synthesis education

Meet Synthesis: The edtech startup scaling Elon Musk’s Ad Astra school

Ceo chrisman frank tells us how synthesis is creating a platform that teaches problem solving for children that "want to learn how to build the future.".

Published: April 16, 2021

Updated: February 09, 2024

Elon Musk is well known for many things. 

PayPal. Tesla. SpaceX…and even a monkey using brain implants to play ping pong. 

Less publicized: Ad Astra (Latin for “to the stars”), a private school started by the South African entrepreneur and educator Josh Dahn.  

Musk laid out his goals for a new school program…

…in a 2015 interview :

• An alternative to the age segregation model: Musk says that separating kids by age doesn’t make sense for education, because students have different interests and abilities that are independent of how old they are.  
• Problem solving focus: Instead of giving children “tools” in a vacuum, they should be taught how to problem solve. 
• Gamification: Musk notes that he doesn’t have to “encourage his kids to play games.” Gamifying education is a natural match for kids. 

Only a few SpaceX families had access to the program, though 

Over the past few years, Dahn has been working with Chrisman Frank — a veteran engineer from edtech startup ClassDojo — to bring Ad Astra to the masses. 

Enter Synthesis , an online games-based academy (Frank is CEO while Musk is not involved in the startup). 

Officially launched in November 2020, Synthesis is currently an online once-a-week enrichment program that teaches Ad Astra-inspired problem solving. 

In a few short months, Synthesis has reached a 7-figure run rate (~1k subscribers paying $180 per month)…but the school has much larger plans.  The Hustle recently spoke with Frank to find out more:

Could you tell us the philosophy behind Synthesis? 

Synthesis started with making education more about problem solving. We put kids in game simulations and let them figure out how it works. 

In adult life and work, you’re always having to make trade-offs and work with other people. This is something we try to simulate. 

There is a good audio clip on my Twitter that shows this type of skill development [see below].

Currently, everything in education is geared towards the middle or the bottom. My co-founder Josh [Dahn] and Elon made an unapologetically accelerated program. 

There are some kids that are already doing very well and we believe Synthesis can help accelerate them even more.

The overall mission is to increase the level of innovation in the world. Let’s say right now there are maybe 1 in 10,000 people innovating and contributing new knowledge to the world. 

What if we can get that number to 1 in 100? 

My 8yo daughter is using synthesis and loves it. She basically kicks me out of the room but I listen in and the kids sound like this frequently. It's pretty crazy how fast they learn when there's limited guidance, competition, and time constraints ;). https://t.co/qIyUIzIMUf — Hermann Peterscheck (@petershk) March 24, 2021

How is the program doing?

Synthesis launched in November [2020] and has already reached a ~$2m annual run rate. We could probably be growing faster but our application process is deliberate. 

We want to find people that are aligned with our philosophy. 

How many people currently work at Synthesis?

There is a core team of 10. But we also have 70 guides, which are the adults that facilitate our learning sessions. 

What is the longer-term vision for Synthesis?

Human ingenuity — our ability to solve complex problems collaboratively — is the world’s most valuable skill, and the root of all progress. 

And we do not know how to cultivate this skill at scale. In our view, nothing could be more important for humanity’s future. So our aim is to do exactly that: learn how to cultivate human ingenuity at scale. 

As far as how our product evolves, the existing subscription is the first part of a “barbell” strategy.

1) At one end of the barbell is the weekly enrichment program: 

This program is a supplement to regular school or home schooling. 

Right now we have 1k students but expect this will grow an order of magnitude by year end. For 99% of Synthesis students, this will be what Synthesis is.

2) At the other end of the barbell is a “full stack” online school :

This program will target the world’s most advanced science and technology students. 

You can think of the Synthesis games and simulations as a massive tournament to find the kids that have high potential for the STEM (science, tech, engineering, math) fields. We need to find the kids in Bangladesh or Nigeria who have the mind and desire to change the world, but need access to the right opportunities. 

It’s still early but we envision a situation where we can offer the top 1% of Synthesis students a chance to join a culture and community that will be the best path to changing the world through innovation. 

Ideally, we could make this entirely free for the students, and run it as an investment in our long-term brand.

Even without the program dedicated to top performers, Synthesis sounds like a great software business. 

I think that is true, because there is a growing wave of dissatisfaction with the existing education system. Savvy parents already recognize that the ability to solve complex problems is THE most valuable skill, and also something kids are rarely asked to do in school. 

Combine that with the fact that this is sort of the first generation of internet-native parents, and I think the opportunity is enormous.

Will you be able to reduce prices in the future?

Yes. Like virtually every new technology, Synthesis is effectively subsidized by those who can afford to pay a premium price. We will use the revenues from this phase to invest in the product in order to reduce costs and make it available to as many kids as possible. 

This is especially important for us as the demand is global. Most of our students are currently in the US, but we also have significant presence in India, Russia, and Europe.

Socializing is such a large part of early schooling. How does Synthesis add that component for an internet-only school? 

I think of education as a bundle. You have the learning aspect and, also, a daycare aspect. 

We are currently 100% focused on learning, not daycare.

But unlike school, our learning experiences are inherently social, because the kids are solving problems together. There is a real shared experience, which helps kids form stronger bonds than just sitting next to each other in desks. So, we have to move past the idea that physical colocation is always more social than virtual experiences. 

I also think that Synthesis will serve as a Schelling point for advanced students.

Many kids already think and communicate at adult levels. At Synthesis, they will be around like-minded peers. They will have their local friends based on geographic convenience, and their internet friends based on shared interests and goals. 

For the hyper-advanced students, Synthesis can be an alternative to entering college at age 12 or 14, which is sort of a tough situation to be in socially, even if you can do the academic work.

What is a common criticism of Synthesis you’ve heard and how do you address it? 

We don’t give grades so people do ask “how do you measure the students and prove they are learning?”

But the big problem with the current system is the distortion caused by too much focus on measurement!

We don’t want to play the standardized test game. For us, it’s more important to focus on “Are the kids really thinking here? Does the problem solving they are doing in Synthesis resemble real life?”

Remember, Synthesis is voluntary. We are looking for members who see what we are doing and are excited about it. 

Some parents really like the structure they feel the industrial education system provides. We are probably just not a good match for them.

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Learning Through Play: How Synthesis Plans to Bring the Ad Astra/Astra Nova Model to the Entire World

While inaccessible to many for now, the people behind the project intend to change that as soon as possible..

Matthew S. Williams

South_agency/iStock

In the world of business and technology, the word “disrupt” is thrown around quite a lot these days. By definition, this refers to the process of causing radical changes by means of innovation. Already, we have seen how new technologies are radically changing things like manufacturing, banking, medicine, and transportation.

But in terms of education, there has been a lot of talk, but little overall change in how it is administered. Luckily, there are many people today who are looking to change that. As with many disruptions taking place, Elon Musk has a hand in this one too.

Years ago, he recruited educator  Joshua Dahn to create a new type of school that would “gamify” education to teach kids vital skills. Today, Dahn and co-creator Chrisman Frank are taking things to the next level with Synthesis , a new education platform they founded to make this form of education available to the whole world.

The story of Synthesis began six years ago when SpaceX founder Elon Musk approached  Joshua Dahn , one of the teachers at the private school his children were attending at the time. Musk shared his concerns that his children were not getting the education they needed to prepare them for the “real world.” This was something that he attributed to the “assembly line” model of education, which he is not a fan of!

As an instructor with a Master’s in Education — one who specializes in working with gifted children and curriculum design — Dahn certainly understood Musk’s concerns regarding conventional education. This led the two gentlemen to discuss how education could be given an “overhaul.” Musk expressed these same views in a  2013 interview with Sal Khan, founder of the Khan Academy (a nonprofit online education platform):

“What is education? You’re basically downloading data and algorithms into your brain. And it’s actually amazingly bad in conventional education because it shouldn’t be like this huge chore… The more you can gamify the process of learning, the better. For my kids, I don’t have to encourage them to play video games. I have to pry them out of their hands.”

Beyond “gamifying” the process, Musk also cited how conventional education still relies on transmission-style learning, where the teacher talks and students are expected to absorb and regurgitate later. What is lost in the mix is the “why?” of things, the applications of knowledge. If students don’t know why they are required to learn something, they won’t see the value in it.

This is something that Musk described as “vaudevillian,” which essentially means that it’s the theater of the absurd. Not only are students expected to passively absorb the information that is being transmitted to them, but they rarely understand the purpose or application of it. Believing that humans are hardwired for play and knowing the “why” give people a sense of purpose, Musk saw an opportunity for change.

SEE ALSO: ASTRA NOVA SCHOOL, FOLLOWING ELON MUSK’S AD ASTRA SCHOOL EXPERIMENT, LEADS THE FUTURE OF EDUCATION

In the end, Musk asked Dahn if he would be interested in starting a small school at the SpaceX campus in Los Angeles for his children and those of his employees. Dahn agreed, and from this,  Ad Astra (“to the stars” in Latin) was born, an innovative school sitting in the shadow of the SpaceX rocket factory. In a  2015 interview with China’s Beijing Media Network, Musk shared what the core concepts of this school were:

• No grades or age segregation – Age segregation doesn’t work because kids have different aptitudes and interests that vary across time.
• Problem-solving, not learning to use tools – Learning to use tools is pointless and unstimulating unless you can see how they solve real problems.

Ad Astra creator and Synthesis co-founder Josh Dahn. Source: Astra Nova

Education to Scale

Over the next few years, the school and its methods became the subject of much interest, and families all over California (not just SpaceX employees) began looking to secure spots for their children. Word of its accomplishments also reached the ears of Chrisman Frank, an educational software developer who specializes in getting ideas and resources to children and educators directly.

Frank was an engineer with ClassDojo at the time, an app that facilitates communication between teachers and parents. His work also involved a partnership with Stanford’s Project for Education Research that Scales (PERTS) Research Center to create a video series about the “Growth Mindset” concept (which teaches that intelligence is acquired, much like how working a muscle increases its strength).

This series has been viewed by over 10 million kids and got ClassDojo’s founders interested in other ideas that they could deliver at scale. About four years ago, Sam Chaudhary (CEO and co-founder of ClassDojo) met Dahn during a dinner function, and he and Frank decided to visit the Ad Astra school. Frank was very impressed with what he saw, and he and Dahn became fast friends and colleagues. As Frank told Interesting Engineering:

“Josh and I ended up producing ‘ Conundrums ‘ through ClassDojo, a video series asking kids to make decisions on open-ended questions like ‘Who should lead a Mars mission?’ Through that project, we became friends due to both of us being maniacal about getting better learning experiences to kids.”

While Frank was impressed by what he saw at Ad Astra overall, he was especially intrigued by what he saw with a class called “Synthesis.” Here, students would engage in complex team games that Dahn created himself, working through case studies, simulations, and game-based challenges. The purpose here was to engage the students and develop their problem-solving skills while also making the whole learning process fun.

SEE ALSO: GENERATION ALPHA: LEARNING STEM SKILLS BY CODING ROBOTS

“I had never seen a group of students so energized and invested in their learning, but it gave me a pit in my stomach,” said Frank . “I knew I couldn’t give my own kids anything like this.” However, a few years later, Frank would prove himself wrong. During the COVID-19 pandemic, he and Dahn sensed that the time was right to launch a new education platform that could really disrupt the field. Fittingly, they called this platform Synthesis .

With Frank as CEO and Dahn as Creative Director, the goal of this platform is to take what Ad Astra did with its Synthesis class and build it to scale, making it available as an enrichment program available to students other than Musk’s children and those of SpaceX employees. Similarly, Dahn left SpaceX to co-create the Astra Nova school (“New Star” in Latin), a virtual institution based on the Ad Astra model, with full-time tuition starting at $31,500.

This independent school is a scaled-up model of Musk and Dahn’s experiment that offers services to a larger student body. Parents are able to enroll their children and pay an annual fee, as they would any other independent school, although classes are held entirely online. But with Synthesis, they hoped to scale the most innovative aspects of Ad Astra and Astra Nova and truly make it an experience open to everyone. As Frank explained:

“When I first encountered Synthesis, it was at Ad Astra, which was only Elon’s kids and some other rocket engineers’ kids — a very select group, you might say. So the first kind of thing was, ‘what if we put this in front of just average kids,’ or even just kids whose parents don’t work at SpaceX? How’s that going to go? Is it going to be just too wild or too complex?”

What they found out, pretty quickly, was that it wasn’t and that kids from all walks of life enjoyed it just as much as the select Ad Astra kids. And so, Dahn and Frank were inspired to do something transformational and make their platform available to every kid in the world. Admissions, which Dahn is still forced to contend with at Astra Nova, was also something that they were eager to avoid.

“There’s just no way to make these decisions very well,” said Frank. “When you can accept 1 in 20 or 1 in 50 or whatever it is, you’re going to make mistakes. If you have better education, excluding people from that based on your own judgment, that’s a tough thing to do, and we don’t want to have to do that.”

While they have an application process right now, they eventually hope to open Synthesis up so that anybody who wants to enroll can do so. Meanwhile, Frank, Dahn, and their colleagues will not be forced to make the hard decisions that place limits on accessibility.

SEE ALSO: NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN THE REMOTE LEARNING SECTOR

At present, classes are a weekly affair (for one hour) and cost a steep $180 per month, but they hope that this model of education will become widespread and something children can engage in on a daily basis. Like Ad Astra and Astra Nova, the Synthesis program does not rely on grades or age segregation, nor does it offer courses in differentiated subjects. As Frank described it, the Synthesis program remains true to its name by making many fields of knowledge work together:

“The idea right is like you have your other subjects, but Synthesis is like ‘now you’re making all this stuff work together.’ And that’s what it takes to get things done in the world, right? There’s no reward for being the best engineer, actually. You have to fit in all these other systems, so synthesis gives kids that chance to do that complex thinking that’s missing from the traditional curriculum.”

Kindling the Flame

The Synthesis philosophy calls to mind the oft-cited quote by Socrates: “Education is not the filling of a vessel,” he said, “but the kindling of a flame.” This is the basis of the “Socratic method,” which is often considered to be the opposite of the traditional transmission (or “assembly-line”) model of education.

In a Socratic classroom, students are involved in the education process through dialogue and activities that are designed to get them to confront what they don’t know . In this respect, the teacher works with the student so they can find their own way to knowledge and conclusions.

For years, educational theorists and institutions have sought to move away from the transmission model to increase student engagement and success. These efforts have largely relied on ideas like Gardner’s “ Theory of Multiple Intelligences ,” which argues that there is more than one type of intelligence (and that they can be learned).

Another guiding principle is the “ Constructivist Approach ,” which states that learning is an actively involved process of meaning and knowledge construction, which requires that teachers build on what is familiar to the students. And then there’s the concept of the “gatekeeper,” how assessment should move beyond the old “pass/fail” paradigm and become more diagnostic.

Beyond merely emphasizing student engagement, Synthesis also leverages advances in technology to make learning more distributed, more hands-on, and more fun while also ensuring that it is not limited to a physical space. Ana Lorena Fabrega (aka. Ms. Fab ) is an educational entrepreneur (aka. “EDUpreneur”) who recently joined Synthesis as its “ Chief Evangelist .” In one of her many Youtube videos, she describes their education process this way:

“Imagine a virtual playground where kids get to make tough decisions and develop the instincts and cognitive tools and collaboration skills to deal with complexity, all while having a blast. Because learning can and should feel like playing a fun game.”

We also caught up with Jessica Anne Bogart , an educator/facilitator who works with the Synthesis program and is responsible for putting Interesting Engineering in touch with Frank and Dahn. In addition to conducting outreach with publications, journalists, and science communicators, Bogart also teaches four classes at Synthesis.

She described not only how the educational philosophy is different but what a typical class would look like. For starters, it consists of throwing the students into team games without a lot of instruction beforehand, which allows them to engage their problem-solving skills and powers of observation to determine what the game is about.

SEE ALSO: 11+ BEST SCIENCE WEBSITES FOR INTERACTIVE LEARNING

Meanwhile, the teacher will facilitate, make sure the students stay on-task, and foster discussion afterward. As Bogart explained:

“ So, for example, this Wednesday’s class is a new class. They will join Zoom, and maybe some students are nervous or anxious about ‘getting the answer right’ or whatever. Right away, I declare that ‘Synthesis is not like regular school. There are no grades, and I’m not going to split you up based on your age.’

“Immediately, the students seem to relax a little. Synthesis is a community of problem solvers, a place to try things, experiment, sometimes fail, and sometimes win. Laugh, learn, share. From there, they login into Constellations and begin. No explanation of the rules, or scoring… the students figure all that out for themselves, and then discuss with each other what they learned”.

Consistent with the philosophy of “ Growth Education ,” there is no winning or losing with these games. Each game comes down to teamwork and learning what strategies are best for solve different complex problems. As one student described the Synthesis experience, “you win, or you learn, that’s it.”

Education During the Pandemic

As noted earlier, the COVID-19 pandemic played a role in the launching of Synthesis. As social distancing and restrictions forced schools to close all across the world, parents and teachers were forced to turn to online resources like Zoom to keep their children’s education going.

It was here that Frank and Dahn saw an opportunity to introduce their platform, which not only differs from conventional education but traditional online classes and “distance education” as well. According to what Frank has been told repeatedly by customers who have enrolled their children in the past few months, the big difference is the level of socialization:

“ Synthesis is like a hyper-social kind of learning experience, so a lot different than the online classes kids are used to taking… We definitely hear that a lot, [that] the nature of it just being games and solving problems together, and having to chat with each other, and see each others’ faces. It breeds friendships in a way that the other online classes haven’t because you’re not just sitting there listening to a teacher. You’re actually getting to talk with other kids.

“I’m not really knocking that approach, but usually, it’s a lot more sitting and listening to someone else. A lot more than Synthesis, at least, where its teachers are speaking very little. They’re just kind of like guide rails in case the kids go too far off track. But yeah, for the most part, it’s the kids doing the work, which is something Josh mentioned when we first met. You want to give kids agency, as much as you can, put them in the driver’s seat, bring them behind the curtain, let them help shape their experience.”

At the same time, the experience with the pandemic has changed the way many people think about how they conduct business and socialize with friends and colleagues. This is certainly something that could influence how we think of education in the long-term.

“It’s not like I don’t miss getting together in person, but I miss it less than I would have thought, maybe,” added Frank. “So it’s possible [that] a lot more of our social development and work continues to be online and that people were happy with that. I mean, obviously, or if we could get kids back to school and in-person and having that social interaction as soon as possible. But until that happens, we’re at least providing some kind of alternative for people.”

Bogart also noted how beyond merely providing a virtual classroom for students during the lockdown, the launch of Synthesis has created a community that goes beyond the platform and will likely endure long after the lockdown is over:

“In the last few months, Josh and Chrisman have scaled up these classes and brought these kids together. And we’re talking about kids from all over: Bahrain, Egypt, Australia, Canada, Mexico, United States, England, Ireland. We have kids from all over the world that join these classes. Additionally, Josh and Chrisman created a Discord Server, which provides an opportunity for students to interact outside of Synthesis. Sharing art with each other and invention ideas. Sometimes they get together and play Minecraft. It’s an organic amalgamation of kids who want to build a future together “.

Future of Education?

Another interesting benefit, said Dahn, is how the games are a framework to talk about higher-level ideas and mental models. These include things like how to model strategic interactions among rational decision-makers (aka. game theory ), using deductive logic to gauge the level of uncertainty in knowledge ( probabilistic reasoning ), or how increased numbers of participants improve the value of something ( network effect ).

These are concepts that even most adults aren’t familiar with, not unless it relates directly to their profession (like computer sciences, psychology, or economics). This is due to the fact that in conventional education, concepts are only taught if they are deemed “essential” and/or are related to a specific career path. But with an education where information is not treated as “on-demand,” students have the chance to cast a wider net.

“In one of my upper-level classes this week, we were talking about offensive versus defensive strategy,” said Bogart. “We started talking about Sun Tzu and The Art of War , concepts that are rarely discussed in a regular classroom.” In this sense, said Bogart, Frank and Dahn are out to really “disrupt” education:

“We throw that word around all the time. But now, here at Synthesis, we are out to really disrupt education for the better and give kids the opportunity to make contributions at fourteen, fifteen, sixteen years old. Why do we have to wait for them to be twenty-two, twenty-four, after all these decades of education? ‘Oh, now you can make a contribution to the world?’ NO…remove the speed limit — that’s what Synthesis is doing.”

For now, Synthesis classes are a weekly affair, lasting just one hour, and are open to students aged 8 to 14. Enrollment is currently priced at $180 dollars a month, putting them out of reach of most, but Frank and Dahn intend to reduce costs as they expand their services and the Synthesis team. According to Frank, it’s not unlike what Elon Musk set out to do with Tesla, SpaceX, and other ventures he has created over the years:

“Obviously, we’re in the very early stages of that, where we started off very high-touch and high price, so it’s got it’s kind of like our Tesla Roadster version that we have out right now,” he said. “But the prices will come down, and we will make it more accessible to as many kids we possibly can, and that’s the goal.”

Or as Dahn put it, the real mission for Tesla was never to sell as many electric cars as possible but to accelerate sustainable transport and sustainable energy. For SpaceX, it was not about selling rides aboard the Starship , but about opening up space and making it more accessible by reducing the costs of individual launches:

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“In the same way, I think that with Synthesis, we’re giving a name to something that we all know is indispensable because it is an exercise in life. And you give that to students at a time where they can have the support to actually build these skills in a real way before [they become adults].

“To be able to figure out how to solve all these big problems and get that experience, and also to change the way you think about yourself as it relates to complexity and problem solving — from passive to you’re an active part of it — this is Synthesis, and this is the promise of it.”

For more information, check out the  Synthesis website or head on over to Astra Nova . And for more fun and inspiring videos from Ms. Fab, check out her website and Youtube channel .

• Ana Lorena Fabrega (Ms. Fab)

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ABOUT THE EDITOR

Matthew S. Williams Matthew S Williams is an author, a writer for Universe Today, and the curator of their Guide to Space section. His works include sci-fi/mystery The Cronian Incident and his articles have been featured in Phys.org, HeroX, Popular Mechanics, Business Insider, Gizmodo, and IO9, ScienceAlert, Knowridge Science Report, and Real Clear Science, with topics ranging from astronomy and Earth sciences to technological innovation and environmental issues. He is also a former educator and a 5th degree Black Belt Tae Kwon Do instructor. He lives on Vancouver Island with his wife and family.  

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Elon Musk’s SpaceX lab school principles now molding young innovators around the world

The advent of COVID has brought about a myriad of problems in the world to the forefront, including hard-to-swallow realizations about the systems that surround, forge, and often dictate human society. Education was among these systems affected by the global pandemic. 

As students moved their learning experiences from the classroom into their living rooms, it became evident that the traditional education system was not equipped to mold young minds in the middle of a pandemic. At the same time, however, the coronavirus’s effect on schools and learning highlighted some issues that have been plaguing the educational sector for some time. 

Some parents, teachers, and other advocates of learning have taken the time the pandemic has afforded us to try and fix some of the fundamental issues that have surfaced in traditional education systems across the globe throughout the years, prior to COVID. 

Synthesis School has taken a different route.

Led by Josh Dahn (Cofounder & Creative Director), Chrisman Frank (Cofounder & CEO), and Ana Fabrega (Chief Evangelist), Synthesis School seems to get to the root of learning and education by teaching kids and young adults fundamental problem-solving skills through a medium that comes naturally to them: games. 

“Synthesis school has taken the games that were played at Ad Astra campus, at the lab school of SpaceX. We’ve taken those games and we’ve scaled them up to offer to kids all around the world. The particular focus of them has to do with teaching bigger concepts like game theory, collaboration, Network Effect. What it’s like to work in a teams, strategy…,” Jessica Bogart, a Synthesis School facilitator, told Teslarati .

Bogart left the entertainment industry after two decades to join Synthesis School as a facilitator. She sat down with Teslarati and explained the schematics of each class and how it helped enrich and cultivate young minds to face the everyday problems that life will throw at them.

Elon Musk’s educational principles from Ad Astra – the SpaceX lab school he created for his sons with the help of Josh Dahn—make up the core of Synthesis School. Musk described the two core principles of Ad Astra years ago as: 1) Ditch the assembly line model, no grade levels and 2) Problem-focused, not tool-focused. 

At Synthesis, about 18-20 kids are put into groups called cohorts. Each group has one facilitator. Bogart explained that facilitators don’t lecture to their cohorts, like teachers do in a classroom. 

A typical meeting starts with the cohorts logging into one of Synthesis School’s games and a Zoom call. The facilitator does not give them instructions about the game. Each cohort is given time to explore and learn the schematics of the game on their own. 

After they have explored, the cohorts talk to each other to learn information that others might have found about the game. Then the cohorts are broken down into several groups and must navigate the game together to complete a given objective. 

“There’s no wrong answers and there’s no grades. It’s all about seeing how you think,” Bogart said. She explained that Synthesis didn’t teach kids through rote memorization or focus on grades and teaching to the test. It focused more on critical thinking, problem-solving, and teaching kids how to find or learn about the tools they need to solve complex issues. 

“In regular school, an example would be, here are 50 different screwdrivers and you’re going to memorize the size and shape and handles and where they go on the board,” Bogart explained. 

“The way that [it was being taught at Ad Astra] at the time was here’s the engine that’s broken and we need to fix it, but what do we do to get the casing off? Well, we use a screwdriver. And now you’ve made that connection.” 

In Jessica Bogart’s cohort missions, she has been able to teach her kids concepts like the Network Effect or the Stag Hunt game theory. Right before her interview with Teslarati , Bogart taught her cohorts offensive and defensive strategies based on The Art of War by Sun Tzu. 

Synthesis School already has cohorts from around the world, including Australia, England, India, Bahrain, and the United States. The enrichment club offers weekly classes for $180 a month and has plans to add more classes in the future. 

It is a growing community dedicated to teaching children and young adults fundamental skills they will need to learn and thrive in life through games like Constellation. In Jessica Bogart’s words, Synthesis School helps kids “embrace the chaos.”

Given the global landscape of today, embracing the chaos of the world and having the ability to work through it, may just be what the doctor ordered.

For more information on Synthesis School, click here .  

If you have a story share related to Elon Musk, Tesla, or any of his companies, we’d like to hear from you. Email us at  [email protected]  or reach out to me at  [email protected] .

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Synthesis School Review: Elon Musk’s Playbook for Teaching Our Children A Better Way to Learn

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An honest Synthesis School Review from parents and their ten-year-old.

If Tesla is to cars as SpaceX is to space travel, is the Ad Astra & Synthesis School the future of education?

Educating our children in the digital age presents a sea of opportunities and ongoing enrichment programs. 

It is also an experience still grounded in the traditional classroom and tethered by tax-dollar constraints.

We wanted to share our story in the event it could help curious parents evaluate if their child’s learning experiences and education systems are truly teaching relevant skills.

A Good Problem to Have

We’ve been fortunate to have kids who thrive in the traditional system. Blessed, in fact.

But will the conventional system prepare them for the world that awaits them ten years from now?

My guess is no.

And I can tell you the exact moment it became clear:

The parent-teacher conference.

Driving there, we were curious about the deep insights we will hear about our child’s specific behaviors, interests, strengths, and weaknesses. We couldn’t wait. 

Driving home, we felt the feedback we received could have been copied and pasted for 80% of the kids in the class.

Beyond that, we couldn’t shake the nagging sense the subjects felt like an outdated checklist of nice-to-haves.

Could memorizing state capitals be more important than learning to code ?

Our thesis: With Siri a whisper away and supercomputers in our pockets, memorizing facts should take an immediate backseat to developing fundamental problem-solving skills.

Follow Every Direction

But how could they learn to solve real problems when always given both direction and rules?

Flashback to my niece’s first day of soccer. Shin guards on, a little nervous to try something new, and a last-minute pep talk from the car reminded her, “be certain you follow every direction from your coach.”

The coach asked the young group to run down the line and back to warm-up. Unsurprisingly, she was last to finish as she tried to run literally “down the line” like a balance beam.

She was doing exactly what she had been told: follow every direction. 

I was beginning to feel like school days encouraged a lot of carefully following one another to tiptoe down the line.

But She’s Doing Great In School

My daughter might receive high praise for listening well to others, being organized, and owning the completion of her tasks.

And while she is very self-sufficient when it comes to her homework, one night Math triggered tears. She was distraught and declared there was no way a specific problem was fair as her teacher would never assign something that hadn’t yet been taught.

Upon reading the problem and others she had completed, you could recognize that the theme was similar, just flipped on its side. She had no interest in trying to problem solve, she was simply hurt to be asked to do something she didn’t understand.

This was a flag for us.

She had been hailed as an “excellent mathematician” the week before. This experience highlighted that she was excellent at coloring in the lines but inexperienced in flexing the necessary muscles to solve a new problem without a handbook patiently.

What school would we design?

You might not be surprised to learn this, but we’re both engineers.

When faced with a problem, our instinct if take it apart and design something better.

So we turned over our daughter’s report cards and began with a fresh sheet of paper.

What are the essential capabilities for her to develop? And how would she practice those skills?

• Get comfortable being uncomfortable / embrace the chaos
• Have the curiosity to look at complex problems and define your own speed limit
• Practice and refine collaborative problem-solving skills
• Ask questions and listen for thoughtful answers
• Build relationships with those who can help

And if we’re being honest, we’re not contrarian enough to homeschool our kids to make this a reality. Instead, we looked for ways to supplement.

Enter: Synthesis Schoo l

This quick video from a parent certainly piqued our interest:

What is the Synthesis School

Synthesis School (you’ll find them at synthesis.com ) is an online school that started as a full-time program for the children of parents who worked at SpaceX. It was born of – surprise, surprise – a disappointing parent-teacher conference for Elon Musk.

When Elon left a meeting with his child’s teacher, he was inspired to re-think the concept of a school from first principles. Why did we continue to teach kids the same as we did 100 years ago? Especially given success in the world looks much different today?

He asked Josh Dahn to create that school with two principles in mind:

• Cohort children based on their ability, not their age.
• Don’t teach the tool. Teach the problem.

He rationed that learning how to use tools for the sake of learning them can be boring until you see how tools can help to solve problems. He felt that the current grade-level model was not the right fit and that students have different skills and interests that vary over time. 

He noticed that his children didn’t need any nudging to play video games, so why not gamify education?

With these guiding principles, Josh Dahn went on to create Elon Musk’s Ad Astra school (in Latin, “to the stars”) a lab school for Musk’s children and SpaceX employees.

In Dahn’s own words, “The goal was to develop students who are enthralled by complexity and solving for the unknown. Synthesis is the most innovative learning experience from that school. It is designed to cultivate student voice, strategic thinking, and collaborative problem-solving.”

Enter Chrisman Frank, engineer #1 at ClassDojo, a K-12 network that reaches ~30 million teachers and students. He visited Ad Astra for the day and was astonished by the energy and excitement flowing from the classroom during the “Synthesis” course. Instead of lectures, students were whole-heartedly engaged in Astra Nova game simulations. 

Frank felt compelled to bring this opportunity to students around the world and is now the co-founder and CEO of the edtech startup Synthesis School.

How does it work?

Sometimes it’s easier to show than tell.

There are another half dozen games and simulations that kids play weekly with a consistent group of peers. They can also opt into an increasingly diverse set of programs with other kids worldwide.

For our family, the weekly consistency combined with opt-in flexibility works for our 10-year-old.

You can always  learn more about their approach  on their website too. It’s worth checking since the offering is rapidly changing as they learn more about what works.

Bracing Yourself to Embrace the Chaos

I know we struggled with this.

As parents, we can’t aspire for our kids to get comfortable with failing and constantly prevent mistakes. We can’t ask them to make sense of ambiguity and then ask for every detail to be settled in advance.

So like us, you’ll probably have questions like:

Who are the Teachers?

Synthesis School is quick to point out a razor-sharp focus on their teachers. Only 4-6% of those who apply to teach are accepted. 

Our daughter would be quick to point out that she thinks of the “teacher” as more of a facilitator for her cohort. More questions than instructions.

What’s Application Process?

We had first heard about Synthesis on Pomp’s podcast .

Intrigued, we began to dig a little more and actively followed the school’s chief learning evangelist, ana Lorena Fabrega (aka Ms. Fab):

I’m confused. How did we conclude that the best way to prepare kids for the future is to cluster them into a setting where they are organized by age, into grades, and forced to learn the same things, at the same time and pace, 7 hours a day, 5 days a week, for 12 + years? Huh? — Ana Lorena Fabrega (@anafabrega11) February 2, 2020

We mentioned the idea to both daughters and shared the video of students playing the Constellations. Their reaction was one of slight intrigue, but it sounded like “more school.”

As parents, we were intrigued. 

“Apply to Synthesis” remained on the whiteboard for several weeks.

As we were making dinner, we put on the office hours webinar. Our youngest was in the kitchen with us, and after listening for a bit, she raised her hand and hopped off her seat at dinner to complete her application.

In the spirit of student-led learning, we didn’t peer over her shoulder or suggest re-recording her interview. It was one honest, enthusiastic take.

And I wish we had recorded her reaction when we told her she was admitted the following day. It was an authentic “I made it!”

We’ve heard from a few friends that there is a waitlist now, so might be worth getting your name in sooner than later.

What if my kid hates it?

First, I’ll admit things started a bit slowly for our daughter. The game was new. The people were unknown. The rules weren’t unclear; they didn’t exist.

So if we asked her how she liked it, it was closer to a “meh” than a “hell yeah.”

But we were determined to see if she could get more comfortable with all that newness. After all, wasn’t that the point.

Ultimately she did. And especially for a couple of other games, she “holy moly loved it.”

But Synthesis School also makes it easy on us. If we wanted to bow out after a month because it wasn’t what we expected, their refund policy is to simply ask. That’s it.

Our Daughter’s Experience 3 Months In

To set expectations, we didn’t expect raving reviews every session. Our expectation, knowing our daughter, is that she’d straddle curiosity and discomfort.

But that she’d want to show up and actively participate week in and week out. And hopefully, build into some optional sessions.

We also tried to set her up for success: we have good internet speed (some kids don’t and it’s frustrating for everyone), a good laptop, and a quiet place to play. And we give her a gentle reminder to expect the tsunami of chaos and “ride the wave”.

Thus far, I’d say we’re meeting that expectation. She loved the introduction of the Constellation 3D game.

In fact, here’s her take:

What’s the best part of Synthesis School?

The best part is the challenges.

A challenge can be to reach a certain number of points or to reach a certain area of a map. You get to do challenges with your cohort, and there’s one for each game.

Everyone has so much fun with the challenges, and it brings us closer together as a team.

What’s one thing you’d change?

I would add cohort vs cohort challenges. If we could meet at a random time during the week to do games or a challenge with other cohorts, that would make it awesome!

What are the kids in your cohort like?

The kids in my cohort are very nice, they are very focused, and they are competitive. The kids from my cohort are not just from the U.S, they are from all over the globe!

It’s fun to be with my cohort during the week because you get used to them over the weeks.

My only problem is the fact that I am one of the oldest in my cohort. I am with all the younger kids.

What’s one piece of advice you’d give new students?

I would say just try your best. Even if you are not very good at a game yet, or you are confused about how the game works, give it some practice, and you will get better!

Are you Ready to Try Synthesis School?

By sharing our experience, we hope that you can decide if introducing a little chaos is just what your little learner needs. And if it’s not gamified online problem solving, perhaps you prefer to supplement with advanced math ?

We’ll circle back and provide updates periodically as our daughter grows and Synthesis School evolves with her.

If you have any feedback, let us know in the comments. And if you decide to make the leap, we’d love to hear about your experience.

Dave Kline is a business owner and writer focused on management training and leadership development. He draws inspiration from his more than 20 years of experience leading high-performing teams at Bridgewater, Moodys and PwC. And shares lessons from across functions: operations, talent management, recruiting, digital marketing and product management. He currently lives in coastal CT with his wife and two kids.

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Review of Synthesis School: An Unbiased Look

The digital era offers a wealth of opportunities and continual extracurricular activities for your kids’ education. Children throughout the world can now access Synthesis, an online curriculum developed by SpaceX to promote innovative problem-solving and teamwork.

Josh Dahn is the co-founder of Synthesis. He also founded Ad Astra, which is a school on the SpaceX campus. Elon Musk’s children attended a private school where Josh had worked, and after talking about what they didn’t like about it, Elon persuaded Josh to open his school for both his kids and the kids of SpaceX employees.

Synthesis was a course that was initially only taught in a class at the Ad Astra school but is now available worldwide as an extracurricular activity for kids everywhere.

In this Synthesis School Review, you will understand how Synthesis uses interactive, real-world simulation games to test exceptional students. This is how Synthesis works:

A Home Cohort For Every Child

Students are divided into age groups and can take synthesis if they are between the ages of 6 and 15 . ( 6-7 ; 8-10 ; 11-13 ; and 15-15 ).

You can select the cohort time that best fits your schedule when you sign up. Continual cohorts take place, and your child may interact with children from other nations.

You should be aware that there is a queue for teachers that have applied to join synthesis. When hiring teachers, Synthesis is quite picky. The queue is primarily due to the professors’ acceptance rate, which is less than 4%. This means that the synthesis school reviews each and every teacher adequately and only picks out the best teachers for your children.

Cohort Sessions are Held Once a Week

Your child will attend their primary cohort once a week. Each week, they’ll run into the same youngsters and make friends. Some of the more reserved children may feel more at ease speaking as a result of this. The more vocal children will eventually learn to encourage their more quiet companions to express their opinions too.

Children Engage in Cooperative Games and Simulations

Children engage in cooperative Synthesis games throughout cohort sessions. The company offers several in-house games that are intended to encourage kids to collaborate and think creatively.

For instance, in the game Art for All , children design their art museum and must choose which works of art to bid on and at what rates. Space exploration video games include Constellation  and  Proxima . In another game called Fish, children must fish to feed the village without eradicating any species.  

Collaboration and Competition

Each weekly cohort session is created to promote both a collaborative and a healthy competitive environment because the children’s capacity to work together will undoubtedly be a factor in how successful they are in the future.

Children collaborate with like-minded peers at Synthesis. They can choose between relatively nearby local friends and online friends who share similar interests and goals.

Sessions are Open-Ended, Intricate, and Extensive

Synthesis gameplay sessions are entirely open-ended, unlike school, which has lectures, correct answers, and guidelines.

Teachers don’t explain the game’s rules to the students; instead, they let them figure it out on their own. Teachers even let the youngsters choose how they want to play the games if they are familiar with them. Children decide, for instance, how to divide cohorts into groups and the ideal team sizes for each game.

Students Are Urged to Overcome Their Uncertainties

Cohorts for synthesis can be rather chaotic because there are no fixed guidelines or correct responses. Students are urged to speak up even when they are unsure about something and to “embrace the turmoil.”

“What do you know about this game, and what do you not know about this game?” a teacher can ask the class as an example. or to open the conversation, “What are you confused about?”

These kinds of inquiries encourage kids to share their confusion rather than instilling the idea that they should only speak up when they are convinced of the answer.

The 4 Qualities of Synthesis and Why They’re Beneficial for Kids

The four fundamental characteristics of synthesis serve as the program’s compass. Teachers routinely discuss these traits with their students and offer encouragement as they grow in these areas.

The focus of this quality is on figuring out the games and what works and what does not.

Students collaborate to solve problems while playing games before they understand the rules.

Kids develop critical thinking skills, an awareness of their knowledge and ignorance, and a need for knowledge.

Even when they are dubious of their thoughts, kids are encouraged to express them.

They are also urged to solicit ideas from their team and assist in fostering collaboration.

Instead of just saying, “I don’t know,” kids learn to solve issues. By speaking up and learning how to allow others the time and space to talk, they acquire confidence and experience.

3. Ownership 

This trait focuses on accepting responsibility for what happens during a session and the outcomes.

Children distinguish their self-criticism from their ideas or test runs.

They work on avoiding personalizing analysis.

Children acquire a growth mentality and come to understand that failure is a necessary component of problem-solving.

This trait pertains to appreciating the process of problem-solving instead of getting fixated on the idea that osteosynthesis must only be enjoyed. Kids will naturally live in the moment and stay in the process since they will be so focused on cooperating and playing games. Children also learn how to support one another in maintaining the flow and improving as partners.

Kids who have this trait won’t put too much pressure on themselves, their team, or the process, which sets them up to be excellent problem solvers.

Synthesis School Teachers Review And Their Role

Your child’s instructor at Synthesis is primarily responsible for two things. They plan and lead weekly sessions, provide your child with guidance, and aid in the growth of their communication, teamwork, and problem-solving abilities.

Your child’s teacher will concentrate on assisting them in developing the four fundamental attributes mentioned above through their complicated thinking games.

The teachers employ the Socratic technique to impart these abilities. The professors question the students carefully, allow them to form their distinct viewpoints, and encourage them to discuss their ideas with their classmates.

As a result, the teachers do not advise your children on how to play or win at sophisticated thinking games. Instead, they promote a climate that encourages experimentation, learning, and introspection in children.

The teachers provide learning opportunities that support students in gaining a deep understanding, lifelong lessons, and improved perceptions of effective teamwork and problem-solving.

Decision-Making and Conversations are Facilitated by Teachers

Teachers increasingly play the role of facilitators. They assist students in developing their game-related hypotheses and in selecting which ones to test.

Instead of polling the kids and picking the top suggestions, they help the kids make their own decisions.

Teachers also assist the students in analyzing the game’s outcomes once it has concluded. Students are urged to evaluate their performance and determine why some teams performed better than others.

Other Questions You Might Have:

Is synthesis an all-day school.

There is no full-time program at the Synthesis school at the moment. Children aged 8 to 14 can participate in the Synthesis enrichment program. They teach children a crucially vital ability that is rarely taught in conventional schools. Students are made to work in teams to tackle complicated problems instead of the regular curriculum they have to follow in any other conventional school. To give their children a well-rounded educational experience, parents frequently combine Synthesis with other educational programs and options.

What Is the Best Thing About Synthesis School?

The challenges are the best part. Reaching a predetermined number of points or a specific place on a map might be considered a challenge. Each game has a challenge that their child and their teammates must complete. The challenges are so much fun for everyone and strengthen their bond as a team.

The program’s emphasis on students teaching themselves may be the most important feature of the synthesis school. This is achieved by gamifying the learning process and using inquiry-based learning.

Does Synthesis Offer Specific Assistance to Students with Special Needs?

All students are encouraged to become super collaborators through synthesis. If your child has special needs, you can reach out to the synthesis customer happiness team at [email protected]. They will put you in touch with the right person so you can talk about your particular needs and the best accommodations.

Finding solutions that are tailored to your children’s requirements can get very challenging. The good news is that Synthesis is an innovative programme that is designed with accelerated learning and a challenging educational environment in mind.

Does Synthesis Provide Lessons in a Variety of Languages?

At this time, students must be fluent in English to participate in any Synthesis sessions. Cohorts taught in other languages should be available soon, they expect. If you have any questions or concerns, please contact their Customer Happiness team at [email protected]. 

For Whom is Synthesis Advised?

This programme is suggested to anyone looking for a special approach to stretching their child’s thinking and problem-solving abilities while making it enjoyable for them. Our goal should always be to teach our children how to think rather than what to think.

Synthesis helps you accomplish that goal by fostering innovative problem-solving and teamwork and training your amiable yet initially reserved child to express their viewpoints. It will be amazing to watch your youngster gain the courage to speak up and collaborate with others to find creative solutions to issues. Your kid will always have a big smile on their face when they leave a session!

What is the Data Protection Policy for Synthesis?

All information on their platform belongs to Synthesis. They put data-access controls in place across all of their applications. Where appropriate, they permit student-to-student, student-to-parent, and student/parent-to-teacher data access. They do list some properties as being unavailable. They never sell or divulge student information to outside parties.

More information regarding their data protection practices is available at www.synthesis.com/privacy  and  www.synthesis.com/COPPA.

In Conclusion

To evaluate exceptional pupils, Synthesis uses interactive, real-world simulation games. Each week, a cohort of students gets together to play these sophisticated, inventive games and simulations. An adult facilitator moderates these sessions to promote teamwork and push the students to think critically.

In essence, decision-making, cooperation, and sense-making. Every element of Synthesis incorporates these three significant development areas. Synthesis fosters a culture where making mistakes is recognized as essential to learning. A mistake is an opportunity to learn what doesn’t work so that you can recognize it when it does.

Synthesis is relentlessly accelerated. The gamified learning assignments are challenging and intricate, but they are organized and aided so that even the difficulty itself feels inviting.

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Buenas tardes, quisiera saber más sobre está forma de educación, me parece muy interesante aprender en forma de juegos, también quisiera saber sobre las formas de pago y el precio de la matricula. Tengo una niña de 11 años. Quedo atenta Daila Ramirez

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Every Student Deserves 
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Is Synthesis a full-time school?

Synthesis is not a full-time school. We are an enrichment program for kids offering 2 main products.

Synthesis Teams is designed for students between the ages of 8 and 14. Instead of a typical curriculum, we teach kids a critically important skill not taught by traditional schools: working with teams to solve complex problems.

Synthesis Tutor is the world’s first digital math tutor that’s proven to be better than the world’s best human tutors. It uses technology funded by the Department of Defense to mimic top-classes tutors—only better. It’s infinitely patient, kind, and empathetic. Synthesis Tutor is designed for students between the ages of 5 and 11. 

Most often, our parents pair Synthesis with other educational options to provide their kids with a well-rounded learning experience.

Sources of Sexual Knowledge and Information, and Sexual Attitudes of Men: A Narrative Synthesis of the Literature

• Review Article
• Open access
• Published: 13 September 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Darlene Mwende Ndasi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1704-7342 1 ,
• Victor Fannam Nunfam   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4572-0904 1 , 2 ,
• Kwadwo Adusei-Asante   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1343-8234 1 ,
• Madalena Grobbelaar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2749-2944 1 &
• Anh Vo Van Ha   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9495-9292 1 , 2 , 3  

This study sought to synthesise evidence on the sources of sexual knowledge and information and relationship with sexual attitudes of cis men. From a review of existing literature, five categories were obtained from 11 studies and grouped into three syntheses: (1) sources of sexual knowledge and information, (2) sexual attitudes and (3) the relationship between sources of sexual knowledge and information and sexual attitudes. Sex research relation to sexual knowledge and attitudes of cis men is scant across the globe. Men desire reliable sexual information despite peers and online media being more readily available with consequences for sexual attitudes that impact on sexuality of men. We posit that research, sex education, sexological practice and policy intervention are necessary to avail knowledge that provides reliable sexual knowledge and information to men for safe sexual decision making.

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

The complexity of sexual socialisation and multi-dimensionality of sexual attitudes and influence on sexual behaviour in sub-Saharan Africa has been put on the spotlight since the advent of the unrelenting HIV/AIDS epidemic; citing men to propagate the disease through multiple sexual partnerships and sexual concurrencies reinforced by rigid gender norms and toxic masculinities. The HIV/AIDS plague and sexual health crisis is compounded by widespread ignorance in sexual knowledge and information among men (Amoo et al., 2019 ; Ogolla & Ondia, 2019 ), and complacent sexual attitudes where peers are mostly the sought-after knowledge source to inform sexual decision making (Hodes & Gittings, 2019 ).

Much of peer sources of sexual knowledge and information often involve sexual interaction leaving little chance for informed sexual decision making and when knowledge is accurate such as the comprehension of the importance of consistent condom use, this knowledge does not always translate into practice (Ogolla & Ondia, 2019 ). In Africa, there is also continued debate on the ideal curricula framework for comprehensive sexuality education in schools which is often cited to be established within colonialism to threaten traditional values that are centred on traditional gender roles and heteronormativity (Bhana et al., 2019 ; Gacoin, 2016 ). This is despite the rise in homosexuality, heterosexual anal sex (Baggaley et al., 2013 ), and the rapidly growing culture of gender diversity. Furthermore, sexual violence involving sexual coercion and assaults, and both implicit and explicit violation of sexual consent among men are perverse with sexual permissiveness represented in the practice of multiple sexual partnerships and sexual concurrencies (Kenyon et al., 2018 ). Therefore, understanding the sources of sexual knowledge and relationship with sexual attitudes and sexual behaviours is important for curricula and sexological practice programme development and research policy.

Despite much of the sexuality education research that exists in Africa largely focusing on the sexual socialisation of adolescents, sexual learning is lifelong and the sources of sexual knowledge are different and impact varies (Ballard & Morris, 1998 ; Graf & Patrick, 2015b ; Nunfam & Adjei, 2014 ). Indeed, the sources of sexual knowledge and information have impact on sexual attitudes and sexual behaviours of individuals (Shin et al., 2011 ). Permissive sexual attitudes and sexual double standards often predict sexual risk behaviours and have negative sexual health outcomes (Astle et al., 2022 ; Kirby et al., 2007 ; Nunfam, 2007 ).

Against the backdrop of studies on the extend of risky sexual behaviours, sexual violence among men and traditional gender roles that perpetuate these vices, the extent to which sex research involving acquisition of sexual knowledge and relationship with sexual attitudes of cis men in sub-Saharan Africa is not known. Also, there seems to be no specific systematic review or synthesis especially using mixed method approach (Nunfam et al., 2018 ) that have examined and highlighted the sources of sexual knowledge and information and sexual attitude of men, and how their sexual knowledge influences their sexual attitudes. Given the significance of systematic reviews and synthesis to evidence-centred policy making, it is imperative to conduct this review study in order to gather findings from extant published and unpublished studies.

Hence, this study sought to assess and synthesise the available evidence in literature on the sources of sexual knowledge and information and sexual attitude of men with emphasis on research design, study setting, methodology, and key findings. This mixed methods narrative review is guided by the following research questions: (1) What are the sources of sexual knowledge and information among men? (2) What are the sexual attitudes of men? (3) To what extent do the sources of sexual knowledge and information relate to sexual attitudes?

Materials and Methods

The philosophy of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRSMA) combined with the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) framework for systematic review, synthesis and reporting underpinned this study (JBI, 2017 ; Popay et al., 2006 ). Given that the systematic reviews and synthesis provide the foundation for descriptions of patterns, differences and similarities of results within included studies they were utilised on the basis of clearly defined selection criteria (Petticrew & Roberts, 2008 ; Popay et al., 2006 ).

Additionally, the utility of mixed methods was adopted to provide comprehensive understanding to the research questions (Morgan, 1998 ). The narrative synthesis used textual approach based on findings from several studies relating to sources of sexual knowledge, sexual attitudes and relationship between sexual knowledge and information and sexual attitudes among men. The aggregation of empirical studies therefore warrants the synthesis of both qualitative and quantitative evidence (Dixon-Woods et al., 2005 ). Additionally, mixed methods are agreeable with narrative synthesis permitting the mixing of diverse types of evidence from several studies of various characteristics (Gough et al., 2017 ).

Moreover, mixed methods narrative reviews can play a crucial role in identifying gaps and limitations in the extant literature in sex research. For example, a review examining the use of digital technologies in sexual health promotion may reveal a predominance of quantitative studies focused on measuring the impact of online interventions on knowledge or behavioural outcomes, while overlooking the qualitative exploration of users' experiences, preferences, and barriers to engagement (Schneider & Niederberger, 2020 ; Tariq & Woodman, 2013 ).

By highlighting these gaps, mixed methods narrative reviews can inform the design of future research that more effectively integrates both quantitative and qualitative approaches, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of the complex dynamics of human sexuality (Kajamaa et al., 2020 ; Small, 2011 ). Conclusively, the integration of mixed methods narrative reviews in sex research can address a critical need in the extant scholarship by providing a more holistic and nuanced understanding of the multifaceted nature of human sexuality.

Nevertheless, a scoping review was guided by the notion of the Population, Intervention, Comparison/Context Outcome (PICO) (Cooke et al., 2012 ). Therefore, the scope of the study included cis men 18–65 years old, sources of sexual knowledge and information, and sexual attitudes. For each included article, either the sources of sexual knowledge and information or sexual attitudes or both were addressed . The inclusion and exclusion criteria are presented in Table  1 below.

Search Strategy

A systematic search on Google Scholar, Taylor and Francis Online, Web of Science, Elsevier, Springer Nature, Sage, Wiley, and back studies in reference lists of peer reviewed studies published in English between 2012 and 2022 were searched using key words and search terms presented in Table  2 below.

Article screening occurred at the title and abstract stages, followed by a full review of the selected studies. Independent quality assessment of included articles guided by the JBI critical appraisal for systematic reviews was performed by three researchers who resolved differences through consensus. Our search resulted in 528,156 citation after which 527,731 were removed based on screening the title. After excluding most of the citations for various reasons, 425 citations were retained after which their abstracts were screened. Further review of abstracts retrieved 54 articles with 39 being considered for a full review of entire articles. Further, the full review of the 39 papers resulted in a final 10 studies that fully met the inclusion criteria. Another full review of 25 back references was performed with only one study qualifying for inclusion.

Studies were excluded for ambiguity, inappropriate topic and age, transgender men, studies involving reviews, reports, editorials, letters to editors and those which were published before 2012.The screening process and summary of included studies is presented in the PRISMA flow diagram (Page et al., 2021 ) (see Fig.  1 ).

PRISMA flow chart showing summary of included studies

Characteristics of Included Studies

The studies were characteristically heterogenous and from various countries across the globe including, Kenya, China, Vietnam, India and mostly the United States of America (USA). Most of the studies were found in continent of North America and Asia with the least found in South America. The global location of the 11 included studies included USA (36.4%), Asia (36.4%), Africa (18.1%) and South America (19.1%) as illustrated in Fig.  2 . The descriptive characteristics of the included studies were illustrated by author’s name, year in which publication occurred, the location, population, sample size, methods, data analysis and the study conclusions (Table  3 ).

Global location of included studies

Research objectives and methodologies also were used to organise the studies. Studies must have primarily involved only adult cismen aged 18 to 65 years old and not women, adolescents or transgender men primarily focused on sexuality education, any sources of sexual knowledge and information and sexual attitudes, beliefs and perspectives. Data from the included studies were therefore extracted using ‘Population, Intervention, Comparison and Outcome structure’ (Cooke et al., 2012 ).

The population refers to men aged 18–65 years old relating to sources of sexual knowledge and information and how such knowledge relates to or impact broadly on sexuality including sexual decision making. Interventions as presented in the chosen studies (primary) are the various sexual knowledge and information platforms such as school-based sexuality education, peers, parents, media platforms including religious organisations and other professional institutions such as sexual and reproductive health community settings or a combination of all of them to form blended sources. Comparisons involved different geographical locations, sexuality education platforms and their impact on sexual skills, and sexual attitudes. Outcomes relate to how these blended sources of sexual knowledge and information influence sexual attitudes (Hendrick et al., 2006 ), including consent. Both of these aspects have an intrinsic connection to sexual behaviours. The practice of multiple sexual partnerships and sexual concurrencies, modes of condom use, sexual responsibility, birth control, instrumentality and communion are such outcomes. Secondarily, the outcomes involve the skill in utilising sexual knowledge and information and understanding sexual and reproductive health outcomes and overall well-being of men.

The relationship of both the sources of sexual knowledge and information and sexual attitudes can also reflected social norms that may include the endorsement of sexual double standards and masculinity where men influence each other to maintain certain sexual behaviours. All these constitute sexual skills, values and attitudes.

Abstraction of Findings from Included Studies

We based data extraction on the findings of each included articles for categorisation and narrative synthesis using figures and tables where required (JBI, 2017 ; Popay et al., 2006 ). The JBI’s interpretation of degrees of evidence were used to determine the value of extracted data (see Tables 4 and 5 ) (JBI, 2017 ). Three researchers were involved in the data synthesis process and differences were resolved through consensus. Data were synthesised based on the study’s research questions. Data extracted from the 11 included studies are displayed in the following 11 tables (Tables 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ) according to their findings, illustrating the degree of evidence.

Narrative Synthesis and Categorisation of Included Studies

The abstraction of data resulted in 41 findings which were grouped into six categories: (1) type of sexual knowledge and information received, (2) sources of sexual knowledge and information, (3) access and accuracy of sexual knowledge and information, (4) sexual attitudes and (5) Relationship between sexual attitudes and sexual knowledge. The categories were further synthesised into themes as follows: (1) sources of sexual knowledge and information, (2) sexual attitudes and (3) the relationship between sources of sexual knowledge and information and sexual attitudes. Each of the studies addressed some questions and none answered all of the questions.

Synthesis One: Sources of Sexual Knowledge and Information

Synthesis one describes men’s perception on their sources of sexual knowledge and information, the various types of information sought and received, and their accuracy and reliability. This is the outcome of aggregating related categories comprising twenty-three findings that describe the sources of sexual knowledge and information as presented in Figs.  3 and 4 below. Finding from Category One indicates that men accessed sexual knowledge and information from different sources with various degrees of accuracy and reliability. Although men reported peers, online media and the internet to be the most easily accessible sources of sexual knowledge and information, the knowledge obtained as reportedly to be unreliable and not well understood (Graf & Patrick, 2015a ; Kirby et al., 2007 ). Much of the knowledge sought was focused on pregnancy and STIs/HIV/AIDS prevention as well as sexual pleasure which involved the use pornography and condom use mainly in casual relationships (Brown et al., 2017 ). The internet was viewed to be a confidential alternative source and efficiently accessed as soon as required (Ballester-Arnal et al., 2017 ). These sources were accessed as an alternative to school-based sexuality education which was reported to be inadequate, unreliable or completely absent (Bhana et al., 2019 ; Hodes & Gittings, 2019 ). Sexual knowledge from healthcare professionals as a formal source was not widely used.

Type of sexual knowledge and information sought and received

Sources of sexual knowledge and information

However, men reported that this source offered limited knowledge, mostly inadequate, confusing and lacked content to meet the knowledge required by men (Beia et al., 2021 ). The knowledge and information accessed from this source ranged from the correct application of condom use although as relationships became more permanent, men ceased from using condoms. Condoms were used to mainly control pregnancy and STIs with casual hook-ups (Endendijk et al., 2020 ; Garcia et al., 2012 ). Other sought-after knowledge related to sexual consent, in the context of how men treat women in their sexual engagement and sexual scripts (Ballester-Arnal et al., 2017 ; Garcia et al., 2012 ).

Men desired effective sexual knowledge and information, however the school curriculum through which formal education was accessed by all men was reportedly mainly biological and unlikely to be helpful. Few men accessed information from parents, which was mainly related to pregnancy and STI prevention (Bleakley et al., 2009 ; Khurana & Bleakley, 2014 ). Men also sought sexual knowledge and information to base their sexual decision making (Tannenbaum et al., 2016 ).

Synthesis Two: Sexual Attitudes

Synthesis two had only one category (Category Two) constituting eight findings relating to sexual permissiveness, influence of religion on sexual attitudes, causal sex, birth control attitudes toward condom use and safer sexual practices (Cruz, Legall etc.). Men reported to be less likely to engage in sexual hook-ups if they were in stable relationships. Sexual hook-ups were related to more condom use, pornography and safer sexual practices which involved more sexually permissive attitudes towards sex (Bankole et al., 2004 ). Participants with sexual permissiveness also reported multiple sexual partnerships and sexual concurrencies and sexual double standards (Endendijk et al., 2019 ; Vrangalova et al., 2014 ).

Synthesis Three: Relationship Between Sources of Sexual Knowledge and Sexual Attitudes

Synthesis three reflected the relationship between sources of sexual knowledge and sexual attitudes as presented in Figs.  5 , 6 and 7 below. Having sexual knowledge from reliable sources was associated with attitudes towards safe sexual practices and condom use. Information accessed from friends was related to permissive sexual attitudes related to casual hook-ups and use of pornography (Bridges et al., 2016 ; Lewczuk et al., 2022 ; Lo & Wei, 2005 ) Similarly accessing sexual knowledge and information from the internet and online media was related to permissive sexual attitudes involving casual sex and penetrative sexual hook-ups and infidelity (Brown et al., 2017 ; Rasmussen et al., 2018 ). However, sexual permissiveness was also linked to increased condom use (Berer, 2006 ; Evans et al., 2019 ; Hensel et al., 2012 ).

Access and accuracy sexual knowledge and information

Category three-sexual attitudes

Relationship between sources of sexual knowledge and sexual attitude

This is the most recent systematic and narrative synthesis using a mixed methods approach to assess sources of sexual knowledge and information, sexual attitudes and how the two concepts relate to influence on sexual decision making that impact on the sexuality and sexual and reproductive health of cis men. Our first question was to assess the sources of sexual knowledge and information. We found that men accessed various sources and that provided different forms of information used for sexual decision making.

Despite peers continuing to be the most preferred source of sexual knowledge and information among men (Dutt & Manjula, 2017 ; Rahimi-Naghani et al., 2016 ; Shin et al., 2019 ), the internet continues to rapidly provide instant information as required and both peers and online media is trending to replace formal sources of sexual knowledge and information (Daneback et al., 2012 ; Mustanski et al., 2011 ). Formal knowledge and information are obtainable from sexual and reproductive healthcare professionals but often reported as confusing and unreliable (Amoo et al., 2017 ). This trend indicates that men may miss out on reliable knowledge on which to base their sexual decision making as internet and peers are reported to provide unreliable information. This is consistent with earlier studies which suggest that peers and the internet are important sources of sexual knowledge and information (Ballard & Morris, 1998 ; Lo & Wei, 2005 ). Khurana and Bleakley ( 2014 ) and Bleakley et al. ( 2009 ) found that poor sexual knowledge and sexual literacy leads to unsafe and risky sexual behaviours including inconsistent condom use, lack of interest in sexual health screening and multiple and concurrent sexual partnerships (Hodes & Gittings, 2019 ), especially in sub-Saharan Africa where these practices are prevalent despite the HIV/AIDS epidemic (Kenyon et al., 2018 ). The second research question assessed the sexual attitudes of men. Our review found few studies that explored attitudes regarding sexual permissiveness among men. This study found that men with permissive or liberal views on sex, had more sexual hook-up (Braithwaite et al., 2015 ). Permissive sexual attitudes in men are likely to permit sexual double standards that allow men more sexual partners than women (Endendijk et al., 2020 ). However, men with more permissive sexual attitudes had consistent condom use and practiced safer sex than those who had regular or stable sexual partnerships (Emmers-Sommer et al., 2013 ; Endendijk et al., 2020 ). Knowledge and confidence in condom use provide confidence in sexual activity which could enhance liberal or permissive sexual attitudes (Cruz & Etienne, 2012 ; Hensel et al., 2012 ).

Our last question assessed the relationship between the sources of sexual knowledge and sexual attitudes. We found the sources of sexual knowledge influenced the attitudes men had towards sex. Peers were influential towards sexual permissiveness as men engaged in peer casual sexual hook-up from those they sought sexual information (Bhana et al., 2019 ; Hodes & Gittings, 2019 ; Rogers et al., 2019 ). This is consistent with earlier studies that established the role peers in their influence on sexual behaviours and sexual attitudes (Bhana et al., 2019 ; Bleakley et al., 2009 ). As such peer educators can be trained to provide efficient and accurate sexual knowledge and education to men for transformative sexual attitudes that foster safe sexual practices such as consistent condom uses and frequent sexual screening. This is critical for places where HIV/AIDS is still an epidemic such as sub-Saharan Africa and other developing countries where poor access to condoms and lack of accurate knowledge in their use still persists (Bhana et al., 2019 ). Shin et al. ( 2011 ) and Lyu et al. ( 2020 ) suggested that peer education can also effect change in sexual attitudes towards women.

This study contributes important knowledge to the wide body of sex research knowledge and highlights the need to involve cis men in research and policy development practices. Like all studies though, this review has limitations that are important to consider. We evaluated studies from different locations across the globe upon which cultural considerations must be made concerning how men acquire sexual knowledge and social-cultural implications pertaining to sexual attitudes.

In Africa for instance, it is expected men engage in multiple sexual partnerships as the ideal presentation of manhood (Amoo et al., 2019 ). Sexual attitudes towards masculinity in the continent would require transformative sex education in schools and the community from reliable sources for which funding is essential. Such knowledge must provide clear understanding of the consequences and rewards of sexual practices that impact men’s sexual health and that of their partners. This means that peer educators are critical in their ability to influence attitudes towards safe sexual practices by providing accurate and reliable sexuality education in male-friendly environments which also emphasize sexual pleasure.

Sexual pleasure and risk go hand in hand, and as such sexual pleasure is an important component in sexuality education. A multifaceted approach prioritizing both risk reduction and the enhancement of sexual pleasure, comprehensive programs can empower individuals to make informed decisions, practice safer sex, and experience more fulfilling intimate relationships (Melesse et al., 2020 ). For example, erotizing safe sex with condom use in educational programs, workshops and advertisements could be effective in advancing knowledge in sexual risk reduction and emphasizing sexual pleasure (Scott-Sheldon et al., 2006 ).

Implications

Discussions around sexual behavior, sexual health, and even sexual orientation may be perceived as taboo or even shameful, leading to reluctance among participants to engage openly and honestly in research activities. Moreover, cultures have a powerful influence on sexual attitudes. The topic of sexuality, particularly among men, is often shrouded in secrecy and stigma, particularly in many non-western societies (Muraguri et al., 2012 ; Onyango‐Ouma et al., 2009 ). Navigating these cultural sensitivities requires researchers to employ nuanced and empathetic approaches, building trust and rapport with communities and participants. It is also crucial to consider the role of power dynamics, both within the research process and in the broader social context, and how these may impact the willingness of men to share their experiences and perspectives (Khumalo et al., 2021 ).

In addition to cultural considerations, researchers must grapple with the complexities of gender norms and the ways in which they intersect with sexuality (Ndasi, et al., 2022a , 2022b ). In many sub-Saharan African societies for example, traditional gender roles and expectations place significant pressure on men to conform to rigid notions of masculinity, which may inhibit their ability to learn, discuss or seek support for sexual and reproductive health concerns (discuss or seek support for sexual and reproductive health concerns (Agha et al., 2002 ; Reid & Walker, 2005 ).

Moreover, a mixed methods narrative review examining sexuality topics among cis-gender men could integrate large-scale survey data on sexual issues within this population, while also incorporating in-depth interviews that capture the nuanced, lived experiences of individuals navigating issues of identity, stigma, and sexual and reproductive health support programs (Tariq & Woodman, 2013 ). By adopting this holistic approach, we can gain a richer and more nuanced understanding of the multifaceted factors shaping men’s sexuality, which can then serve as a foundation for developing more targeted and effective interventions.

Another implication relates to sexual research policy and practice. Sex research with adult cis men is generally scarce as discovered in this study. It is important to assess trends in sexual attitudes and the sources of knowledge accessed for sexual and reproductive health planning and practices that do not exclude cis men (Bancroft, 2000 ). Such research is also important for school-based sexuality education and curricula development. Nevertheless, other implications relate to sexuality educators, policy makers and sexological practitioners.

Study Limitations

This study focused on studies focusing on cis-gender men which renders it inherently restrictive. The review also involves studies conducted globally therefore the heterogeneity of the review should be viewed with these considerations. The reliance on secondary data from previously published studies is also a limitation for which the evolution of digital media and its impact on sexuality education and changing trends in research on human sexuality may not present current trends.

Conclusions

Conclusively, men require services that are considerate of their sexual needs, culturally relevant and research that puts these needs on the spotlight to avail effective support services that also benefit the sexual health and well-being of their sexual partners and communities. Additionally, is important to understand the connection between sexual knowledge and information with sexual behavior. The interdisciplinary field of sex research and sexual and reproductive health could explore the long-term effects of sources of sexual knowledge and information and sexual attitudes on sexual health outcomes for cis men.

Additionally, the integration of mixed methods approaches, particularly through the use of narrative reviews, can address a significant need in the field of sex research. By drawing on a diverse range of data sources and methodologies, these reviews can provide a more holistic and nuanced understanding of the multifaceted aspects of human sexuality, ultimately contributing to the development of person-centered and effective interventions in this crucial domain in sex research with cis men.

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Darlene Mwende Ndasi, Victor Fannam Nunfam, Kwadwo Adusei-Asante, Madalena Grobbelaar & Anh Vo Van Ha

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Study conception and design: Darlene Mwende Ndasi. Data collection and interpretation: Darlene Mwende Ndasi. Original manuscript draft: Darlene Mwende Ndasi. Data analysis: Vo Van Anh Ha and Darlene Mwende Ndasi. Reviewed for critical imputs: Kwadwo Adusei-Asante, Madalena Grobbelaar, Vo Van Anh Ha and Victor Fannam Nunfam. Edited and approved for final version for submission to journal: Kwadwo Adusei-Asante, Madalena Grobbelaar, Vo Van Anh Ha and Victor Fannam Nunfam.

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Ndasi, D.M., Nunfam, V.F., Adusei-Asante, K. et al. Sources of Sexual Knowledge and Information, and Sexual Attitudes of Men: A Narrative Synthesis of the Literature. Sexuality & Culture (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-024-10265-5

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s12119-024-10265-5

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