and much of her young adult life. As she was wrapping up with college, she decided that this medication sometimes disrupted her sleep and gave her an irritable edge, and decided that she might be better off not taking it. Her medical history was unremarkable. She is taking escitalopram at the time of our initial evaluation, and the dose was just reduced by her PCP [primary care physician]from 20 mg to 10 mg because she subjectively thought the medicine might actually be making her worse.

On the day of her first visit, we get a PHQ-9 [9-item Patient Health Questionnaire]. The score is 16, which is in the moderate depression range. She filled out the MDQ [Mood Disorder Questionnaire] and scored a whopping 10, which is not the highest possible score but it is higher than 95% of people who take this inventory.

At the time of our interview, our patient tells us that her No. 1 symptom is her low mood and her ease to tears. In fact, she was tearful during the interview. She also reports that her normal trouble concentrating, attributable to the ADHD, is actually substantially worse. Additionally, in contrast to her usual diet, she has a tendency to overeat and may have gained as much as 5 kg over the last 4 months. She reports an irregular sleep cycle and tends to have periods of hypersomnolence, especially on the weekends, and then days on end where she might sleep only 4 hours a night despite feeling tired.

Upon examination, her mood is positively reactive, and by that I mean she can lift her spirits in conversation, show some preserved sense of humor, and does not appear as severely depressed as she subjectively describes. Furthermore, she would say that in contrast to other times in her life when she’s been depressed, that she’s actually had no loss of libido, and in fact her libido might even be somewhat increased. Over the last month or so, she’s had several uncharacteristic casual hook-ups.

So the differential diagnosis for this patient included major depressive disorder, recurrent unipolar with mixed features, versus bipolar II disorder, with an antecedent history of ADHD. I think the high MDQ score and recurrent threshold level of mixed symptoms within a diagnosable depressive episode certainly increase the chances that this patient’s illness should be thought of on the bipolar spectrum. Of course, this formulation is strengthened by the fact that she has an early age of onset of recurrent depression, that her current episode, despite having mixed features, has reverse vegetative features as well. We also have the observation that antidepressant therapy has seemed to make her condition worse, not better.

Transcript Edited for Clarity

Dr. Thase is a professor of psychiatry at the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Dr. Alva is the medical director of ATP Clinical Research in Costa Mesa, California.

Dr. Cerulli is the medical director of Cerulli and Associates in Andover, Massachusetts.

Dr. Tina Matthew-Hayes is a dual certified nurse practitioner at Western PA Behavioral Health Resources in West Mifflin, Pennsylvania.

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Article Contents

Introduction, research design and method, opening of the encounter: developing a reciprocal relationship, active listening: power sharing, vision of the future: emphasizing the positive, conclusions.

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Empowering counseling—a case study: nurse–patient encounter in a hospital

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Tarja Kettunen, Marita Poskiparta, Leena Liimatainen, Empowering counseling—a case study: nurse–patient encounter in a hospital , Health Education Research , Volume 16, Issue 2, April 2001, Pages 227–238, https://doi.org/10.1093/her/16.2.227

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This study illustrates practices that a nurse uses in order to empower patients. The emphasis is on speech formulae that encourage patients to discuss their concerns and to solicit information about impending surgery. The study is a part of a larger research project and a single case was selected for presentation in this article because it differed from the rest of the data by manifesting empowering practice. A videotaped nurse–patient health counseling session was conducted in a hospital and transcribed verbatim. The investigator interviewed the nurse and the patient after the conversation, and these interviews were transcribed as well. The encounter that is presented here as a case study is a concrete example of a counseling session during which the patient is free to discuss with the nurse. The empowering practices that the nurse employed were as follows: encouraging the patient to speak out, tactfully sounding out the patient's concerns and knowledge of impending surgery, listening to feedback, and building a positive vision of the future for the patient. We suggest that nurses should pay attention to verbal expression and forms of language. This enables them to gain self-awareness and discover new tools to work with.

In recent literature, empowerment has become an important concept of health education ( Feste and Anderson, 1995 ; van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 ), health promotion ( Labonte, 1994 ; Tones, 1994 , 1995 ; Williams, 1995 ; McWilliam et al. , 1997 ) and health counseling ( Poskiparta et al. , 2000 ). The process of empowerment has been related more to community and organizational levels than to micro levels of practice ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 ) where it is constantly crucial ( Tones, 1994 ). In addition, operationalization of the concept of empowerment has been relatively vague. According to Tones ( Tones, 1994 ), empowerment is a major goal of health promotion. This article focuses on health counseling as a means of interpersonal health education practice and uses health promotion as an umbrella term.

Empowerment is as much a process as an outcome of developing the skills and perceptions of clients. It is not only something that happens but a process that is facilitated. In interpersonal health counseling, the primary goal is not to change clients' behavior and seek their compliance with the presented message but rather to raise critical awareness through learning and support, to give clients tools for making changes on their own. The aim is personal empowerment, control and choice, which means that patients become aware of changes in their knowledge and understanding, decision-making skills, enhanced self-esteem/sense of personal control, and development of various social, health and life skills ( Labonte, 1994 ; Tones 1994 ; Anderson et al. , 1995 ; Feste and Anderson, 1995 ; van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 ; Kar et al. , 1999 ).

The basic point of departure for empowerment is taking into consideration the interactive nature of the individual and the environment: people are not completely controlled by their environment nor can they fully control their physical, social or economic circumstances ( Tones, 1994 ). Empowering health counseling is based on recognizing clients' competence, resources, explanations of action styles of coping and support networks. Client initiative, clients' realizations and clients' expressions of their opinions and interpretations are the basis on which clients can approach health issues in collaboration with professionals. They are of crucial importance for their decisions on future action ( Anderson, 1996 ). All this supports the notion that empowering health counseling is significant.

Because learning about personal health is complex, the key issue of empowering health counseling is partnership and reciprocal conversation in a confidential relationship. This means that clients not only analyze their situation but also have an opportunity to plan what to do next, and how to go on and to construct their own solutions to health issues. In this type of hospital health counseling, either patients raise the issues (i.e. determine the topics) or the nurses do so in a sensitive and non-threatening manner ( Poskiparta et al. , 2000 ). Nurses recognize and respect patients' experiences, knowledge and skills, and make their own professional knowledge and expertise available to them ( Williams, 1995 ; McWilliam, et al. , 1997 ), which are important aspects of nurse–patient relationships that are also reported by patients ( Häggman-Laitila and Åstedt-Kurki, 1994 ; Lindsey and Hartrick, 1996 ; Wiles 1997 ). The emphasis is placed on patient-driven [see ( Lindsey and Hartrick, 1996 )] health counseling, where patients' life situations are respected, patient-initiated actions are supported, and shared knowledge and deep understanding are nurtured.

The nurse's institutional task is not only to facilitate patient participation but also to promote patients' awareness of their routines and preconceptions as they are revealed to both interlocutors. This should lead to the aim of interaction, which is to activate self-reflection and re-evaluation and reorganization of patients' activities. The assumption is that new knowledge is gained in this process as a result of empirical realization and deliberation ( Feste and Anderson, 1995 ), which means that both patients and nurses have linked new knowledge to existing knowledge. Thus, patients learn to interpret and outline even familiar health problems in new ways that conform to their worldview [ cf . ( Mattus, 1994 )]. As for nurses, empowerment calls for not only sensitivity but also an ability to accurately perceive patients' messages.

From this point on, the focus is on the content of the interactive process. Tones ( Tones, 1994 ) discusses empowerment theoretically, Labonte ( Labonte, 1994 ) expresses ideas for practice in general, while Feste and Anderson ( Feste and Anderson, 1995 ) provide three empowerment tools for facilitating patients' empowering process: using questions, behavioral language and storytelling. According to them, questions maintain the process of pursuing wisdom, i.e. exploring the meaning of health problems in the context of everyday life. This kind of questioning involves broad questions that relate to one's personal philosophy and lifelong dreams. In addition, it includes practical, day-to-day issues of successfully integrating into one's personal, family, social and professional life. Behavioral language means using words such as `list', `describe', `identify', `decide', etc., in order to encourage patients to act and make choices instead of being satisfied with receiving information. Stories help to facilitate the process of self-discovery because diseases affect all areas of life and each individual's health status is unique.

Van Ryn and Heaney ( Van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 ) pay attention to interpersonal relations by suggesting concrete strategies and examples for empowering practice. In their article, they demonstrate two principles of interaction: (1) provide clients with unconditional positive regard and acceptance, and (2) facilitate client participation. Both principles include several practical strategies (Table I ).

However, the authors pay less attention to empirical findings ( Northouse, 1997 ). The present article describes some linguistic realizations of empowering practice. This article describes a nurse's empowering speech formulae during her efforts to give a patient information about an impending surgical operation and to strengthen her feelings of security by providing her with an opportunity to discuss her concerns. This study adopts a holistic approach to interaction and does not focus on isolated sentences or dialogue structure. The relationship of language and context in comprehension, as well as non-verbal communication, are also discussed.

This article describes a single case derived from qualitative data collected from a total of 38 counseling sessions in a Finnish hospital. Nurse–patient encounters were videotaped and transcribed verbatim. Interviews with the nurses and the patients after the sessions were transcribed as well. All participants volunteered to take part in the research, signed a research license and granted permission for the transcribed data to be used in publications. Nineteen nurses participated in this study. Each nurse conducted two videotaped counseling sessions with different patients. There was only one male nurse while the patient group consisted of 24 female and 14 male patients. The research material took shape as nurses volunteered in the hospital and it was found to be adequate for qualitative analysis. The length of the nurses' careers varied from 1 to 25 years. The ages of the nurses were between 24 and 50 years (mean age 36.9 years) while the patients' ages ranged from 18 to 70 years (mean age 47.9 years). The researcher did not attend the counseling sessions, which lasted from 5 to 45 min. The participating patients were experiencing diverse health problems. Various surgical problems, e.g. knee surgery, hernia operation, breast surgery, hip operation, back operation, post status of brain bleeding and post care of bypass surgery, were among the most representative. In addition to the health problems that had led to hospitalization, many patients also suffered from chronic diseases, such as hypertension, asthma, rheumatic illnesses or diabetes. Many patients also found themselves in an insecure situation when a chronic disease had suddenly been manifested or they were undergoing examinations. There were also some mothers in the group who had delivered recently and had no health problems.

The health counseling sessions were genuine counseling situations that were related to the patients' treatment. A single video camera was used, which meant that the observation of non-verbal communication was limited to examining the session as a whole, including only eye contact, smiles, laughter, tone of voice, gestures and, to some extent, facial expressions. Consequently, the emphasis of this study was examining verbal communication. Separate interviews with the nurses and the patients where both parties were encouraged to express their evaluations of the health counseling were used for partial support of the interpretations, e.g. when describing the patients' opinions about health counseling. We also checked if there were any nurses or patients who were nervous about the videotaping.

This article concentrates on videotaped data. When we examined all of the data we found many encounters that involved some empowering features from time to time, but there were none that were consistently empowering. In this article, we present a single case from the data. This particular encounter was selected because it differed from the rest of the data ( Stake, 1994 ) by manifesting empowering practice most widely. In order to study the interactive nature of communication, the coding and analysis of the videotaped data was based on principles of Conversation Analysis ( Drew and Heritage, 1998 ). The videotapes were transcribed word by word, including stammering, etc. At the same time, additional data were added to the transcriptions, such as pauses during and between turns, onset and termination of overlapping talk, intonation information, and some non-verbal communication. The following transcription symbols were used to indicate this information:

ha+ hands support speech

vo+ rising voice

vo– falling voice

[ ] at the beginning and end of overlapping speech, words enclosed

(( )) transcriber's comments, e.g. smile, laughter, body movements

(.) small but detectable pause

underlining emphasis

… omission of text

=no interval between the end of prior and start of next speech unit

°speech° speech in low volume, words enclosed

`speech'pitch change, words enclosed

The analysis was carried out on a turn-by-turn basis. The principle behind this analysis was to examine how turns were taken with regard to other participants' speech and what sequential implications each turn had for the next. After reading the transcript and watching the recording several times, we discovered a number of empowering expressions in the nurse's speech and concluded that this case was the one which best manifested empowering action in the data.

The particular case describes at the individual level information about the patient's situation, the nurse's interview after the encounter, an in-depth description of the nurse–patient conversation and the observational data derived from it. Pearson ( Pearson, 1991 ) and Patton ( Patton, 1990 ) indicate that a case study can be used, for example, for examining how different concepts emerge or change in particular contexts. However, an even more important question is what can be learned from a single case. Stake ( Stake, 1994 ) suggests that one should select a case that seems to offer an opportunity to learn and contributes to our understanding of specific phenomena. Here, a detailed single case analysis illustrates how empowerment may be practiced during health counseling and demonstrates how new working tools for empowerment can be developed on the basis of a single encounter ( Laitakari, 1998 ). The present study describes the speech of a nurse when she helped a patient to deal with anxiety and to receive information about surgery in an empowering way.

The nurse anesthetist has come to see a patient who is scheduled to have surgery the next day. The encounter involves, besides interviewing, producing a lot of information about the operation, counseling on the preparations for the surgery and advising how to manage after the surgery. The encounter takes place at a table, with the nurse and the patient facing each other. Both are women; the nurse is 50 and the patient 41 years old. The patient had had problems with her back for 10 years and was suddenly admitted to the hospital because of these problems. The patient has recently been examined and a decision has been made to operate on her the next morning. The interviewing session lasted 14 min.

At the beginning of a conversation the participants evaluate each others aims and concerns, and the communication situation as a whole, and this evaluation directs the entire discussion because the participants base their actions on it (Goffman, 1982). In a hospital, it is typical that nurses initiate a discussion ( Leino-Kilpi, 1991 ) and that is what happened in this case ( Extract 1 ). Professional dominance common in medical encounters ( Fairclough, 1992 ) is not so obvious in this conversation. After greeting the patient, the nurse refers to the goal of the discussion and individualizes it by using familiar `you' (line 1) instead of the formal, plural form of `you'. This form of address can be viewed as an act of communicating an appropriate degree of informality. It implies intimacy and mutual respect when a relationship is established ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 ).

1 N: Hello, Rose (.) you are going to have surgery   2 tomorrow…but now I would like to ask you   3 you well about the operation tomorrow if   4 there is (.) something that would influence   5 the preparations for your operation (.) and   6 then you ((ha+)) can bring things up ask well   7 er if something is unclear to you ((nod+)) If   8 you want to know anything about what's   9 going to happen to you tomorrow ((vo–))

((at first the nurse looks at papers on the table, while she speaks she turns her eyes to the patient and nods))

This opening was not typical of the other interviews in the data set, because in the data these encounters were usually initiated with the nurses' brief statements about the impending operation. They explained that they interviewed patients in advance in order to get information and that they could provide information to the patients as well. Nurses usually used formal, plural forms of address when speaking. When referring to the preoperative encounter, they used the plural, institutionalized form `we' [see ( Drew and Heritage, 1998 )], instead of first person singular `I', and plural `you', instead of the singular, when addressing the patient. Other nurses did not individualize their speech. On the contrary, they maintained a distance from the patients. In this particular case, a familiar mode of address reduces social distance, which is very important in health education practice [ cf . ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 )]. We explain our interpretations in more detail below.

The nurse uses the verb `ask' (line 2), but her remark further on (line 6–9) `then you can bring up ask well er if you were unclear about something if you want to know something about what's going to happen to you tomorrow' introduces a context for the discussion. Even though the nurse goes on to ask a question about previous operations, the interview becomes an interactive dialogue, with the patient actively participating. On her own initiative the patient discloses symptoms that she has experienced during the last few months, what happened when she needed to come to the hospital and the doctor's decision to perform surgery.

Thus, the nurse introduces the context of the discussion with her opening words [ cf . ( Peräkylä, 1995 )]. She expresses her acceptance by offering collaboration [ cf . ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 )] when asking questions. The verb form `would like to' (line 2) gives the discussion an air of voluntariness. The conditional form softens the notion of the necessity of the questions, and the verbal mode implies respect for the patient. At the beginning of the session (lines 1–9), the nurse combines two topics into a single long sentence, which also encourages (lines 6–9) the patient to clarify matters that are unclear to her. The nurse's words leave room for the patient's own thoughts and invites her to look for a personally meaningful way to connect the nurse's questions about the preparations (line 5) for the operation to her lack of information (lines 7–9). Encouraging statements can stimulate the patient to think in a way that is personally meaningful to her and to participate in the conversation ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 ; Tomm, 1988). Here, encouragement takes a form that is different from what Feste and Anderson ( Feste and Anderson, 1995 ) suggested; it is given in a more sophisticated manner. The opening words ( Extract 1 ) correspond with the goal that the nurse states later during the interview: `that the patient would receive the information she needs, what she wants to know and that she would feel safe to come, that at least those worst fears would be like forgotten. That she would feel safe'.

An encounter can threaten a patient's need for autonomy and freedom because it gives the nurse the legitimate power to request information about the patient's private life ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 ). Here, the nurse is mitigating her power by avoiding threatening terms and using tentative formulations (`would like to, well er, you you'), the emphasis being on the patient's needs. The opening of the interview by the nurse plays an important role in the development of the atmosphere. The act has been planned in advance but is not thoroughly thought out. In addition to conveying information, the main consideration in setting the goal for the discussion is to help the patient deal with her concerns. These are issues that have also been stressed in earlier studies ( Häggman-Laitila and Åstedt-Kurki, 1994 ; Breemhaar et al. , 1996 ; Leinonen et al. , 1996 ; Lindsey and Hartrick, 1996 ; Otte, 1996 ).

Tactful exploration: activation of reflection

Later during the interview, the patient mentions having thought about the impending surgery, which the nurse interprets as an indication of fear for the operation ( Extract 2 ). She indirectly gives the patient an opportunity to deal with her fears. The patient's words (lines 1, 3, 5 and 7) are related to the previous topic and her status during the operation and conclude the discussion. The nurse changes the subject (line 9) by praising the doctor's skill. The nurse and the patient look at each other.

1 P:mmm[think about during the day]=   2 N:[of] course ((nod+))   3 P:=what's going to happen and (.)   4 N:right ((nod+))   5 P:°like[that]° (.)   6 N:[mmm]   7 P:°it's[okay]° ((nod+, vo–))   8 N: [that's] right (.) ((glance at papers: doctor's   9 name)) is is an excellent surgeon so in that   10 respect you can definitely (.) ((vo–)) feel   11 safe ((nod+)) that   12 P:yes of course I am   13 N:mmm   14 P: and and absolutely 110% (.) I trust that (.)   15 the thing is that (.) this is small case for   16 him but this is a horribly big thing for me…

The nurse's comment about the operating surgeon contains an allusion to fear of surgery. Instead of soothing the patient by telling her not to be afraid or asking if the patient is scared, the nurse indirectly comments on the doctor's professional skill (line 9) and emphasizes the expertise as a guarantee of success (line 10 and 11). Thus, the nurse allows the patient to save face when she leaves her to interpret her words. Her indirectness implies politeness and gives the patient options: if she does not want to deal with her fear, she may choose not to take the hint [see ( Brown and Levinson, 1987 )]. Here, politeness can also be linked to and interpreted through empowering practice, where the nurse holds the patient in high regard [ cf . ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 )].

The extract might have been interpreted as an example of the nurse cutting the patient off if one had not seen the videotape. Our interpretation is supported by a number of factors. First of all, the entire conversation until this extract has been tranquil and calm, the nurse has spoken and asked questions at a gentle pace, with pauses, and she has explored the patient's experiences. In this extract, the situation is similar, and she looks at the patient and nods. She speaks quite slowly, and her voice is low, friendly, and convincing ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 ). We can also see that the patient completes her speech by pausing (lines 3 and 5) and lowering her voice (lines 5 and 7). Therefore, after the nurse's words (lines 8–11), the patient presents her fear for discussion (lines 15 and 16) and also returns to the matter later during the interview. The extract shows how the issue has been constructed together by the nurse and the patient. The nurse raises the theme in a sensitive and non-threatening manner, and the patient continues the same topic. It also shows that the relationship is confidential enough for the patient to disclose her concerns and become aware of her own understanding, and thus contributes to empowerment. Salmon ( Salmon, 1993 ) has stressed that the main goal in the discussions between nurses and patients before surgery is not to reduce the patients' fears but to help them to deal with them.

Indirectness is a polite feature of discourse. There is `strategic indefiniteness' in indirectness that offers patients an opportunity to continue a discussion according to their own wishes ( Brown and Levinson, 1987 ). In general, nurses' empowering acts are mostly manifested in the form of questions ( Poskiparta et al. , 2000 ). In some cases, an indirect comment by a nurse, instead of a question, may encourage patients to talk about topics that they fear. Here it generates reflection in the patient. After disclosing her concerns, the patient analyzes the situation and recounts the conversation that she had with the doctor who explained the reason for her back surgery ( Extract 3 ).

Extract 3 .

1 P:this morning ((doctor's name)) said that   2 N:`this morning' ((surprised))   3 P:this morning   4 N:that's recent for sure   4 P:yes   5 N:well it happened so   6 P: so it happened suddenly because yesterday   7 it became evident that (.) there was in the   8 X-ray ((doctor's name)) said that there was   9 a cause when I asked if there was anything   10 that caused the pain or if I was just imagining   11 it (.) so he said that yes there was a   12 genuine cause…

The amount of information given always depends on the situation and the nurse needs to continually evaluate the patient's needs: what it is that the patient knows, wants to know and how much she does want to know. This is also important because there are several persons that the patient sees before surgery ( Breemhaar et al. , 1996 ). Furthermore, nurses and doctors may deal with the same issues in their counseling. In Finland, the doctors, the surgeon and the consultant anaesthetist inform patients about the medical facts, risks, and benefits of operations. The patient also has an interview with a nurse on the surgical ward and, in addition to these encounters, there will occasionally be an encounter with a nurse anesthetist.

The nurse's empowering approach is manifested in how she raises issues or questions from time to time as if with hesitation. A pause precedes questions [`I don't have any (.) questions to ask you any more but do you—you have anything to ask from me like such things about tomorrow that worry you') ((looks at the patient))]. She asks the questions more quietly than normal and looks at the patient. According to Beck and Ragan's ( Beck and Ragan, 1992 ) study, nurses' softening words and their hesitant and tentative manner of speaking indicate discretion and tact and are aimed at not embarrassing patients. In our data, slow and hesitant speech also encourages the patients to comment more than nurses' more usual and brief question does: `Do you have any questions?'.

The nurse's tentative manner of asking questions makes it easier for the patient to start dealing with her concerns. She repeatedly pauses briefly and, in addition to the closed questions in the medical history questionnaire, she asks open-ended questions that explore the patient's experiences: `What kind of memories do you have of previous operations?' `Is there anything else you remember (.) is there something?'. Open-ended questions encourage the patient to speak and participate, e.g. in the naming and solving of a problem [ cf . ( Feste and Anderson, 1995 ; van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 )]. In this particular case, indirectness and hesitation are polite speech formulae that help the patient to save face ( Fairclough, 1992 ). They can also serve as empowering strategies that provide unconditional positive regard and acceptance for patients.

Despite these quite extensive empowering acts, the nurse subsequently evaluated her information skills only. She indicated how difficult it was for her to decide what kind of information to give to the patient:

I wondered if I should have maintained a more professional role, I mean more facts, if the patient got all that she wanted. Because this is not really medical science, you know, that's up to the doctor. It has to happen on the patient's terms, what she wants to know. I tried to check the patient's needs several times.

The content of the session satisfied the patient as well:

I got enough information about the operation, things that occupied my mind, so I didn't, she even told me before I asked. There's nothing to find out any more. As I said to her, I'm terribly afraid but I'll go ahead with confidence.

The nurse's way of posing questions builds up interaction. With her questions she steers the discussion thematically. This is how she controls the conversation. On the other hand, it is the patient who determines the content of the discussion. Her answers are reflective and bring up new issues. When the patient speaks, the nurse supports her with various feedback (e.g. Extracts 2 and 3) `mmm, right, of course, yes, exactly' and sometimes by paraphrasing. She nods a lot, bends toward the patient and looks at her. The feedback also occasionally includes completing the patient's sentences. According to van Ryn and Heaney ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 ), such non-verbal cues signal acceptance and, according to Caris-Verhallen et al. ( Caris-Verhallen et al. , 1999 ), they are patient-centered. With her feedback the nurse shows that she is there to listen to the patient, that she does not want to interrupt. Her feedback encourages the patient to speak in a similar way as in the doctor–patient conversation of an alternative medical interview described by Fairclough ( Fairclough, 1992 ). The patient interprets the feedback as encouragement, goes on to discuss the matter, and indicates her intention to continue by using the expressions `What I have been wondering…', `I did that when…' and `on the other hand, it's…'. This is how the nurse supports the patient's right to speak, which is not necessarily typical of a medical conversation ( Fairclough, 1992 ). The nurse's multi-facetted listening feedback is empowering, and this can be seen here and there in the data [see also ( Poskiparta et al. , 2000 )]. In this encounter, the feedback is exceptional because it disregards the participant's status. Generally, this type of feedback is directed to the dominant person ( Hakulinen, 1989 ). In a medically oriented environment, the hospital staff are viewed as superior to patients in knowledge ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 ; Tones, 1994 ). In this particular case, the nurse's listening feedback manifests power sharing.

When the patient discusses the reason for her admission to the hospital, the nurse builds up a positive, healthier vision of the future through other patients' experiences ( Extract 4 ). She makes her professional knowledge and expertise available to the patient ( Williams, 1995 ; McWilliam et al. , 1997 ). This lends a touch of reality and possibly builds on the patient's strengths ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 ) in this situation. The nurse attempts to dispel the patient's concerns about the risks of the operation. Her tone is convincing, and her non-verbal messages also inspire confidence: she looks at the patient, reinforces her message by nodding her head and gestures with her hands. Encouraged by the nurse, the patient can have a vision of her postoperative future.

Extract 4 .

1 N:these these ((ha+)) back operations are   2 like such that patients in them are usually   3 really grateful ((nod+)) after the operation   4 because if the operation like succeeds and   5 something is found (.) then the pain will be   6left in the operating room (.) ((ha+)) and   7 in that in that this is like like different from   8 other operations (.) and then because the   9 woundpainisinthebacksomehowit's   10 different than in here if the wound was here   11 inthestomach(ha+))andit'snotthatthat   12bad when it is if[you]=   13 P:[yeah]   14 N:=afterthosestomachoperationsyouoften   15 often hear that these patients who have had   16their back operated are such fortunate   17((nod+)) cases in the sense [that]=   18 P:[yeah] ((nod+))   19 N:= because the pain will be left in the   20 operating room and and that's it then   21 ((nod+/ha+))

The nurse encourages the patient to examine her life at some hypothetical future point of time when the operation will have succeeded. Hypothetical questions encourage patients to discuss issues that they fear [ cf . ( Peräkylä, 1995 ; Tomm, 1987 )], while a hypothetical positive situation encourages patients indirectly. In this case, discussing the past would not calm the patient but rather lead her thoughts to the incident that caused her hospitalization. The vision of the future that the nurse provides to the patient with may help relieve her. A positive example is an empowering message and displays the nurse's understanding of the patient's anxiety. This vision can tap new resources in the patient for facing the future that is suddenly uncertain [ cf . ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 )]. Some manifestations of this can be seen in the patient's words: `…I'm very happy that if it's going to be over (.) yes I'm ready though I feel nervous' or `…I'm going ahead with confidence…'. A skilful use of future focus by the nurse helps the patient to find new solutions to her problems [ cf . ( Tomm, 1987 )]. As Atwood ( Atwood, 1995 ) suggests, confining the clients' thoughts to their problems is not sufficient in therapy work (focus on the past). In addition, we need to assist clients to expand their outlook by re-visioning their lives (future focus).

The encounter that is presented here as a case study demonstrates empowering nursing practice in hospital. It is a concrete example of a discussion during which the official and formal nature that characterizes the role of an institutional nurse is not emphasized. It actually emphasizes partnership and reciprocal conversation [ cf . ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 ; Poskiparta et al. , 2000 )], with the nurse's social interaction skills at the heart of the encounter [ cf . ( Wiles, 1997 )]. The patient is free to discuss her thoughts, concerns, experiences and even fears with the nurse, and the nurse adopts an empowerment strategy in order to facilitate the patient's participation. This encounter included the following empowering practices: (1) opening the session in an encouraging and constructive manner, which improves the atmosphere, (2) tactful exploration when examining the patient's need for information and concerns for surgery, (3) active, power sharing listening, and (4) building up a positive vision of the future.

The descriptions of empowerment strategies reported by van Ryn and Heaney ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 ) support our findings. However, we agree with Northouse's ( Northouse, 1997 ) criticism that the reported strategies are not completely separated. In our study, empowerment was manifested through intimacy and mutual respect. The nurse's encouragement of the patient's participation and her attempt to share power signaled acceptance, and perhaps gave the patient new insights for controlling her feelings about the impending surgery. Furthermore, the perceptions of active listening feedback and questioning are consistent with our previous studies ( Poskiparta et al. , 1998 , 2000 ; Kettunen et al. , 2000 ), where we found them to be a means of activating patients' self-evaluation and self-determination. In this study, we did not find evidence for empowering stories or questions that relate to patients' personal philosophy, as mentioned by Feste and Anderson ( Feste and Anderson, 1995 ). In addition, the nurse's encouragement was more sophisticated than what Feste and Anderson suggest with their empowering tools.

Our research data consisted of only one videotaped session per patient. Thus we have no evidence about how patients' decision-making skills develop or their self-esteem improves. During the interviews we did not ask the patients' opinion on the effects of counseling and that is why the patients evaluated conversations at a quite general level. In this particular case, the patient said that an encounter was ` illuminating ' for her. She mentioned that she received enough information and again spoke about her fears but used the same words as the nurse did when she emphasized a positive vision of future (see Extract 4 , lines 5, 6, 19 and 20): `if it's a fact that the pain will be left in the operating room, if it really is possible…that there's going to be an operation and they'll do it tomorrow, then that's how it's going to be'. This could, perhaps, signify some kind of relief or new resources to face an uncertain future. During the interview it also became evident that the patient's fears had not been diminished, but she talked about them and stressed a strong reliance on the professionals and on the operation as a whole: `I believe what I'm told'. This is in line with the perspective of Salmon ( Salmon, 1993 ), who emphasized that patients' anxiety about surgery should not be seen as a problem but rather as a normal phenomenon, a sign of patients' emotional balance, of an ability to feel fear. Thus, the nurse's task is not to diminish the patient's fears but to facilitate the patient's disclosure and offer help for dealing with fear.

With caution, we can speculate on the factors behind this kind of empowering practice, which became evident during the subsequent interviews. There was no evidence that nurses' or patients' age, education or work experience influenced the format of the counseling. What makes this case different from traditional rigid counseling sessions is that the nurse had a goal that she had planned in advance and pursued flexibly. This indicates that she had reflected on the significance of this situation from the patient's perspective. In most cases, nurses approached counseling without any goal or the hospital provided a detailed agenda based on professional knowledge of diseases, their care and prevention. Then, different kinds of institutionalized health counseling packages seemed to restrict nurses' communication, and health counseling often followed the standard institutional order of phases mentioned by Drew and Heritage ( Drew and Heritage 1998 ).

This study highlights empowering opportunities that arise in actual situations and that nurses can consciously use in their work. The results of this study can be applied to other health counseling practices and we would argue that every nurse should consider how (s)he initiates discussion. The analysis of the encounter shows that a tentative discussion style gives the patient a chance to deal with her concerns and to absorb the information that she needs. Thus, the patient has an opportunity to participate more actively in the discussion from the beginning than she could in the case of filling out a questionnaire in a strict predetermined order.

Clearly there are limitations to the generalizability of these findings. For example, both interlocutors were women, and this could in part explain the nature of the conversation since the highest levels of empathic and positive behavior occur between females [see ( Coates, 1986 ; Roter and Hall, 1993 ), p. 63]. There is also some concern whether the nurse may have been subject to a performance bias because she was aware of being videotaped and possibly behaved differently. However, we think that this was limited because only two nurses discussed this type of bias in the interviews afterwards and other nurses did not even notice the camera or did so only briefly at the beginning of counseling [see also ( Caris-Verhallen et al. , 1998 )]. Techniques to enhance the credibility of the findings included data and methodological triangulation of research data ( Patton, 1990 ; Stake, 1994 ; Begley, 1996 ), and acquiring data that included both verbal and non-verbal communication from the videotaped health counseling sessions and the subsequent interviews. In addition, team analysis sessions (investigator triangulation) ensured the accuracy of data interpretation (Polit and Hunger 1995). Different expertise helped us to get more complete picture from this case and empowerment philosophy when we discussed interpretations together.

However, in the last analysis, the effect of an empowering encounter could be checked after the operation by checking the patient's perspective, e.g. her satisfaction, recovery rate, etc. Evidence from nursing and medical staff might also be offered as additional evidence. Further research from larger numbers of patients is needed and more evidence from different settings will be required for a more extensive description of empowering practice. We will continue our research, and, for example, present qualitative analysis of interaction by describing how power features and patients' taciturnity are manifested in nurse–patient counseling. In addition, we will investigate how student nurses make progress in empowering counseling.

We suggest that nurses should pay attention to verbal expression and forms of language, in addition to non-verbal messages, because then they can empower patients by opening new and important perspectives for them. Nurses' every question, remark or piece of advice leads to individualized understanding and interpretation by the patient. It is important to remember that each communication situation is a unique, dynamic and transforming process. Nurses should observe what figures of speech they use and thus gain self-awareness and discover new tools to work with. We suggest a training program where the development of health care professionals' empowering skills can occur in practical, dynamic communication situations, be videotaped and transcribed for later theoretical, conscious and instructive evaluation. Analyzing the transcripts of video or tape-recorded counseling sessions opens up the possibility of an exact evaluation of empowering skills.

In health counseling, it is important that patients are able to maintain and strengthen a positive image of themselves as communicators. Positive experiences build up patients' self-esteem and increase their confidence in their ability to influence their care. The mere opportunity to discuss one's opinions and interpretations or different health concerns with a nurse may have the effect of unlocking patients' mental resources. This article demonstrates particularly how unconditional acceptance and facilitation of participation can be used in interpersonal counseling [see ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 )]. The empowering practices that are presented in this article should not be regarded as rigid and formalistic, rather they should be adapted to one's personal style.

Empowering principles of interpersonal practice ( van Ryn and Heaney, 1997 )

This study was supported by the Ministry of Health and Social Affairs of Finland and by the Finnish Cultural Foundation. We are sincerely grateful to all that participated in this study.

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Next Generation NCLEX Case Study Sample Questions

One of the big changes on the Next Generation NCLEX exam is a shift toward case studies. Case studies often require a deeper level of critical thinking, and understanding diseases on a more in-depth level (especially the pathophysiology) will make these types of questions easier to answer.

In this article, you’ll be able to watch a free video to help you prepare for the new Next Generation NCLEX case study format. Nurse Sarah will walk you step-by-step through each scenario and help you understand how to use critical thinking and nursing knowledge to answer these types of questions.

Next Generation NCLEX Case Study Review Questions Video

NGN Case Study Sample Questions and Answers

First, let’s take a look at our case study summary below:

Case Study Summary:

A 68-year-old male is admitted with shortness of breath. He reports difficulty breathing with activity, lying down, or while sleeping. He states that in order to “breathe easier,” he has had to sleep in a recliner for the past week. The patient has a history of hypertension, myocardial infarction (2 years ago), and cholecystectomy (10 years ago). The patient is being transferred to a cardiac progressive care unit for further evaluation and treatment.

Question 1 of 6: The nurse receives the patient admitted with shortness of breath. What findings are significant and require follow-up? The options are listed below. Select all that apply.

To answer this first question in the NGN case study, let’s look at the information provided in the nursing notes and vital signs tabs provided:

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This question is asking us to identify findings that are significant and require the nurse to follow-up. In other words, what is presenting that we can’t ignore but need to investigate further.

Therefore, let’s comb through the nursing notes and vital signs to see what is abnormal and requires follow-up.

First, the patient arrived to the room via stretcher. That’s fine and doesn’t necessarily require follow-up.

Next, the patient is alert and oriented x 4 (person, place, time, event). This tells us that the patient’s neuro status is intact so far. Therefore, the shortness of breath isn’t affecting the patient’s mental function yet (we have enough oxygen on board right now for brain activity).

However, the nurse has noticed the shortness of breath with activity and talking, which should not normally happen. This tells us something is wrong and is significant enough to require follow-up. We want to know why is this happening, is it going to get worse, etc.

The patient’s weight and vital signs were collected (this is good). Weight is 155 lbs. and BMI is within a healthy range (doesn’t tell us too much but may be useful later). The patient is also connected to a bedside monitor, so they need to be monitored constantly like on a progressive care unit.

The monitor shows sinus tachycardia . This is significant because it seems the patient’s shortness of breath is causing the heart to compensate by increasing the heart rate to provide more oxygen (hence the lungs may be compromised).

Then we find out that the lungs are indeed compromised because crackles are heard in both lungs , and this may be why our patient is short of breath. This is significant (could the patient have pulmonary edema?)

Then we find out the nurse has noted an S3. This is an extra heart sound noted after S2. And what jumps out to me about this is that it is usually associated with volume overload in the heart like in cases of heart failure . However, S3 may be normal in some people under 40 or during pregnancy, but that’s not the case with our patient based on what we read in the case summary.

Therefore, based on everything I’m reading in this case study, I’m thinking this patient may have heart failure, but we need those test results back (especially the echo and chest x-ray, and hopefully a BNP will be in there too).

We are also told that the patient has an 18 gauge IV inserted (which is good thing to have so we can give medications if required), orders have been received, labs drawn, and testing results are pending.

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Now let’s look at the “Vital Signs” tab above, and ask yourself what is normal vs. abnormal for this patient (adult male).

The heart rate is high at 112 (tachycardia), and should normally be 60-100 bpm (see heart rhythms ).
Blood pressure is higher than normal (normal is 120/80), which indicates hypertension.
Oxygen saturation is 94% (this is on the low side as we’d normally want around 95% or higher, and the patient is on 4 L nasal cannula, which tells us the lungs are not okay).
Respiratory rate is increased (26 breaths per minute)…normal is 12-20 breaths per minute.

Based on the information we were provided, I’ve selected the answers below. These findings are significant and definitely require follow-up by the nurse.

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When answering these NGN case study questions, it’s helpful to think of the ABCDE (airway, breathing, circulation, etc.) as all of these fall into that category. If we don’t follow-up on the shortness of breath, crackles, respiratory rate, o2 saturation (94% on 4 L nasal cannula), the respiratory system can further decline.

In addition, the sinus tachycardia, S3 gallop, and hypertension could indicate fluid overload in the heart. This may cause the heart to tire out and lead the lethal rhythm. On the other hand, temperature, pain, weight, and BMI are not abnormal and do not require follow-up.

See the Complete Next Generation NCLEX Case Study Review

Each question in the case study builds on the previous question. To see how these questions evolve based on the patient’s condition and labs, watch the entire Next Generation NCLEX Case Study Review video on our YouTube Channel (RegisteredNurseRN).

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Published: 14 May 2024

Developing a survey to measure nursing students’ knowledge, attitudes and beliefs, influences, and willingness to be involved in Medical Assistance in Dying (MAiD): a mixed method modified e-Delphi study

Jocelyn Schroeder 1 ,
Barbara Pesut 1 , 2 ,
Lise Olsen 2 ,
Nelly D. Oelke 2 &
Helen Sharp 2

BMC Nursing volume 23 , Article number: 326 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

161 Accesses

Metrics details

Medical Assistance in Dying (MAiD) was legalized in Canada in 2016. Canada’s legislation is the first to permit Nurse Practitioners (NP) to serve as independent MAiD assessors and providers. Registered Nurses’ (RN) also have important roles in MAiD that include MAiD care coordination; client and family teaching and support, MAiD procedural quality; healthcare provider and public education; and bereavement care for family. Nurses have a right under the law to conscientious objection to participating in MAiD. Therefore, it is essential to prepare nurses in their entry-level education for the practice implications and moral complexities inherent in this practice. Knowing what nursing students think about MAiD is a critical first step. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to develop a survey to measure nursing students’ knowledge, attitudes and beliefs, influences, and willingness to be involved in MAiD in the Canadian context.

The design was a mixed-method, modified e-Delphi method that entailed item generation from the literature, item refinement through a 2 round survey of an expert faculty panel, and item validation through a cognitive focus group interview with nursing students. The settings were a University located in an urban area and a College located in a rural area in Western Canada.

During phase 1, a 56-item survey was developed from existing literature that included demographic items and items designed to measure experience with death and dying (including MAiD), education and preparation, attitudes and beliefs, influences on those beliefs, and anticipated future involvement. During phase 2, an expert faculty panel reviewed, modified, and prioritized the items yielding 51 items. During phase 3, a sample of nursing students further evaluated and modified the language in the survey to aid readability and comprehension. The final survey consists of 45 items including 4 case studies.

Systematic evaluation of knowledge-to-date coupled with stakeholder perspectives supports robust survey design. This study yielded a survey to assess nursing students’ attitudes toward MAiD in a Canadian context.

The survey is appropriate for use in education and research to measure knowledge and attitudes about MAiD among nurse trainees and can be a helpful step in preparing nursing students for entry-level practice.

Peer Review reports

Medical Assistance in Dying (MAiD) is permitted under an amendment to Canada’s Criminal Code which was passed in 2016 [ 1 ]. MAiD is defined in the legislation as both self-administered and clinician-administered medication for the purpose of causing death. In the 2016 Bill C-14 legislation one of the eligibility criteria was that an applicant for MAiD must have a reasonably foreseeable natural death although this term was not defined. It was left to the clinical judgement of MAiD assessors and providers to determine the time frame that constitutes reasonably foreseeable [ 2 ]. However, in 2021 under Bill C-7, the eligibility criteria for MAiD were changed to allow individuals with irreversible medical conditions, declining health, and suffering, but whose natural death was not reasonably foreseeable, to receive MAiD [ 3 ]. This population of MAiD applicants are referred to as Track 2 MAiD (those whose natural death is foreseeable are referred to as Track 1). Track 2 applicants are subject to additional safeguards under the 2021 C-7 legislation.

Three additional proposed changes to the legislation have been extensively studied by Canadian Expert Panels (Council of Canadian Academics [CCA]) [ 4 , 5 , 6 ] First, under the legislation that defines Track 2, individuals with mental disease as their sole underlying medical condition may apply for MAiD, but implementation of this practice is embargoed until March 2027 [ 4 ]. Second, there is consideration of allowing MAiD to be implemented through advanced consent. This would make it possible for persons living with dementia to receive MAID after they have lost the capacity to consent to the procedure [ 5 ]. Third, there is consideration of extending MAiD to mature minors. A mature minor is defined as “a person under the age of majority…and who has the capacity to understand and appreciate the nature and consequences of a decision” ([ 6 ] p. 5). In summary, since the legalization of MAiD in 2016 the eligibility criteria and safeguards have evolved significantly with consequent implications for nurses and nursing care. Further, the number of Canadians who access MAiD shows steady increases since 2016 [ 7 ] and it is expected that these increases will continue in the foreseeable future.

Nurses have been integral to MAiD care in the Canadian context. While other countries such as Belgium and the Netherlands also permit euthanasia, Canada is the first country to allow Nurse Practitioners (Registered Nurses with additional preparation typically achieved at the graduate level) to act independently as assessors and providers of MAiD [ 1 ]. Although the role of Registered Nurses (RNs) in MAiD is not defined in federal legislation, it has been addressed at the provincial/territorial-level with variability in scope of practice by region [ 8 , 9 ]. For example, there are differences with respect to the obligation of the nurse to provide information to patients about MAiD, and to the degree that nurses are expected to ensure that patient eligibility criteria and safeguards are met prior to their participation [ 10 ]. Studies conducted in the Canadian context indicate that RNs perform essential roles in MAiD care coordination; client and family teaching and support; MAiD procedural quality; healthcare provider and public education; and bereavement care for family [ 9 , 11 ]. Nurse practitioners and RNs are integral to a robust MAiD care system in Canada and hence need to be well-prepared for their role [ 12 ].

Previous studies have found that end of life care, and MAiD specifically, raise complex moral and ethical issues for nurses [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. The knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs of nurses are important across practice settings because nurses have consistent, ongoing, and direct contact with patients who experience chronic or life-limiting health conditions. Canadian studies exploring nurses’ moral and ethical decision-making in relation to MAiD reveal that although some nurses are clear in their support for, or opposition to, MAiD, others are unclear on what they believe to be good and right [ 14 ]. Empirical findings suggest that nurses go through a period of moral sense-making that is often informed by their family, peers, and initial experiences with MAID [ 17 , 18 ]. Canadian legislation and policy specifies that nurses are not required to participate in MAiD and may recuse themselves as conscientious objectors with appropriate steps to ensure ongoing and safe care of patients [ 1 , 19 ]. However, with so many nurses having to reflect on and make sense of their moral position, it is essential that they are given adequate time and preparation to make an informed and thoughtful decision before they participate in a MAID death [ 20 , 21 ].

It is well established that nursing students receive inconsistent exposure to end of life care issues [ 22 ] and little or no training related to MAiD [ 23 ]. Without such education and reflection time in pre-entry nursing preparation, nurses are at significant risk for moral harm. An important first step in providing this preparation is to be able to assess the knowledge, values, and beliefs of nursing students regarding MAID and end of life care. As demand for MAiD increases along with the complexities of MAiD, it is critical to understand the knowledge, attitudes, and likelihood of engagement with MAiD among nursing students as a baseline upon which to build curriculum and as a means to track these variables over time.

Aim, design, and setting

The aim of this study was to develop a survey to measure nursing students’ knowledge, attitudes and beliefs, influences, and willingness to be involved in MAiD in the Canadian context. We sought to explore both their willingness to be involved in the registered nursing role and in the nurse practitioner role should they chose to prepare themselves to that level of education. The design was a mixed-method, modified e-Delphi method that entailed item generation, item refinement through an expert faculty panel [ 24 , 25 , 26 ], and initial item validation through a cognitive focus group interview with nursing students [ 27 ]. The settings were a University located in an urban area and a College located in a rural area in Western Canada.

Participants

A panel of 10 faculty from the two nursing education programs were recruited for Phase 2 of the e-Delphi. To be included, faculty were required to have a minimum of three years of experience in nurse education, be employed as nursing faculty, and self-identify as having experience with MAiD. A convenience sample of 5 fourth-year nursing students were recruited to participate in Phase 3. Students had to be in good standing in the nursing program and be willing to share their experiences of the survey in an online group interview format.

The modified e-Delphi was conducted in 3 phases: Phase 1 entailed item generation through literature and existing survey review. Phase 2 entailed item refinement through a faculty expert panel review with focus on content validity, prioritization, and revision of item wording [ 25 ]. Phase 3 entailed an assessment of face validity through focus group-based cognitive interview with nursing students.

Phase I. Item generation through literature review

The goal of phase 1 was to develop a bank of survey items that would represent the variables of interest and which could be provided to expert faculty in Phase 2. Initial survey items were generated through a literature review of similar surveys designed to assess knowledge and attitudes toward MAiD/euthanasia in healthcare providers; Canadian empirical studies on nurses’ roles and/or experiences with MAiD; and legislative and expert panel documents that outlined proposed changes to the legislative eligibility criteria and safeguards. The literature review was conducted in three online databases: CINAHL, PsycINFO, and Medline. Key words for the search included nurses , nursing students , medical students , NPs, MAiD , euthanasia , assisted death , and end-of-life care . Only articles written in English were reviewed. The legalization and legislation of MAiD is new in many countries; therefore, studies that were greater than twenty years old were excluded, no further exclusion criteria set for country.

Items from surveys designed to measure similar variables in other health care providers and geographic contexts were placed in a table and similar items were collated and revised into a single item. Then key variables were identified from the empirical literature on nurses and MAiD in Canada and checked against the items derived from the surveys to ensure that each of the key variables were represented. For example, conscientious objection has figured prominently in the Canadian literature, but there were few items that assessed knowledge of conscientious objection in other surveys and so items were added [ 15 , 21 , 28 , 29 ]. Finally, four case studies were added to the survey to address the anticipated changes to the Canadian legislation. The case studies were based upon the inclusion of mature minors, advanced consent, and mental disorder as the sole underlying medical condition. The intention was to assess nurses’ beliefs and comfort with these potential legislative changes.

Phase 2. Item refinement through expert panel review

The goal of phase 2 was to refine and prioritize the proposed survey items identified in phase 1 using a modified e-Delphi approach to achieve consensus among an expert panel [ 26 ]. Items from phase 1 were presented to an expert faculty panel using a Qualtrics (Provo, UT) online survey. Panel members were asked to review each item to determine if it should be: included, excluded or adapted for the survey. When adapted was selected faculty experts were asked to provide rationale and suggestions for adaptation through the use of an open text box. Items that reached a level of 75% consensus for either inclusion or adaptation were retained [ 25 , 26 ]. New items were categorized and added, and a revised survey was presented to the panel of experts in round 2. Panel members were again asked to review items, including new items, to determine if it should be: included, excluded, or adapted for the survey. Round 2 of the modified e-Delphi approach also included an item prioritization activity, where participants were then asked to rate the importance of each item, based on a 5-point Likert scale (low to high importance), which De Vaus [ 30 ] states is helpful for increasing the reliability of responses. Items that reached a 75% consensus on inclusion were then considered in relation to the importance it was given by the expert panel. Quantitative data were managed using SPSS (IBM Corp).

Phase 3. Face validity through cognitive interviews with nursing students

The goal of phase 3 was to obtain initial face validity of the proposed survey using a sample of nursing student informants. More specifically, student participants were asked to discuss how items were interpreted, to identify confusing wording or other problematic construction of items, and to provide feedback about the survey as a whole including readability and organization [ 31 , 32 , 33 ]. The focus group was held online and audio recorded. A semi-structured interview guide was developed for this study that focused on clarity, meaning, order and wording of questions; emotions evoked by the questions; and overall survey cohesion and length was used to obtain data (see Supplementary Material 2 for the interview guide). A prompt to “think aloud” was used to limit interviewer-imposed bias and encourage participants to describe their thoughts and response to a given item as they reviewed survey items [ 27 ]. Where needed, verbal probes such as “could you expand on that” were used to encourage participants to expand on their responses [ 27 ]. Student participants’ feedback was collated verbatim and presented to the research team where potential survey modifications were negotiated and finalized among team members. Conventional content analysis [ 34 ] of focus group data was conducted to identify key themes that emerged through discussion with students. Themes were derived from the data by grouping common responses and then using those common responses to modify survey items.

Ten nursing faculty participated in the expert panel. Eight of the 10 faculty self-identified as female. No faculty panel members reported conscientious objector status and ninety percent reported general agreement with MAiD with one respondent who indicated their view as “unsure.” Six of the 10 faculty experts had 16 years of experience or more working as a nurse educator.

Five nursing students participated in the cognitive interview focus group. The duration of the focus group was 2.5 h. All participants identified that they were born in Canada, self-identified as female (one preferred not to say) and reported having received some instruction about MAiD as part of their nursing curriculum. See Tables 1 and 2 for the demographic descriptors of the study sample. Study results will be reported in accordance with the study phases. See Fig. 1 for an overview of the results from each phase.

Fig. 1 Overview of survey development findings

Phase 1: survey item generation

Review of the literature identified that no existing survey was available for use with nursing students in the Canadian context. However, an analysis of themes across qualitative and quantitative studies of physicians, medical students, nurses, and nursing students provided sufficient data to develop a preliminary set of items suitable for adaptation to a population of nursing students.

Four major themes and factors that influence knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about MAiD were evident from the literature: (i) endogenous or individual factors such as age, gender, personally held values, religion, religiosity, and/or spirituality [ 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ], (ii) experience with death and dying in personal and/or professional life [ 35 , 40 , 41 , 43 , 44 , 45 ], (iii) training including curricular instruction about clinical role, scope of practice, or the law [ 23 , 36 , 39 ], and (iv) exogenous or social factors such as the influence of key leaders, colleagues, friends and/or family, professional and licensure organizations, support within professional settings, and/or engagement in MAiD in an interdisciplinary team context [ 9 , 35 , 46 ].

Studies of nursing students also suggest overlap across these categories. For example, value for patient autonomy [ 23 ] and the moral complexity of decision-making [ 37 ] are important factors that contribute to attitudes about MAiD and may stem from a blend of personally held values coupled with curricular content, professional training and norms, and clinical exposure. For example, students report that participation in end of life care allows for personal growth, shifts in perception, and opportunities to build therapeutic relationships with their clients [ 44 , 47 , 48 ].

Preliminary items generated from the literature resulted in 56 questions from 11 published sources (See Table 3 ). These items were constructed across four main categories: (i) socio-demographic questions; (ii) end of life care questions; (iii) knowledge about MAiD; or (iv) comfort and willingness to participate in MAiD. Knowledge questions were refined to reflect current MAiD legislation, policies, and regulatory frameworks. Falconer [ 39 ] and Freeman [ 45 ] studies were foundational sources for item selection. Additionally, four case studies were written to reflect the most recent anticipated changes to MAiD legislation and all used the same open-ended core questions to address respondents’ perspectives about the patient’s right to make the decision, comfort in assisting a physician or NP to administer MAiD in that scenario, and hypothesized comfort about serving as a primary provider if qualified as an NP in future. Response options for the survey were also constructed during this stage and included: open text, categorical, yes/no , and Likert scales.

Phase 2: faculty expert panel review

Of the 56 items presented to the faculty panel, 54 questions reached 75% consensus. However, based upon the qualitative responses 9 items were removed largely because they were felt to be repetitive. Items that generated the most controversy were related to measuring religion and spirituality in the Canadian context, defining end of life care when there is no agreed upon time frames (e.g., last days, months, or years), and predicting willingness to be involved in a future events – thus predicting their future selves. Phase 2, round 1 resulted in an initial set of 47 items which were then presented back to the faculty panel in round 2.

Of the 47 initial questions presented to the panel in round 2, 45 reached a level of consensus of 75% or greater, and 34 of these questions reached a level of 100% consensus [ 27 ] of which all participants chose to include without any adaptations) For each question, level of importance was determined based on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = very unimportant, 2 = somewhat unimportant, 3 = neutral, 4 = somewhat important, and 5 = very important). Figure 2 provides an overview of the level of importance assigned to each item.

Ranking level of importance for survey items

After round 2, a careful analysis of participant comments and level of importance was completed by the research team. While the main method of survey item development came from participants’ response to the first round of Delphi consensus ratings, level of importance was used to assist in the decision of whether to keep or modify questions that created controversy, or that rated lower in the include/exclude/adapt portion of the Delphi. Survey items that rated low in level of importance included questions about future roles, sex and gender, and religion/spirituality. After deliberation by the research committee, these questions were retained in the survey based upon the importance of these variables in the scientific literature.

Of the 47 questions remaining from Phase 2, round 2, four were revised. In addition, the two questions that did not meet the 75% cut off level for consensus were reviewed by the research team. The first question reviewed was What is your comfort level with providing a MAiD death in the future if you were a qualified NP ? Based on a review of participant comments, it was decided to retain this question for the cognitive interviews with students in the final phase of testing. The second question asked about impacts on respondents’ views of MAiD and was changed from one item with 4 subcategories into 4 separate items, resulting in a final total of 51 items for phase 3. The revised survey was then brought forward to the cognitive interviews with student participants in Phase 3. (see Supplementary Material 1 for a complete description of item modification during round 2).

Phase 3. Outcomes of cognitive interview focus group

Of the 51 items reviewed by student participants, 29 were identified as clear with little or no discussion. Participant comments for the remaining 22 questions were noted and verified against the audio recording. Following content analysis of the comments, four key themes emerged through the student discussion: unclear or ambiguous wording; difficult to answer questions; need for additional response options; and emotional response evoked by questions. An example of unclear or ambiguous wording was a request for clarity in the use of the word “sufficient” in the context of assessing an item that read “My nursing education has provided sufficient content about the nursing role in MAiD.” “Sufficient” was viewed as subjective and “laden with…complexity that distracted me from the question.” The group recommended rewording the item to read “My nursing education has provided enough content for me to care for a patient considering or requesting MAiD.”

An example of having difficulty answering questions related to limited knowledge related to terms used in the legislation such as such as safeguards , mature minor , eligibility criteria , and conscientious objection. Students were unclear about what these words meant relative to the legislation and indicated that this lack of clarity would hamper appropriate responses to the survey. To ensure that respondents are able to answer relevant questions, student participants recommended that the final survey include explanation of key terms such as mature minor and conscientious objection and an overview of current legislation.

Response options were also a point of discussion. Participants noted a lack of distinction between response options of unsure and unable to say . Additionally, scaling of attitudes was noted as important since perspectives about MAiD are dynamic and not dichotomous “agree or disagree” responses. Although the faculty expert panel recommended the integration of the demographic variables of religious and/or spiritual remain as a single item, the student group stated a preference to have religion and spirituality appear as separate items. The student focus group also took issue with separate items for the variables of sex and gender, specifically that non-binary respondents might feel othered or “outed” particularly when asked to identify their sex. These variables had been created based upon best practices in health research but students did not feel they were appropriate in this context [ 49 ]. Finally, students agreed with the faculty expert panel in terms of the complexity of projecting their future involvement as a Nurse Practitioner. One participant stated: “I certainly had to like, whoa, whoa, whoa. Now let me finish this degree first, please.” Another stated, “I'm still imagining myself, my future career as an RN.”

Finally, student participants acknowledged the array of emotions that some of the items produced for them. For example, one student described positive feelings when interacting with the survey. “Brought me a little bit of feeling of joy. Like it reminded me that this is the last piece of independence that people grab on to.” Another participant, described the freedom that the idea of an advance request gave her. “The advance request gives the most comfort for me, just with early onset Alzheimer’s and knowing what it can do.” But other participants described less positive feelings. For example, the mature minor case study yielded a comment: “This whole scenario just made my heart hurt with the idea of a child requesting that.”

Based on the data gathered from the cognitive interview focus group of nursing students, revisions were made to 11 closed-ended questions (see Table 4 ) and 3 items were excluded. In the four case studies, the open-ended question related to a respondents’ hypothesized actions in a future role as NP were removed. The final survey consists of 45 items including 4 case studies (see Supplementary Material 3 ).

The aim of this study was to develop and validate a survey that can be used to track the growth of knowledge about MAiD among nursing students over time, inform training programs about curricular needs, and evaluate attitudes and willingness to participate in MAiD at time-points during training or across nursing programs over time.

The faculty expert panel and student participants in the cognitive interview focus group identified a need to establish core knowledge of the terminology and legislative rules related to MAiD. For example, within the cognitive interview group of student participants, several acknowledged lack of clear understanding of specific terms such as “conscientious objector” and “safeguards.” Participants acknowledged discomfort with the uncertainty of not knowing and their inclination to look up these terms to assist with answering the questions. This survey can be administered to nursing or pre-nursing students at any phase of their training within a program or across training programs. However, in doing so it is important to acknowledge that their baseline knowledge of MAiD will vary. A response option of “not sure” is important and provides a means for respondents to convey uncertainty. If this survey is used to inform curricular needs, respondents should be given explicit instructions not to conduct online searches to inform their responses, but rather to provide an honest appraisal of their current knowledge and these instructions are included in the survey (see Supplementary Material 3 ).

Some provincial regulatory bodies have established core competencies for entry-level nurses that include MAiD. For example, the BC College of Nurses and Midwives (BCCNM) requires “knowledge about ethical, legal, and regulatory implications of medical assistance in dying (MAiD) when providing nursing care.” (10 p. 6) However, across Canada curricular content and coverage related to end of life care and MAiD is variable [ 23 ]. Given the dynamic nature of the legislation that includes portions of the law that are embargoed until 2024, it is important to ensure that respondents are guided by current and accurate information. As the law changes, nursing curricula, and public attitudes continue to evolve, inclusion of core knowledge and content is essential and relevant for investigators to be able to interpret the portions of the survey focused on attitudes and beliefs about MAiD. Content knowledge portions of the survey may need to be modified over time as legislation and training change and to meet the specific purposes of the investigator.

Given the sensitive nature of the topic, it is strongly recommended that surveys be conducted anonymously and that students be provided with an opportunity to discuss their responses to the survey. A majority of feedback from both the expert panel of faculty and from student participants related to the wording and inclusion of demographic variables, in particular religion, religiosity, gender identity, and sex assigned at birth. These and other demographic variables have the potential to be highly identifying in small samples. In any instance in which the survey could be expected to yield demographic group sizes less than 5, users should eliminate the demographic variables from the survey. For example, the profession of nursing is highly dominated by females with over 90% of nurses who identify as female [ 50 ]. Thus, a survey within a single class of students or even across classes in a single institution is likely to yield a small number of male respondents and/or respondents who report a difference between sex assigned at birth and gender identity. When variables that serve to identify respondents are included, respondents are less likely to complete or submit the survey, to obscure their responses so as not to be identifiable, or to be influenced by social desirability bias in their responses rather than to convey their attitudes accurately [ 51 ]. Further, small samples do not allow for conclusive analyses or interpretation of apparent group differences. Although these variables are often included in surveys, such demographics should be included only when anonymity can be sustained. In small and/or known samples, highly identifying variables should be omitted.

There are several limitations associated with the development of this survey. The expert panel was comprised of faculty who teach nursing students and are knowledgeable about MAiD and curricular content, however none identified as a conscientious objector to MAiD. Ideally, our expert panel would have included one or more conscientious objectors to MAiD to provide a broader perspective. Review by practitioners who participate in MAiD, those who are neutral or undecided, and practitioners who are conscientious objectors would ensure broad applicability of the survey. This study included one student cognitive interview focus group with 5 self-selected participants. All student participants had held discussions about end of life care with at least one patient, 4 of 5 participants had worked with a patient who requested MAiD, and one had been present for a MAiD death. It is not clear that these participants are representative of nursing students demographically or by experience with end of life care. It is possible that the students who elected to participate hold perspectives and reflections on patient care and MAiD that differ from students with little or no exposure to end of life care and/or MAiD. However, previous studies find that most nursing students have been involved with end of life care including meaningful discussions about patients’ preferences and care needs during their education [ 40 , 44 , 47 , 48 , 52 ]. Data collection with additional student focus groups with students early in their training and drawn from other training contexts would contribute to further validation of survey items.

Future studies should incorporate pilot testing with small sample of nursing students followed by a larger cross-program sample to allow evaluation of the psychometric properties of specific items and further refinement of the survey tool. Consistent with literature about the importance of leadership in the context of MAiD [ 12 , 53 , 54 ], a study of faculty knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes toward MAiD would provide context for understanding student perspectives within and across programs. Additional research is also needed to understand the timing and content coverage of MAiD across Canadian nurse training programs’ curricula.

The implementation of MAiD is complex and requires understanding of the perspectives of multiple stakeholders. Within the field of nursing this includes clinical providers, educators, and students who will deliver clinical care. A survey to assess nursing students’ attitudes toward and willingness to participate in MAiD in the Canadian context is timely, due to the legislation enacted in 2016 and subsequent modifications to the law in 2021 with portions of the law to be enacted in 2027. Further development of this survey could be undertaken to allow for use in settings with practicing nurses or to allow longitudinal follow up with students as they enter practice. As the Canadian landscape changes, ongoing assessment of the perspectives and needs of health professionals and students in the health professions is needed to inform policy makers, leaders in practice, curricular needs, and to monitor changes in attitudes and practice patterns over time.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to small sample sizes, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

British Columbia College of Nurses and Midwives

Medical assistance in dying

Nurse practitioner

Registered nurse

University of British Columbia Okanagan

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Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge the faculty and students who generously contributed their time to this work.

JS received a student traineeship through the Principal Research Chairs program at the University of British Columbia Okanagan.

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Jocelyn Schroeder & Barbara Pesut

School of Nursing, University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, BC, Canada

Barbara Pesut, Lise Olsen, Nelly D. Oelke & Helen Sharp

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JS made substantial contributions to the conception of the work; data acquisition, analysis, and interpretation; and drafting and substantively revising the work. JS has approved the submitted version and agreed to be personally accountable for the author's own contributions and to ensure that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work, even ones in which the author was not personally involved, are appropriately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature. BP made substantial contributions to the conception of the work; data acquisition, analysis, and interpretation; and drafting and substantively revising the work. BP has approved the submitted version and agreed to be personally accountable for the author's own contributions and to ensure that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work, even ones in which the author was not personally involved, are appropriately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature. LO made substantial contributions to the conception of the work; data acquisition, analysis, and interpretation; and substantively revising the work. LO has approved the submitted version and agreed to be personally accountable for the author's own contributions and to ensure that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work, even ones in which the author was not personally involved, are appropriately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature. NDO made substantial contributions to the conception of the work; data acquisition, analysis, and interpretation; and substantively revising the work. NDO has approved the submitted version and agreed to be personally accountable for the author's own contributions and to ensure that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work, even ones in which the author was not personally involved, are appropriately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature. HS made substantial contributions to drafting and substantively revising the work. HS has approved the submitted version and agreed to be personally accountable for the author's own contributions and to ensure that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work, even ones in which the author was not personally involved, are appropriately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature.

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JS conducted this study as part of their graduate requirements in the School of Nursing, University of British Columbia Okanagan.

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Correspondence to Barbara Pesut .

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The research was approved by the Selkirk College Research Ethics Board (REB) ID # 2021–011 and the University of British Columbia Behavioral Research Ethics Board ID # H21-01181.

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Schroeder, J., Pesut, B., Olsen, L. et al. Developing a survey to measure nursing students’ knowledge, attitudes and beliefs, influences, and willingness to be involved in Medical Assistance in Dying (MAiD): a mixed method modified e-Delphi study. BMC Nurs 23 , 326 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-01984-z

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Received : 24 October 2023

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Published : 14 May 2024

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