relationship of presentation and analysis to data interpretation

lesson 7 - PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA  

Competency: Presents and interprets data in tabular and graphical forms with implications and citations. 

Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data

         Presentation is the process of organizing data into logical, sequential, and meaningful categories and classifications to make them amenable to study and interpretation.

Three Ways of Presenting Data

1.    Textual – statements with numerals or numbers that serve as supplements to tabular presentation

2.    Tabular – a systematic arrangement of the related idea in which classes of numerical facts or data are given each row, and their subclasses are given each a column in order to present the relationships of the sets of numerical facts or data in a definite, compact and understandable form.

Two general rules regarding the independence of tables and text

a)    The table should be so constructed that it enables the reader to comprehend the data presented without referring to the text;

b)    The text should be so written that it allows the reader to understand the argument presented without referring to the table (Campbell, Ballou, and Slade, 1990)

3.    Graphical – a chart representing the quantitative variations or changes of variables in pictorial or diagrammatic form.

Types of Graphs and Charts

1.    Bar graphs

2.    Linear graphs

3.    Pie charts

4.    Pictograms

5.    Statistical maps

6.    Ratio charts

Analysis of Data

         Separation of a whole into its constituent parts (Merriam-Webster, 2012). The process of breaking up the whole study into its constituent parts of categories according to the specific questions under the statement of the problem (Calderon, 1993).

         Two Ways of Data Analysis

1.    Qualitative Analysis – is not based on precise measurement and quantitative claims.

Examples of Qualitative Analysis:

a)    Social analysis;

b)    From the biggest to the smallest class;

c)    Most important to the least important;

d)    Ranking of students according to brightness;

2.    Quantitative Analysis – is employed on data that have been assigned some numeral value.

It can range from the examination of simple frequencies to the description of events or phenomenon using descriptive statistics, and to the investigation of correlation and causal hypothesis using various statistical tests.

Interpretation of Data

         It is often the most difficult to write because it is the least structured. This section demands perceptiveness and creativity from the researcher.

How do we Interpret the Result(s) of our Study?

1.    Tie up the results of the study in both theory and application by pulling together the:

a.    Conceptual/ theoretical framework;

b.    The review of literature; and

c.     The study’s potential significance for application

2.    Examine, summarize, interpret and justify the results; then, draw inferences. Consider the following:

a.     Conclude or summarize – this technique enables the reader to get the total picture of the findings in summarized form, and helps orient the reader to the discussion that follows.

b.    Interpret – questions on the meaning of the finding, the methodology, the unexpected results and the limitations and shortcomings of the study should be answered and interpreted.

c.     Integrate – This is an attempt to put the pieces together. Often, the results of the study are disparate and do not seem to “hang together.” In the discussion, attempt to bring the findings together to extract meaning and principles.

d.    Theorize – when the study includes a number of related findings, it occasionally becomes possible to theorize.

* Integrate your findings into a principle:

* Integrate a theory into your findings; and

* Use these findings to formulate an original theory

e.    Recommend or apply alternatives

Level of Significance

The significance level denoted as alpha or α is a measure of the strength of the evidence that must be present in your sample before you reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the effect is statistically significant. The researcher determines the significance level before conducting the experiment.

The significance level is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. For example, a significance level of 0.05 indicates a 5% risk of concluding that a difference exists when there is no actual difference. Lower significance levels indicate that you require stronger evidence before you will reject the null hypothesis.

Use significance levels during hypothesis testing to help you determine which hypothesis the data support. Compare your p-value to your significance level. If the p-value is less than your significance level, you can reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the effect is statistically significant. In other words, the evidence in your sample is strong enough to reject the null hypothesis at the population level.

In Deducting Interpretation from Statistical Analysis, the Following Key Words or Phrases may be Useful:

1.     Table ___ presents the…

2.     Table ___ indicates the …

3.     As reflected in the table, there was…

4.     As observed, there was indeed…

5.     Delving deeper into the figures…

6.     The illustrative graph above/below shows that…

7.     In explaining this result, it can be stated that…

8.     Is significantly related to…

9.     Is found to be determinant of…

10.  Registered positive correlation with…

11.  Is revealed to influence…

12.  Has significant relationship with…

13.  Is discovered to be a factor of…

14.  In relation with the result of ____, it may be constructed that…

15.  And in viewing in this sense, it can be stated that…

16.  The result establishes the fact that…

17.  This finding suggests that…

18.  With this result, the researcher developed an impression that…

19.  This finding also validates the findings of…

20.  This improvement in ____ could be understood in the context of…

21.  These findings also accept the framework of the study…

22.  The interpretation marked as ____ reveals that…

23.  Nevertheless, this finding could be attributed to the fact that…

24.  Probably, this was also influenced…

25.  In the rational sense, the juxtaposition of…

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Data Interpretation – Process, Methods and Questions

Table of Contents

Data Interpretation

Definition :

Data interpretation refers to the process of making sense of data by analyzing and drawing conclusions from it. It involves examining data in order to identify patterns, relationships, and trends that can help explain the underlying phenomena being studied. Data interpretation can be used to make informed decisions and solve problems across a wide range of fields, including business, science, and social sciences.

Data Interpretation Process

Here are the steps involved in the data interpretation process:

• Define the research question : The first step in data interpretation is to clearly define the research question. This will help you to focus your analysis and ensure that you are interpreting the data in a way that is relevant to your research objectives.
• Collect the data: The next step is to collect the data. This can be done through a variety of methods such as surveys, interviews, observation, or secondary data sources.
• Clean and organize the data : Once the data has been collected, it is important to clean and organize it. This involves checking for errors, inconsistencies, and missing data. Data cleaning can be a time-consuming process, but it is essential to ensure that the data is accurate and reliable.
• Analyze the data: The next step is to analyze the data. This can involve using statistical software or other tools to calculate summary statistics, create graphs and charts, and identify patterns in the data.
• Interpret the results: Once the data has been analyzed, it is important to interpret the results. This involves looking for patterns, trends, and relationships in the data. It also involves drawing conclusions based on the results of the analysis.
• Communicate the findings : The final step is to communicate the findings. This can involve creating reports, presentations, or visualizations that summarize the key findings of the analysis. It is important to communicate the findings in a way that is clear and concise, and that is tailored to the audience’s needs.

Types of Data Interpretation

There are various types of data interpretation techniques used for analyzing and making sense of data. Here are some of the most common types:

Descriptive Interpretation

This type of interpretation involves summarizing and describing the key features of the data. This can involve calculating measures of central tendency (such as mean, median, and mode), measures of dispersion (such as range, variance, and standard deviation), and creating visualizations such as histograms, box plots, and scatterplots.

Inferential Interpretation

This type of interpretation involves making inferences about a larger population based on a sample of the data. This can involve hypothesis testing, where you test a hypothesis about a population parameter using sample data, or confidence interval estimation, where you estimate a range of values for a population parameter based on sample data.

Predictive Interpretation

This type of interpretation involves using data to make predictions about future outcomes. This can involve building predictive models using statistical techniques such as regression analysis, time-series analysis, or machine learning algorithms.

Exploratory Interpretation

This type of interpretation involves exploring the data to identify patterns and relationships that were not previously known. This can involve data mining techniques such as clustering analysis, principal component analysis, or association rule mining.

Causal Interpretation

This type of interpretation involves identifying causal relationships between variables in the data. This can involve experimental designs, such as randomized controlled trials, or observational studies, such as regression analysis or propensity score matching.

Data Interpretation Methods

There are various methods for data interpretation that can be used to analyze and make sense of data. Here are some of the most common methods:

Statistical Analysis

This method involves using statistical techniques to analyze the data. Statistical analysis can involve descriptive statistics (such as measures of central tendency and dispersion), inferential statistics (such as hypothesis testing and confidence interval estimation), and predictive modeling (such as regression analysis and time-series analysis).

Data Visualization

This method involves using visual representations of the data to identify patterns and trends. Data visualization can involve creating charts, graphs, and other visualizations, such as heat maps or scatterplots.

Text Analysis

This method involves analyzing text data, such as survey responses or social media posts, to identify patterns and themes. Text analysis can involve techniques such as sentiment analysis, topic modeling, and natural language processing.

Machine Learning

This method involves using algorithms to identify patterns in the data and make predictions or classifications. Machine learning can involve techniques such as decision trees, neural networks, and random forests.

Qualitative Analysis

This method involves analyzing non-numeric data, such as interviews or focus group discussions, to identify themes and patterns. Qualitative analysis can involve techniques such as content analysis, grounded theory, and narrative analysis.

Geospatial Analysis

This method involves analyzing spatial data, such as maps or GPS coordinates, to identify patterns and relationships. Geospatial analysis can involve techniques such as spatial autocorrelation, hot spot analysis, and clustering.

Applications of Data Interpretation

Data interpretation has a wide range of applications across different fields, including business, healthcare, education, social sciences, and more. Here are some examples of how data interpretation is used in different applications:

• Business : Data interpretation is widely used in business to inform decision-making, identify market trends, and optimize operations. For example, businesses may analyze sales data to identify the most popular products or customer demographics, or use predictive modeling to forecast demand and adjust pricing accordingly.
• Healthcare : Data interpretation is critical in healthcare for identifying disease patterns, evaluating treatment effectiveness, and improving patient outcomes. For example, healthcare providers may use electronic health records to analyze patient data and identify risk factors for certain diseases or conditions.
• Education : Data interpretation is used in education to assess student performance, identify areas for improvement, and evaluate the effectiveness of instructional methods. For example, schools may analyze test scores to identify students who are struggling and provide targeted interventions to improve their performance.
• Social sciences : Data interpretation is used in social sciences to understand human behavior, attitudes, and perceptions. For example, researchers may analyze survey data to identify patterns in public opinion or use qualitative analysis to understand the experiences of marginalized communities.
• Sports : Data interpretation is increasingly used in sports to inform strategy and improve performance. For example, coaches may analyze performance data to identify areas for improvement or use predictive modeling to assess the likelihood of injuries or other risks.

When to use Data Interpretation

Data interpretation is used to make sense of complex data and to draw conclusions from it. It is particularly useful when working with large datasets or when trying to identify patterns or trends in the data. Data interpretation can be used in a variety of settings, including scientific research, business analysis, and public policy.

In scientific research, data interpretation is often used to draw conclusions from experiments or studies. Researchers use statistical analysis and data visualization techniques to interpret their data and to identify patterns or relationships between variables. This can help them to understand the underlying mechanisms of their research and to develop new hypotheses.

In business analysis, data interpretation is used to analyze market trends and consumer behavior. Companies can use data interpretation to identify patterns in customer buying habits, to understand market trends, and to develop marketing strategies that target specific customer segments.

In public policy, data interpretation is used to inform decision-making and to evaluate the effectiveness of policies and programs. Governments and other organizations use data interpretation to track the impact of policies and programs over time, to identify areas where improvements are needed, and to develop evidence-based policy recommendations.

In general, data interpretation is useful whenever large amounts of data need to be analyzed and understood in order to make informed decisions.

Data Interpretation Examples

Here are some real-time examples of data interpretation:

• Social media analytics : Social media platforms generate vast amounts of data every second, and businesses can use this data to analyze customer behavior, track sentiment, and identify trends. Data interpretation in social media analytics involves analyzing data in real-time to identify patterns and trends that can help businesses make informed decisions about marketing strategies and customer engagement.
• Healthcare analytics: Healthcare organizations use data interpretation to analyze patient data, track outcomes, and identify areas where improvements are needed. Real-time data interpretation can help healthcare providers make quick decisions about patient care, such as identifying patients who are at risk of developing complications or adverse events.
• Financial analysis: Real-time data interpretation is essential for financial analysis, where traders and analysts need to make quick decisions based on changing market conditions. Financial analysts use data interpretation to track market trends, identify opportunities for investment, and develop trading strategies.
• Environmental monitoring : Real-time data interpretation is important for environmental monitoring, where data is collected from various sources such as satellites, sensors, and weather stations. Data interpretation helps to identify patterns and trends that can help predict natural disasters, track changes in the environment, and inform decision-making about environmental policies.
• Traffic management: Real-time data interpretation is used for traffic management, where traffic sensors collect data on traffic flow, congestion, and accidents. Data interpretation helps to identify areas where traffic congestion is high, and helps traffic management authorities make decisions about road maintenance, traffic signal timing, and other strategies to improve traffic flow.

Data Interpretation Questions

Data Interpretation Questions samples:

• Medical : What is the correlation between a patient’s age and their risk of developing a certain disease?
• Environmental Science: What is the trend in the concentration of a certain pollutant in a particular body of water over the past 10 years?
• Finance : What is the correlation between a company’s stock price and its quarterly revenue?
• Education : What is the trend in graduation rates for a particular high school over the past 5 years?
• Marketing : What is the correlation between a company’s advertising budget and its sales revenue?
• Sports : What is the trend in the number of home runs hit by a particular baseball player over the past 3 seasons?
• Social Science: What is the correlation between a person’s level of education and their income level?

In order to answer these questions, you would need to analyze and interpret the data using statistical methods, graphs, and other visualization tools.

Purpose of Data Interpretation

The purpose of data interpretation is to make sense of complex data by analyzing and drawing insights from it. The process of data interpretation involves identifying patterns and trends, making comparisons, and drawing conclusions based on the data. The ultimate goal of data interpretation is to use the insights gained from the analysis to inform decision-making.

Data interpretation is important because it allows individuals and organizations to:

• Understand complex data : Data interpretation helps individuals and organizations to make sense of complex data sets that would otherwise be difficult to understand.
• Identify patterns and trends : Data interpretation helps to identify patterns and trends in data, which can reveal important insights about the underlying processes and relationships.
• Make informed decisions: Data interpretation provides individuals and organizations with the information they need to make informed decisions based on the insights gained from the data analysis.
• Evaluate performance : Data interpretation helps individuals and organizations to evaluate their performance over time and to identify areas where improvements can be made.
• Communicate findings: Data interpretation allows individuals and organizations to communicate their findings to others in a clear and concise manner, which is essential for informing stakeholders and making changes based on the insights gained from the analysis.

Characteristics of Data Interpretation

Here are some characteristics of data interpretation:

• Contextual : Data interpretation is always contextual, meaning that the interpretation of data is dependent on the context in which it is analyzed. The same data may have different meanings depending on the context in which it is analyzed.
• Iterative : Data interpretation is an iterative process, meaning that it often involves multiple rounds of analysis and refinement as more data becomes available or as new insights are gained from the analysis.
• Subjective : Data interpretation is often subjective, as it involves the interpretation of data by individuals who may have different perspectives and biases. It is important to acknowledge and address these biases when interpreting data.
• Analytical : Data interpretation involves the use of analytical tools and techniques to analyze and draw insights from data. These may include statistical analysis, data visualization, and other data analysis methods.
• Evidence-based : Data interpretation is evidence-based, meaning that it is based on the data and the insights gained from the analysis. It is important to ensure that the data used in the analysis is accurate, relevant, and reliable.
• Actionable : Data interpretation is actionable, meaning that it provides insights that can be used to inform decision-making and to drive action. The ultimate goal of data interpretation is to use the insights gained from the analysis to improve performance or to achieve specific goals.

Advantages of Data Interpretation

Data interpretation has several advantages, including:

• Improved decision-making: Data interpretation provides insights that can be used to inform decision-making. By analyzing data and drawing insights from it, individuals and organizations can make informed decisions based on evidence rather than intuition.
• Identification of patterns and trends: Data interpretation helps to identify patterns and trends in data, which can reveal important insights about the underlying processes and relationships. This information can be used to improve performance or to achieve specific goals.
• Evaluation of performance: Data interpretation helps individuals and organizations to evaluate their performance over time and to identify areas where improvements can be made. By analyzing data, organizations can identify strengths and weaknesses and make changes to improve their performance.
• Communication of findings: Data interpretation allows individuals and organizations to communicate their findings to others in a clear and concise manner, which is essential for informing stakeholders and making changes based on the insights gained from the analysis.
• Better resource allocation: Data interpretation can help organizations allocate resources more efficiently by identifying areas where resources are needed most. By analyzing data, organizations can identify areas where resources are being underutilized or where additional resources are needed to improve performance.
• Improved competitiveness : Data interpretation can give organizations a competitive advantage by providing insights that help to improve performance, reduce costs, or identify new opportunities for growth.

Limitations of Data Interpretation

Data interpretation has some limitations, including:

• Limited by the quality of data: The quality of data used in data interpretation can greatly impact the accuracy of the insights gained from the analysis. Poor quality data can lead to incorrect conclusions and decisions.
• Subjectivity: Data interpretation can be subjective, as it involves the interpretation of data by individuals who may have different perspectives and biases. This can lead to different interpretations of the same data.
• Limited by analytical tools: The analytical tools and techniques used in data interpretation can also limit the accuracy of the insights gained from the analysis. Different analytical tools may yield different results, and some tools may not be suitable for certain types of data.
• Time-consuming: Data interpretation can be a time-consuming process, particularly for large and complex data sets. This can make it difficult to quickly make decisions based on the insights gained from the analysis.
• Incomplete data: Data interpretation can be limited by incomplete data sets, which may not provide a complete picture of the situation being analyzed. Incomplete data can lead to incorrect conclusions and decisions.
• Limited by context: Data interpretation is always contextual, meaning that the interpretation of data is dependent on the context in which it is analyzed. The same data may have different meanings depending on the context in which it is analyzed.

Difference between Data Interpretation and Data Analysis

Data interpretation and data analysis are two different but closely related processes in data-driven decision-making.

Data analysis refers to the process of examining and examining data using statistical and computational methods to derive insights and conclusions from it. It involves cleaning, transforming, and modeling the data to uncover patterns, relationships, and trends that can help in understanding the underlying phenomena.

Data interpretation, on the other hand, refers to the process of making sense of the findings from the data analysis by contextualizing them within the larger problem domain. It involves identifying the key takeaways from the data analysis, assessing their relevance and significance to the problem at hand, and communicating the insights in a clear and actionable manner.

In short, data analysis is about uncovering insights from the data, while data interpretation is about making sense of those insights and translating them into actionable recommendations.

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Data Collection, Presentation and Analysis

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• Uche M. Mbanaso 4 ,
• Lucienne Abrahams 5 &
• Kennedy Chinedu Okafor 6  

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This chapter covers the topics of data collection, data presentation and data analysis. It gives attention to data collection for studies based on experiments, on data derived from existing published or unpublished data sets, on observation, on simulation and digital twins, on surveys, on interviews and on focus group discussions. One of the interesting features of this chapter is the section dealing with using measurement scales in quantitative research, including nominal scales, ordinal scales, interval scales and ratio scales. It explains key facets of qualitative research including ethical clearance requirements. The chapter discusses the importance of data visualization as key to effective presentation of data, including tabular forms, graphical forms and visual charts such as those generated by Atlas.ti analytical software.

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Scope and purpose Principles Guidelines Quality indicators References

Scope and purpose

Data analysis is the process of developing answers to questions through the examination and interpretation of data.  The basic steps in the analytic process consist of identifying issues, determining the availability of suitable data, deciding on which methods are appropriate for answering the questions of interest, applying the methods and evaluating, summarizing and communicating the results.  

Analytical results underscore the usefulness of data sources by shedding light on relevant issues. Some Statistics Canada programs depend on analytical output as a major data product because, for confidentiality reasons, it is not possible to release the microdata to the public. Data analysis also plays a key role in data quality assessment by pointing to data quality problems in a given survey. Analysis can thus influence future improvements to the survey process.

Data analysis is essential for understanding results from surveys, administrative sources and pilot studies; for providing information on data gaps; for designing and redesigning surveys; for planning new statistical activities; and for formulating quality objectives.

Results of data analysis are often published or summarized in official Statistics Canada releases. 

A statistical agency is concerned with the relevance and usefulness to users of the information contained in its data. Analysis is the principal tool for obtaining information from the data.

Data from a survey can be used for descriptive or analytic studies. Descriptive studies are directed at the estimation of summary measures of a target population, for example, the average profits of owner-operated businesses in 2005 or the proportion of 2007 high school graduates who went on to higher education in the next twelve months.  Analytical studies may be used to explain the behaviour of and relationships among characteristics; for example, a study of risk factors for obesity in children would be analytic. 

To be effective, the analyst needs to understand the relevant issues both current and those likely to emerge in the future and how to present the results to the audience. The study of background information allows the analyst to choose suitable data sources and appropriate statistical methods. Any conclusions presented in an analysis, including those that can impact public policy, must be supported by the data being analyzed.

Initial preparation

Prior to conducting an analytical study the following questions should be addressed:

Objectives. What are the objectives of this analysis? What issue am I addressing? What question(s) will I answer?

Justification. Why is this issue interesting?  How will these answers contribute to existing knowledge? How is this study relevant?

Data. What data am I using? Why it is the best source for this analysis? Are there any limitations?

Analytical methods. What statistical techniques are appropriate? Will they satisfy the objectives?

Audience. Who is interested in this issue and why?

  Suitable data

Ensure that the data are appropriate for the analysis to be carried out.  This requires investigation of a wide range of details such as whether the target population of the data source is sufficiently related to the target population of the analysis, whether the source variables and their concepts and definitions are relevant to the study, whether the longitudinal or cross-sectional nature of the data source is appropriate for the analysis, whether the sample size in the study domain is sufficient to obtain meaningful results and whether the quality of the data, as outlined in the survey documentation or assessed through analysis is sufficient.

 If more than one data source is being used for the analysis, investigate whether the sources are consistent and how they may be appropriately integrated into the analysis.

Appropriate methods and tools

Choose an analytical approach that is appropriate for the question being investigated and the data to be analyzed. 

When analyzing data from a probability sample, analytical methods that ignore the survey design can be appropriate, provided that sufficient model conditions for analysis are met. (See Binder and Roberts, 2003.) However, methods that incorporate the sample design information will generally be effective even when some aspects of the model are incorrectly specified.

Assess whether the survey design information can be incorporated into the analysis and if so how this should be done such as using design-based methods.  See Binder and Roberts (2009) and Thompson (1997) for discussion of approaches to inferences on data from a probability sample.

See Chambers and Skinner (2003), Korn and Graubard (1999), Lehtonen and Pahkinen (1995), Lohr (1999), and Skinner, Holt and Smith (1989) for a number of examples illustrating design-based analytical methods.

For a design-based analysis consult the survey documentation about the recommended approach for variance estimation for the survey. If the data from more than one survey are included in the same analysis, determine whether or not the different samples were independently selected and how this would impact the appropriate approach to variance estimation.

The data files for probability surveys frequently contain more than one weight variable, particularly if the survey is longitudinal or if it has both cross-sectional and longitudinal purposes. Consult the survey documentation and survey experts if it is not obvious as to which might be the best weight to be used in any particular design-based analysis.

When analyzing data from a probability survey, there may be insufficient design information available to carry out analyses using a full design-based approach.  Assess the alternatives.

Consult with experts on the subject matter, on the data source and on the statistical methods if any of these is unfamiliar to you.

Having determined the appropriate analytical method for the data, investigate the software choices that are available to apply the method. If analyzing data from a probability sample by design-based methods, use software specifically for survey data since standard analytical software packages that can produce weighted point estimates do not correctly calculate variances for survey-weighted estimates.

It is advisable to use commercial software, if suitable, for implementing the chosen analyses, since these software packages have usually undergone more testing than non-commercial software.

Determine whether it is necessary to reformat your data in order to use the selected software.

Include a variety of diagnostics among your analytical methods if you are fitting any models to your data.

Refer to the documentation about the data source to determine the degree and types of missing data and the processing of missing data that has been performed.  This information will be a starting point for what further work may be required.

Consider how unit and/or item nonresponse could be handled in the analysis, taking into consideration the degree and types of missing data in the data sources being used.

Consider whether imputed values should be included in the analysis and if so, how they should be handled.  If imputed values are not used, consideration must be given to what other methods may be used to properly account for the effect of nonresponse in the analysis.

If the analysis includes modelling, it could be appropriate to include some aspects of nonresponse in the analytical model.

Report any caveats about how the approaches used to handle missing data could have impact on results

Interpretation of results

Since most analyses are based on observational studies rather than on the results of a controlled experiment, avoid drawing conclusions concerning causality.

When studying changes over time, beware of focusing on short-term trends without inspecting them in light of medium-and long-term trends. Frequently, short-term trends are merely minor fluctuations around a more important medium- and/or long-term trend.

Where possible, avoid arbitrary time reference points. Instead, use meaningful points of reference, such as the last major turning point for economic data, generation-to-generation differences for demographic statistics, and legislative changes for social statistics.

Presentation of results

Focus the article on the important variables and topics. Trying to be too comprehensive will often interfere with a strong story line.

Arrange ideas in a logical order and in order of relevance or importance. Use headings, subheadings and sidebars to strengthen the organization of the article.

Keep the language as simple as the subject permits. Depending on the targeted audience for the article, some loss of precision may sometimes be an acceptable trade-off for more readable text.

Use graphs in addition to text and tables to communicate the message. Use headings that capture the meaning ( e.g. "Women's earnings still trail men's") in preference to traditional chart titles ( e.g. "Income by age and sex"). Always help readers understand the information in the tables and charts by discussing it in the text.

When tables are used, take care that the overall format contributes to the clarity of the data in the tables and prevents misinterpretation.  This includes spacing; the wording, placement and appearance of titles; row and column headings and other labeling. 

Explain rounding practices or procedures. In the presentation of rounded data, do not use more significant digits than are consistent with the accuracy of the data.

Satisfy any confidentiality requirements ( e.g. minimum cell sizes) imposed by the surveys or administrative sources whose data are being analysed.

Include information about the data sources used and any shortcomings in the data that may have affected the analysis.  Either have a section in the paper about the data or a reference to where the reader can get the details.

Include information about the analytical methods and tools used.  Either have a section on methods or a reference to where the reader can get the details.

Include information regarding the quality of the results. Standard errors, confidence intervals and/or coefficients of variation provide the reader important information about data quality. The choice of indicator may vary depending on where the article is published.

Ensure that all references are accurate, consistent and are referenced in the text.

Check for errors in the article. Check details such as the consistency of figures used in the text, tables and charts, the accuracy of external data, and simple arithmetic.

Ensure that the intentions stated in the introduction are fulfilled by the rest of the article. Make sure that the conclusions are consistent with the evidence.

Have the article reviewed by others for relevance, accuracy and comprehensibility, regardless of where it is to be disseminated.  As a good practice, ask someone from the data providing division to review how the data were used.  If the article is to be disseminated outside of Statistics Canada, it must undergo institutional and peer review as specified in the Policy on the Review of Information Products (Statistics Canada, 2003). 

If the article is to be disseminated in a Statistics Canada publication make sure that it complies with the current Statistics Canada Publishing Standards. These standards affect graphs, tables and style, among other things.

As a good practice, consider presenting the results to peers prior to finalizing the text. This is another kind of peer review that can help improve the article. Always do a dry run of presentations involving external audiences.

Refer to available documents that could provide further guidance for improvement of your article, such as Guidelines on Writing Analytical Articles (Statistics Canada 2008 ) and the Style Guide (Statistics Canada 2004)

Quality indicators

Main quality elements:  relevance, interpretability, accuracy, accessibility

An analytical product is relevant if there is an audience who is (or will be) interested in the results of the study.

For the interpretability of an analytical article to be high, the style of writing must suit the intended audience. As well, sufficient details must be provided that another person, if allowed access to the data, could replicate the results.

For an analytical product to be accurate, appropriate methods and tools need to be used to produce the results.

For an analytical product to be accessible, it must be available to people for whom the research results would be useful.

Binder, D.A. and G.R. Roberts. 2003. "Design-based methods for estimating model parameters."  In Analysis of Survey Data. R.L. Chambers and C.J. Skinner ( eds. ) Chichester. Wiley. p. 29-48.

Binder, D.A. and G. Roberts. 2009. "Design and Model Based Inference for Model Parameters." In Handbook of Statistics 29B: Sample Surveys: Inference and Analysis. Pfeffermann, D. and Rao, C.R. ( eds. ) Vol. 29B. Chapter 24. Amsterdam.Elsevier. 666 p.

Chambers, R.L. and C.J. Skinner ( eds. ) 2003. Analysis of Survey Data. Chichester. Wiley. 398 p.

Korn, E.L. and B.I. Graubard. 1999. Analysis of Health Surveys. New York. Wiley. 408 p.

Lehtonen, R. and E.J. Pahkinen. 2004. Practical Methods for Design and Analysis of Complex Surveys.Second edition. Chichester. Wiley.

Lohr, S.L. 1999. Sampling: Design and Analysis. Duxbury Press. 512 p.

Skinner, C.K., D.Holt and T.M.F. Smith. 1989. Analysis of Complex Surveys. Chichester. Wiley. 328 p.

Thompson, M.E. 1997. Theory of Sample Surveys. London. Chapman and Hall. 312 p.

Statistics Canada. 2003. "Policy on the Review of Information Products." Statistics Canada Policy Manual. Section 2.5. Last updated March 4, 2009.

Statistics Canada. 2004. Style Guide.  Last updated October 6, 2004.

Statistics Canada. 2008. Guidelines on Writing Analytical Articles. Last updated September 16, 2008.

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Chapter 4 PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

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