cognitive problem solving definition

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Solving problems the cognitive-behavioral way, problem solving is another part of behavioral therapy..

Posted February 2, 2022 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

• What Is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy?
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• Problem-solving is one technique used on the behavioral side of cognitive-behavioral therapy.
• The problem-solving technique is an iterative, five-step process that requires one to identify the problem and test different solutions.
• The technique differs from ad-hoc problem-solving in its suspension of judgment and evaluation of each solution.

As I have mentioned in previous posts, cognitive behavioral therapy is more than challenging negative, automatic thoughts. There is a whole behavioral piece of this therapy that focuses on what people do and how to change their actions to support their mental health. In this post, I’ll talk about the problem-solving technique from cognitive behavioral therapy and what makes it unique.

The problem-solving technique

While there are many different variations of this technique, I am going to describe the version I typically use, and which includes the main components of the technique:

The first step is to clearly define the problem. Sometimes, this includes answering a series of questions to make sure the problem is described in detail. Sometimes, the client is able to define the problem pretty clearly on their own. Sometimes, a discussion is needed to clearly outline the problem.

The next step is generating solutions without judgment. The "without judgment" part is crucial: Often when people are solving problems on their own, they will reject each potential solution as soon as they or someone else suggests it. This can lead to feeling helpless and also discarding solutions that would work.

The third step is evaluating the advantages and disadvantages of each solution. This is the step where judgment comes back.

Fourth, the client picks the most feasible solution that is most likely to work and they try it out.

The fifth step is evaluating whether the chosen solution worked, and if not, going back to step two or three to find another option. For step five, enough time has to pass for the solution to have made a difference.

This process is iterative, meaning the client and therapist always go back to the beginning to make sure the problem is resolved and if not, identify what needs to change.

Advantages of the problem-solving technique

The problem-solving technique might differ from ad hoc problem-solving in several ways. The most obvious is the suspension of judgment when coming up with solutions. We sometimes need to withhold judgment and see the solution (or problem) from a different perspective. Deliberately deciding not to judge solutions until later can help trigger that mindset change.

Another difference is the explicit evaluation of whether the solution worked. When people usually try to solve problems, they don’t go back and check whether the solution worked. It’s only if something goes very wrong that they try again. The problem-solving technique specifically includes evaluating the solution.

Lastly, the problem-solving technique starts with a specific definition of the problem instead of just jumping to solutions. To figure out where you are going, you have to know where you are.

One benefit of the cognitive behavioral therapy approach is the behavioral side. The behavioral part of therapy is a wide umbrella that includes problem-solving techniques among other techniques. Accessing multiple techniques means one is more likely to address the client’s main concern.

Salene M. W. Jones, Ph.D., is a clinical psychologist in Washington State.

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9 Chapter 9. Problem-Solving

CHAPTER 9: PROBLEM SOLVING  

How do we achieve our goals when the solution is not immediately obvious? What mental blocks are likely to get in our way, and how can we leverage our prior knowledge to solve novel problems?

CHAPTER 9 LICENSE AND ATTRIBUTION

Source: Multiple authors. Memory. In Cognitive Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience. Wikibooks. Retrieved from https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/ Cognitive_Psychology_and_Cognitive_Neuroscience

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Knut is sitting at his desk, staring at a blank paper in front of him, and nervously playing with a pen in his right hand. Just a few hours left to hand in his essay and he has not written a word. All of a sudden he smashes his fist on the table and cries out: “I need a plan!”

Knut is confronted with something every one of us encounters in his daily life: he has a problem, and he does not know how to solve it. But what exactly is a problem? Are there strategies to solve problems? These are just a few of the questions we want to answer in this chapter.

We begin our chapter by giving a short description of what psychologists regard as a problem. Afterward we will discuss different approaches towards problem solving, starting with gestalt psychologists and ending with modern search strategies connected to artificial intelligence. In addition we will also consider how experts solve problems.

The most basic definition of a problem is any given situation that differs from a desired goal. This definition is very useful for discussing problem solving in terms of evolutionary adaptation, as it allows us to understand every aspect of (human or animal) life as a problem. This includes issues like finding food in harsh winters, remembering where you left your provisions, making decisions about which way to go, learning, repeating and varying all kinds of complex movements, and so on. Though all of these problems were of crucial importance during the human evolutionary process, they are by no means solved exclusively by humans. We find an amazing variety of different solutions for these problems in nature (just consider, for example, the way a bat hunts its prey compared to a spider). We will mainly focus on problems that are not solved by animals or evolution; we will instead focus on abstract problems, such as playing chess. Furthermore, we will not consider problems that have an obvious solution. For example, imagine Knut decides to take a sip of coffee from the mug next to his right hand. He does not even have to think about how to do this. This is not because the situation itself is trivial (a robot capable of recognizing the mug, deciding whether it is full, then grabbing it and moving it to Knut’s mouth would be a highly complex machine) but because in the context of all possible situations it is so trivial that it no longer is a problem our consciousness needs to be bothered with. The problems we will discuss in the following all need some conscious effort, though some seem to be solved without us being able to say how exactly we got to the solution. We will often find that the strategies we use to solve these problems are applicable to more basic problems, too.

Non-trivial, abstract problems can be divided into two groups: well-defined problems and ill- defined problems.

WELL-DEFINED PROBLEMS

For many abstract problems, it is possible to find an algorithmic solution. We call problems well-defined if they can be properly formalized, which involves the following properties:

•        The problem has a clearly defined given state. This might be the line-up of a chess game, a given formula you have to solve, or the set-up of the towers of Hanoi game (which we will discuss later).

•        There is a finite set of operators, that is, rules you may apply to the given state. For the chess game, e.g., these would be the rules that tell you which piece you may move to which position.

•        Finally, the problem has a clear goal state: The equations is resolved to x, all discs are moved to the right stack, or the other player is in checkmate.

A problem that fulfils these requirements can be implemented algorithmically. Therefore many well-defined problems can be very effectively solved by computers, like playing chess.

ILL-DEFINED PROBLEMS

Though many problems can be properly formalized, there are still others where this is not the case. Good examples for this are all kinds of tasks that involve creativity, and, generally speaking, all problems for which it is not possible to clearly define a given state and a goal state. Formalizing a problem such as “Please paint a beautiful picture” may be impossible.

Still, this is a problem most people would be able to approach in one way or the other, even if the result may be totally different from person to person. And while Knut might judge that picture X is gorgeous, you might completely disagree.

The line between well-defined and ill-defined problems is not always neat: ill-defined problems often involve sub-problems that can be perfectly well-defined. On the other hand, many everyday problems that seem to be completely well-defined involve — when examined in detail — a great amount of creativity and ambiguity. Consider Knut’s fairly ill-defined task of writing an essay: he will not be able to complete this task without first understanding the text he has to write about. This step is the first subgoal Knut has to solve. In this example, an ill-defined problem involves a well-defined sub-problem

RESTRUCTURING: THE GESTALTIST APPROACH

One dominant approach to problem solving originated from Gestalt psychologists in the 1920s. Their understanding of problem solving emphasizes behavior in situations requiring relatively novel means of attaining goals and suggests that problem solving involves a process called restructuring. With a Gestalt approach, two main questions have to be considered to understand the process of problem solving: 1) How is a problem represented in a person’s mind?, and 2) How does solving this problem involve a reorganization or restructuring of this representation?

HOW IS A PROBLEM REPRESENTED IN THE MIND?

In current research internal and external representations are distinguished: an internal representation is one held in memory, and which has to be retrieved by cognitive processes, while an external representation exists in the environment, such like physical objects or symbols whose information can be picked up and processed by the perceptual system.

Generally speaking, problem representations are models of the situation as experienced by the solver. Representing a problem means to analyze it and split it into separate components, including objects, predicates, state space, operators, and selection criteria.

The efficiency of problem solving depends on the underlying representations in a person’s mind, which usually also involves personal aspects. Re-analyzing the problem along different dimensions, or changing from one representation to another, can result in arriving at a new understanding of a problem. This is called restructuring . The following example illustrates this:

Two boys of different ages are playing badminton. The older one is a more skilled player, and therefore the outcome of matches between the two becomes predictable. After repeated defeats the younger boy finally loses interest in playing. The older boy now faces a problem, namely that he has no one to play with anymore. The usual options, according to M. Wertheimer (1945/82), range from “offering candy” and “playing a different game” to “not playing at full ability” and “shaming the younger boy into playing.” All of these strategies aim at making the younger boy stay.

The older boy instead comes up with a different solution: He proposes that they should try to keep the birdie in play as long as possible. Thus, they change from a game of competition to one of cooperation. The proposal is happily accepted, and the game is on again. The key in this story is that the older boy restructured the problem, having found that his attitude toward the game made it difficult to keep the younger boy playing. With the new type of game the problem is solved: the older boy is not bored, and the younger boy is not frustrated. In some cases, new representations can make a problem more difficult or much easier to solve. In the latter case insight – the sudden realization of a problem’s solution – may be the key to finding a solution.

There are two very different ways of approaching a goal-oriented situation . In one case an organism readily reproduces the response to the given problem from past experience. This is called reproductive thinking .

The second way requires something new and di fferent to achieve the goal—prior learning is of little help here. Such productive thinking is sometimes argued to involve insight . Gestalt psychologists state that insight problems are a separate category of problems in their own right.

Tasks that might involve insight usually have certain features: they require something new and non-obvious to be done, and in most cases they are difficult enough to predict that the initial solution attempt will be unsuccessful. When you solve a problem of this kind you often have a so called “aha” experience: the solution pops into mind all of a sudden. In one moment you have no idea how to answer the problem, and you feel you are not making any progress trying out different ideas, but in the next moment the problem is solved.

For readers who would like to experience such an effect, here is an example of an insight problem: Knut is given four pieces of a chain; each made up of three links. The task is to link it all up to a closed loop. To open a link costs 2 cents, and to close a link costs 3 cents. Knut has 15 cents to spend. What should Knut do?

If you want to know the correct solution, turn to the next page.

To show that solving insight problems involves restructuring , psychologists have created a number of problems that are more difficult to solve for participants with previous experiences, since it is harder for them to change the representation of the given situation.

For non-insight problems the opposite is the case. Solving arithmetical problems, for instance, requires schemas, through which one can get to the solution step by step.

Sometimes, previous experience or familiarity can even make problem solving more difficult. This is the case whenever habitual directions get in the way of finding new directions – an effect called fixation .

FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS

Functional fixedness concerns the solution of object use problems . The basic idea is that when the usual function an object is emphasized, it will be far more difficult for a person to use that object in a novel manner. An example for this effect is the candle problem : Imagine you are given a box of matches, some candles and tacks. On the wall of the room there is a cork-board. Your task is to fix the candle to the cork-board in such a way that no wax will drop on the floor when the candle is lit. Got an idea?

Here’s a clue: when people are confronted with a problem and given certain objects to solve it, it is difficult for them to figure out that they could use the objects in a different way. In this example, the box has to be recognized as a support rather than as a container— tack the matchbox to the wall, and place the candle upright in the box. The box will catch the falling wax.

A further example is the two-string problem : Knut is left in a room with a pair of pliers and given the task to bind two strings together that are hanging from the ceiling. The problem he faces is that he can never reach both strings at a time because they are just too far away from each other. What can Knut do?

Solution: Knut has to recognize he can use the pliers in a novel function: as weight for a pendulum. He can tie them to one of the strings, push it away, hold the other string and wait for the first one to swing toward him.

MENTAL FIXEDNESS

Functional fixedness as involved in the examples above illustrates a mental set: a person’s tendency to respond to a given task in a manner based on past experience. Because Knut maps an object to a particular function he has difficulty varying the way of use (i.e., pliers as pendulum’s weight).

One approach to studying fixation was to study wrong-answer verbal insight problems . In these probems, people tend to give an incorrect answer when failing to solve a problem rather than to give no answer at all.

A typical example: People are told that on a lake the area covered by water lilies doubles every 24 hours and that it takes 60 days to cover the whole lake. Then they are asked how many days it takes to cover half the lake. The typical response is “30 days” (whereas 59 days is correct).

These wrong solutions are due to an inaccurate interpretation , or representation , of the problem. This can happen because of sloppiness (a quick shallow reading of the problem and/or weak monitoring of their efforts made to come to a solution). In this case error feedback should help people to reconsider the problem features, note the inadequacy of their first answer, and find the correct solution. If, however, people are truly fixated on their incorrect representation, being told the answer is wrong does not help. In a study by P.I. Dallop and

R.L. Dominowski in 1992 these two possibilities were investigated. In approximately one third of the cases error feedback led to right answers, so only approximately one third of the wrong answers were due to inadequate monitoring.

Another approach is the study of examples with and without a preceding analogous task. In cases such like the water-jug task, analogous thinking indeed leads to a correct solution, but to take a different way might make the case much simpler:

Imagine Knut again, this time he is given three jugs with different capacities and is asked to measure the required amount of water. He is not allowed to use anything except the jugs and as much water as he likes. In the first case the sizes are: 127 cups, 21 cups and 3 cups. His goal is to measure 100 cups of water.

In the second case Knut is asked to measure 18 cups from jugs of 39, 15 and 3 cups capacity.

Participants who are given the 100 cup task first choose a complicated way to solve the second task. Participants who did not know about that complex task solved the 18 cup case by just adding three cups to 15.

SOLVING PROBLEMS BY ANALOGY

One special kind of restructuring is analogical problem solving. Here, to find a solution to one problem (i.e., the target problem) an analogous solution to another problem (i.e., the base problem) is presented.

An example for this kind of strategy is the radiation problem posed by K. Duncker in 1945:

As a doctor you have to treat a patient with a malignant, inoperable tumor, buried deep inside the body. There exists a special kind of ray which is harmless at a low intensity, but at sufficiently high intensity is able to destroy the tumor. At such high intensity, however, the ray will also destroy the healthy tissue it passes through on the way to the tumor. What can be done to destroy the tumor while preserving the healthy tissue?

When this question was asked to participants in an experiment, most of them couldn’t come up with the appropriate answer to the problem. Then they were told a story that went something like this:

A general wanted to capture his enemy’s fortress. He gathered a large army to launch a full- scale direct attack, but then learned that all the roads leading directly towards the fortress were blocked by landmines. These roadblocks were designed in such a way that it was possible for small groups of the fortress-owner’s men to pass over them safely, but a large group of men would set them off. The general devised the following plan: He divided his troops into several smaller groups and ordered each of them to march down a different road, timed in such a way that the entire army would reunite exactly when reaching the fortress and could hit with full strength.

Here, the story about the general is the source problem, and the radiation problem is the target problem. The fortress is analogous to the tumor and the big army corresponds to the highly intensive ray. Likewise, a small group of soldiers represents a ray at low intensity. The s olution to the problem is to split the ray up, as the general did with his army, and send the now harmless rays towards the tumor from different angles in such a way that they all meet when reaching it. No healthy tissue is damaged but the tumor itself gets destroyed by the ray at its full intensity.

M. Gick and K. Holyoak presented Duncker’s radiation problem to a group of participants in 1980 and 1983. 10 percent of participants were able to solve the problem right away, but 30 percent could solve it when they read the story of the general before. After being given an additional hint — to use the story as help — 75 percent of them solved the problem.

Following these results, Gick and Holyoak concluded that analogical problem solving consists of three steps:

1.  Recognizing that an analogical connection exists between the source and the base problem.

2. Mapping corresponding parts of the two problems onto each other (fortress ® tumour, army ® ray, etc.)

3. Applying the mapping to generate a parallel solution to the target problem (using little groups of soldiers approaching from different directions ® sending several weaker rays from different directions)

Next, Gick and Holyoak started looking for factors that could help the recognizing and mapping processes.

The abstract concept that links the target problem with the base problem is called the problem schema. Gick and Holyoak facilitated the activation of a schema with their participants by giving them two stories and asking them to compare and summarize them. This activation of problem schemas is called “schema induction“.

The experimenters had participants read stories that presented problems and their solutions. One story was the above story about the general, and other stories required the same problem schema (i.e., if a heavy force coming from one direction is not suitable, use multiple smaller forces that simultaneously converge on the target). The experimenters manipulated how many of these stories the participants read before the participants were asked to solve the radiation problem. The experiment showed that in order to solve the target problem, reading two stories with analogical problems is more helpful than reading only one story. This evidence suggests that schema induction can be achieved by exposing people to multiple problems with the same problem schema.

HOW DO EXPERTS SOLVE PROBLEMS?

An expert is someone who devotes large amounts of their time and energy to one specific field of interest in which they, subsequently, reach a certain level of mastery. It should not be a surprise that experts tend to be better at solving problems in their field than novices (i.e., people who are beginners or not as well-trained in a field as experts) are. Experts are faster at coming up with solutions and have a higher rate of correct solutions. But what is the difference between the way experts and non-experts solve problems? Research on the nature of expertise has come up with the following conclusions:

1.       Experts know more about their field,

2.      their knowledge is organized differently, and

3.      they spend more time analyzing the problem.

Expertise is domain specific— when it comes to problems that are outside the experts’ domain of expertise, their performance often does not differ from that of novices.

Knowledge: An experiment by Chase and Simon (1973) dealt with the question of how well experts and novices are able to reproduce positions of chess pieces on chess boards after a brief presentation. The results showed that experts were far better at reproducing actual game positions, but that their performance was comparable with that of novices when the chess pieces were arranged randomly on the board. Chase and Simon concluded that the superior performance on actual game positions was due to the ability to recognize familiar patterns: A chess expert has up to 50,000 patterns stored in his memory. In comparison, a good player might know about 1,000 patterns by heart and a novice only few to none at all. This very detailed knowledge is of crucial help when an expert is confronted with a new problem in his field. Still, it is not only the amount of knowledge that makes an expert more successful. Experts also organize their knowledge differently from novices.

Organization: In 1981 M. Chi and her co-workers took a set of 24 physics problems and presented them to a group of physics professors as well as to a group of students with only one semester of physics. The task was to group the problems based on their similarities. The students tended to group the problems based on their surface structure (i.e., similarities of objects used in the problem, such as sketches illustrating the problem), whereas the professors used their deep structure (i.e., the general physical principles that underlie the problems) as criteria. By recognizing the actual structure of a problem experts are able to connect the given task to the relevant knowledge they already have (e.g., another problem they solved earlier which required the same strategy).

Analysis: Experts often spend more time analyzing a problem before actually trying to solve it. This way of approaching a problem may often result in what appears to be a slow start, but in the long run this strategy is much more effective. A novice, on the other hand, might start working on the problem right away, but often reach dead ends as they chose a wrong path in the very beginning.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. (1973). Perception in chess. Cognitive psychology, 4(1), 55-81.

Chi, M. T., Feltovich, P. J., & Glaser, R. (1981). Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices. Cognitive science, 5(2), 121-152.

Duncker, K., & Lees, L. S. (1945). On problem-solving. Psychological monographs, 58(5).

Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J. (1980). Analogical problem solving. Cognitive psychology, 12(3), 306-355. Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J. (1983). Schema induction and analogical transfer. Cognitive psychology, 15(1), 1-38.

Goldstein, E.B. (2005). Cogntive Psychology. Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.

R.L. Dominowski and P. Dallob, Insight and Problem Solving. In The Nature of Insight, R.J. Sternberg & J.E. Davidson (Eds). MIT Press: USA, pp.33-62 (1995).

Wertheimer, M., (1945). Productive thinking. New York: Harper.

ESSENTIALS OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Copyright © 2023 by Christopher Klein is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Problem Solving and Decision Making

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Problem Solving and Decision Making by Emily G. Nielsen , John Paul Minda LAST REVIEWED: 26 June 2019 LAST MODIFIED: 26 June 2019 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0246

Problem solving and decision making are both examples of complex, higher-order thinking. Both involve the assessment of the environment, the involvement of working memory or short-term memory, reliance on long term memory, effects of knowledge, and the application of heuristics to complete a behavior. A problem can be defined as an impasse or gap between a current state and a desired goal state. Problem solving is the set of cognitive operations that a person engages in to change the current state, to go beyond the impasse, and achieve a desired outcome. Problem solving involves the mental representation of the problem state and the manipulation of this representation in order to move closer to the goal. Problems can vary in complexity, abstraction, and how well defined (or not) the initial state and the goal state are. Research has generally approached problem solving by examining the behaviors and cognitive processes involved, and some work has examined problem solving using computational processes as well. Decision making is the process of selecting and choosing one action or behavior out of several alternatives. Like problem solving, decision making involves the coordination of memories and executive resources. Research on decision making has paid particular attention to the cognitive biases that account for suboptimal decisions and decisions that deviate from rationality. The current bibliography first outlines some general resources on the psychology of problem solving and decision making before examining each of these topics in detail. Specifically, this review covers cognitive, neuroscientific, and computational approaches to problem solving, as well as decision making models and cognitive heuristics and biases.

General Overviews

Current research in the area of problem solving and decision making is published in both general and specialized scientific journals. Theoretical and scholarly work is often summarized and developed in full-length books and chapter. These may focus on the subfields of problem solving and decision making or the larger field of thinking and higher-order cognition.

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Problem-Solving

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Problem solving refers to the process of identifying a gap between a desired goal state and a present state, and proposing and performing a set of operations or solutions in order to move toward the goal state. Generally, the solution to the problem is not immediately known and the process can involve multiple solutions and attempts to reach the intended goal. Problem solving involves a set of cognitive processes associated with problem definition, information gathering, analyzing, planning, and execution. An individual’s capacity to problem solve is influenced by a number of factors including cognitive ability, disposition, knowledge, and background.

Introduction

Problem solving involves a set of complex cognitive processes that require thinking and reasoning. A problem occurs when there is a goal that needs to be reached and there is not a clear path to achieving the goal (Mayer 2013 ). Problems can range in terms of type, complexity, strategy use, domain, and other...

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Mayer, R. E. (2013). Problem solving. In D. Reisberg (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Cognitive Psychology . Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Neubert, J. C., Mainert, J., Kretzschmar, A., & Greiff, S. (2015). The assessment of 21st century skills in industrial and organizational psychology: Complex and collaborative problem solving. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 8 (02), 238–268.

Pretz, J. E., Naples, A. J., & Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Recognizing, defining, and representing problems. In J. E. Davidson & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The psychology of problem solving (pp. 3–30). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

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Cognitive Approach in Psychology

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Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of the mind as an information processor. It concerns how we take in information from the outside world, and how we make sense of that information.

Cognitive psychology studies mental processes, including how people perceive, think, remember, learn, solve problems, and make decisions.

Cognitive psychologists try to build cognitive models of the information processing that occurs inside people’s minds, including perception, attention, language, memory, thinking, and consciousness.

Cognitive psychology became of great importance in the mid-1950s. Several factors were important in this:

• Dissatisfaction with the behaviorist approach in its simple emphasis on external behavior rather than internal processes.
• The development of better experimental methods.
• Comparison between human and computer processing of information . Using computers allowed psychologists to try to understand the complexities of human cognition by comparing it with computers and artificial intelligence.

The emphasis of psychology shifted away from the study of conditioned behavior and psychoanalytical notions about the study of the mind, towards the understanding of human information processing using strict and rigorous laboratory investigation.

Summary Table

Theoretical Assumptions

Mediational processes occur between stimulus and response:

The behaviorist approach only studies external observable (stimulus and response) behavior that can be objectively measured.

They believe that internal behavior cannot be studied because we cannot see what happens in a person’s mind (and therefore cannot objectively measure it).

However, cognitive psychologists consider it essential to examine an organism’s mental processes and how these influence behavior.

Cognitive psychology assumes a mediational process occurs between stimulus/input and response/output. 

These are mediational processes because they mediate (i.e., go-between) between the stimulus and the response. They come after the stimulus and before the response.

Instead of the simple stimulus-response links proposed by behaviorism, the mediational processes of the organism are essential to understand.

Without this understanding, psychologists cannot have a complete understanding of behavior.

The mediational (i.e., mental) event could be memory , perception , attention or problem-solving, etc. 

• Perception : how we process and interpret sensory information.
• Attention : how we selectively focus on certain aspects of our environment.
• Memory : how we encode, store, and retrieve information.
• Language : how we acquire, comprehend, and produce language.
• Problem-solving and decision-making : how we reason, make judgments, and solve problems.
• Schemas : Cognitive psychologists assume that people’s prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences shape their mental processes. 

For example, the cognitive approach suggests that problem gambling results from maladaptive thinking and faulty cognitions, which both result in illogical errors.

Gamblers misjudge the amount of skill involved with ‘chance’ games, so they are likely to participate with the mindset that the odds are in their favour and that they may have a good chance of winning.

Therefore, cognitive psychologists say that if you want to understand behavior, you must understand these mediational processes.

Psychology should be seen as a science:

This assumption is based on the idea that although not directly observable, the mind can be investigated using objective and rigorous methods, similar to how other sciences study natural phenomena. 

Controlled experiments

The cognitive approach believes that internal mental behavior can be scientifically studied using controlled experiments . It uses the results of its investigations to make inferences about mental processes.  Cognitive psychology uses highly controlled laboratory experiments to avoid the influence of extraneous variables . This allows the researcher to establish a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables. These controlled experiments are replicable, and the data obtained is objective (not influenced by an individual’s judgment or opinion) and measurable. This gives psychology more credibility.

Operational definitions

Cognitive psychologists develop operational definitions to study mental processes scientifically. These definitions specify how abstract concepts, such as attention or memory, can be measured and quantified (e.g., verbal protocols of thinking aloud). This allows for reliable and replicable research findings.

Falsifiability

Falsifiability in psychology refers to the ability to disprove a theory or hypothesis through empirical observation or experimentation. If a claim is not falsifiable, it is considered unscientific.

Cognitive psychologists aim to develop falsifiable theories and models, meaning they can be tested and potentially disproven by empirical evidence.

This commitment to falsifiability helps to distinguish scientific theories from pseudoscientific or unfalsifiable claims.

Empirical evidence

Cognitive psychologists rely on empirical evidence to support their theories and models. They collect data through various methods, such as experiments, observations, and questionnaires, to test hypotheses and draw conclusions about mental processes.

Cognitive psychologists assume that mental processes are not random but are organized and structured in specific ways. They seek to identify the underlying cognitive structures and processes that enable people to perceive, remember, and think.

Cognitive psychologists have made significant contributions to our understanding of mental processes and have developed various theories and models, such as the multi-store model of memory , the working memory model , and the dual-process theory of thinking.

Humans are information processors:

The idea of information processing was adopted by cognitive psychologists as a model of how human thought works.

The information processing approach is based on several assumptions, including:

• Information is processed by a series of systems : The information processing approach proposes that a series of cognitive systems, such as attention, perception, and memory, process information from the environment. Each system plays a specific role in processing the information and passing it along to the next stage.
• Processing systems transform information : As information passes through these cognitive systems, it is transformed or modified in systematic ways. For example, incoming sensory information may be filtered by attention, encoded into memory, or used to update existing knowledge structures.
• Research aims to specify underlying processes and structures : The primary goal of research within the information processing approach is to identify, describe, and understand the specific cognitive processes and mental structures that underlie various aspects of cognitive performance, such as learning, problem-solving, and decision-making.
• Human information processing resembles computer processing : The information processing approach draws an analogy between human cognition and computer processing. Just as computers take in information, process it according to specific algorithms, and produce outputs, the human mind is thought to engage in similar processes of input, processing, and output.

Computer-Mind Analogy

The computer-brain metaphor, or the information processing approach, is a significant concept in cognitive psychology that likens the human brain’s functioning to that of a computer.

This metaphor suggests that the brain, like a computer, processes information through a series of linear steps, including input, storage, processing, and output.

According to this assumption, when we interact with the environment, we take in information through our senses (input).

This information is then processed by various cognitive systems, such as perception, attention, and memory. These systems work together to make sense of the input, organize it, and store it for later use.

During the processing stage, the mind performs operations on the information, such as encoding, transforming, and combining it with previously stored knowledge. This processing can involve various cognitive processes, such as thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

The processed information can then be used to generate outputs, such as actions, decisions, or new ideas. These outputs are based on the information that has been processed and the individual’s goals and motivations.

This has led to models showing information flowing through the cognitive system, such as the multi-store memory model.

The information processing approach also assumes that the mind has a limited capacity for processing information, similar to a computer’s memory and processing limitations.

This means that humans can only attend to and process a certain amount of information at a given time, and that cognitive processes can be slowed down or impaired when the mind is overloaded.

The Role of Schemas

A schema is a “packet of information” or cognitive framework that helps us organize and interpret information. It is based on previous experience.

Cognitive psychologists assume that people’s prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences shape their mental processes. They investigate how these factors influence perception, attention, memory, and thinking.

Schemas help us interpret incoming information quickly and effectively, preventing us from being overwhelmed by the vast amount of information we perceive in our environment.

Schemas can often affect cognitive processing (a mental framework of beliefs and expectations developed from experience). As people age, they become more detailed and sophisticated.

However, it can also lead to distortion of this information as we select and interpret environmental stimuli using schemas that might not be relevant.

This could be the cause of inaccuracies in areas such as eyewitness testimony. It can also explain some errors we make when perceiving optical illusions.

1. Behaviorist Critique

B.F. Skinner criticizes the cognitive approach. He believes that only external stimulus-response behavior should be studied, as this can be scientifically measured.

Therefore, mediation processes (between stimulus and response) do not exist as they cannot be seen and measured.

Behaviorism assumes that people are born a blank slate (tabula rasa) and are not born with cognitive functions like schemas , memory or perception .

Due to its subjective and unscientific nature, Skinner continues to find problems with cognitive research methods, namely introspection (as used by Wilhelm Wundt).

2. Complexity of mental experiences

Mental processes are highly complex and multifaceted, involving a wide range of cognitive, affective, and motivational factors that interact in intricate ways.

The complexity of mental experiences makes it difficult to isolate and study specific mental processes in a controlled manner.

Mental processes are often influenced by individual differences, such as personality, culture, and past experiences, which can introduce variability and confounds in research .

3. Experimental Methods 

While controlled experiments are the gold standard in cognitive psychology research, they may not always capture real-world mental processes’ complexity and ecological validity.

Some mental processes, such as creativity or decision-making in complex situations, may be difficult to study in laboratory settings.

Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers believes that using laboratory experiments by cognitive psychology has low ecological validity and creates an artificial environment due to the control over variables .

Rogers emphasizes a more holistic approach to understanding behavior.

The cognitive approach uses a very scientific method that is controlled and replicable, so the results are reliable.

However, experiments lack ecological validity because of the artificiality of the tasks and environment, so they might not reflect the way people process information in their everyday lives.

For example, Baddeley (1966) used lists of words to find out the encoding used by LTM.

However, these words had no meaning to the participants, so the way they used their memory in this task was probably very different from what they would have done if the words had meaning for them.

This is a weakness, as the theories might not explain how memory works outside the laboratory.

4. Computer Analogy

The information processing paradigm of cognitive psychology views the minds in terms of a computer when processing information.

However, although there are similarities between the human mind and the operations of a computer (inputs and outputs, storage systems, and the use of a central processor), the computer analogy has been criticized.

For example, the human mind is characterized by consciousness, subjective experience, and self-awareness , which are not present in computers.

Computers do not have feelings, emotions, or a sense of self, which play crucial roles in human cognition and behavior.

The brain-computer metaphor is often used implicitly in neuroscience literature through terms like “sensory computation,” “algorithms,” and “neural codes.” However, it is difficult to identify these concepts in the actual brain.

5. Reductionist

The cognitive approach is reductionist as it does not consider emotions and motivation, which influence the processing of information and memory. For example, according to the Yerkes-Dodson law , anxiety can influence our memory.

Such machine reductionism (simplicity) ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information.

Early theories of cognitive approach did not always recognize physical ( biological psychology ) and environmental (behaviorist approach) factors in determining behavior.

However, it’s important to note that modern cognitive psychology has evolved to incorporate a more holistic understanding of human cognition and behavior.

1. Importance of cognitive factors versus external events

Cognitive psychology emphasizes the role of internal cognitive processes in shaping emotional experiences, rather than solely focusing on external events.

Beck’s cognitive theory suggests that it is not the external events themselves that lead to depression, but rather the way an individual interprets and processes those events through their negative schemas.

This highlights the importance of addressing cognitive factors in the treatment of depression and other mental health issues.

Social exchange theory (Thibaut & Kelly, 1959) emphasizes that relationships are formed through internal mental processes, such as decision-making, rather than solely based on external factors.

The computer analogy can be applied to this concept, where individuals observe behaviors (input), process the costs and benefits (processing), and then make a decision about the relationship (output).

2. Interdisciplinary approach

While early cognitive psychology may have neglected physical and environmental factors, contemporary cognitive psychology has increasingly integrated insights from other approaches.

Cognitive psychology draws on methods and findings from other scientific disciplines, such as neuroscience , computer science, and linguistics, to inform their understanding of mental processes.

This interdisciplinary approach strengthens the scientific basis of cognitive psychology.

Cognitive psychology has influenced and integrated with many other approaches and areas of study to produce, for example, social learning theory , cognitive neuropsychology, and artificial intelligence (AI).

3. Real World Applications

Another strength is that the research conducted in this area of psychology very often has applications in the real world.

By highlighting the importance of cognitive processing, the cognitive approach can explain mental disorders such as depression.

Beck’s cognitive theory of depression argues that negative schemas about the self, the world, and the future are central to the development and maintenance of depression.

These negative schemas lead to biased processing of information, selective attention to negative aspects of experience, and distorted interpretations of events, which perpetuate the depressive state.

By identifying the role of cognitive processes in mental disorders, cognitive psychology has informed the development of targeted interventions.

Cognitive behavioral therapy aims to modify the maladaptive thought patterns and beliefs that underlie emotional distress, helping individuals to develop more balanced and adaptive ways of thinking.

CBT’s basis is to change how people process their thoughts to make them more rational or positive.

Through techniques such as cognitive restructuring, behavioral experiments, and guided discovery, CBT helps individuals to challenge and change their negative schemas, leading to improvements in mood and functioning.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been very effective in treating depression (Hollon & Beck, 1994), and moderately effective for anxiety problems (Beck, 1993). 

Issues and Debates

Free will vs. determinism.

The cognitive approach’s position is unclear. It argues that cognitive processes are influenced by experiences and schemas, which implies a degree of determinism.

On the other hand, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) operates on the premise that individuals can change their thought patterns, suggesting a capacity for free will.

Nature vs. Nurture

The cognitive approach takes an interactionist view of the debate, acknowledging the influence of both nature and nurture on cognitive processes.

It recognizes that while some cognitive abilities, such as language acquisition, may have an innate component (nature), experiences and learning (nurture) also shape the way information is processed.

Holism vs. Reductionism

The cognitive approach tends to be reductionist in its methodology, as it often studies cognitive processes in isolation.

For example, researchers may focus on memory processes without considering the influence of other cognitive functions or environmental factors.

While this approach allows for more controlled study, it may lack ecological validity, as in real life, cognitive processes typically interact and function simultaneously.

Idiographic vs. Nomothetic

The cognitive approach is primarily nomothetic, as it seeks to establish general principles and theories of information processing that apply to all individuals.

It aims to identify universal patterns and mechanisms of cognition rather than focusing on individual differences.

History of Cognitive Psychology

• Wolfgang Köhler (1925) – Köhler’s book “The Mentality of Apes” challenged the behaviorist view by suggesting that animals could display insightful behavior, leading to the development of Gestalt psychology.
• Norbert Wiener (1948) – Wiener’s book “Cybernetics” introduced concepts such as input and output, which influenced the development of information processing models in cognitive psychology.
• Edward Tolman (1948) – Tolman’s work on cognitive maps in rats demonstrated that animals have an internal representation of their environment, challenging the behaviorist view.
• George Miller (1956) – Miller’s paper “The Magical Number 7 Plus or Minus 2” proposed that short-term memory has a limited capacity of around seven chunks of information, which became a foundational concept in cognitive psychology.
• Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon (1972) – Newell and Simon developed the General Problem Solver, a computer program that simulated human problem-solving, contributing to the growth of artificial intelligence and cognitive modeling.
• George Miller and Jerome Bruner (1960) – Miller and Bruner established the Center for Cognitive Studies at Harvard, which played a significant role in the development of cognitive psychology as a distinct field.
• Ulric Neisser (1967) – Neisser’s book “Cognitive Psychology” formally established cognitive psychology as a separate area of study, focusing on mental processes such as perception, memory, and thinking.
• Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) – Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed the Multi-Store Model of memory, which divided memory into sensory, short-term, and long-term stores, becoming a key model in the study of memory.
• Eleanor Rosch’s (1970s) research on natural categories and prototypes, which influenced the study of concept formation and categorization.
• Endel Tulving’s (1972) distinction between episodic and semantic memory, which further developed the understanding of long-term memory.
• Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) proposal of the Working Memory Model, which expanded on the concept of short-term memory and introduced the idea of a central executive.
• Marvin Minsky’s (1975) framework of frames in artificial intelligence, which influenced the understanding of knowledge representation in cognitive psychology.
• David Rumelhart and Andrew Ortony’s (1977) work on schema theory, which described how knowledge is organized and used for understanding and remembering information.
• Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman’s (1970s-80s) research on heuristics and biases in decision making, which led to the development of behavioral economics and the study of judgment and decision-making.
• David Marr’s (1982) computational theory of vision, which provided a framework for understanding visual perception and influenced the field of computational cognitive science.
• The development of connectionism and parallel distributed processing (PDP) models in the 1980s, which provided an alternative to traditional symbolic models of cognitive processes.
• Noam Chomsky’s (1980s) theory of Universal Grammar and the language acquisition device, which influenced the study of language and cognitive development.
• The emergence of cognitive neuroscience in the 1990s, which combined techniques from cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and computer science to study the neural basis of cognitive processes.

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Further Reading

• Why Your Brain is Not a Computer
• Cognitive Psychology Historial Development

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7 Module 7: Thinking, Reasoning, and Problem-Solving

This module is about how a solid working knowledge of psychological principles can help you to think more effectively, so you can succeed in school and life. You might be inclined to believe that—because you have been thinking for as long as you can remember, because you are able to figure out the solution to many problems, because you feel capable of using logic to argue a point, because you can evaluate whether the things you read and hear make sense—you do not need any special training in thinking. But this, of course, is one of the key barriers to helping people think better. If you do not believe that there is anything wrong, why try to fix it?

The human brain is indeed a remarkable thinking machine, capable of amazing, complex, creative, logical thoughts. Why, then, are we telling you that you need to learn how to think? Mainly because one major lesson from cognitive psychology is that these capabilities of the human brain are relatively infrequently realized. Many psychologists believe that people are essentially “cognitive misers.” It is not that we are lazy, but that we have a tendency to expend the least amount of mental effort necessary. Although you may not realize it, it actually takes a great deal of energy to think. Careful, deliberative reasoning and critical thinking are very difficult. Because we seem to be successful without going to the trouble of using these skills well, it feels unnecessary to develop them. As you shall see, however, there are many pitfalls in the cognitive processes described in this module. When people do not devote extra effort to learning and improving reasoning, problem solving, and critical thinking skills, they make many errors.

As is true for memory, if you develop the cognitive skills presented in this module, you will be more successful in school. It is important that you realize, however, that these skills will help you far beyond school, even more so than a good memory will. Although it is somewhat useful to have a good memory, ten years from now no potential employer will care how many questions you got right on multiple choice exams during college. All of them will, however, recognize whether you are a logical, analytical, critical thinker. With these thinking skills, you will be an effective, persuasive communicator and an excellent problem solver.

The module begins by describing different kinds of thought and knowledge, especially conceptual knowledge and critical thinking. An understanding of these differences will be valuable as you progress through school and encounter different assignments that require you to tap into different kinds of knowledge. The second section covers deductive and inductive reasoning, which are processes we use to construct and evaluate strong arguments. They are essential skills to have whenever you are trying to persuade someone (including yourself) of some point, or to respond to someone’s efforts to persuade you. The module ends with a section about problem solving. A solid understanding of the key processes involved in problem solving will help you to handle many daily challenges.

7.1. Different kinds of thought

7.2. Reasoning and Judgment

7.3. Problem Solving

READING WITH PURPOSE

Remember and understand.

By reading and studying Module 7, you should be able to remember and describe:

• Concepts and inferences (7.1)
• Procedural knowledge (7.1)
• Metacognition (7.1)
• Characteristics of critical thinking:  skepticism; identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions; reasoning and problem solving skills  (7.1)
• Reasoning:  deductive reasoning, deductively valid argument, inductive reasoning, inductively strong argument, availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic  (7.2)
• Fixation:  functional fixedness, mental set  (7.3)
• Algorithms, heuristics, and the role of confirmation bias (7.3)
• Effective problem solving sequence (7.3)

By reading and thinking about how the concepts in Module 6 apply to real life, you should be able to:

• Identify which type of knowledge a piece of information is (7.1)
• Recognize examples of deductive and inductive reasoning (7.2)
• Recognize judgments that have probably been influenced by the availability heuristic (7.2)
• Recognize examples of problem solving heuristics and algorithms (7.3)

Analyze, Evaluate, and Create

By reading and thinking about Module 6, participating in classroom activities, and completing out-of-class assignments, you should be able to:

• Use the principles of critical thinking to evaluate information (7.1)
• Explain whether examples of reasoning arguments are deductively valid or inductively strong (7.2)
• Outline how you could try to solve a problem from your life using the effective problem solving sequence (7.3)

7.1. Different kinds of thought and knowledge

• Take a few minutes to write down everything that you know about dogs.
• Do you believe that:
• Psychic ability exists?
• Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness?
• Magnet therapy is effective for relieving pain?
• Aerobic exercise is an effective treatment for depression?
• UFO’s from outer space have visited earth?

On what do you base your belief or disbelief for the questions above?

Of course, we all know what is meant by the words  think  and  knowledge . You probably also realize that they are not unitary concepts; there are different kinds of thought and knowledge. In this section, let us look at some of these differences. If you are familiar with these different kinds of thought and pay attention to them in your classes, it will help you to focus on the right goals, learn more effectively, and succeed in school. Different assignments and requirements in school call on you to use different kinds of knowledge or thought, so it will be very helpful for you to learn to recognize them (Anderson, et al. 2001).

Factual and conceptual knowledge

Module 5 introduced the idea of declarative memory, which is composed of facts and episodes. If you have ever played a trivia game or watched Jeopardy on TV, you realize that the human brain is able to hold an extraordinary number of facts. Likewise, you realize that each of us has an enormous store of episodes, essentially facts about events that happened in our own lives. It may be difficult to keep that in mind when we are struggling to retrieve one of those facts while taking an exam, however. Part of the problem is that, in contradiction to the advice from Module 5, many students continue to try to memorize course material as a series of unrelated facts (picture a history student simply trying to memorize history as a set of unrelated dates without any coherent story tying them together). Facts in the real world are not random and unorganized, however. It is the way that they are organized that constitutes a second key kind of knowledge, conceptual.

Concepts are nothing more than our mental representations of categories of things in the world. For example, think about dogs. When you do this, you might remember specific facts about dogs, such as they have fur and they bark. You may also recall dogs that you have encountered and picture them in your mind. All of this information (and more) makes up your concept of dog. You can have concepts of simple categories (e.g., triangle), complex categories (e.g., small dogs that sleep all day, eat out of the garbage, and bark at leaves), kinds of people (e.g., psychology professors), events (e.g., birthday parties), and abstract ideas (e.g., justice). Gregory Murphy (2002) refers to concepts as the “glue that holds our mental life together” (p. 1). Very simply, summarizing the world by using concepts is one of the most important cognitive tasks that we do. Our conceptual knowledge  is  our knowledge about the world. Individual concepts are related to each other to form a rich interconnected network of knowledge. For example, think about how the following concepts might be related to each other: dog, pet, play, Frisbee, chew toy, shoe. Or, of more obvious use to you now, how these concepts are related: working memory, long-term memory, declarative memory, procedural memory, and rehearsal? Because our minds have a natural tendency to organize information conceptually, when students try to remember course material as isolated facts, they are working against their strengths.

One last important point about concepts is that they allow you to instantly know a great deal of information about something. For example, if someone hands you a small red object and says, “here is an apple,” they do not have to tell you, “it is something you can eat.” You already know that you can eat it because it is true by virtue of the fact that the object is an apple; this is called drawing an  inference , assuming that something is true on the basis of your previous knowledge (for example, of category membership or of how the world works) or logical reasoning.

Procedural knowledge

Physical skills, such as tying your shoes, doing a cartwheel, and driving a car (or doing all three at the same time, but don’t try this at home) are certainly a kind of knowledge. They are procedural knowledge, the same idea as procedural memory that you saw in Module 5. Mental skills, such as reading, debating, and planning a psychology experiment, are procedural knowledge, as well. In short, procedural knowledge is the knowledge how to do something (Cohen & Eichenbaum, 1993).

Metacognitive knowledge

Floyd used to think that he had a great memory. Now, he has a better memory. Why? Because he finally realized that his memory was not as great as he once thought it was. Because Floyd eventually learned that he often forgets where he put things, he finally developed the habit of putting things in the same place. (Unfortunately, he did not learn this lesson before losing at least 5 watches and a wedding ring.) Because he finally realized that he often forgets to do things, he finally started using the To Do list app on his phone. And so on. Floyd’s insights about the real limitations of his memory have allowed him to remember things that he used to forget.

All of us have knowledge about the way our own minds work. You may know that you have a good memory for people’s names and a poor memory for math formulas. Someone else might realize that they have difficulty remembering to do things, like stopping at the store on the way home. Others still know that they tend to overlook details. This knowledge about our own thinking is actually quite important; it is called metacognitive knowledge, or  metacognition . Like other kinds of thinking skills, it is subject to error. For example, in unpublished research, one of the authors surveyed about 120 General Psychology students on the first day of the term. Among other questions, the students were asked them to predict their grade in the class and report their current Grade Point Average. Two-thirds of the students predicted that their grade in the course would be higher than their GPA. (The reality is that at our college, students tend to earn lower grades in psychology than their overall GPA.) Another example: Students routinely report that they thought they had done well on an exam, only to discover, to their dismay, that they were wrong (more on that important problem in a moment). Both errors reveal a breakdown in metacognition.

The Dunning-Kruger Effect

In general, most college students probably do not study enough. For example, using data from the National Survey of Student Engagement, Fosnacht, McCormack, and Lerma (2018) reported that first-year students at 4-year colleges in the U.S. averaged less than 14 hours per week preparing for classes. The typical suggestion is that you should spend two hours outside of class for every hour in class, or 24 – 30 hours per week for a full-time student. Clearly, students in general are nowhere near that recommended mark. Many observers, including some faculty, believe that this shortfall is a result of students being too busy or lazy. Now, it may be true that many students are too busy, with work and family obligations, for example. Others, are not particularly motivated in school, and therefore might correctly be labeled lazy. A third possible explanation, however, is that some students might not think they need to spend this much time. And this is a matter of metacognition. Consider the scenario that we mentioned above, students thinking they had done well on an exam only to discover that they did not. Justin Kruger and David Dunning examined scenarios very much like this in 1999. Kruger and Dunning gave research participants tests measuring humor, logic, and grammar. Then, they asked the participants to assess their own abilities and test performance in these areas. They found that participants in general tended to overestimate their abilities, already a problem with metacognition. Importantly, the participants who scored the lowest overestimated their abilities the most. Specifically, students who scored in the bottom quarter (averaging in the 12th percentile) thought they had scored in the 62nd percentile. This has become known as the  Dunning-Kruger effect . Many individual faculty members have replicated these results with their own student on their course exams, including the authors of this book. Think about it. Some students who just took an exam and performed poorly believe that they did well before seeing their score. It seems very likely that these are the very same students who stopped studying the night before because they thought they were “done.” Quite simply, it is not just that they did not know the material. They did not know that they did not know the material. That is poor metacognition.

In order to develop good metacognitive skills, you should continually monitor your thinking and seek frequent feedback on the accuracy of your thinking (Medina, Castleberry, & Persky 2017). For example, in classes get in the habit of predicting your exam grades. As soon as possible after taking an exam, try to find out which questions you missed and try to figure out why. If you do this soon enough, you may be able to recall the way it felt when you originally answered the question. Did you feel confident that you had answered the question correctly? Then you have just discovered an opportunity to improve your metacognition. Be on the lookout for that feeling and respond with caution.

concept :  a mental representation of a category of things in the world

Dunning-Kruger effect : individuals who are less competent tend to overestimate their abilities more than individuals who are more competent do

inference : an assumption about the truth of something that is not stated. Inferences come from our prior knowledge and experience, and from logical reasoning

metacognition :  knowledge about one’s own cognitive processes; thinking about your thinking

Critical thinking

One particular kind of knowledge or thinking skill that is related to metacognition is  critical thinking (Chew, 2020). You may have noticed that critical thinking is an objective in many college courses, and thus it could be a legitimate topic to cover in nearly any college course. It is particularly appropriate in psychology, however. As the science of (behavior and) mental processes, psychology is obviously well suited to be the discipline through which you should be introduced to this important way of thinking.

More importantly, there is a particular need to use critical thinking in psychology. We are all, in a way, experts in human behavior and mental processes, having engaged in them literally since birth. Thus, perhaps more than in any other class, students typically approach psychology with very clear ideas and opinions about its subject matter. That is, students already “know” a lot about psychology. The problem is, “it ain’t so much the things we don’t know that get us into trouble. It’s the things we know that just ain’t so” (Ward, quoted in Gilovich 1991). Indeed, many of students’ preconceptions about psychology are just plain wrong. Randolph Smith (2002) wrote a book about critical thinking in psychology called  Challenging Your Preconceptions,  highlighting this fact. On the other hand, many of students’ preconceptions about psychology are just plain right! But wait, how do you know which of your preconceptions are right and which are wrong? And when you come across a research finding or theory in this class that contradicts your preconceptions, what will you do? Will you stick to your original idea, discounting the information from the class? Will you immediately change your mind? Critical thinking can help us sort through this confusing mess.

But what is critical thinking? The goal of critical thinking is simple to state (but extraordinarily difficult to achieve): it is to be right, to draw the correct conclusions, to believe in things that are true and to disbelieve things that are false. We will provide two definitions of critical thinking (or, if you like, one large definition with two distinct parts). First, a more conceptual one: Critical thinking is thinking like a scientist in your everyday life (Schmaltz, Jansen, & Wenckowski, 2017).  Our second definition is more operational; it is simply a list of skills that are essential to be a critical thinker. Critical thinking entails solid reasoning and problem solving skills; skepticism; and an ability to identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions. Excellent deductive and inductive reasoning, and problem solving skills contribute to critical thinking. So, you can consider the subject matter of sections 7.2 and 7.3 to be part of critical thinking. Because we will be devoting considerable time to these concepts in the rest of the module, let us begin with a discussion about the other aspects of critical thinking.

Let’s address that first part of the definition. Scientists form hypotheses, or predictions about some possible future observations. Then, they collect data, or information (think of this as making those future observations). They do their best to make unbiased observations using reliable techniques that have been verified by others. Then, and only then, they draw a conclusion about what those observations mean. Oh, and do not forget the most important part. “Conclusion” is probably not the most appropriate word because this conclusion is only tentative. A scientist is always prepared that someone else might come along and produce new observations that would require a new conclusion be drawn. Wow! If you like to be right, you could do a lot worse than using a process like this.

A Critical Thinker’s Toolkit 

Now for the second part of the definition. Good critical thinkers (and scientists) rely on a variety of tools to evaluate information. Perhaps the most recognizable tool for critical thinking is  skepticism (and this term provides the clearest link to the thinking like a scientist definition, as you are about to see). Some people intend it as an insult when they call someone a skeptic. But if someone calls you a skeptic, if they are using the term correctly, you should consider it a great compliment. Simply put, skepticism is a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided. People from Missouri should recognize this principle, as Missouri is known as the Show-Me State. As a skeptic, you are not inclined to believe something just because someone said so, because someone else believes it, or because it sounds reasonable. You must be persuaded by high quality evidence.

Of course, if that evidence is produced, you have a responsibility as a skeptic to change your belief. Failure to change a belief in the face of good evidence is not skepticism; skepticism has open mindedness at its core. M. Neil Browne and Stuart Keeley (2018) use the term weak sense critical thinking to describe critical thinking behaviors that are used only to strengthen a prior belief. Strong sense critical thinking, on the other hand, has as its goal reaching the best conclusion. Sometimes that means strengthening your prior belief, but sometimes it means changing your belief to accommodate the better evidence.

Many times, a failure to think critically or weak sense critical thinking is related to a  bias , an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice. Everybody has biases, but many people are unaware of them. Awareness of your own biases gives you the opportunity to control or counteract them. Unfortunately, however, many people are happy to let their biases creep into their attempts to persuade others; indeed, it is a key part of their persuasive strategy. To see how these biases influence messages, just look at the different descriptions and explanations of the same events given by people of different ages or income brackets, or conservative versus liberal commentators, or by commentators from different parts of the world. Of course, to be successful, these people who are consciously using their biases must disguise them. Even undisguised biases can be difficult to identify, so disguised ones can be nearly impossible.

Here are some common sources of biases:

• Personal values and beliefs.  Some people believe that human beings are basically driven to seek power and that they are typically in competition with one another over scarce resources. These beliefs are similar to the world-view that political scientists call “realism.” Other people believe that human beings prefer to cooperate and that, given the chance, they will do so. These beliefs are similar to the world-view known as “idealism.” For many people, these deeply held beliefs can influence, or bias, their interpretations of such wide ranging situations as the behavior of nations and their leaders or the behavior of the driver in the car ahead of you. For example, if your worldview is that people are typically in competition and someone cuts you off on the highway, you may assume that the driver did it purposely to get ahead of you. Other types of beliefs about the way the world is or the way the world should be, for example, political beliefs, can similarly become a significant source of bias.
• Racism, sexism, ageism and other forms of prejudice and bigotry.  These are, sadly, a common source of bias in many people. They are essentially a special kind of “belief about the way the world is.” These beliefs—for example, that women do not make effective leaders—lead people to ignore contradictory evidence (examples of effective women leaders, or research that disputes the belief) and to interpret ambiguous evidence in a way consistent with the belief.
• Self-interest.  When particular people benefit from things turning out a certain way, they can sometimes be very susceptible to letting that interest bias them. For example, a company that will earn a profit if they sell their product may have a bias in the way that they give information about their product. A union that will benefit if its members get a generous contract might have a bias in the way it presents information about salaries at competing organizations. (Note that our inclusion of examples describing both companies and unions is an explicit attempt to control for our own personal biases). Home buyers are often dismayed to discover that they purchased their dream house from someone whose self-interest led them to lie about flooding problems in the basement or back yard. This principle, the biasing power of self-interest, is likely what led to the famous phrase  Caveat Emptor  (let the buyer beware) .  

Knowing that these types of biases exist will help you evaluate evidence more critically. Do not forget, though, that people are not always keen to let you discover the sources of biases in their arguments. For example, companies or political organizations can sometimes disguise their support of a research study by contracting with a university professor, who comes complete with a seemingly unbiased institutional affiliation, to conduct the study.

People’s biases, conscious or unconscious, can lead them to make omissions, distortions, and assumptions that undermine our ability to correctly evaluate evidence. It is essential that you look for these elements. Always ask, what is missing, what is not as it appears, and what is being assumed here? For example, consider this (fictional) chart from an ad reporting customer satisfaction at 4 local health clubs.

Clearly, from the results of the chart, one would be tempted to give Club C a try, as customer satisfaction is much higher than for the other 3 clubs.

There are so many distortions and omissions in this chart, however, that it is actually quite meaningless. First, how was satisfaction measured? Do the bars represent responses to a survey? If so, how were the questions asked? Most importantly, where is the missing scale for the chart? Although the differences look quite large, are they really?

Well, here is the same chart, with a different scale, this time labeled:

Club C is not so impressive any more, is it? In fact, all of the health clubs have customer satisfaction ratings (whatever that means) between 85% and 88%. In the first chart, the entire scale of the graph included only the percentages between 83 and 89. This “judicious” choice of scale—some would call it a distortion—and omission of that scale from the chart make the tiny differences among the clubs seem important, however.

Also, in order to be a critical thinker, you need to learn to pay attention to the assumptions that underlie a message. Let us briefly illustrate the role of assumptions by touching on some people’s beliefs about the criminal justice system in the US. Some believe that a major problem with our judicial system is that many criminals go free because of legal technicalities. Others believe that a major problem is that many innocent people are convicted of crimes. The simple fact is, both types of errors occur. A person’s conclusion about which flaw in our judicial system is the greater tragedy is based on an assumption about which of these is the more serious error (letting the guilty go free or convicting the innocent). This type of assumption is called a value assumption (Browne and Keeley, 2018). It reflects the differences in values that people develop, differences that may lead us to disregard valid evidence that does not fit in with our particular values.

Oh, by the way, some students probably noticed this, but the seven tips for evaluating information that we shared in Module 1 are related to this. Actually, they are part of this section. The tips are, to a very large degree, set of ideas you can use to help you identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions. If you do not remember this section, we strongly recommend you take a few minutes to review it.

skepticism :  a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided

bias : an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice

• Which of your beliefs (or disbeliefs) from the Activate exercise for this section were derived from a process of critical thinking? If some of your beliefs were not based on critical thinking, are you willing to reassess these beliefs? If the answer is no, why do you think that is? If the answer is yes, what concrete steps will you take?

7.2 Reasoning and Judgment

• What percentage of kidnappings are committed by strangers?
• Which area of the house is riskiest: kitchen, bathroom, or stairs?
• What is the most common cancer in the US?
• What percentage of workplace homicides are committed by co-workers?

An essential set of procedural thinking skills is  reasoning , the ability to generate and evaluate solid conclusions from a set of statements or evidence. You should note that these conclusions (when they are generated instead of being evaluated) are one key type of inference that we described in Section 7.1. There are two main types of reasoning, deductive and inductive.

Deductive reasoning

Suppose your teacher tells you that if you get an A on the final exam in a course, you will get an A for the whole course. Then, you get an A on the final exam. What will your final course grade be? Most people can see instantly that you can conclude with certainty that you will get an A for the course. This is a type of reasoning called  deductive reasoning , which is defined as reasoning in which a conclusion is guaranteed to be true as long as the statements leading to it are true. The three statements can be listed as an  argument , with two beginning statements and a conclusion:

Statement 1: If you get an A on the final exam, you will get an A for the course

Statement 2: You get an A on the final exam

Conclusion: You will get an A for the course

This particular arrangement, in which true beginning statements lead to a guaranteed true conclusion, is known as a  deductively valid argument . Although deductive reasoning is often the subject of abstract, brain-teasing, puzzle-like word problems, it is actually an extremely important type of everyday reasoning. It is just hard to recognize sometimes. For example, imagine that you are looking for your car keys and you realize that they are either in the kitchen drawer or in your book bag. After looking in the kitchen drawer, you instantly know that they must be in your book bag. That conclusion results from a simple deductive reasoning argument. In addition, solid deductive reasoning skills are necessary for you to succeed in the sciences, philosophy, math, computer programming, and any endeavor involving the use of logic to persuade others to your point of view or to evaluate others’ arguments.

Cognitive psychologists, and before them philosophers, have been quite interested in deductive reasoning, not so much for its practical applications, but for the insights it can offer them about the ways that human beings think. One of the early ideas to emerge from the examination of deductive reasoning is that people learn (or develop) mental versions of rules that allow them to solve these types of reasoning problems (Braine, 1978; Braine, Reiser, & Rumain, 1984). The best way to see this point of view is to realize that there are different possible rules, and some of them are very simple. For example, consider this rule of logic:

therefore q

Logical rules are often presented abstractly, as letters, in order to imply that they can be used in very many specific situations. Here is a concrete version of the of the same rule:

I’ll either have pizza or a hamburger for dinner tonight (p or q)

I won’t have pizza (not p)

Therefore, I’ll have a hamburger (therefore q)

This kind of reasoning seems so natural, so easy, that it is quite plausible that we would use a version of this rule in our daily lives. At least, it seems more plausible than some of the alternative possibilities—for example, that we need to have experience with the specific situation (pizza or hamburger, in this case) in order to solve this type of problem easily. So perhaps there is a form of natural logic (Rips, 1990) that contains very simple versions of logical rules. When we are faced with a reasoning problem that maps onto one of these rules, we use the rule.

But be very careful; things are not always as easy as they seem. Even these simple rules are not so simple. For example, consider the following rule. Many people fail to realize that this rule is just as valid as the pizza or hamburger rule above.

if p, then q

therefore, not p

Concrete version:

If I eat dinner, then I will have dessert

I did not have dessert

Therefore, I did not eat dinner

The simple fact is, it can be very difficult for people to apply rules of deductive logic correctly; as a result, they make many errors when trying to do so. Is this a deductively valid argument or not?

Students who like school study a lot

Students who study a lot get good grades

Jane does not like school

Therefore, Jane does not get good grades

Many people are surprised to discover that this is not a logically valid argument; the conclusion is not guaranteed to be true from the beginning statements. Although the first statement says that students who like school study a lot, it does NOT say that students who do not like school do not study a lot. In other words, it may very well be possible to study a lot without liking school. Even people who sometimes get problems like this right might not be using the rules of deductive reasoning. Instead, they might just be making judgments for examples they know, in this case, remembering instances of people who get good grades despite not liking school.

Making deductive reasoning even more difficult is the fact that there are two important properties that an argument may have. One, it can be valid or invalid (meaning that the conclusion does or does not follow logically from the statements leading up to it). Two, an argument (or more correctly, its conclusion) can be true or false. Here is an example of an argument that is logically valid, but has a false conclusion (at least we think it is false).

Either you are eleven feet tall or the Grand Canyon was created by a spaceship crashing into the earth.

You are not eleven feet tall

Therefore the Grand Canyon was created by a spaceship crashing into the earth

This argument has the exact same form as the pizza or hamburger argument above, making it is deductively valid. The conclusion is so false, however, that it is absurd (of course, the reason the conclusion is false is that the first statement is false). When people are judging arguments, they tend to not observe the difference between deductive validity and the empirical truth of statements or conclusions. If the elements of an argument happen to be true, people are likely to judge the argument logically valid; if the elements are false, they will very likely judge it invalid (Markovits & Bouffard-Bouchard, 1992; Moshman & Franks, 1986). Thus, it seems a stretch to say that people are using these logical rules to judge the validity of arguments. Many psychologists believe that most people actually have very limited deductive reasoning skills (Johnson-Laird, 1999). They argue that when faced with a problem for which deductive logic is required, people resort to some simpler technique, such as matching terms that appear in the statements and the conclusion (Evans, 1982). This might not seem like a problem, but what if reasoners believe that the elements are true and they happen to be wrong; they will would believe that they are using a form of reasoning that guarantees they are correct and yet be wrong.

deductive reasoning :  a type of reasoning in which the conclusion is guaranteed to be true any time the statements leading up to it are true

argument :  a set of statements in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion

deductively valid argument :  an argument for which true beginning statements guarantee that the conclusion is true

Inductive reasoning and judgment

Every day, you make many judgments about the likelihood of one thing or another. Whether you realize it or not, you are practicing  inductive reasoning   on a daily basis. In inductive reasoning arguments, a conclusion is likely whenever the statements preceding it are true. The first thing to notice about inductive reasoning is that, by definition, you can never be sure about your conclusion; you can only estimate how likely the conclusion is. Inductive reasoning may lead you to focus on Memory Encoding and Recoding when you study for the exam, but it is possible the instructor will ask more questions about Memory Retrieval instead. Unlike deductive reasoning, the conclusions you reach through inductive reasoning are only probable, not certain. That is why scientists consider inductive reasoning weaker than deductive reasoning. But imagine how hard it would be for us to function if we could not act unless we were certain about the outcome.

Inductive reasoning can be represented as logical arguments consisting of statements and a conclusion, just as deductive reasoning can be. In an inductive argument, you are given some statements and a conclusion (or you are given some statements and must draw a conclusion). An argument is  inductively strong   if the conclusion would be very probable whenever the statements are true. So, for example, here is an inductively strong argument:

• Statement #1: The forecaster on Channel 2 said it is going to rain today.
• Statement #2: The forecaster on Channel 5 said it is going to rain today.
• Statement #3: It is very cloudy and humid.
• Statement #4: You just heard thunder.
• Conclusion (or judgment): It is going to rain today.

Think of the statements as evidence, on the basis of which you will draw a conclusion. So, based on the evidence presented in the four statements, it is very likely that it will rain today. Will it definitely rain today? Certainly not. We can all think of times that the weather forecaster was wrong.

A true story: Some years ago psychology student was watching a baseball playoff game between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Los Angeles Dodgers. A graphic on the screen had just informed the audience that the Cardinal at bat, (Hall of Fame shortstop) Ozzie Smith, a switch hitter batting left-handed for this plate appearance, had never, in nearly 3000 career at-bats, hit a home run left-handed. The student, who had just learned about inductive reasoning in his psychology class, turned to his companion (a Cardinals fan) and smugly said, “It is an inductively strong argument that Ozzie Smith will not hit a home run.” He turned back to face the television just in time to watch the ball sail over the right field fence for a home run. Although the student felt foolish at the time, he was not wrong. It was an inductively strong argument; 3000 at-bats is an awful lot of evidence suggesting that the Wizard of Ozz (as he was known) would not be hitting one out of the park (think of each at-bat without a home run as a statement in an inductive argument). Sadly (for the die-hard Cubs fan and Cardinals-hating student), despite the strength of the argument, the conclusion was wrong.

Given the possibility that we might draw an incorrect conclusion even with an inductively strong argument, we really want to be sure that we do, in fact, make inductively strong arguments. If we judge something probable, it had better be probable. If we judge something nearly impossible, it had better not happen. Think of inductive reasoning, then, as making reasonably accurate judgments of the probability of some conclusion given a set of evidence.

We base many decisions in our lives on inductive reasoning. For example:

Statement #1: Psychology is not my best subject

Statement #2: My psychology instructor has a reputation for giving difficult exams

Statement #3: My first psychology exam was much harder than I expected

Judgment: The next exam will probably be very difficult.

Decision: I will study tonight instead of watching Netflix.

Some other examples of judgments that people commonly make in a school context include judgments of the likelihood that:

• A particular class will be interesting/useful/difficult
• You will be able to finish writing a paper by next week if you go out tonight
• Your laptop’s battery will last through the next trip to the library
• You will not miss anything important if you skip class tomorrow
• Your instructor will not notice if you skip class tomorrow
• You will be able to find a book that you will need for a paper
• There will be an essay question about Memory Encoding on the next exam

Tversky and Kahneman (1983) recognized that there are two general ways that we might make these judgments; they termed them extensional (i.e., following the laws of probability) and intuitive (i.e., using shortcuts or heuristics, see below). We will use a similar distinction between Type 1 and Type 2 thinking, as described by Keith Stanovich and his colleagues (Evans and Stanovich, 2013; Stanovich and West, 2000). Type 1 thinking is fast, automatic, effortful, and emotional. In fact, it is hardly fair to call it reasoning at all, as judgments just seem to pop into one’s head. Type 2 thinking , on the other hand, is slow, effortful, and logical. So obviously, it is more likely to lead to a correct judgment, or an optimal decision. The problem is, we tend to over-rely on Type 1. Now, we are not saying that Type 2 is the right way to go for every decision or judgment we make. It seems a bit much, for example, to engage in a step-by-step logical reasoning procedure to decide whether we will have chicken or fish for dinner tonight.

Many bad decisions in some very important contexts, however, can be traced back to poor judgments of the likelihood of certain risks or outcomes that result from the use of Type 1 when a more logical reasoning process would have been more appropriate. For example:

Statement #1: It is late at night.

Statement #2: Albert has been drinking beer for the past five hours at a party.

Statement #3: Albert is not exactly sure where he is or how far away home is.

Judgment: Albert will have no difficulty walking home.

Decision: He walks home alone.

As you can see in this example, the three statements backing up the judgment do not really support it. In other words, this argument is not inductively strong because it is based on judgments that ignore the laws of probability. What are the chances that someone facing these conditions will be able to walk home alone easily? And one need not be drunk to make poor decisions based on judgments that just pop into our heads.

The truth is that many of our probability judgments do not come very close to what the laws of probability say they should be. Think about it. In order for us to reason in accordance with these laws, we would need to know the laws of probability, which would allow us to calculate the relationship between particular pieces of evidence and the probability of some outcome (i.e., how much likelihood should change given a piece of evidence), and we would have to do these heavy math calculations in our heads. After all, that is what Type 2 requires. Needless to say, even if we were motivated, we often do not even know how to apply Type 2 reasoning in many cases.

So what do we do when we don’t have the knowledge, skills, or time required to make the correct mathematical judgment? Do we hold off and wait until we can get better evidence? Do we read up on probability and fire up our calculator app so we can compute the correct probability? Of course not. We rely on Type 1 thinking. We “wing it.” That is, we come up with a likelihood estimate using some means at our disposal. Psychologists use the term heuristic to describe the type of “winging it” we are talking about. A  heuristic   is a shortcut strategy that we use to make some judgment or solve some problem (see Section 7.3). Heuristics are easy and quick, think of them as the basic procedures that are characteristic of Type 1.  They can absolutely lead to reasonably good judgments and decisions in some situations (like choosing between chicken and fish for dinner). They are, however, far from foolproof. There are, in fact, quite a lot of situations in which heuristics can lead us to make incorrect judgments, and in many cases the decisions based on those judgments can have serious consequences.

Let us return to the activity that begins this section. You were asked to judge the likelihood (or frequency) of certain events and risks. You were free to come up with your own evidence (or statements) to make these judgments. This is where a heuristic crops up. As a judgment shortcut, we tend to generate specific examples of those very events to help us decide their likelihood or frequency. For example, if we are asked to judge how common, frequent, or likely a particular type of cancer is, many of our statements would be examples of specific cancer cases:

Statement #1: Andy Kaufman (comedian) had lung cancer.

Statement #2: Colin Powell (US Secretary of State) had prostate cancer.

Statement #3: Bob Marley (musician) had skin and brain cancer

Statement #4: Sandra Day O’Connor (Supreme Court Justice) had breast cancer.

Statement #5: Fred Rogers (children’s entertainer) had stomach cancer.

Statement #6: Robin Roberts (news anchor) had breast cancer.

Statement #7: Bette Davis (actress) had breast cancer.

Judgment: Breast cancer is the most common type.

Your own experience or memory may also tell you that breast cancer is the most common type. But it is not (although it is common). Actually, skin cancer is the most common type in the US. We make the same types of misjudgments all the time because we do not generate the examples or evidence according to their actual frequencies or probabilities. Instead, we have a tendency (or bias) to search for the examples in memory; if they are easy to retrieve, we assume that they are common. To rephrase this in the language of the heuristic, events seem more likely to the extent that they are available to memory. This bias has been termed the  availability heuristic   (Kahneman and Tversky, 1974).

The fact that we use the availability heuristic does not automatically mean that our judgment is wrong. The reason we use heuristics in the first place is that they work fairly well in many cases (and, of course that they are easy to use). So, the easiest examples to think of sometimes are the most common ones. Is it more likely that a member of the U.S. Senate is a man or a woman? Most people have a much easier time generating examples of male senators. And as it turns out, the U.S. Senate has many more men than women (74 to 26 in 2020). In this case, then, the availability heuristic would lead you to make the correct judgment; it is far more likely that a senator would be a man.

In many other cases, however, the availability heuristic will lead us astray. This is because events can be memorable for many reasons other than their frequency. Section 5.2, Encoding Meaning, suggested that one good way to encode the meaning of some information is to form a mental image of it. Thus, information that has been pictured mentally will be more available to memory. Indeed, an event that is vivid and easily pictured will trick many people into supposing that type of event is more common than it actually is. Repetition of information will also make it more memorable. So, if the same event is described to you in a magazine, on the evening news, on a podcast that you listen to, and in your Facebook feed; it will be very available to memory. Again, the availability heuristic will cause you to misperceive the frequency of these types of events.

Most interestingly, information that is unusual is more memorable. Suppose we give you the following list of words to remember: box, flower, letter, platypus, oven, boat, newspaper, purse, drum, car. Very likely, the easiest word to remember would be platypus, the unusual one. The same thing occurs with memories of events. An event may be available to memory because it is unusual, yet the availability heuristic leads us to judge that the event is common. Did you catch that? In these cases, the availability heuristic makes us think the exact opposite of the true frequency. We end up thinking something is common because it is unusual (and therefore memorable). Yikes.

The misapplication of the availability heuristic sometimes has unfortunate results. For example, if you went to K-12 school in the US over the past 10 years, it is extremely likely that you have participated in lockdown and active shooter drills. Of course, everyone is trying to prevent the tragedy of another school shooting. And believe us, we are not trying to minimize how terrible the tragedy is. But the truth of the matter is, school shootings are extremely rare. Because the federal government does not keep a database of school shootings, the Washington Post has maintained their own running tally. Between 1999 and January 2020 (the date of the most recent school shooting with a death in the US at of the time this paragraph was written), the Post reported a total of 254 people died in school shootings in the US. Not 254 per year, 254 total. That is an average of 12 per year. Of course, that is 254 people who should not have died (particularly because many were children), but in a country with approximately 60,000,000 students and teachers, this is a very small risk.

But many students and teachers are terrified that they will be victims of school shootings because of the availability heuristic. It is so easy to think of examples (they are very available to memory) that people believe the event is very common. It is not. And there is a downside to this. We happen to believe that there is an enormous gun violence problem in the United States. According the the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, there were 39,773 firearm deaths in the US in 2017. Fifteen of those deaths were in school shootings, according to the Post. 60% of those deaths were suicides. When people pay attention to the school shooting risk (low), they often fail to notice the much larger risk.

And examples like this are by no means unique. The authors of this book have been teaching psychology since the 1990’s. We have been able to make the exact same arguments about the misapplication of the availability heuristics and keep them current by simply swapping out for the “fear of the day.” In the 1990’s it was children being kidnapped by strangers (it was known as “stranger danger”) despite the facts that kidnappings accounted for only 2% of the violent crimes committed against children, and only 24% of kidnappings are committed by strangers (US Department of Justice, 2007). This fear overlapped with the fear of terrorism that gripped the country after the 2001 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and US Pentagon and still plagues the population of the US somewhat in 2020. After a well-publicized, sensational act of violence, people are extremely likely to increase their estimates of the chances that they, too, will be victims of terror. Think about the reality, however. In October of 2001, a terrorist mailed anthrax spores to members of the US government and a number of media companies. A total of five people died as a result of this attack. The nation was nearly paralyzed by the fear of dying from the attack; in reality the probability of an individual person dying was 0.00000002.

The availability heuristic can lead you to make incorrect judgments in a school setting as well. For example, suppose you are trying to decide if you should take a class from a particular math professor. You might try to make a judgment of how good a teacher she is by recalling instances of friends and acquaintances making comments about her teaching skill. You may have some examples that suggest that she is a poor teacher very available to memory, so on the basis of the availability heuristic you judge her a poor teacher and decide to take the class from someone else. What if, however, the instances you recalled were all from the same person, and this person happens to be a very colorful storyteller? The subsequent ease of remembering the instances might not indicate that the professor is a poor teacher after all.

Although the availability heuristic is obviously important, it is not the only judgment heuristic we use. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman examined the role of heuristics in inductive reasoning in a long series of studies. Kahneman received a Nobel Prize in Economics for this research in 2002, and Tversky would have certainly received one as well if he had not died of melanoma at age 59 in 1996 (Nobel Prizes are not awarded posthumously). Kahneman and Tversky demonstrated repeatedly that people do not reason in ways that are consistent with the laws of probability. They identified several heuristic strategies that people use instead to make judgments about likelihood. The importance of this work for economics (and the reason that Kahneman was awarded the Nobel Prize) is that earlier economic theories had assumed that people do make judgments rationally, that is, in agreement with the laws of probability.

Another common heuristic that people use for making judgments is the  representativeness heuristic (Kahneman & Tversky 1973). Suppose we describe a person to you. He is quiet and shy, has an unassuming personality, and likes to work with numbers. Is this person more likely to be an accountant or an attorney? If you said accountant, you were probably using the representativeness heuristic. Our imaginary person is judged likely to be an accountant because he resembles, or is representative of the concept of, an accountant. When research participants are asked to make judgments such as these, the only thing that seems to matter is the representativeness of the description. For example, if told that the person described is in a room that contains 70 attorneys and 30 accountants, participants will still assume that he is an accountant.

inductive reasoning :  a type of reasoning in which we make judgments about likelihood from sets of evidence

inductively strong argument :  an inductive argument in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion that is probably true

heuristic :  a shortcut strategy that we use to make judgments and solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

availability heuristic :  judging the frequency or likelihood of some event type according to how easily examples of the event can be called to mind (i.e., how available they are to memory)

representativeness heuristic:   judging the likelihood that something is a member of a category on the basis of how much it resembles a typical category member (i.e., how representative it is of the category)

Type 1 thinking : fast, automatic, and emotional thinking.

Type 2 thinking : slow, effortful, and logical thinking.

• What percentage of workplace homicides are co-worker violence?

Many people get these questions wrong. The answers are 10%; stairs; skin; 6%. How close were your answers? Explain how the availability heuristic might have led you to make the incorrect judgments.

• Can you think of some other judgments that you have made (or beliefs that you have) that might have been influenced by the availability heuristic?

7.3 Problem Solving

• Please take a few minutes to list a number of problems that you are facing right now.
• Now write about a problem that you recently solved.
• What is your definition of a problem?

Mary has a problem. Her daughter, ordinarily quite eager to please, appears to delight in being the last person to do anything. Whether getting ready for school, going to piano lessons or karate class, or even going out with her friends, she seems unwilling or unable to get ready on time. Other people have different kinds of problems. For example, many students work at jobs, have numerous family commitments, and are facing a course schedule full of difficult exams, assignments, papers, and speeches. How can they find enough time to devote to their studies and still fulfill their other obligations? Speaking of students and their problems: Show that a ball thrown vertically upward with initial velocity v0 takes twice as much time to return as to reach the highest point (from Spiegel, 1981).

These are three very different situations, but we have called them all problems. What makes them all the same, despite the differences? A psychologist might define a  problem   as a situation with an initial state, a goal state, and a set of possible intermediate states. Somewhat more meaningfully, we might consider a problem a situation in which you are in here one state (e.g., daughter is always late), you want to be there in another state (e.g., daughter is not always late), and with no obvious way to get from here to there. Defined this way, each of the three situations we outlined can now be seen as an example of the same general concept, a problem. At this point, you might begin to wonder what is not a problem, given such a general definition. It seems that nearly every non-routine task we engage in could qualify as a problem. As long as you realize that problems are not necessarily bad (it can be quite fun and satisfying to rise to the challenge and solve a problem), this may be a useful way to think about it.

Can we identify a set of problem-solving skills that would apply to these very different kinds of situations? That task, in a nutshell, is a major goal of this section. Let us try to begin to make sense of the wide variety of ways that problems can be solved with an important observation: the process of solving problems can be divided into two key parts. First, people have to notice, comprehend, and represent the problem properly in their minds (called  problem representation ). Second, they have to apply some kind of solution strategy to the problem. Psychologists have studied both of these key parts of the process in detail.

When you first think about the problem-solving process, you might guess that most of our difficulties would occur because we are failing in the second step, the application of strategies. Although this can be a significant difficulty much of the time, the more important source of difficulty is probably problem representation. In short, we often fail to solve a problem because we are looking at it, or thinking about it, the wrong way.

problem :  a situation in which we are in an initial state, have a desired goal state, and there is a number of possible intermediate states (i.e., there is no obvious way to get from the initial to the goal state)

problem representation :  noticing, comprehending and forming a mental conception of a problem

Defining and Mentally Representing Problems in Order to Solve Them

So, the main obstacle to solving a problem is that we do not clearly understand exactly what the problem is. Recall the problem with Mary’s daughter always being late. One way to represent, or to think about, this problem is that she is being defiant. She refuses to get ready in time. This type of representation or definition suggests a particular type of solution. Another way to think about the problem, however, is to consider the possibility that she is simply being sidetracked by interesting diversions. This different conception of what the problem is (i.e., different representation) suggests a very different solution strategy. For example, if Mary defines the problem as defiance, she may be tempted to solve the problem using some kind of coercive tactics, that is, to assert her authority as her mother and force her to listen. On the other hand, if Mary defines the problem as distraction, she may try to solve it by simply removing the distracting objects.

As you might guess, when a problem is represented one way, the solution may seem very difficult, or even impossible. Seen another way, the solution might be very easy. For example, consider the following problem (from Nasar, 1998):

Two bicyclists start 20 miles apart and head toward each other, each going at a steady rate of 10 miles per hour. At the same time, a fly that travels at a steady 15 miles per hour starts from the front wheel of the southbound bicycle and flies to the front wheel of the northbound one, then turns around and flies to the front wheel of the southbound one again, and continues in this manner until he is crushed between the two front wheels. Question: what total distance did the fly cover?

Please take a few minutes to try to solve this problem.

Most people represent this problem as a question about a fly because, well, that is how the question is asked. The solution, using this representation, is to figure out how far the fly travels on the first leg of its journey, then add this total to how far it travels on the second leg of its journey (when it turns around and returns to the first bicycle), then continue to add the smaller distance from each leg of the journey until you converge on the correct answer. You would have to be quite skilled at math to solve this problem, and you would probably need some time and pencil and paper to do it.

If you consider a different representation, however, you can solve this problem in your head. Instead of thinking about it as a question about a fly, think about it as a question about the bicycles. They are 20 miles apart, and each is traveling 10 miles per hour. How long will it take for the bicycles to reach each other? Right, one hour. The fly is traveling 15 miles per hour; therefore, it will travel a total of 15 miles back and forth in the hour before the bicycles meet. Represented one way (as a problem about a fly), the problem is quite difficult. Represented another way (as a problem about two bicycles), it is easy. Changing your representation of a problem is sometimes the best—sometimes the only—way to solve it.

Unfortunately, however, changing a problem’s representation is not the easiest thing in the world to do. Often, problem solvers get stuck looking at a problem one way. This is called  fixation . Most people who represent the preceding problem as a problem about a fly probably do not pause to reconsider, and consequently change, their representation. A parent who thinks her daughter is being defiant is unlikely to consider the possibility that her behavior is far less purposeful.

Problem-solving fixation was examined by a group of German psychologists called Gestalt psychologists during the 1930’s and 1940’s. Karl Dunker, for example, discovered an important type of failure to take a different perspective called  functional fixedness . Imagine being a participant in one of his experiments. You are asked to figure out how to mount two candles on a door and are given an assortment of odds and ends, including a small empty cardboard box and some thumbtacks. Perhaps you have already figured out a solution: tack the box to the door so it forms a platform, then put the candles on top of the box. Most people are able to arrive at this solution. Imagine a slight variation of the procedure, however. What if, instead of being empty, the box had matches in it? Most people given this version of the problem do not arrive at the solution given above. Why? Because it seems to people that when the box contains matches, it already has a function; it is a matchbox. People are unlikely to consider a new function for an object that already has a function. This is functional fixedness.

Mental set is a type of fixation in which the problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past, even though the solution may no longer be useful. It is commonly seen when students do math problems for homework. Often, several problems in a row require the reapplication of the same solution strategy. Then, without warning, the next problem in the set requires a new strategy. Many students attempt to apply the formerly successful strategy on the new problem and therefore cannot come up with a correct answer.

The thing to remember is that you cannot solve a problem unless you correctly identify what it is to begin with (initial state) and what you want the end result to be (goal state). That may mean looking at the problem from a different angle and representing it in a new way. The correct representation does not guarantee a successful solution, but it certainly puts you on the right track.

A bit more optimistically, the Gestalt psychologists discovered what may be considered the opposite of fixation, namely  insight . Sometimes the solution to a problem just seems to pop into your head. Wolfgang Kohler examined insight by posing many different problems to chimpanzees, principally problems pertaining to their acquisition of out-of-reach food. In one version, a banana was placed outside of a chimpanzee’s cage and a short stick inside the cage. The stick was too short to retrieve the banana, but was long enough to retrieve a longer stick also located outside of the cage. This second stick was long enough to retrieve the banana. After trying, and failing, to reach the banana with the shorter stick, the chimpanzee would try a couple of random-seeming attempts, react with some apparent frustration or anger, then suddenly rush to the longer stick, the correct solution fully realized at this point. This sudden appearance of the solution, observed many times with many different problems, was termed insight by Kohler.

Lest you think it pertains to chimpanzees only, Karl Dunker demonstrated that children also solve problems through insight in the 1930s. More importantly, you have probably experienced insight yourself. Think back to a time when you were trying to solve a difficult problem. After struggling for a while, you gave up. Hours later, the solution just popped into your head, perhaps when you were taking a walk, eating dinner, or lying in bed.

fixation :  when a problem solver gets stuck looking at a problem a particular way and cannot change his or her representation of it (or his or her intended solution strategy)

functional fixedness :  a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver cannot think of a new use for an object that already has a function

mental set :  a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past

insight :  a sudden realization of a solution to a problem

Solving Problems by Trial and Error

Correctly identifying the problem and your goal for a solution is a good start, but recall the psychologist’s definition of a problem: it includes a set of possible intermediate states. Viewed this way, a problem can be solved satisfactorily only if one can find a path through some of these intermediate states to the goal. Imagine a fairly routine problem, finding a new route to school when your ordinary route is blocked (by road construction, for example). At each intersection, you may turn left, turn right, or go straight. A satisfactory solution to the problem (of getting to school) is a sequence of selections at each intersection that allows you to wind up at school.

If you had all the time in the world to get to school, you might try choosing intermediate states randomly. At one corner you turn left, the next you go straight, then you go left again, then right, then right, then straight. Unfortunately, trial and error will not necessarily get you where you want to go, and even if it does, it is not the fastest way to get there. For example, when a friend of ours was in college, he got lost on the way to a concert and attempted to find the venue by choosing streets to turn onto randomly (this was long before the use of GPS). Amazingly enough, the strategy worked, although he did end up missing two out of the three bands who played that night.

Trial and error is not all bad, however. B.F. Skinner, a prominent behaviorist psychologist, suggested that people often behave randomly in order to see what effect the behavior has on the environment and what subsequent effect this environmental change has on them. This seems particularly true for the very young person. Picture a child filling a household’s fish tank with toilet paper, for example. To a child trying to develop a repertoire of creative problem-solving strategies, an odd and random behavior might be just the ticket. Eventually, the exasperated parent hopes, the child will discover that many of these random behaviors do not successfully solve problems; in fact, in many cases they create problems. Thus, one would expect a decrease in this random behavior as a child matures. You should realize, however, that the opposite extreme is equally counterproductive. If the children become too rigid, never trying something unexpected and new, their problem solving skills can become too limited.

Effective problem solving seems to call for a happy medium that strikes a balance between using well-founded old strategies and trying new ground and territory. The individual who recognizes a situation in which an old problem-solving strategy would work best, and who can also recognize a situation in which a new untested strategy is necessary is halfway to success.

Solving Problems with Algorithms and Heuristics

For many problems there is a possible strategy available that will guarantee a correct solution. For example, think about math problems. Math lessons often consist of step-by-step procedures that can be used to solve the problems. If you apply the strategy without error, you are guaranteed to arrive at the correct solution to the problem. This approach is called using an  algorithm , a term that denotes the step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution. Because algorithms are sometimes available and come with a guarantee, you might think that most people use them frequently. Unfortunately, however, they do not. As the experience of many students who have struggled through math classes can attest, algorithms can be extremely difficult to use, even when the problem solver knows which algorithm is supposed to work in solving the problem. In problems outside of math class, we often do not even know if an algorithm is available. It is probably fair to say, then, that algorithms are rarely used when people try to solve problems.

Because algorithms are so difficult to use, people often pass up the opportunity to guarantee a correct solution in favor of a strategy that is much easier to use and yields a reasonable chance of coming up with a correct solution. These strategies are called  problem solving heuristics . Similar to what you saw in section 6.2 with reasoning heuristics, a problem solving heuristic is a shortcut strategy that people use when trying to solve problems. It usually works pretty well, but does not guarantee a correct solution to the problem. For example, one problem solving heuristic might be “always move toward the goal” (so when trying to get to school when your regular route is blocked, you would always turn in the direction you think the school is). A heuristic that people might use when doing math homework is “use the same solution strategy that you just used for the previous problem.”

By the way, we hope these last two paragraphs feel familiar to you. They seem to parallel a distinction that you recently learned. Indeed, algorithms and problem-solving heuristics are another example of the distinction between Type 1 thinking and Type 2 thinking.

Although it is probably not worth describing a large number of specific heuristics, two observations about heuristics are worth mentioning. First, heuristics can be very general or they can be very specific, pertaining to a particular type of problem only. For example, “always move toward the goal” is a general strategy that you can apply to countless problem situations. On the other hand, “when you are lost without a functioning gps, pick the most expensive car you can see and follow it” is specific to the problem of being lost. Second, all heuristics are not equally useful. One heuristic that many students know is “when in doubt, choose c for a question on a multiple-choice exam.” This is a dreadful strategy because many instructors intentionally randomize the order of answer choices. Another test-taking heuristic, somewhat more useful, is “look for the answer to one question somewhere else on the exam.”

You really should pay attention to the application of heuristics to test taking. Imagine that while reviewing your answers for a multiple-choice exam before turning it in, you come across a question for which you originally thought the answer was c. Upon reflection, you now think that the answer might be b. Should you change the answer to b, or should you stick with your first impression? Most people will apply the heuristic strategy to “stick with your first impression.” What they do not realize, of course, is that this is a very poor strategy (Lilienfeld et al, 2009). Most of the errors on exams come on questions that were answered wrong originally and were not changed (so they remain wrong). There are many fewer errors where we change a correct answer to an incorrect answer. And, of course, sometimes we change an incorrect answer to a correct answer. In fact, research has shown that it is more common to change a wrong answer to a right answer than vice versa (Bruno, 2001).

The belief in this poor test-taking strategy (stick with your first impression) is based on the  confirmation bias   (Nickerson, 1998; Wason, 1960). You first saw the confirmation bias in Module 1, but because it is so important, we will repeat the information here. People have a bias, or tendency, to notice information that confirms what they already believe. Somebody at one time told you to stick with your first impression, so when you look at the results of an exam you have taken, you will tend to notice the cases that are consistent with that belief. That is, you will notice the cases in which you originally had an answer correct and changed it to the wrong answer. You tend not to notice the other two important (and more common) cases, changing an answer from wrong to right, and leaving a wrong answer unchanged.

Because heuristics by definition do not guarantee a correct solution to a problem, mistakes are bound to occur when we employ them. A poor choice of a specific heuristic will lead to an even higher likelihood of making an error.

algorithm :  a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem

problem solving heuristic :  a shortcut strategy that we use to solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

confirmation bias :  people’s tendency to notice information that confirms what they already believe

An Effective Problem-Solving Sequence

You may be left with a big question: If algorithms are hard to use and heuristics often don’t work, how am I supposed to solve problems? Robert Sternberg (1996), as part of his theory of what makes people successfully intelligent (Module 8) described a problem-solving sequence that has been shown to work rather well:

• Identify the existence of a problem.  In school, problem identification is often easy; problems that you encounter in math classes, for example, are conveniently labeled as problems for you. Outside of school, however, realizing that you have a problem is a key difficulty that you must get past in order to begin solving it. You must be very sensitive to the symptoms that indicate a problem.
• Define the problem.  Suppose you realize that you have been having many headaches recently. Very likely, you would identify this as a problem. If you define the problem as “headaches,” the solution would probably be to take aspirin or ibuprofen or some other anti-inflammatory medication. If the headaches keep returning, however, you have not really solved the problem—likely because you have mistaken a symptom for the problem itself. Instead, you must find the root cause of the headaches. Stress might be the real problem. For you to successfully solve many problems it may be necessary for you to overcome your fixations and represent the problems differently. One specific strategy that you might find useful is to try to define the problem from someone else’s perspective. How would your parents, spouse, significant other, doctor, etc. define the problem? Somewhere in these different perspectives may lurk the key definition that will allow you to find an easier and permanent solution.
• Formulate strategy.  Now it is time to begin planning exactly how the problem will be solved. Is there an algorithm or heuristic available for you to use? Remember, heuristics by their very nature guarantee that occasionally you will not be able to solve the problem. One point to keep in mind is that you should look for long-range solutions, which are more likely to address the root cause of a problem than short-range solutions.
• Represent and organize information.  Similar to the way that the problem itself can be defined, or represented in multiple ways, information within the problem is open to different interpretations. Suppose you are studying for a big exam. You have chapters from a textbook and from a supplemental reader, along with lecture notes that all need to be studied. How should you (represent and) organize these materials? Should you separate them by type of material (text versus reader versus lecture notes), or should you separate them by topic? To solve problems effectively, you must learn to find the most useful representation and organization of information.
• Allocate resources.  This is perhaps the simplest principle of the problem solving sequence, but it is extremely difficult for many people. First, you must decide whether time, money, skills, effort, goodwill, or some other resource would help to solve the problem Then, you must make the hard choice of deciding which resources to use, realizing that you cannot devote maximum resources to every problem. Very often, the solution to problem is simply to change how resources are allocated (for example, spending more time studying in order to improve grades).
• Monitor and evaluate solutions.  Pay attention to the solution strategy while you are applying it. If it is not working, you may be able to select another strategy. Another fact you should realize about problem solving is that it never does end. Solving one problem frequently brings up new ones. Good monitoring and evaluation of your problem solutions can help you to anticipate and get a jump on solving the inevitable new problems that will arise.

Please note that this as  an  effective problem-solving sequence, not  the  effective problem solving sequence. Just as you can become fixated and end up representing the problem incorrectly or trying an inefficient solution, you can become stuck applying the problem-solving sequence in an inflexible way. Clearly there are problem situations that can be solved without using these skills in this order.

Additionally, many real-world problems may require that you go back and redefine a problem several times as the situation changes (Sternberg et al. 2000). For example, consider the problem with Mary’s daughter one last time. At first, Mary did represent the problem as one of defiance. When her early strategy of pleading and threatening punishment was unsuccessful, Mary began to observe her daughter more carefully. She noticed that, indeed, her daughter’s attention would be drawn by an irresistible distraction or book. Fresh with a re-representation of the problem, she began a new solution strategy. She began to remind her daughter every few minutes to stay on task and remind her that if she is ready before it is time to leave, she may return to the book or other distracting object at that time. Fortunately, this strategy was successful, so Mary did not have to go back and redefine the problem again.

Pick one or two of the problems that you listed when you first started studying this section and try to work out the steps of Sternberg’s problem solving sequence for each one.

a mental representation of a category of things in the world

an assumption about the truth of something that is not stated. Inferences come from our prior knowledge and experience, and from logical reasoning

knowledge about one’s own cognitive processes; thinking about your thinking

individuals who are less competent tend to overestimate their abilities more than individuals who are more competent do

Thinking like a scientist in your everyday life for the purpose of drawing correct conclusions. It entails skepticism; an ability to identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions; and excellent deductive and inductive reasoning, and problem solving skills.

a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided

an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice

a type of reasoning in which the conclusion is guaranteed to be true any time the statements leading up to it are true

a set of statements in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion

an argument for which true beginning statements guarantee that the conclusion is true

a type of reasoning in which we make judgments about likelihood from sets of evidence

an inductive argument in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion that is probably true

fast, automatic, and emotional thinking

slow, effortful, and logical thinking

a shortcut strategy that we use to make judgments and solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

udging the frequency or likelihood of some event type according to how easily examples of the event can be called to mind (i.e., how available they are to memory)

judging the likelihood that something is a member of a category on the basis of how much it resembles a typical category member (i.e., how representative it is of the category)

a situation in which we are in an initial state, have a desired goal state, and there is a number of possible intermediate states (i.e., there is no obvious way to get from the initial to the goal state)

noticing, comprehending and forming a mental conception of a problem

when a problem solver gets stuck looking at a problem a particular way and cannot change his or her representation of it (or his or her intended solution strategy)

a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver cannot think of a new use for an object that already has a function

a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past

a sudden realization of a solution to a problem

a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem

The tendency to notice and pay attention to information that confirms your prior beliefs and to ignore information that disconfirms them.

a shortcut strategy that we use to solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

Introduction to Psychology Copyright © 2020 by Ken Gray; Elizabeth Arnott-Hill; and Or'Shaundra Benson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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10 Best Problem-Solving Therapy Worksheets & Activities

Cognitive science tells us that we regularly face not only well-defined problems but, importantly, many that are ill defined (Eysenck & Keane, 2015).

Sometimes, we find ourselves unable to overcome our daily problems or the inevitable (though hopefully infrequent) life traumas we face.

Problem-Solving Therapy aims to reduce the incidence and impact of mental health disorders and improve wellbeing by helping clients face life’s difficulties (Dobson, 2011).

This article introduces Problem-Solving Therapy and offers techniques, activities, and worksheets that mental health professionals can use with clients.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free . These science-based exercises explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology, including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is problem-solving therapy, 14 steps for problem-solving therapy, 3 best interventions and techniques, 7 activities and worksheets for your session, fascinating books on the topic, resources from positivepsychology.com, a take-home message.

Problem-Solving Therapy assumes that mental disorders arise in response to ineffective or maladaptive coping. By adopting a more realistic and optimistic view of coping, individuals can understand the role of emotions and develop actions to reduce distress and maintain mental wellbeing (Nezu & Nezu, 2009).

“Problem-solving therapy (PST) is a psychosocial intervention, generally considered to be under a cognitive-behavioral umbrella” (Nezu, Nezu, & D’Zurilla, 2013, p. ix). It aims to encourage the client to cope better with day-to-day problems and traumatic events and reduce their impact on mental and physical wellbeing.

Clinical research, counseling, and health psychology have shown PST to be highly effective in clients of all ages, ranging from children to the elderly, across multiple clinical settings, including schizophrenia, stress, and anxiety disorders (Dobson, 2011).

Can it help with depression?

PST appears particularly helpful in treating clients with depression. A recent analysis of 30 studies found that PST was an effective treatment with a similar degree of success as other successful therapies targeting depression (Cuijpers, Wit, Kleiboer, Karyotaki, & Ebert, 2020).

Other studies confirm the value of PST and its effectiveness at treating depression in multiple age groups and its capacity to combine with other therapies, including drug treatments (Dobson, 2011).

The major concepts

Effective coping varies depending on the situation, and treatment typically focuses on improving the environment and reducing emotional distress (Dobson, 2011).

PST is based on two overlapping models:

Social problem-solving model

This model focuses on solving the problem “as it occurs in the natural social environment,” combined with a general coping strategy and a method of self-control (Dobson, 2011, p. 198).

The model includes three central concepts:

• Social problem-solving
• The problem
• The solution

The model is a “self-directed cognitive-behavioral process by which an individual, couple, or group attempts to identify or discover effective solutions for specific problems encountered in everyday living” (Dobson, 2011, p. 199).

Relational problem-solving model

The theory of PST is underpinned by a relational problem-solving model, whereby stress is viewed in terms of the relationships between three factors:

• Stressful life events
• Emotional distress and wellbeing
• Problem-solving coping

Therefore, when a significant adverse life event occurs, it may require “sweeping readjustments in a person’s life” (Dobson, 2011, p. 202).

• Enhance positive problem orientation
• Decrease negative orientation
• Foster ability to apply rational problem-solving skills
• Reduce the tendency to avoid problem-solving
• Minimize the tendency to be careless and impulsive

D’Zurilla’s and Nezu’s model includes (modified from Dobson, 2011):

• Initial structuring Establish a positive therapeutic relationship that encourages optimism and explains the PST approach.
• Assessment Formally and informally assess areas of stress in the client’s life and their problem-solving strengths and weaknesses.
• Obstacles to effective problem-solving Explore typically human challenges to problem-solving, such as multitasking and the negative impact of stress. Introduce tools that can help, such as making lists, visualization, and breaking complex problems down.
• Problem orientation – fostering self-efficacy Introduce the importance of a positive problem orientation, adopting tools, such as visualization, to promote self-efficacy.
• Problem orientation – recognizing problems Help clients recognize issues as they occur and use problem checklists to ‘normalize’ the experience.
• Problem orientation – seeing problems as challenges Encourage clients to break free of harmful and restricted ways of thinking while learning how to argue from another point of view.
• Problem orientation – use and control emotions Help clients understand the role of emotions in problem-solving, including using feelings to inform the process and managing disruptive emotions (such as cognitive reframing and relaxation exercises).
• Problem orientation – stop and think Teach clients how to reduce impulsive and avoidance tendencies (visualizing a stop sign or traffic light).
• Problem definition and formulation Encourage an understanding of the nature of problems and set realistic goals and objectives.
• Generation of alternatives Work with clients to help them recognize the wide range of potential solutions to each problem (for example, brainstorming).
• Decision-making Encourage better decision-making through an improved understanding of the consequences of decisions and the value and likelihood of different outcomes.
• Solution implementation and verification Foster the client’s ability to carry out a solution plan, monitor its outcome, evaluate its effectiveness, and use self-reinforcement to increase the chance of success.
• Guided practice Encourage the application of problem-solving skills across multiple domains and future stressful problems.
• Rapid problem-solving Teach clients how to apply problem-solving questions and guidelines quickly in any given situation.

Success in PST depends on the effectiveness of its implementation; using the right approach is crucial (Dobson, 2011).

Problem-solving therapy – Baycrest

The following interventions and techniques are helpful when implementing more effective problem-solving approaches in client’s lives.

First, it is essential to consider if PST is the best approach for the client, based on the problems they present.

Is PPT appropriate?

It is vital to consider whether PST is appropriate for the client’s situation. Therapists new to the approach may require additional guidance (Nezu et al., 2013).

Therapists should consider the following questions before beginning PST with a client (modified from Nezu et al., 2013):

• Has PST proven effective in the past for the problem? For example, research has shown success with depression, generalized anxiety, back pain, Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, and supporting caregivers (Nezu et al., 2013).
• Is PST acceptable to the client?
• Is the individual experiencing a significant mental or physical health problem?

All affirmative answers suggest that PST would be a helpful technique to apply in this instance.

Five problem-solving steps

The following five steps are valuable when working with clients to help them cope with and manage their environment (modified from Dobson, 2011).

Ask the client to consider the following points (forming the acronym ADAPT) when confronted by a problem:

• Attitude Aim to adopt a positive, optimistic attitude to the problem and problem-solving process.
• Define Obtain all required facts and details of potential obstacles to define the problem.
• Alternatives Identify various alternative solutions and actions to overcome the obstacle and achieve the problem-solving goal.
• Predict Predict each alternative’s positive and negative outcomes and choose the one most likely to achieve the goal and maximize the benefits.
• Try out Once selected, try out the solution and monitor its effectiveness while engaging in self-reinforcement.

If the client is not satisfied with their solution, they can return to step ‘A’ and find a more appropriate solution.

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Positive self-statements

When dealing with clients facing negative self-beliefs, it can be helpful for them to use positive self-statements.

Use the following (or add new) self-statements to replace harmful, negative thinking (modified from Dobson, 2011):

• I can solve this problem; I’ve tackled similar ones before.
• I can cope with this.
• I just need to take a breath and relax.
• Once I start, it will be easier.
• It’s okay to look out for myself.
• I can get help if needed.
• Other people feel the same way I do.
• I’ll take one piece of the problem at a time.
• I can keep my fears in check.
• I don’t need to please everyone.

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PST practitioners have many different techniques available to support clients as they learn to tackle day-to-day or one-off trauma.

5 Worksheets and workbooks

Problem-solving self-monitoring form.

Ask the client to complete the following:

• Describe the problem you are facing.
• What is your goal?
• What have you tried so far to solve the problem?
• What was the outcome?

Reactions to Stress

It can be helpful for the client to recognize their own experiences of stress. Do they react angrily, withdraw, or give up (Dobson, 2011)?

The Reactions to Stress worksheet can be given to the client as homework to capture stressful events and their reactions. By recording how they felt, behaved, and thought, they can recognize repeating patterns.

What Are Your Unique Triggers?

Helping clients capture triggers for their stressful reactions can encourage emotional regulation.

When clients can identify triggers that may lead to a negative response, they can stop the experience or slow down their emotional reaction (Dobson, 2011).

The What Are Your Unique Triggers ? worksheet helps the client identify their triggers (e.g., conflict, relationships, physical environment, etc.).

Problem-Solving worksheet

Imagining an existing or potential problem and working through how to resolve it can be a powerful exercise for the client.

Use the Problem-Solving worksheet to state a problem and goal and consider the obstacles in the way. Then explore options for achieving the goal, along with their pros and cons, to assess the best action plan.

Getting the Facts

Clients can become better equipped to tackle problems and choose the right course of action by recognizing facts versus assumptions and gathering all the necessary information (Dobson, 2011).

Use the Getting the Facts worksheet to answer the following questions clearly and unambiguously:

• Who is involved?
• What did or did not happen, and how did it bother you?
• Where did it happen?
• When did it happen?
• Why did it happen?
• How did you respond?

2 Helpful Group Activities

While therapists can use the worksheets above in group situations, the following two interventions work particularly well with more than one person.

Generating Alternative Solutions and Better Decision-Making

A group setting can provide an ideal opportunity to share a problem and identify potential solutions arising from multiple perspectives.

Use the Generating Alternative Solutions and Better Decision-Making worksheet and ask the client to explain the situation or problem to the group and the obstacles in the way.

Once the approaches are captured and reviewed, the individual can share their decision-making process with the group if they want further feedback.

Visualization

Visualization can be performed with individuals or in a group setting to help clients solve problems in multiple ways, including (Dobson, 2011):

• Clarifying the problem by looking at it from multiple perspectives
• Rehearsing a solution in the mind to improve and get more practice
• Visualizing a ‘safe place’ for relaxation, slowing down, and stress management

Guided imagery is particularly valuable for encouraging the group to take a ‘mental vacation’ and let go of stress.

Ask the group to begin with slow, deep breathing that fills the entire diaphragm. Then ask them to visualize a favorite scene (real or imagined) that makes them feel relaxed, perhaps beside a gently flowing river, a summer meadow, or at the beach.

The more the senses are engaged, the more real the experience. Ask the group to think about what they can hear, see, touch, smell, and even taste.

Encourage them to experience the situation as fully as possible, immersing themselves and enjoying their place of safety.

Such feelings of relaxation may be able to help clients fall asleep, relieve stress, and become more ready to solve problems.

We have included three of our favorite books on the subject of Problem-Solving Therapy below.

1. Problem-Solving Therapy: A Treatment Manual – Arthur Nezu, Christine Maguth Nezu, and Thomas D’Zurilla

This is an incredibly valuable book for anyone wishing to understand the principles and practice behind PST.

Written by the co-developers of PST, the manual provides powerful toolkits to overcome cognitive overload, emotional dysregulation, and the barriers to practical problem-solving.

Find the book on Amazon .

2. Emotion-Centered Problem-Solving Therapy: Treatment Guidelines – Arthur Nezu and Christine Maguth Nezu

Another, more recent, book from the creators of PST, this text includes important advances in neuroscience underpinning the role of emotion in behavioral treatment.

Along with clinical examples, the book also includes crucial toolkits that form part of a stepped model for the application of PST.

3. Handbook of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies – Keith Dobson and David Dozois

This is the fourth edition of a hugely popular guide to Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies and includes a valuable and insightful section on Problem-Solving Therapy.

This is an important book for students and more experienced therapists wishing to form a high-level and in-depth understanding of the tools and techniques available to Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists.

For even more tools to help strengthen your clients’ problem-solving skills, check out the following free worksheets from our blog.

• Case Formulation Worksheet This worksheet presents a four-step framework to help therapists and their clients come to a shared understanding of the client’s presenting problem.
• Understanding Your Default Problem-Solving Approach This worksheet poses a series of questions helping clients reflect on their typical cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses to problems.
• Social Problem Solving: Step by Step This worksheet presents a streamlined template to help clients define a problem, generate possible courses of action, and evaluate the effectiveness of an implemented solution.

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While we are born problem-solvers, facing an incredibly diverse set of challenges daily, we sometimes need support.

Problem-Solving Therapy aims to reduce stress and associated mental health disorders and improve wellbeing by improving our ability to cope. PST is valuable in diverse clinical settings, ranging from depression to schizophrenia, with research suggesting it as a highly effective treatment for teaching coping strategies and reducing emotional distress.

Many PST techniques are available to help improve clients’ positive outlook on obstacles while reducing avoidance of problem situations and the tendency to be careless and impulsive.

The PST model typically assesses the client’s strengths, weaknesses, and coping strategies when facing problems before encouraging a healthy experience of and relationship with problem-solving.

Why not use this article to explore the theory behind PST and try out some of our powerful tools and interventions with your clients to help them with their decision-making, coping, and problem-solving?

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

• Cuijpers, P., Wit, L., Kleiboer, A., Karyotaki, E., & Ebert, D. (2020). Problem-solving therapy for adult depression: An updated meta-analysis. European P sychiatry ,  48 (1), 27–37.
• Dobson, K. S. (2011). Handbook of cognitive-behavioral therapies (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
• Dobson, K. S., & Dozois, D. J. A. (2021). Handbook of cognitive-behavioral therapies  (4th ed.). Guilford Press.
• Eysenck, M. W., & Keane, M. T. (2015). Cognitive psychology: A student’s handbook . Psychology Press.
• Nezu, A. M., & Nezu, C. M. (2009). Problem-solving therapy DVD . Retrieved September 13, 2021, from https://www.apa.org/pubs/videos/4310852
• Nezu, A. M., & Nezu, C. M. (2018). Emotion-centered problem-solving therapy: Treatment guidelines. Springer.
• Nezu, A. M., Nezu, C. M., & D’Zurilla, T. J. (2013). Problem-solving therapy: A treatment manual . Springer.

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What Does 'Cognitive' Mean in Psychology?

How People Think and What's Involved in Cognitive Processes

Verywell / Laura Porter

• Improving Cognitive Skills

Frequently Asked Questions

'Cognitive' is a term used in psychology to describe anything related to thinking, learning, and understanding. So when you hear people talk about cognitive skills or processes, they are referring to different aspects of how the brain works—things like remembering information, learning new things, paying attention, and processing all of the information you encounter each day. 

Cognitive abilities are something you use each and every day. For example, when you are learning a new instrument, you are using your cognitive skills to learn the basics of music theory, pick up melodies, learn the notes, and put that information together to produce music.

'Cognitive' refers to the mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension. Some of the many different cognitive processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and problem-solving .

These are higher-level brain functions that encompass language, imagination, perception, and planning. Cognitive psychology is the field of psychology that investigates how people think and the processes involved in cognition. 

At a Glance

Cognitive psychology seeks to understand all of the mental processes involved in human thought and behavior. It focuses on cognitive processes such as decision-making, problem-solving, attention, memory, learning, and more. Keep reading to learn more about different types of cognitive processes, factors that can affect cognition, and the different uses for these cognitive processes.

Types of Cognitive Processes

There are many different types of cognitive processes. They include:

Attention is a cognitive process that allows people to focus on a specific environmental stimulus. Attention is an important cognitive ability because it allows us to focus on the information we need, while also filtering out irrelevant distractions.

Language and language development are cognitive processes that involve the ability to understand and express thoughts through spoken and written words. This allows us to communicate with others, including conveying our own thoughts and learning about others. It also plays an important role in thought.

Learning requires cognitive processes involved in taking in new things, synthesizing information, and integrating it with prior knowledge. Cognitive psychologists often study the mental processes that involved in processing, comprehending, and remembering information.

Memory is an important cognitive process that allows people to encode, store, and retrieve information. It is a critical component in the learning process and allows people to retain knowledge about the world and their personal histories.

Perception is a cognitive process that allows people to take in information through their senses, then utilize this information to respond and interact with the world.

Thought is an essential part of every cognitive process. It allows people to engage in decision-making , problem-solving, and higher reasoning.

Hot Cognition vs. Cold Cognition

Some split cognition into two categories: hot and cold. Hot cognition refers to mental processes in which emotion plays a role, such as reward-based learning . Conversely, cold cognition refers to mental processes that don't involve feelings or emotions, such as working memory .

What is an example of cognition?

Cognition includes all of the conscious and unconscious processes involved in thinking, perceiving, and reasoning. Examples of cognition include paying attention to something in the environment, learning something new, making decisions, processing language, sensing and perceiving environmental stimuli, solving problems, and using memory. 

History of the Study of Cognition

The study of how humans think dates back to the time of ancient Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle.

Philosophical Origins

Plato's approach to the study of the mind suggested that people understand the world by first identifying basic principles buried deep inside themselves, then using rational thought to create knowledge. This viewpoint was later advocated by philosophers such as Rene Descartes and linguist Noam Chomsky. It is often referred to as rationalism.

Aristotle, on the other hand, believed that people acquire knowledge through their observations of the world around them. Later thinkers such as John Locke and B.F. Skinner also advocated this point of view, which is often referred to as empiricism.

Early Psychology

During the earliest days of psychology—and for the first half of the 20th century—psychology was largely dominated by psychoanalysis , behaviorism , and humanism .

Eventually, a formal field of study devoted solely to the study of cognition emerged as part of the "cognitive revolution" of the 1960s. This field is known as cognitive psychology.

The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology

One of the earliest definitions of cognition was presented in the first textbook on cognitive psychology, which was published in 1967. According to Ulric Neisser, a psychologist and the book's author, cognition is "those processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used."

What Can Affect Cognitive Processes?

It is important to remember that these cognitive processes are complex and often imperfect. Some of the factors that can affect or influence cognition include:

Research indicates that as we age, our cognitive function tends to decline. Age-related cognitive changes include processing things more slowly, finding it harder to recall past events, and a failure to remember information that was once known (such as how to solve a particular math equation or historical information).

Attention Issues

Selective attention is a limited resource, so there are a number of things that can make it difficult to focus on everything in your environment. Attentional blink , for example, happens when you are so focused on one thing that you completely miss something else happening right in front of you.

Cognitive Biases

Cognitive biases are systematic errors in thinking related to how people process and interpret information about the world. Confirmation bias is one common example that involves only paying attention to information that aligns with your existing beliefs while ignoring evidence that doesn't support your views. 

Some studies have connected cognitive function with certain genes. For example, a 2020 study published in Brain Communications found that a person's level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is 30% determined by heritability, can impact the rate of brain neurodegeneration, a condition that ultimately impacts cognitive function.

Memory Limitations

Short-term memory is surprisingly brief, typically lasting just 20 to 30 seconds, whereas long-term memory can be stable and enduring, with memories lasting years and even decades. Memory can also be fragile and fallible. Sometimes we forget and other times we are subject to misinformation effects that may even lead to the formation of false memories .

Uses for Cognitive Processes

Cognitive processes affect every aspect of life, from school to work to relationships. Some specific uses for these processes include the following.

Learning New Things

Learning requires being able to take in new information, form new memories, and make connections with other things that you already know. Researchers and educators use their knowledge of these cognitive processes to create instructive materials to help people learn new concepts .

Forming Memories

Memory is a major topic of interest in the field of cognitive psychology. How we remember, what we remember, and what we forget reveal a great deal about how cognitive processes operate.

While people often think of memory as being much like a video camera—carefully recording, cataloging, and storing life events away for later recall—research has found that memory is much more complex.

Making Decisions

Whenever people make any type of a decision, it involves making judgments about things they have processed. This might involve comparing new information to prior knowledge, integrating new information into existing ideas, or even replacing old knowledge with new knowledge before making a choice.

Impact of Cognition

Our cognitive processes have a wide-ranging impact that influences everything from our daily life to our overall health.

Perceiving the World

As you take in sensations from the world around you, the information that you see, hear, taste, touch, and smell must first be transformed into signals that the brain can understand. The perceptual process allows you to take in this sensory information and convert it into a signal that your brain can recognize and act upon.

Forming Impressions

The world is full of an endless number of sensory experiences . To make meaning out of all this incoming information, it is important for the brain to be able to capture the fundamentals. Events are reduced to only the critical concepts and ideas that we need.

Filling in the Gaps

In addition to reducing information to make it more memorable and understandable, people also elaborate on these memories as they reconstruct them. In some cases, this elaboration happens when people are struggling to remember something . When the information cannot be recalled, the brain sometimes fills in the missing data with whatever seems to fit.

Interacting With the World

Cognition involves not only the things that go on inside our heads but also how these thoughts and mental processes influence our actions. Our attention to the world around us, memories of past events, understanding of language, judgments about how the world works, and abilities to solve problems all contribute to how we behave and interact with our surrounding environment.

Tips for Improving Cognitive Skills

Cognitive processes are influenced by a range of factors, including genetics and experiences. While you cannot change your genes or age, there are things that you can do to protect and maximize your cognitive abilities:

• Stay healthy . Lifestyle factors such as eating a nutritious diet and getting regular exercise can have a positive effect on cognitive functioning.  
• Think critically . Question your assumptions and ask questions about your thoughts, beliefs, and conclusions.
• Stay curious and keep learning . A great way to flex your cognitive abilities is to keep challenging yourself to learn more about the world.
• Skip multitasking . While it might seem like doing several things at once would help you get done faster, research has shown it actually decreases both productivity and work quality.

In psychology, the term 'cognitive' refers to all of the different mental events involved in thinking, learning, and comprehending. Cognitive processes such as learning, attention, perception, and memory are important parts of the human experience. Understanding how they function can provide insight into normal human thought and behavior and how different cognitive conditions might create problems and impairments. 

Thinking is an important component, but cognition also encompasses unconscious and perceptual processes as well. In addition to thinking, cognition involves language, attention, learning, memory, and perception.

People utilize cognitive skills to think, learn, recall, and reason. Five important cognitive skills include short-term memory, logic, processing speed, attention, and spatial recognition.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Domains of cognition and their assessment


El campo de la cognición y su evaluación, domaines de cognition et leur évaluation, philip d. harvey.

University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Research Service, Bruce W. Carter VA Medical Center, Miami, Florida, US.

Cognitive performance is typically conceptualized in terms of domains of functioning. These domains are hierarchical in nature, with the bottom referring to more basic sensory and perceptual processes and the top referring to elements of executive functioning and cognitive control. Domains are not independent of each other and executive functioning exerts control over the utilization of more basic processes. Assessments are typically targeted at subdomains of each ability area and careful combination of tasks can reveal patterns of performance consistent with a variety of different neurological and neuropsychiatric conditions. This review covers the general structures of domains, the patterns of impairments across domains seen in common neuropsychiatric conditions, and use of assessment strategies to differentiate, to the extent possible, between different types of conditions manifesting cognitive impairment.


En general el rendimiento cognitivo se conceptualiza en términos de dominios de funcionamiento. Estos dominios son de naturaleza jerárquica, con la parte inferior que alude a procesos sensoriales y perceptivos más básicos y la parte superior que se refiere a elementos de funcionamiento ejecutivo y control cognitivo. Los dominios no son independientes entre sí y el funcionamiento ejecutivo ejerce control sobre el empleo de procesos más básicos. Las evaluaciones están dirigidas típicamente a subdominios de cada área de habilidad y una combinación cuidadosa de tareas puede revelar patrones de desempeño consistentes con una variedad de diferentes condiciones neurológicas y neuropsiquiátricas. Esta revisión abarca las estructuras generales de los dominios, los patrones de deficiencias en los dominios observados en cuadros neuropsiquiátricos comunes y el empleo de estrategias de evaluación para diferenciar, en la medida de lo posible, entre varios tipos de patologías que presentan un deterioro cognitivo.

La performance cognitive est généralement conceptualisée en termes de domaines de fonctionnement. Ces domaines sont hiérarchisés par nature, les processus sensoriels et perceptuels plus basiques se situant en bas de l’échelle et les éléments de fonctionnement exécutif et de contrôle cognitif se situant en haut. Ces domaines ne sont pas indépendants les uns des autres et le fonctionnement exécutif exerce un contrôle sur l’utilisation des processus plus basiques. Les évaluations sont normalement ciblées en sous-domaines de chaque champ d’aptitude et une combinaison judicieuse de tâches peut révéler des schémas de performance compatibles avec des maladies neurologiques et neuropsychiatriques variées. Cet article traite de la structure générale des domaines, des schémas de déficits qui y sont observés dans les maladies neuropsychiatriques courantes ainsi que de l’utilisation de stratégies d’évaluation pour différencier, dans la mesure du possible, les différents types de maladies dans lesquelles un déficit cognitif existe.

Introduction


Typical approaches to the characterization and classification of cognitive performance in clinical neuropsychology refer to domains of cognitive performance. Within each domain there are typically subdomains, which refer to component ability processes within the larger constructs. Individual neuropsychological tests are characterized under these subdomains, with these tests measuring one or more discrete abilities. 1 Although the nature of most of these domains is generally agreed upon, there are clear inconsistencies in the clinical and research literature. Most inconsistencies are in broad domains that may include multiple component processes. Whether these processes belong in more general domains (executive functioning) or a simpler domain (processing speed) is often unclear. The origin of these domains was originally linked (ie, localized) to the areas of the brain in which these processes were seen to be occurring, 2 a perspective that is still important today. 3 Contemporary circuit-based conceptions focus on activation and interaction of these circuits. 4 An additional issue is the intrinsic validity of cognitive domains in populations other than those with specific regional brain damage, such as caused by stroke, penetrating injuries, or localized (cortical vs frontostriatal) degenerative conditions. For instance, people with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder perform poorly across a wide array of tests that were historically developed for exploring regional brain functions. 5 


Global structure of cognitive ability domains


There are several ways to conceptualize cognitive ability domains. These include classification by the general process involved, such as memory or attention, language, or executive functioning. Other strategies are based on regional brain functions, derived on the basis of lesion studies, which characterize functions as originating from the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, hippocampus, or other structures. An additional organizational structure is hierarchical and based on the complexity of the operations. Often referred to as top-down versus bottom-up, the idea is that basic sensory and perceptional operations are least complex and reasoning and problem solving, referred to as executive functioning, are most complex. 6 Thus, executive functioning tasks often involve the co-ordination of multiple sensory, perceptual, attentional, and other less complex functions, while simple sensory tasks require minimal higher-level processing. In this paper, we will organize our review of assessment of cognitive domains by the general ability area and will comment in each domain where that domain fits into the structure of top down vs bottom-up and views based regional brain functioning.


Table I presents the general organizational structure of cognitive abilities based the types of processes and content of the domains. Each of the domains will be discussed in turn on the basis of performance-based assessments and then observational and self-reported functioning will be reviewed at the end. The focus will be entirely on cognition in humans, although there is an enormous amount of literature on animal cognition as well.


Sensation and perception


Sensation refers to the ability of a person to detect a stimulus that occurs in one of the five sensory modalities. Thus, tests of intactness of visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory senses fall into this area. As such, tests of visual and auditory acuity fall into this domain. The ability to identify a meaningful stimulus falls under the domain of perception, regardless of sensory modality.


In the domain of perception, sensory information is processed and integrated. One of the concepts of perception is identification of previously experienced objects from sensory information. Perception can be assessed in terms of ability to recognize objects, sounds, and also for the intactness of the perceptual fields. For example, inattention to a full side of a visual field is referred to as “neglect.” 7 


Deficits in sensation and perception


Basic sensory impairments have been identified for millennia. Blindness, deafness, and impairments in the other senses can arise from illnesses, experiences, trauma, or congenital abnormalities. For instance, certain physical or brain trauma can result in loss of basic sensory abilities. Impairments in perception can arise from similar origins. There are a variety of challenges in identification of objects, sounds, tastes, smells, and tactile sensations that can be seen clinically. These include agnosia, defined as the inability to recognize previously identifiable objects, sounds, smells, tastes, and tactile sensations (see Coslett 8 for a detailed description). Within each sensory domain, there are multiple subtypes of agnosia, such as inability to perform sensory-specific recognition of previously experienced or otherwise common stimuli that is not due to impairments in memory or the verbal ability to describe the object. Testing of these deficits is commonly performed with structured recognition tests which are focused in the different sensory modalities after confirmation of basic sensory examinations. Examples include visual object recognition tests, 9 tactile object recognition tests, auditory recognition assessments, and even assessments of olfactory recognition. 10 Also commonly examined in this domain is the ability to make judgments about the orientation of spatial stimuli. 11 


Motor skills and construction


Motor skills
.

These include several different basic elements of motor activity. They include fine motor abilities, including manual dexterity and motor speed, as well as reaction time, and more global skills such as balance. There are several structured assessments of motor abilities including finger tapping, 12 pegboard tasks, both simple 13 and grooved, 14 and assessments of grip strength. 12 Many of these tasks are used to make global assessments of lateralized brain dysfunction, as they can be performed in identical ways with dominant and nondominant hands. As these tasks have minimal cognitive demands; they are helpful for identification of basic motor skills problems and inability to understand instructions which are a prerequisite for valid assessments of the more complex cognitive abilities described below.


Construction


Construction is the ability to either copy or produce drawings of common objects. Some conceptions of visual construction processes group them as perceptual tests 15 and others, such as Lezak et al, 1 group them under tests of motor skills. Further, there is a clear organization component which means that the tasks can be seen to have some executive functioning demands as well. Classic construction tests include the copy component of the Rey Complex Figure, 16 as well as other drawing tests that are embedded in other tasks such as the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) 17 or the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MOCA). 18 Various clock drawing paradigms 19 are also considered to be tests of construction.


Construction deficits are commonly found in individuals with dementia, with right hemisphere damage, or with identified lesions to the parietal cortex. 20 These tests are very appealing because they are very rapidly performed and do not depend on comprehension of the task demands.


Attention and concentration


Attention and concentration is a multifaceted construct and is generally divided into two global subdomains: selective attention and sustained attention (or vigilance). Concentration would generally fall under the rubric of sustained attention. Divided attention could be viewed as falling under the concept of selective attention. All of these attentional skills have executive functioning components that are described below.


Selective attention


This is the process of attending to information that is relevant and important and ignoring other nonrelevant information. Selective attention tasks often provide distracting information and request the examinee to attend specifically to the relevant information. Distractors can be presented in an opposite sexed voice for auditory tasks and otherwise identified as irrelevant (font color, size) for visual tasks. 21 , 22 An additional selective attention task is the global-local task, where there are two concurrent information streams, a large figure which is typically a letter (global) which is comprised of individual alternative letters. For example, in Figure 1 , you see a stimulus which is an X, comprised of Os. Typically global stimuli are perceived more rapidly than local stimuli, much like a reader recognizes words more efficiently than their component letters. 23 The ability to respond to instructions to shift focus across global and local properties is a critical feature of this task and is impaired in many populations with problems in attentional control.


An additional selective attention paradigm is dual-task processing. 24 In dual task processing, there are two concurrent information streams, such as an auditory stream and a visual stream, and the participant can be instructed to prioritize processing of one stream, the other, or to attempt to optimize processing of both streams. There are formal indices of the ability to divide attention, which can identify impairments in the ability to divide attention which are common in several neuropsychiatric conditions. 25 


An additional use of the dual task paradigm is to test component tasks for automaticity. Automatic information processing refers to process that can be performed without apparent resource costs. 26 Thus, when a central task can be performed concurrently to a secondary task without degradation in performance of the central task, then it would be inferred to be automated. Controlled processes, those that require resource costs, can become automated after practice. The development of automatic processing is a critical feature of much complex skill learning, with driving being a primary example. 27 Beginning drivers can tolerate many fewer concurrent tasks while maintaining adequate performance and have the highest rates of accidents. 28 After practice, many functions required for driving become automated and accident rates decline. However, with aging, resource availability typically declines and older drivers are involved in many more accidents than younger experienced drivers. Interestingly, distracted driving is a major cause of accidents in the US and distracted driving is specifically the attempt to perform other tasks while driving. The more complex the secondary task (eg, text messaging compared with using a push-button radio control), the more likely it is to be associated with traffic accidents. A specific assessment of divided or dual task attention is the Useful Field of View (UFOV) task. 29 This task requires detection of central and peripheral stimuli concurrently. Performance on the UFOV has been shown to predict driving problems and interventions aimed at speed dual-task processing have been shown to reduce accidents in older drivers. 30 


Sustained attention/vigilance


The ability to sustain attention over time has been referred to as vigilance. Tasks measuring vigilance often require the detection of simple stimuli, presented infrequently in the midst of a stream of other stimuli, with the prototypical task being variants of the continuous performance task (CPT). 31 For instance, detection of an “ x ” that occurs 10% of the time in a stream of other letters is a prototypical simple CPT. The task can be made more complex by requiring detection of a sequence, such as “ A-X ” or an identical pair of stimuli, such as “ X-X ” or “ 3-3 .” Variation in the frequency of the targets can be used to manipulate difficulty. The more common the target, up to about 50% frequency, the easier the task. However, when the target frequency does over 50%, difficulty increases because inhibition of the dominant response to respond on all stimuli is required and even completely healthy people have an increase in errors.


Performance on the CPT is indexed by correct detections, missed target stimuli (errors of omission), and responses to nontarget stimuli (errors of commission). Signal detection indices of d’ (accuracy) and B (Bias) can also be calculated. Different populations make different patterns of errors on the CPT.


Neuropsychiatric conditions commonly show attentional problems


For instance psychotic populations are commonly associated with increases in errors of omission and reduced d’ without increased errors of commission. 32 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with increases in errors of commission and greater B, based on impulsive responses to nontarget stimuli. 33 


High target frequency on the CPT leads to a normal bias to respond to nontargets. Interestingly, people in the schizophrenia spectrum fail to develop this normal bias and do not have an increase in errors of commission with increased frequency of targets. 34 Dual-task processing is particularly impaired in neuropsychiatric conditions, with people with schizophrenia manifesting considerable challenges in dual-task demands. Further, selective attention is also impaired, particularly when the selective attention test requires adhering to instructions to ignore some stimuli and respond to others.


Memory


Memory functioning is the most complex and multifaceted of cognitive domains. There are multiple subdomains and formal assessments have been developed for most of them. We will examine them from the bottom-up perspective that we have adopted to date.


Working memory


This is the ability to hold information in consciousness for adaptive use. This can include information from all sensory modalities and includes verbal and nonverbal information. Further, working memory is conceptualized to include two separable components: maintenance of information and manipulation of information. 35 


Maintenance working memory includes memory for verbal information, spatial information, and other information (including emotional) across multiple sensory channels. The prototypical cognitive measure for maintenance working memory is a digit span task, 36 wherein the task is recalling a an ascendingly longer series of digits in order. Similarly, recall of the spatial location of an object 37 is a similar task as is differentiating between an object seen immediately before and a different one that was not seen previously.


There are several critical features of maintenance working memory. Both iconic (visual) and auditory (echoic) storage are duration and capacity limited and processing of new information can lead to the loss of memory currently in storage. Information can be transferred from working memory to longer-term storage, but that process requires either active processing or salience of the stimulus in working memory for encoding. Maintenance working memory can handle information from multiple sensory modalities at the same time and storage capacity of maintenance working memory is capacity limited across all aspects of information. The maintenance of information in working memory requires intact sensation, perception, and attention: information that is never detected consciously may be stored (unconscious processing) but typically cannot be retrieved volitionally although it may be available with the right implicit prompt.


Manipulation working memory refers to the process of operating on information stored in working memory storage. The prototypical manipulation working memory task is digit span backwards, where the participant is asked to recall information in reversed order compared with presentation (“258”→”852”). 36 Variants of this task can include letter number sequencing (rearranging numbers and letters into separate streams (“5B2A”→“AB25”) 38 and letter or number sequencing. Similarly, instructions to recall only portions of information presented can also fall under this category. Paradigms such as this differ from selective attention paradigms with prior instructions, in that partial-recall paradigms involve learning an entire set of information and then recalling only parts of it (eg, a list of colors and animals, then cued to respond with only animals after the list has been presented). Generally, there is a “resource cost” for such operations and typically performance in digits backward is about one item less than performance on digit span forward (6 digits forward = 5 digits backwards). More complex operations, such as storage of multiple items then retrieval of a selected set, have even greater capacity cost.


There are multiple other elements of working memory and working memory assessment strategies. For example, simple spatial stimuli can be assessed with delayed response (DR) paradigms. There is evidence of specialized CNS processing for object, location, action, verbal, and spatial working memory. 39 The fact that many elements of working memory appear to be under higher-level control has led some to assert that working memory is an executive function. While executive functioning itself is quite broadly defined, as discussed below, manipulation working memory is clearly associated with executive functioning. Simple maintenance working memory can be measured in drosophila, whose executive functioning ability is clearly limited.


Episodic/declarative/explicit memory


This component of the memory system interacts with working memory storage processes to encode, maintain, and retrieve information into and out of longer-term storage. Again, memory information can be from all sensory types and can also be verbal or nonverbal. Thus, recollection of daily experiences, such as what one did the night before or the content of one’s last meal, is episodic memory. There are multiple terms as noted above and the discussion following applies to all of them. In contrast, memory for the skills required to perform activities, such as riding a bicycle, is referred to as procedural memory and is examined below.


There are several components of this type of memory processing. They include encoding, storage, and retrieval, all of which are required for successful memory performance. In these domains, there are multiple important features required for understanding the processes involved. In addition, impairments in different elements of the system can lead to the same general outcome of poor memory output. While many of the principles in these processes are similar across types of information, differences will be highlighted.


Encoding


This is the process of taking information contained in working memory and processing it for longer term storage. Typical episodic memory tasks 40 involve listening to a list of words or a story, 36 or seeing (or copying) an object 16 or series of objects 41 with the instructions to learn the information with the intent to recall it later. Stimuli can be presented once or more than once. Manipulations involving presentation include selective reminding, 42 which involves presenting only those words not learned on presentation x on presentation x + 1. Other presentation manipulations can include interference trials after presentation of the explicit learning trials.


Multiple factors are known affect encoding. On word list tests, semantically organized lists (subsets of animals, colors, etc) 43 are easier to learn and telling the participant that the list is organized also facilitates encoding. For visual learning, familiar and namable objects are easier to learn. Drawing objects makes them easier to recall than simply visualizing them. Manipulations aimed at enforcing semantic encoding (eg, make up a story with these words) lead to more encoding than simple instructions to attend. 44 Further, implicit strategies can facilitate encoding. For instance, asking the participant to evaluate stimuli for various semantic characteristics (living/nonliving) facilitates encoding. Presenting stimuli as a stem to be completed (__ __ imal) facilitates encoding and subsequent recall of information.


Encoding manipulations are important in the context of who is being tested. The Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (HVLT) 40 is a 12-item test with three learning trials, while the California Verbal Learning test (CVLT) 43 has 16 items and 5 learning trials, although both are semantically organized. The Rey Auditory verbal Learning test (RAVLT) 15 has 15 unorganized items and 5 learning trials. These three tests are considerably different in difficulty which needs to be considered when selecting assessment instruments. The HVLT may be too easy for screening younger populations and the RAVLT may be too hard demanding as a dementia screen in order people.


Storage


Storage refers to the process of retention of information after encoding. Information successfully encoded can be recalled at fairly long post encoding time periods. Some information is clearly permanent (eg, new vocabulary words). Storage is typically affected only by changes in brain functioning and it has been argued that all information ever learned is stored; and that failures to access are entirely due to retrieval failures.


Retrieval


There are several different ways that information can be retrieved after encoding. Unprompted free recall refers to simply asking the participant to recall the presented information. An additional strategy for retrieval is to give prompts or cues, such as prompting the sematic category of the information (Tell me all the animals) or providing other semantically relevant cues (it is where people go on Sunday). A final strategy is recognition memory. Typically administered as a forced-choice task, the participant is asked whether the word was present on the list or is a recognition foil. Typically, there are approximately equal numbers previously presented items and recognition foils. These strategies re commonly applied across different versions of verbal and visual-spatial memory tests.


Procedural memory


This is memory for motor actions or skills. For example, learning and remembering how to ride a bicycle is a procedural memory, as is typing, and other similar actions. Procedural memory can be dissociated from episodic memory, in that individuals with amnesia who cannot recall essentially any verbal information can learn and retain procedural skills. 45 Similar findings have been reported in Alzheimer’s disease. 46 Interestingly, the two major compendia for neuropsychological assessment (Lezak et al 1 and Strauss et al 15 ) do not list procedural memory in their index sections, suggesting that this is an area that is still largely under development and requiring development of more standardized tests.


Semantic memory


This refers to the process of long-term storage of verbal information, often referred to as long-term memory. Such information has been processed through the declarative memory system, and stored. It is of interest that semantic memory appears to remain intact over the lifespan and continue to accrue new information even into late life. 47 Semantic memory is often accessed in the performance of new declarative memory tasks, in that information that is previously stored in semantic memory is more easily attended to, encoded, and recalled for short-term use than completely novel information.


Prospective memory


This is the ability to remember to perform tasks in the future, such as taking medication at scheduled times, performing sequences of functional activities such as preparing meals, and other sequential tasks requiring timing and performance of tasks at specific time periods. 48 Prospective memory operates in two different formats: event-based and time-based. Event-based prospective memories consist of responses that are triggered by a stimulus. An example would be to remember to “take the cake out of the oven when the timer sounds.” Time-based procedural memories are triggered by specific times, such as “take my medicine in the morning.” Prospective memory is implicated in a variety of functional impairments in people with psychiatric conditions. 49 


Procedural memories can additionally be separated into immediate and delayed response prospective memories. Often it is not possible to perform an action at the specific time required or when the cue occurs, because of situational factors. Being able to remember to perform a delayed response to a time or event cue is one of the challenges in prospective memory.


Assessments of memory-disordered populations


While fully addressing this topic is beyond the scope of this paper, assessment strategies can be used to reveal the specific and potentially diagnostic impairments of memory-disordered populations. For instance, in cortical dementia and amnestic conditions encoding, delayed recall, cued recall, and delayed recognition are all impaired, while in frontostriatal conditions encoding and delayed recall are impaired, but delayed recognition and cued recall are typically spared. 50 - 51 The same is true for neuropsychiatric populations such as schizophrenia spectrum conditions. 52 - 53 Further, in amnestic populations with complete impairments in declarative memory, both procedural learning (as described above) and affective memories can be fully spared. 54 In conditions such as schizophrenia, prospective memory 49 is often substantially impaired in addition to the impairments in episodic memory described above. Another substantial impairment seen in neuropsychiatric populations are impairments in working memory, particularly manipulation working memory, including sorting demands, or trying to “look back” to previously presented information in a stream of information held in memory. 55 


Executive functioning


This cognitive domain is also referred to commonly as reasoning and problem solving. The global concept of executive functioning is the set of processes that manifest control over other component cognitive abilities, such that cognitive resources can be effectively utilized to solve problems efficiently and plan for the future. 56 Thus, tasks of problem solving, planning, manipulating mazes, and other complex tasks where management of multiple cognitive abilities are required, fall under the domain of executive functioning. 57 Executive functioning is the definitional set of top-down processes, because effectively using simpler cognitive abilities is required for real-world adaptive success. Thus, executive functioning also requires cognitive flexibility, in that problem solving, particularly of novel tasks, requires consideration of new strategies and rapid rejection of failed efforts. Classical executive functioning tests such as the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST 58 ) require problem-solving in response to feedback. One of the classical failures on the WCST is the generation of perseverative errors, which are errors that arise when the person solving the test should already know from feedback that their response choice will led to another error.


There are some definitional challenges associated with executive functioning, possibly because of the older notion that executive functioning consists of “frontal lobe” tasks. 59 Thus, other tasks such as working memory, where activation of the frontal lobe has been repeatedly demonstrated, are often designated as executive functioning tasks. An intact frontal cortex is certainly critical for performance of executive functions; however, many working memory tasks, such as simple delayed response tasks, involve essentially no problem solving or management of cognitive resources. Following instructions such as ignoring distractors, dividing attention to process one of two concurrent information streams, or following other instructions in processing speed tasks (eg, alternate between letters and numbers) are clearly executive or “cognitive control” demands as described above. Thus, careful assessment strategies are required in order to separate working memory, processing speed, attention, and executive functioning and some of these cognitive abilities may not be clearly separable into one domain or another.


Prospective memory is certainly one of the tasks on the boundary of executive functioning, because of the strong planning component associated with task outcomes. Further, Trail-Making Part B, wherein alternation between letters and numbers is required, is often viewed as an executive functioning task, while dividing attention in response to external instructions has strong executive components as well. A further important element of executive functioning is inhibition/response management. As noted above in the section on attention, failures to inhibit when performing an attentional task are common feature of attention deficit disorders.


Executive functioning is also an ability, like semantic memory, that can be less affected by aging than other ability domains such as processing speed. 60 Large-scale studies of cognition over the lifespan have found increasers in wisdom and semantic memory over the lifespan, with decreases in processing speed and working memory span tasks. 47 Thus, the end products of executive functioning tend to accumulate over time, while the cognitive abilities that executive functioning supervises may actually worsen, often to a considerable extent.


Populations with executive functioning deficits


These include ADHD, mental illnesses such as schizophrenia and depression, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). 61 All of these conditions manifest executive functioning deficits in slightly different ways, with ADHD manifesting impulsivity and inattention, people with schizophrenia showing marked problem-solving and organizational deficits, and OCD patients having very inefficient cognitive processing. Both cortical and fronto-striatal degenerative conditions also present with severe deficits in executive functioning. In fact, like list learning, free recall, and working memory impairments, executive functioning deficits are shared across these conditions with different CNS etiology. 51 


Processing speed


Processing speed refers to cognitive processing assessments that require rapid performance of tasks that range from very simple to complex. Prototypical processing speed tasks include various coding tasks (Symbol Coding), 62 as well as tasks requiring rapid performance of simple tasks such as connecting numbers or letter sequences such as the Trail Making Test. 12 The critical feature of processing speed tasks is that participants are instructed from the outset to solve the task as rapidly as possible. Scoring is often in terms of elapsed time or number of correct responses. These tasks are intentionally simple, but may have some learning requirements (matching symbols with digits) or executively-oriented performance demands (alternation between letters and numbers).


Processing speed is a particularly important cognitive ability that is the most impaired domain of functioning in several neuropsychiatric conditions. For instance, performance on various coding tasks is not only the most significant impairment in schizophrenia 63 but is also the cognitive ability domain that is most strongly correlated with impairments in everyday functioning. Another critical feature of processing speed is that it tends to be the strongest predictor of overall cognitive performance, on cognitive assessment batteries, loading most highly on single factor solutions of cognitive ability.


Cognitive speed is required for performance of many other tasks, in that even tasks without explicit speed demands have stimuli presented in a fixed rate, such as one word or digit per second in list learning and memory span tasks. If cognitive speed is excessively slow, then performance of “non-speeded” tasks acquire an additional challenge and may lead to challenges in access correct strategies in a timely manner. 64 Populations with challenges in processing speed include major depression, severe mental illnesses, Parkinson’s disease, and both cortical and frontostriatal degenerative conditions.


Language skills


Language skills include receptive and productive abilities and the ability to understand language, access semantic memory, to identify objects with a name, and to respond to verbal instructions with behavioral acts. There are multiple characterizations of aphasia, with Lezak et al 1 describing eight different kinds. Language skills are assessed with measures of fluency (eg, name as many animals as possible), object naming, and responding to instructions. Language abilities can be impaired in neuropsychiatric conditions but are much more commonly impaired in conditions involving brain damage, stroke, or degenerative dementia. Some patterns of performance on language tasks differentiate between frontostriatal and cortical dementia. For example, both cortical and frontostriatal conditions adversely impact verbal fluency, but naming deficits are more commonly seen in cortical dementia. 50 Within neuropsychiatric conditions, language deficits may be associated with either deficits in executive functioning (eg, the ability to successfully access semantic storage) or slowed processing speed. By virtue of the fact that fluency tasks are speeded in terms of their instructions, cognitive slowing can have an adverse impact on performance.


Comments on the validity of cognitive domains


There is considerable evidence that in many populations, including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, that conventional domains of cognitive dysfunction are not truly separable. 65 The larger the study of the factorial structure of cognitive performance, the more likely it is that a single, global ability factor arises from factor analyses. 66 - 67 In addition, in healthy individuals, studies that have focused on global abilities have found robust genomic correlates of global cognitive performance defined with both intelligence and neurocognitive tests. 68 That said, the signature of cognitive deficits in cortical dementia vs frontostriatal conditions has been validated in both these neuropsychiatric populations and in other populations such as populations with subjective memory impairment. Most importantly, the rapid forgetting of adequately learned information, specifically defined as lack of perseveration of recognition and cued recall, is a robust finding in populations who have medial temporal lobe brain dysfunction. Cognitive domains should not be viewed as lacking validity if they are intercorrelated. Executive functioning by definition requires the intactness of component cognitive skills. Finding a strong correlation between global executive functioning measures and other tasks that require executive control (eg, selective attention) is actually evidence of the validity of executive functioning.


Conclusion


Historical domains of cognitive functioning are still examined to this day, but now through the lens of a considerably more information about underlying brain structure and function. Also, brain imaging allows for the differentiation of impairments in different brain regions. As a result, current uses of cognitive assessment are often oriented at identification of patterns of performance that give clues as to the breadth of any functional deficits and their potential for treatment.


Acknowledgments

Dr Harvey has received consulting fees or travel reimbursements from Alkermes, Boehringer Ingelheim, Intra-Cellular Therapies, Jazz Pharma, Minerva Pharma, Otsuka America, Sanofi Pharma, Sunovion Pharma, Takeda Pharma, and Teva during the past year. He receives royalties from the Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia. He is chief scientific officer of i-Function, Inc. He has a research grant from Takeda and from the Stanley Medical Research Foundation. These activities are unrelated to the content of this article.

Define Cognitive Psychology: Meaning and Examples

Categories Cognition

Cognitive psychology is defined as the study of internal mental processes. Such processes include thinking, decision-making, problem-solving , language, attention, and memory. The cognitive approach in psychology is often considered part of the larger field of cognitive science. This branch of psychology is also related to several other disciplines, including neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.

To define cognitive psychology , it is important to understand the core focus of the cognitive approach, which is to psychology is on how people acquire, process, and store information. Cognitive psychologists are interested in studying what happens inside people’s minds.

Table of Contents

How Do We Define Cognitive Psychology?

While the cognitive approach to psychology is a popular branch of psychology today, it is actually a relatively young field of study. Until the 1950s, behaviorism was the dominant school of thought in psychology.

Between 1950 and 1970, the tide began to shift against behavioral psychology to focus on topics such as attention, memory, and problem-solving.

Often referred to as the cognitive revolution, this period generated considerable research on subjects, including processing models, cognitive research methods , and the first use of the term “cognitive psychology.”

The term “cognitive psychology” was first used in 1967 by American psychologist Ulric Neisser in his book Cognitive Psychology . Neisser went on to define cognitive psychology by saying that cognition involves “all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.” Neisser also suggested that given such a broad and sweeping definition, cognition was involved in anything and everything that people do.

Essentially, all psychological events are cognitive events. Today, the American Psychological Association defines cognitive psychology as the “study of higher mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, and thinking.”

Understanding How We Define Cognitive Psychology

Some factors that contributed to the rise of the cognitive approach to psychology. These include:

• Dissatisfaction with the behaviorist approach : Behaviorism largely focused on looking at external influences on behavior. What the behavioral perspective failed to account for was the internal processes that influence human behavior. The cognitive approached emerged to fill this void.
• The increased use of computers : Scientists began comparing the way the human mind works to how a computer stores information on a hard drive. The information-processing model became popular as a result.

Thanks to these influences, the cognitive approach became an increasingly important branch of psychology. Behaviorism lost its hold as a dominant perspective, and psychologists began to look more intensely at memory, learning, language, and other internal processes.

Research Methods Used in Cognitive Psychology

Psychologists who use the cognitive approach rely on rigorous scientific methods to research the human mind. In many cases, this involves using experiments to determine if changes in an independent variable result in changes in the dependent variable.

Some of the main research methods used in the cognitive approach include:

Experimental Research

This involves conducting controlled experiments to manipulate variables and observe their effects on cognitive processes. Experiments are often conducted in laboratory settings to maintain control over extraneous variables.

For example, a memory experiment might involve randomly assigning participants to take a series of memory tests to determine if a certain change in conditions led to changes in memory abilities.

By using rigorous empirical methods, psychologists can accurately determine that it is the independent variable causing the changes rather than some other factor.

Cognitive Neuropsychology

This approach studies cognitive function by examining individuals with brain injuries or neurological disorders. By observing how damage to specific brain areas affects cognitive processes, researchers can infer the functions of those areas.

Neuroimaging Techniques

Cognitive neuroscientists use techniques to examine brain activity during cognitive tasks. Some of these neuroimaging tools include:

• Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
• Positron emission tomography (PET)
• Electroencephalography (EEG)

Eye-Tracking Studies

Eye-tracking technology is used to study visual attention and perception by recording eye movements as participants view stimuli. This method provides insights into how people process visual information and allocate attention.

Areas of Study in the Cognitive Psychology

As mentioned previously, any mental event is considered a cognitive event. There are a number of larger topics that have held the interest of cognitive psychologists over the last few decades. These include:

Information-Processing

As you might imagine, studying what’s happening in a person’s thoughts is not always the easiest thing to do.

Very early in psychology’s history, Wilhelm Wundt attempted to use a process known as introspection to study what was happening inside a person’s mind. This involved training people to focus on their internal states and write down what they were feeling, thinking, or experiencing. This approach was extremely subjective, so it did not last long as a cognitive research tool.

Cognitive psychologists have developed different models of thinking to study the human mind. One of the most popular of these is the information-processing approach .

In this approach, the mind is thought of as a computer. Thoughts and memories are broken down into smaller units of knowledge. As information enters the mind through the senses, it is manipulated by the brain, which then determines what to do with it.

Some information triggers an immediate response. Other units of information are transferred into long-term memory for future use.

Units of Knowledge

Cognitive psychologists often break down the units of knowledge into three different types: concepts, prototypes, and schemas.

A concept is basically a larger category of knowledge. A broad category exists inside your mind for these concepts where similar items are grouped together. You have concepts for things that are concrete such as a dog or cat, as well as concepts for abstract ideas such as beauty, gravity, and love.

A prototype refers to the most recognizable example of a particular concept. For example, what comes to mind when you think of a chair. If a large, comfy recliner immediately springs to mind, that is your prototype for the concept of a chair. If a bench, office chair, or bar stool pops into your mind, then that would be your prototype for that concept.

A schema is a mental framework you utilize to make sense of the world around you. Concepts are essentially the building blocks that are used to construct schemas, which are mental models for what you expect from the world around you. You have schemas for a wide variety of objects, ideas, people, and situations.

So what happens when you come across information that does not fit into one of your existing schemas? In some cases, you might even encounter things in the world that challenges or completely upend the ideas you already hold.

When this happens, you can either assimilate or accommodate the information. Assimilating the information involves broadening your current schema or even creating a new one. Accommodating the information requires changing your previously held ideas altogether. This process allows you to learn new things and develop new and more complex schemas for the world around you.

The Cognitive Approach to Attention

Attention is another major topic studied in the field of cognitive psychology. Attention is a state of focused awareness of some aspect of the environment. This ability to focus your attention allows you to take in knowledge about relevant stimuli in the world around you while at the same time filtering out things that are not particularly important.

At any given moment in time, you are taking in an immense amount of information from your visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, and taste senses. Because the human brain has a limited capacity for handling all of this information, attention is both limited and selective.

Your attentional processes allow you to focus on the things that are relevant and essential for your survival while filtering out extraneous details.

The Cognitive Approach to Memory

How people form, recall, and retain memories is another important focus in the cognitive approach. The two major types of memory that researchers tend to look at are known as short-term memory and long-term memory.

Short-Term Memory

Short-term memories are all the things that you are actively thinking about and aware of at any given moment. This type of memory is both limited and very brief.

Estimates suggest that you can probably hold anywhere from 5 to 9 items in short-term memory for approximately 20 to 30 seconds.

Long-Term Memory

If this information is actively rehearsed and attended to, it may be transferred to what is known as long-term memory. As the name suggests, this type of memory is much more durable. While these longer-lasting memories are still susceptible to forgetting , the information retained in your long-term memory can last anywhere from days to decades.

Cognitive psychologists are interested in the various processes that influence how memories are formed, stored, and later retrieved. They also look at things that might interfere with the formation and storage of memories as well as various factors that might lead to memory errors or even false memories.

The Cognitive Approach to Intelligence

Human intelligence is also a major topic of interest within cognitive psychology, but it is also one of the most hotly debated and sometimes controversial. Not only has there been considerable questioning over how intelligence is measured (or if it can even be measured), but experts also disagree on exactly how to define intelligence itself.

One survey of psychologists found that experts provided more than 70 different definitions of what made up intelligence. While exact definitions vary, many agree that two important themes include both the ability to learn and the capacity to adapt as a result of experience.

Researchers have found that more intelligent people tend to perform better on tasks that require working memory , problem-solving, selective attention , concept formation, and decision-making. When looking at intelligence, cognitive psychologists often focus on understanding the mental processes that underlie these critical abilities.

Cognitive Development

Cognitive development refers to the changes in cognitive abilities that occur over the lifespan, from infancy through old age. Cognitive psychologists study the development of perception, attention, memory, language, and reasoning skills.

Research in cognitive development explores factors that influence cognitive growth, such as genetics, environment, and social interactions.

Language is a complex cognitive ability that enables communication through the use of symbols and grammatical rules. Cognitive psychologists study the cognitive processes involved in language comprehension, production, and acquisition.

Research in language examines topics such as syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and the neurobiological basis of language processing.

Reasons to Study Cognitive Psychology

Because cognitive psychology touches on many other disciplines, this branch of psychology is frequently studied by people in different fields. Even if you are not a psychology student, learning some of the basics of cognitive psychology can be helpful.

The following are just a few of those who may benefit from studying cognitive psychology.

• Students interested in behavioral neuroscience, linguistics, industrial-organizational psychology, artificial intelligence, and other related areas.
• Teachers, curriculum designers, instructional developers, and other educators may find it helpful to learn more about how people process, learn, and remember information.
• Engineers, scientists, artists, architects, and designers can all benefit from understanding internal mental states and processes.

Key Points to Remember About Cognitive Approach

• The cognitive approach emerged during the 1960s and 70s and has become a major force in the field of psychology.
• Cognitive psychologists are interested in mental processes, including how people take in, store, and utilize information.
• The cognitive approach to psychology often relies on an information-processing model that likens the human mind to a computer.
• Findings from the field of cognitive psychology apply in many areas, including our understanding of learning, memory, moral development, attention, decision-making, problem-solving, perceptions, and therapy approaches such as cognitive-behavior therapy and rational emotive behavior therapy.

Airenti G. (2019). The place of development in the history of psychology and cognitive science .  Frontiers in Psychology ,  10 , 895. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00895

Legg S, Hutter M.  A collection of definitions of intelligence. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications . 2007;157:17-24.

Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical n u mber seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information .  Psychological Review, 63 (2), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043158

Neisser U. Cognitive Psychology . Meredith Publishing Company; 1967.

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