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• Published: 15 December 2023

Knowledge mapping of vocational education and training research (2004–2020): a visual analysis based on CiteSpace

• Yumi Tian 1 ,
• Jiayun Liu 1 ,
• Xin Xu 1 &
• Xueshi Wu 1  

Scientific Reports volume  13 , Article number:  22348 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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The study aims to analyze the leading researchers of vocational education and training from dimensions of individuals, institutions and countries. This article utilises the scientific information measurement software—CiteSpace—to conduct a scientometric analysis of 2,024 articles on vocational education and training from the Web of Science (W.o.S.). According to the research results, some useful conclusions can be drawn as follows: (1) vocational education and training research has become interdisciplinary and subject involved are “psychology”, “sociology”, “economics” and “pedagogy”; (2) the United States, the Netherlands and Australia make the majority of contributions and there are numerous collaborations among countries; (3) Univ Amsterdam, Univ Utrecht and Univ Melbourne were the main research institutions; (4) J Vocat Educ Train, Rev Educ Res, Thesis Elev, Econ Educ Rev and J Educ Work were the top 5 highly cited journals; (5) “Engagement”, “Program”, “Self-efficacy”, “High school”, “Predictor” and “Labor market” have become major research hotspots currently.

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Introduction

Nowadays the importance of vocational education and training has been highlighted by the rapid economic and social development with relatively mature vocational education and training systems established in countries like the United States, Germany, Australia, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. Subsequently, researchers with academic backgrounds in economics 1 , 2 , 3 , management 4 , 5 , 6 , and information technology 7 , 8 , 9 around the world have paid close attention to the courses 10 , 11 , professions 12 , entrepreneurship 13 , 14 , skills 15 , 16 and evaluations 17 of this field.

Social changes are manifested in greater mobility of workers, shifting labor markets, frequent changes of professions, the disappearance of several professions and the emergence of new ones 18 , 19 . The emergence of artificial intelligence tools, which are transforming the entire landscape of the labor market, is becoming a significant risk and challenge. The need to learn constantly and throughout life and the instability of professional development make vocational education and training the most important and defining sector of education 20 , 21 . Many researchers agree that its role will constantly grow and cover all sectors of professional implementation 22 , 23 . Bibliographic analysis of the field of research in the field of vocational education is rapidly evolving, but there are fewer review works on this sector than it requires 24 .

Vocational education and training are studied from the point of view of assistance from the state administration or municipalities in the retraining of employees 6 , 16 ; many country case studies provide insight into the differences in the educational context of individual countries 2 , 3 , 11 , 14 . Experimental studies on combining vocational education and work or other types of employment make it possible to assess the potential of problems that require solutions 25 , 26 , 27 . The use of technical and digital tools within vocational education is also being devoted to more and more research 9 , 28 , 29 .

The existing research results have laid an important foundation for the reform and development of vocational education and training. However, vocational education and training still have a series of problems that need to be solved, such as the large gap between the skill supply of vocational education and the skill demand of the labor market, and the low enthusiasm of enterprises to participate in vocational education and training 4 , 9 . In addition, although many scholars use a variety of research methods from different dimensions to explore related issues of vocational education and training, few studies have investigated vocational education and training comprehensively and systematically 23 , 30 . There is an urgent need for bibliometric analysis to identify areas of development, areas of greatest interest among researchers, and stratification of research by country, institution, and area. This will allow the efforts of new researchers to be more targeted and their quality improved.

The objectives of this study are as follows:

Analyze the leading researchers of vocational education and training from dimensions of individuals, institutions and countries;

Figure out the distribution of journals related to vocational education and training;

Delve into the main research topics and knowledge structure in this field;

Aggregate the research hotspots and frontiers in this field.

The data used in the study were obtained through advanced retrieval from the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC): "Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-E) (2004–2020)"; Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) (2004–2020)"; "Conference Proceedings Citation Index-Science (CPCI-S) (2004–2020)". These data are intended to provide comprehensive, scientific and systematical research on the existing literature related to vocational education and training. The retrieval strategy was as follows: TS = ("Vocational Education" or "Technical and Vocational Education and Training" or "Technical Education" or "Technical and Further Education" or "Technical and Further Education" or ((VET) or (TVET) and (education))), and with language options of "English" and literature type selection "Article". Here VET is the "Vocational Education and Training" abbreviation and TVET "Technical and Vocational Education and Training" abbreviation.

Indeed, 644 data sources were retrieved from SCI-E, 697 from SSCI, and 693 from CPCI-S. A total of 118 duplicate articles were identified. The cleansing of a sample of data sources was carried out manually by carefully studying the content of abstracts and excerpts from the sources or full versions if they were available. Finally, a total of 2,024 bibliographic citations were obtained (Fig.  1 ).

Literature related to vocational education and training from 2004 to 2020.

Research tools

Information visualization is the process of representing and visualizing abstract data with the help of computer software, which can enhance researchers' perception of abstract information 31 . Based on the existing literature, visualization analysis can adopt the method of dynamic graphic visualization to reveal the trends, hotspots and frontiers of scientific research. Therefore, information visualization can facilitate researchers to understand and predict the frontiers and trends of scientific research opportunely and break new grounds for new ideas amid complex information.

In this study, the analysis software CiteSpace 5.7 was used to conduct research cooperation, cited references and co-occurrence analysis of keywords in literature pertinent to vocational education and training. CiteSpace is an important software in bibliometrics 32 . CiteSpace visualized knowledge maps can be used to identify, display and predict research trends and elucidate knowledge structure and development 33 . Therefore, CiteSpace's visualized knowledge map was adopted in this study to analyze literature in the field of vocational education and training. The analysis elements included Author, Institution, Country, Cited authors, Cited journals, Cited journals, and Cited references.

A network of cited references, co-authors and keywords co-occurrence can represent the scientific knowledge domains 34 . The network provides a systematic and scientific description of the evolving field of scientific knowledge through knowledge mapping, a novel method of literature analysis, enabling researchers to better understand knowledge structures, research collaborations and the hotspots and trends of research 35 .

Research process

In this study, a visual analysis of the bibliography of vocational education and training was conducted through CiteSpace. The research process was as follows: Firstly, the basic knowledge cluster of vocational education and training was constructed according to the reference literature of the field. This cluster is necessary for the next steps to identify the main clusters in the knowledge graph and highlight the most influential literature in this field of knowledge. Also, the basic knowledge cluster will help to study the evolution of each cluster, and future trends and identify key literature from a timeline perspective.

Secondly, the hotspots and frontiers of vocational education and training can be identified based on the frequency of the keywords in the related literature. Meanwhile, keyword bursts can also reveal the evolution of vocational education and training and determine the latest research trends. Burst refers to the significant change in the value of a variable over a relatively short period, which is adopted by Citespace to identify research frontiers.

Finally, the researchers, research institutions and countries were visualized to identify the major contributors to the evolution of knowledge in vocational education and training.

Research limitations

The results obtained may be limited to searching only the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC) database, without considering Scopus or other relevant data sources. Also, the sample may not contain sources that directly relate to the topic under study but did not use the corresponding keywords in the article description or other identifiers, and this happens.

Knowledge clustering of vocational education and training research

The emergence and development of any new knowledge are based on existing research and findings, and so are vocational education and training. In general, the frontiers of research in a particular discipline can be represented by journal papers to a certain degree, and the cited references form the knowledge base for the journal paper. The important references can be clustered and the co-cited clustering can be determined with the help of specialized computer software, an important step in figuring out the knowledge base for vocational education and training.

The distribution of selected bibliographic citations by year is presented in Fig.  1 and Table 1 . First, one should evaluate the relatively uniform growth in the number of works devoted to the topic under study throughout the entire period under study. The only exception is the sharp increase in the number of studies in 2012.

In Eq.  1 \({c}_{ij}\) represents the number of co-occurrences of i and j, \({s}_{i}\) is the frequency of occurrence of i, \({s}_{j}\) is the frequency of occurrence of j.

After running CiteSpace, the knowledge mapping was obtained.

Cluster names related to the field of vocational education and training were extracted with the application of MI (Mutual Information). The formula is calculated as Eq.  2 , where \({g}_{st}\) is the number of shortest paths from node s to node t; \({n}_{st}^{i}\) is the number of shortest paths through node i among the \({g}_{st}\) shortest paths from node s to node t. 166 clusters were generated based on the co-primer clustering information with 10 main clusters.

Modularity Q is a measure of visual networks ranging from 0 to 1. The formula is calculated as Eq.  3 ; \(P(w|{c}_{i})\) is the co-occurrence probability of w and c, \(P(w)P({c}_{i})\) is the frequency of occurrence of w, \(P({c}_{i})\) is the frequency of occurrence of i-type values). The higher the value, the better the network clustering. In general, Modularity Q ranging from 0.3 to 0.8 indicates that network clustering is acceptable. Weighted Mean Silhouette S is a homogeneous indicator of network clustering ranging from − 1 to 1. The larger the Weighted Mean Silhouette S, the higher the clustering homogeneity. In general, Weighted Mean Silhouette S below 0.5 means that the clustering results are acceptable, and above 0.7 means that the clustering results are more reliable 36 . Figure  2 shows the Modularity Q value of 0.392 and the Weighted Mean Silhouette S value of 0.9641 for the visual network in the field of vocational education and training. Weighted Mean Silhouette S values of all 10 major clusters are above 0.8. The above data demonstrate that knowledge mapping is a high-quality clustering of the knowledge domain of vocational education and training.

Co-cited literature clusters.

Table 2 further provides a more detailed description of each of the knowledge clusters depicted.

It can be concluded from Table 2 that Vocational Interests (#0) ranked first in the knowledge cluster that includes job quality, linkage, occupation, completion, ring-biased Technological change, Labour market entry and dual training system, including 62 literature, most of which were published around 2014. The Weighted Mean Silhouette S value of the cluster is 0.966, indicating the high homogeneity of the 62 literature in the cluster. Among them, General Education, Vocational Education, and Labor-Market Outcomes over the Life-Circle, by Hanushek et al. 37 on Journal of Human Resources , are the articles with the highest citation (60% of the articles in this cluster cited this article); Vocational Education and Employment over the Life Cycle by Forster et al. 38 on Sociological Science , ranks the second (34% of the studies in the cluster cited this article); Educational Systems and the Trade-Off between Labor Market Allocation and Equality of Educational Opportunity by Bol and Van de Werfhorst 18 on Comparative Education Review ranks the third (27% of the studies in the cluster cited this article).

The second clustering is Workplace Simulation (#1) with 55 articles, and the Weighted Mean Silhouette S value of the cluster is 0.879. The most cited article was Students' Learning Processes during School-based Learning and Workplace Learning in Vocational Education: A Review by Schaap et al. 40 on Vocations and Learning . Forty percent of the studies in the cluster cited this article. The third cluster, Task Shifting (#2), consisted of 42 articles. The Weighted Mean Silhouette S value of the cluster is 0.967, a high homogeneity. The detailed information of each major cluster is shown in Table 3 .

In addition, widely recognized studies can be identified based on the number of citations. The top 3 studies with the highest citations (over 20 citations) are as follows: General Education, Vocational Education, and Labor-Market Outcomes over the Life-Cycle published by Hanushek et al. 37 on Journal of Human Resources (37 citations); Students' Learning Processes during School-based Learning and Workplace Learning in Vocational Education: A Review by Schaap et al. 40 (22 citations) on Vocations and Learning ; Vocational Education and Employment over the Life Cycle by Forster et al. 38 on Sociological Science (20 citations).

Given the lack of expansion of the thematic field of research after 2013, as shown further in tables, it can be assumed that the Vocational Interests knowledge cluster has focused the most interest of researchers and perhaps provided the most topics for further in-depth research. It is the state of the labor market and the relationship with employment that has received the most attention. researchers in connection with vocational education.

Distribution of countries

The number of papers published by different countries and their academic influence can be elaborated on in Table 4 . It can be inferred that the United States was the most productive among the top 10 countries followed by the Netherlands and Australia in the field of vocational education and training with 260 papers published from 2004 to 2020, accounting for about 14% of all literature. However, China ranked sixth with 88 papers, accounting for 4.8% of all papers, far lower than that of the United States. In terms of betweenness centrality value, the USA (0.67), England (0.36) and Germany (0.27) ranked in the top three, indicating a significant academic influence on the field of vocational education and training. Betweenness centrality indicates the strength of a node's influence on the flow of information in the graph. This is a measure of the influence of a separate node in a whole network 33 . The United States ranked first regarding the academic influence in the field of vocational education and training research while China is still in a relatively disadvantaged position. A more complete visual representation of the distribution of academic influence by country is presented in Fig.  3 .

Network of countries distribution for VET.

Burstiness (Table 4 the last section) is an increase and decrease in activity or frequency of publications that disrupts the continuity or pattern of distribution. In this case, the higher this indicator, the more uneven the participation of publications from this university in the research field being studied. The Burstiness results of countries more active in the field of vocational education and training (Table 4 , Burstiness section) showed that: Turkey ranked first with a value of 12.38, followed by England which has been more active in this field. However, although Sweden and New Zealand are not very active in this field, academic attention has been drawn to them.

Distribution of research institutions

In terms of the production of research institutions in the field of vocational education and training, Univ Amsterdam ranked first with 30 articles, followed by Univ Utrecht (28 articles) and Univ Melbourne (22 articles) (Fig.  4 ).

Network of institutions for VET research.

However, the ranking of research institutions based on betweenness centrality demonstrated significant influence from other research centers. The top three universities with betweenness centrality were IZA (0.09), Univ Turku (0.09) and Univ Helsinki (0.07), indicating the importance and influence of these three universities in the field of vocational education and training. Regarding the post surge capacity, Gazi Univ was in the lead with a surge of 5.52, followed by Leiden Univ (5.02) and Univ Utrecht (4.24). See Table 5 for details.

Cited journals

In the citation network of journals, the larger the circle, the higher the citation frequency (Fig.  5 ).

Cited journals network.

Totally 233 pieces of literature on J Vocat Educ Train were cited; 208 on Rev Educ Res ; 181 on Thesis Elev ; and 156 on Econ Educ Rev (Table 6 ).

However, from 2004 to 2020, Thesis Elev ranked first in burst detection with a burst value of 31.74. Other journals with relatively high emergent detection values include SOC SCI Res, Comp Educ, Teach Teach, Econ J, J Labor Econ, etc. These journals mainly come from the fields of psychology, sociology, economics and pedagogy, the source of knowledge in the field of vocational education and training.

Hotspots and trends of the research on vocational education and training

The research hotspot is the focus of researchers' attention shared by a group of interrelated papers in a relatively short period. Keywords are the gist and soul of an academic paper, a highly summarized and refined research problem, and an important index of research hotspots. Therefore, the research hotspots and main characteristics of a certain field can be abstracted from the change in keyword frequency. In this study, "Keyword" was selected from the CiteSpace node types for Keyword co-occurrence network analysis. The larger the node, the more important the node.

In terms of keywords frequency (Table 6 ), related research mainly focused on vocational education and training in vocational education, the transition, inequality, gender, perception, attitude, and the program, work, school, and skill, among which, the keyword "vocational education" ranked first for appearing 399 times, followed by education (234 times) and vocational education and training (181 times). Betweenness centrality higher topics include health, adolescent, perspective, gender, employment, model, etc.

Meanwhile, keyword selection was carried out to clearly show the research hotspots in different years and their interrelation and evolution. Since none of the keywords identified during the study were localized for the period after 2013, we can conclude that the thematic field of research after this time developed almost exclusively intensively, and not extensively, that is, the research hotspots that had already been emphasized earlier were explored (Fig.  6 ).

Timeline of co-citation clusters from 2004 to 2020.

Keywords that appeared more than 25 times were selected and checked for betweenness centrality, as shown in Table 7 .

Compared with previous research 23 , 24 , this research uses CiteSpace V to analyze the research hotspots and research frontiers of vocational education and training from 2004 to 2020, and finds that:

First, the annual volume of research literature is steadily increasing, but the growth rate is relatively low. This is the same as the result of Hui's research 23 . The reasons for this result are as follows: The first is that the academic level and subject status of vocational and technical education are not yet mature, and its knowledge fields and subject boundaries are not clear enough, which causes the subject of vocational and technical education to face multiple identity crises 27 , 28 . The second is that the interdisciplinary nature of vocational education makes its research power scattered in many disciplines such as pedagogy, economics, management, and sociology, while there are fewer academic groups specializing in vocational and technical education 3 , 7 .

Second, from the perspectives of research countries, institutions, authors and journals, the main drivers of research in the field of vocational education and training come from the United States, the Netherlands and Australia, with Univ Amsterdam, Univ Utrecht and Univ Melbourne as the leading institutions. De Bruijn from Utrecht University, Christopher Winch from University of Westminster Univ Westminster, Pietty Runhaar from Deakin University, Martin Mulder from King's College, and Derek G Shendell from Rutgers State University, were the major contributors to vocational education and training. Literature on J VOCAT Educ Train was the most highly cited (233 times), followed by the top five journals including Rev Educ Res (208 times), Thesis Elev (181 times), Econ Educ Rev (156 times) and J Educ Work (150 times). This is different from Yu and Zhou's research results 24 . Through analysis of 719 literature titles, Li proposed that the main research countries for vocational education and training are European countries and the United States 12 . The reasons for the difference between the two may be: The first is the sample size. This study uses 3844 literature titles in the Web of Science database, which has a larger sample size coverage and more effective results; while Li's research has only 719 literature titles and a smaller sample range. The second is the time frame. This research uses 15 years of literature from 2004 to 2020, which represents the latest research characteristics in the field of vocational education and training; while Li uses literature from 2000 to 2009, which can only represent the characteristics of previous research.

Third, in terms of the most popular research topics, growth, vocational education and training, politics, university, secondary education, the environment, China, and other aspects of inequality took the lead from 2004 to 2015, and after 2015 20 , 24 . Other researchers agree with the results obtained in that study showing that the field started to focus on inequality, the teacher, professional development, engagement, program, self-efficacy, high school, the predictor and labor market, among which, the fields of engagement, program, self-efficacy, high school, predictor and labor market are still active and may become future research directions 16 , 24 . This is consistent with Hui's research results 23 . Technological changes and socio-economic development require vocational education and training to gradually shift the focus to students’ cross-industry abilities, and to pay close attention to the dynamic needs of the labor market. In addition, this has a certain relationship with the gradual change of vocational education research from macro to meso and micro.

Although an effective visual analysis of the relevant studies in the field of international vocational education and training from 2004 to 2020 was conducted, the obtained data cannot fully represent the overall picture of the development of international vocational education and training. Limited by research conditions, the related studies of international vocational education and training from the Web of Science were downloaded from 2004 to 2020. Significant potential for future research is to explain the observed spillovers in the influence and contributions of different countries and institutions over significant periods and how they change due to market influences, changes in technology, and other possible factors. Future researchers are encouraged to use a wider range of journals over a longer period.

Conclusions

By drawing the scientific knowledge map of international Vocational Education and Training from 2004 to 2020, this paper intuitively demonstrates the growth law of papers, knowledge sources, author contributions, institutional cooperation and national cooperation in this research field. It also analyzes the research hotspots in the field of vocational education and training, and draws the following conclusions from a comprehensive perspective:

Paper growth law. From 2004 to 2009, the development of Vocational Education and Training research was relatively slow. Since 2010, new Vocational Education and Training research has shown a vigorous development trend. The amount of new media research will reach its peak in 2020. The author predicts that in the future, Vocational Education and Training research will continue to show a trend of vigorous development.

Knowledge source. In the field of Vocational Education and Training, 12 journals have been cited more than 120 times. These journals mainly focus on psychology, sociology, economics and pedagogy. This shows that the knowledge in the field of Vocational Education and Training mainly comes from the above four disciplines.

Author contribution. Hanushek Ea, Forster AG, Bol T, Schaap, Akkerman, McGrath, Brockmann, Kuijpers, Nylund and other highly cited authors have provided high-quality papers and belong to high-impact authors.

Institutional cooperation. The most researched institution in the field of Vocational Education and Training is Univ Amsterdam (30 articles), followed by Univ Utrecht (28) and Univ Melbourne (22 articles), Maastricht Univ (22 articles), and Univ Helsinki (22 articles). On the whole, there is a lack of cooperation and exchanges between institutions, and no large-scale cooperation network has been formed.

Country cooperation. The country with the most research in the field of Vocational Education and Training is the USA (260 articles), followed by NETHERLANDS (251) and AUSTRALIA (217). Although there are many research results in the field of Vocational Education and Training in various countries, the cooperation network between countries needs to be strengthened urgently.

Research hotspots. The relatively high intermediary centrality in the field of Vocational Education and Training is health (0.13), adolescent (0.13), gender (0.1), employment (0.1), and model (0.1). This shows that the above content is a research hotspot in this field.

Data availability

Data will be available from the corresponding author (Xueshi Wu) on request.

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McGrath, S. Vocational education and training for development: a policy in need of a theory?. Int. J. Educ. Dev. 32 (5), 623–631 (2012).

Brockmann, M., Clarke, L., Mehaut, P. & Winch, C. Competence-based vocational education and training (VET): The cases of England and France in a European perspective. Vocat. Learn. 1 (3), 227–244 (2008).

Biemans, H. et al. Towards competence—Based VET: Dealing with the pitfalls. J. Vocat. Educ. Train. 61 (3), 267–286 (2009).

Biemans, H., Nieuwenhuis, L., Poell, R., Mulder, M. & Wesselink, R. Competence-based VET in the Netherlands: Background and pitfalls. J. Vocat. Educ. Train. 56 (4), 523–538 (2004).

Kuijpers, M., Meijers, F. & Gundy, C. The relationship between learning environment and career competencies of students in vocational education. J. Vocat. Behav. 78 (1), 21–30 (2011).

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Tian, Y., Liu, J., Xu, X. et al. Knowledge mapping of vocational education and training research (2004–2020): a visual analysis based on CiteSpace. Sci Rep 13 , 22348 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-49636-7

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What we know about Career and Technical Education in high school

Subscribe to the center for economic security and opportunity newsletter, brian a. jacob brian a. jacob walter h. annenberg professor of education policy; professor of economics, and professor of education - university of michigan, former brookings expert.

October 5, 2017

• 17 min read

Career and technical education (CTE) has traditionally played an important role in U.S. secondary schools. The first federal law providing funding for vocational education was passed in 1917, even before education was compulsory in every state. 1

CTE encompasses a wide range of activities intended to simultaneously provide students with skills demanded in the labor market while preparing them for post-secondary degrees in technical fields. Activities include not only specific career-oriented classes, but also internships, apprenticeships and in-school programs designed to foster work readiness.

CTE advocates cite several goals of career-oriented learning experiences. For non-college-bound students, CTE can provide hands-on training that translates directly to attractive careers upon graduation. Work-related or internship-like experiences that are often a part of CTE can teach students the “soft skills” necessary in the labor market. Finally, by integrating academic skills into a “real world” context, advocates claim that CTE can motivate students to attend school more frequently and be more engaged, and therefore improve core academic skills.

However, CTE has been on the decline for several decades. Starting in the 1980s, states increased the number of courses required for high school graduation, and began mandating students take additional courses in core academic areas such as math, science, social studies and foreign language. 2 These additional requirements, along with declining funding 3 and a growing perception that all young people should be encouraged to obtain a four-year college degree, led to a sharp decline in CTE participation. Between 1990 and 2009, the number of CTE credits earned by U.S. high school students dropped by 14 percent. 4

The past decade has seen a resurgence in interest in CTE. Scholarship in the area of education and the labor market has increased markedly. 5 In the past four years alone, media mentions of “career and technical education” have quadrupled. 6 In 2015 alone, 39 states instituted 125 new laws, policies or regulations relating to CTE, many of which increased state funding for such programs. Montana, for example, doubled the annual statewide appropriation for secondary CTE; Nevada tripled its funding. 7

Unfortunately, research on CTE has not kept pace with policy interest. 8

What does earlier non-experimental research tell us?

Prior non-experimental evidence suggests that students who participate in secondary CTE programs have higher employment and earnings than demographically-similar peers in the short run, but they do not necessarily have better academic outcomes. For example, many studies show little or no differences between CTE participants and comparison groups in terms of academic achievement, high school graduation or college enrollment. 9

A good example of this type of research is a recent study by Daniel Kreisman and Kevin Stange, which relies on data from the NLSY97, a nationally representative sample of 12- to 17- year-old youth in 1997 that tracks individuals over time.

They find that CTE participation is not strongly associated with educational attainment – CTE students are marginally less likely to enroll in college but no less likely to earn a degree – but CTE coursework does predict employment outcomes. Importantly, they find that CTE participation is associated with higher wages, with the increase driven entirely by upper-level coursework, defined as courses within a sequence beyond the introductory class, in more technical fields. Each additional year of upper-level vocational coursework is associated with a nearly 2 percent wage increase. 10 This suggests that the benefits of CTE education stem from in-depth study of a specific area consistent with the recent trend toward “pathways of study” within CTE. 11

As the authors recognize, however, the biggest challenge in evaluating CTE is that students typically self-select into such programs, or student choices are circumscribed by the types of programs offered in nearby schools. In either case, it is likely that students participating in CTE are different in many ways than other youth who do not participate in CTE – in terms of their personal abilities and interests, family background, etc. On the one hand, many observers have described CTE as a “dumping ground” for lower-achieving or unmotivated students. 12 On the other hand, because CTE is not the “default” pathway, the students who participate must be at least somewhat motivated and informed. 13

CTE can motivate students to attend school more frequently and be more engaged, and therefore improve core academic skills.

Kreisman and Stange attempt to circumvent this selection problem using what researchers refer to as an instrumental variables strategy. Simply put, they compare students across schools with different high school graduation requirements because, as they show, the greater the number of required courses, the fewer CTE courses students take. Using this approach, they find that the wage benefits associated with CTE disappear.

However, a key assumption here is that, after controlling for observable student and school characteristics, the students attending high schools with fewer graduation requirements are identical to those attending high schools with more graduation requirements. 14 As the authors recognize, this is a very strong assumption. If this assumption is true, it implies that students whose CTE course-taking is influenced by graduation requirements realize little benefit from it. Of course, it may still be the case that those who self-select into CTE benefit from it, and that prohibiting them from doing so would be detrimental.

A further complication is that virtually all of the existing research on CTE has focused on relatively short-run outcomes. This is a notable limitation because many believe that career-focused education involves a tradeoff – namely, learning a narrower set of technical skills that can provide short-run benefits at the expense of learning more fundamental skills that will better serve individuals in the long-run. 15 Indeed, a recent study using European data finds some evidence of exactly this type of tradeoff. 16 Given the changes we expect to take place in the labor market in coming years, and how often individuals might need to switch occupations, this is a potentially serious concern. Of course, advocates of CTE argue – with some justification – that career-oriented education today does aim to teach core academic skills essential to lifelong learning, and often does so better than traditional schooling, particularly for disadvantaged youth. 17

the gold standard

The single best way to avoid such selection problems and determine the causal impact of a policy or program is through a randomized control trial. While such experiments can be expensive and are often logistically or politically difficult, they have a long history in education policy research. Other research designs, known as quasi-experimental research, attempt to approximate the same design with statistical techniques.

According to the What Works Clearinghouse, for example, there are 83 programs with experimental or quasi-experimental evidence in the area of early childhood education, 39 programs for dropout-prevention, and 32 programs for English language learners.

In the area of secondary CTE, there is only 1. Yes, one. This study examined Career Academies in the early 1990s, before many of the occupations common today even existed and prior to the introduction of policies with important implications for secondary schools (e.g., school accountability). 18

Structured as distinct programs embedded within comprehensive high schools, the Career Academies provided students with career-oriented instruction in a particular field along with internships and other activities to prepare students for, and connect them with, the labor market. The schools in the study were located in or near large urban areas with predominantly low-income minority student populations. The Career Academy programs were oversubscribed, which permitted admissions to be determined by lottery.

Researchers found that Career Academies had no impact (positive or negative) on high school graduation, postsecondary enrollment or educational attainment. However, the study found that students who received the opportunity to attend a career academy earned 11 percent more than the control group. Interestingly, this positive wage effect was driven entirely by male students, who enjoyed a 17 percent earnings boost. Males defined as high-risk based on baseline characteristics (i.e. prior to high school) realized the largest benefits from the program. There was no significant difference between the earnings of females in the treatment and control group.

This single study has been cited hundreds of times, and is featured prominently in nearly every literature review and many policy proposals regarding CTE. While this was an extremely well-done evaluation of an important CTE model, it has important limitations. As noted elsewhere, Career Academies are a small component of CTE provision nationwide. 19 The study itself focused on a small number of sites which, as evidenced by their oversubscription, were perceived as high quality. 20

and then there were two

Compelling research on CTE recently doubled with the release of a new study of regional vocational and technical high schools (RVTS) in Massachusetts. 21

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Unlike the Career Academies described above, RVTS are entire schools devoted to career-oriented instruction. Students spend one week in the classroom followed by one week in a technical shop. While students in other schools have access to CTE courses, RVTS offer more variety in terms of the program of study, and the programs themselves are typically higher quality than those found in comprehensive high schools.

The author of the study, Shaun Dougherty, obtained detailed data on student applications to three RVTS. Because the schools are often oversubscribed, they admit students on the basis of their attendance, grades and discipline record in middle school. By comparing the educational outcomes of students who scored just above the admissions threshold (and thus were very likely to attend) and just below the admissions threshold (who mostly did not attend), Dougherty is able to account for the selection bias that has plagued prior CTE research. This approach is known as a regression discontinuity design. What Works Clearinghouse considers well-done studies of this type to provide evidence nearly as compelling as an RCT.

Dougherty finds that attending a RVTS dramatically increases the likelihood of high school graduation. Poor students are 32 percentage points more likely to graduate if they attend a RVTS, which represents a 60 percent increase given the baseline graduation rate of 50 percent. The effect for non-poor students is somewhat smaller, but still quite large – an increase of 23 percentage points from a baseline of 67 percent, suggesting a nearly 35 percent improvement. 22 At the same time, Dougherty finds that attending a RVTS has no impact (positive or negative) on the standardized math and reading exams that all Massachusetts students take at the end of 10 th grade.

where to go from here?

More rigorous research on CTE programs is clearly needed. To its credit, the Institute for Education Sciences (IES) recently initiated several new data collection and research grants in this area. The recent study by Dougherty is a great start, but only a start. Further progress requires a series of studies that build on each other, and examine different approaches to CTE. Because states play a large role in developing and overseeing CTE programming, they must take the lead. States have been very active in passing laws, issuing regulations and disseminating policies about CTE. States now need to step up and support a research agenda that can help ensure these new initiatives are successful.

The author did not receive any financial support from any firm or person for this article or from any firm or person with a financial or political interest in this article. He is currently not an officer, director, or board member of any organization with an interest in this article.

• The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 preceded the passage of compulsory attendance laws in Mississippi in 1918 , the last of the 48 states of the time to pass such a law.
• Jacob et al. (2017). “Are Expectations Alone Enough? Estimating the Effect of a Mandatory College-Prep Curriculum in Michigan.” Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis,39(2): 333-360. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.3102/0162373716685823 .
• U.S. Department of Education (2014). National assessment of career and technical education. Final report to congress. Technical report, Washington, DC.
• Hudson, L. (2013). “Trends in CTE Coursetaking. data point.” National Center for Education Statistics, NCES 2014-901.
• Shaun M. Dougherty and Allison R. Lomarbardi. “From Vocational Education to Career Readiness: The Ongoing Work of Linking Education and the Labor Market.” Chapter 10 in Review of Research in Education, March 2016, Vol. 40: 326–355
• From 5,518 stories in 2014 to 22,755 stories from January 1 to September 28 of this year, based on author’s Meltwater analysis.
• http://www.acteonline.org/uploadedFiles/Who_We_Are/Press/2015_State-Policy-Review_FINAL%20(1).pdf
• Corinne Alfeld made this same point in an IES blog post earlier this year.  See https://ies.ed.gov/blogs/research/post/career-technical-education-is-growing-research-must-follow
• For good reviews of this prior literature, see Kreisman and Stange (forthcoming) and Dougherty (forthcoming).
• The benefits of upper-level CTE coursework is driven largely by those focusing in technical fields.
• While selection bias is still a concern, it is worthwhile noting that the authors control for a very rich set of covariates including student demographics, parental income, parental education, student AFQT score, freshman year GPA, state of birth and various school characteristics.
• See, for example, Kelly, S. & Price, H. (2009). Vocational education: A clear slate for disengaged students? Social Science Research, 38 (4), 810–825.
• Insofar as CTE programs involve travel to/from worksites, it seems likely that participation requires more time than a student would have to devote to a standard high school track.
• As the authors discuss in detail in the paper, there are two reasons why their instrumental variable results might differ from their OLS regression results. The first is that the students who self-select into CTE have some positive, unobservable characteristics that explain their success in the labor market. The second is that there is true heterogeneity in the returns to CTE – the students who self-select do indeed benefit from the experience, but those whose course-taking decisions can be swayed by their school’s graduation requirements do not benefit.
• http://hanushek.stanford.edu/publications/german-style-apprenticeships-simply-cant-be-replicated
• Among younger people, employment rates are higher among those with vocational education. However, this pattern reverses by age 50. These patterns are most pronounced in countries that have highly developed work-based education systems such as Germany, Denmark and Switzerland. See Hanushek et al. (2017). “General Education, Vocational Education, and Labor-Market Outcomes over the Life-Cycle.” Journal of Human Resources. 52(1): 49-88.
• http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/top_performers/2017/07/the_false_choice_between_vocational_and_academic_education.html
• Kemple, J & Willner, C.J. (2008). Career academies: Long-term impacts on labor market outcomes, educational attainment, and transitions to adulthood . MDRC.
• Kreisman and Stange (2016), “Vocational and Career Tech Education in American High Schools: The Value of Depth Over Breadth.” NBER working paper
• And, if one looks beyond the headline results, the detailed findings of the Career Academy raise a number of important questions about the mechanisms, and thus generalizability, of the impacts. For example, students in the treatment group reported significantly higher levels of interpersonal support from teachers and peers than their comparison counterparts. While Career Academy students did engage in work-based experiences that control students did not, researchers found that the curricula and instructional materials used in the Career Academies were similar to those used in other parts of the high school, and did not meaningfully integrate academic content with career-related applications. Together these findings suggest that the benefits of attending a career academy may relate as much to the school culture as the particular career focus, similar to the benefits of attending a small school or “school-within-a-school.”Bloom, Howard S., and Rebecca Unterman. 2014. Can small high schools of choice improve educational prospects for disadvantaged students? Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 33(2): 290–319.
• Dougherty, S.M. (forthcoming). “The Effect of Career and Technical Education on Human Capital Accumulation: Causal Evidence from Massachusetts.” Education Finance & Policy.
• These findings are consistent with some prior research suggesting that CTE participation can increase attachment to school. See, for example, the following studies: Plank, Stephen B., Stefanie DeLuca, and Angela Estacion. 2008. High school dropout and the role of career and technical education: A survival analysis of surviving high school. Sociology of Education 81(4): 345–370. Cellini, Stephanie Riegg, “Smoothing the Transition to College? The Effect of Tech-Prep Programs on Educational Attainment,” Economics of Education Review, 25(4), August 2006: 394-411.

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Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) for young people in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis

• Janice S Tripney 1 &
• Jorge G Hombrados 2  

Empirical Research in Vocational Education and Training volume  5 , Article number:  3 ( 2013 ) Cite this article

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The world is facing a worsening youth employment crisis. In response, technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is back on the development agenda after years of neglect. This systematic review examined the evidence from studies evaluating the impacts of TVET interventions for young people in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). The 26 included studies evaluated 20 different interventions, predominantly from Latin America. Meta-analyses of the effectiveness of TVET on five outcome measure categories were conducted. The overall mean effects on overall paid employment, formal employment, and monthly earnings were small, positive, and significant; however, significant heterogeneity was observed. Moderator analysis was performed in an attempt to explain between-study differences in effects. The overall paucity of research in this area, together with specific gaps and methodological limitations, affirm the need for strengthening the evidence base. Implications for policy, practice and research are discussed.

Introduction

The global youth unemployment rate rose sharply between 2008 and 2009, from 11.8 to 12.7 per cent, reversing the pre-crisis trend of declining youth unemployment rates since 2002 (International Labour Organization 2011 ). By 2011, 74.8 million young people were unemployed. In some regions, young people are nearly three times as likely as adults to be unemployed; they are also more likely than older workers to be underemployed or work in the informal labour market, in poor quality jobs that require low levels of skills and offer limited socio-economic security, training opportunities, and working conditions (International Labour Organization 2012 ). Significant regional variation in youth unemployment exists; and, in many countries, young women are much more likely to be un/underemployed than young men (United Nations 2012 ). Over 40 per cent of all young people live on less than two US dollars a day, with youth in developing countries disproportionately among the working poor (International Labour Organization 2012 ). This enormous unlocked potential represents a substantial loss of opportunity for both individuals and society.

One billion young people, the majority from LMICs, are predicted to reach employment age within the next decade (International Labour Organization 2012 ), compounding what are already severely limited opportunities for integrating youth into the labour market. With increasing policy importance now placed on higher-order skills and their central role in the global knowledge-based economy, comes a renewed focus on the potential of TVET to equip youths with the abilities to seize available work opportunities, and, in turn, impact upon global poverty and social stability (African Union 2007 ; King and Palmer 2010 ; Péano et al. 2008 ; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Scientific and Cultural Organization 2010 , 2012 ). Neglected by the World Bank and other donor agencies during much of the 1980s and 1990s, there has been growing investment in TVET since 2000. Deciding which programmes to implement requires an understanding not only of which models are effective, but for whom they are effective. Collecting evidence from studies that have analysed these issues is crucial for purposes of policy-making.

Technical and vocational education and training (TVET)

The term TVET, as used in this systematic review, follows the definition used by UNESCO as “those aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupation in various sectors of economic life”. It incorporates: technical education, vocational education, vocational training, on-the-job training, and apprenticeship training (or any combination thereof).

Prior reviews of TVET

Although a number of prior reviews have summarised the existing research in this area (see, for example, Angel-Urdinola et al. 2010 ; Betcherman et al. 2004 ; Betcherman et al. 2007 ; Card et al. 2010 ; Fares and Puerto 2009 ; Greenberg et al. 2003 ; Katz 2008 ; Kluve 2006 ; Kluve and Schmidt 2002 ; Puerto 2007 ; Stavreska 2006 ; Van Adams 2007 ), there are a number of limitations to these reviews. Some contain evidence from high-income countries only; others, whilst broader in geographical scope, do not focus specifically on developing countries, TVET, or young people. Very few existing reviews are based on a comprehensive, systematic search for literature, and almost all take either a traditional narrative approach to synthesis or use vote-counting methods where conclusions regarding effective interventions are made based on the number of studies found to demonstrate significant positive results. None of the previous reviews that specifically focus on TVET for youth in LMICs have computed effect sizes for the included studies or examined variability in effects by study, participant or intervention characteristics. These are problems that this review aims to remedy, thereby adding value to the existing body of research on this topic.

Purpose of the present study

This review sought to improve upon prior work by systematically examining the evidence base to provide a clearer picture of the types of TVET interventions being used to improve employment prospects for youth in LMICs, to identify the overall effectiveness of TVET, to examine whether study, participant and intervention characteristics help to explain variability in intervention effects, and to identify areas in which more research needs to be conducted. An extended version of this article is available as a technical report published in the Campbell Collaboration library (Tripney et al. 2013 ).

Systematic review methodology was utilised for all aspects of the search, selection and coding of studies. The review was conducted in accordance with Campbell Collaboration procedures and guidelines on systematic review methods, available at http://campbellcollaboration.org/ . Full details about the methods for this review can be found in the technical report, and review protocol (Tripney et al. 2012 ).

Eligibility criteria

Eligibility was restricted to studies that: were conducted in LMICs; were reported between 2000 and 2011; evaluated the impact of a TVET intervention; investigated outcomes for youth aged 15–24 years; included at least one quantifiable measure of employment or employability (broadly defined); and used an experimental or rigorous quasi-experimental design (such as the use of propensity scores to match on pre-tests and/or relevant demographic characteristics or regression analysis to control for differences between groups). Single group pre-post test studies were not eligible. No language or publication status restrictions were applied.

The conceptual definition of TVET used in this review cuts across education level, type of learning arrangement, mode of delivery, setting, and type of provider/regulator. It includes provision of (i) initial training for young people from the age of 15/16 years after compulsory school, but prior to entering work; (ii) continuing education and training for adults in the labour market leading to personal, flexible and/or vocational competencies; and (iii) training for unemployed persons currently available for and seeking work (including retraining for those made redundant). Single- and multi-service TVET interventions were eligible for inclusion in the review, as were interventions delivered for any length of time or frequency. LMICs were defined according to World Bank classification of economies (in effect 1 July 2011 until 30 June 2012).

Literature search and strategy

The review recognised the importance of using a comprehensive and diverse search strategy to locate all qualifying published and unpublished studies (Papaioannou et al. 2009 ; Schucan Bird and Tripney 2011 ). First, 10 major bibliographic databases were electronically searched (including ASSIA, Econlit, ERIC, IBSS, Medline, PsycINFO, and SSCI). Searches within each database combined controlled vocabulary and natural language terms, with appropriate wildcards, for three concepts: TVET, employment, and study design. Second, specialist databases and library catalogues were searched, including grey literature, regional and topic-specific sources. Third, the websites of government agencies, research centres, foundations, professional associations, and other relevant organisations were searched. Fourth, the reference lists of previous reviews and included studies were checked. Fifth, citation searches of included studies were conducted. Sixth, information about additional relevant studies was requested from authors of included studies and other key experts in the field.

Data extraction and critical appraisal

Data were independently extracted from all included studies by pairs of reviewers using a coding tool specifically designed for this review. Studies were quality assessed using a tool developed specifically for assessing risk of bias in experimental and quasi-experimental designs based on statistical methods (Hombrados and Waddington 2012 ).

Where data allowed, effect sizes were computed for each study and random-effects inverse-variance weighted meta-analytic methods were used to synthesise the evidence. We followed Petrosino et al. ( 2012 ) in the use of standardised mean differences (SMDs) for synthesising both continuous and dichotomous outcomes. The different formulas used in calculating effect sizes are detailed in the full technical report. The included studies were analysed by outcome and Hedges’ g effect sizes were reported. To visibly examine between-study variability in the effect size estimates, forest plots were used to display the estimated effect sizes from each study along with their 95 per cent confidence intervals (CIs). Heterogeneity was explored using both the Q test and the I 2 index (Deeks et al. 2001 ; Higgins and Green 2011 ). Moderator analyses were performed to examine possible reasons for variability in effects. Due to the small number of available studies, an analogue to the ANOVA analysis (univariate) approach was used (Lipsey and Wilson 2001 ). The categorical variables which identified the sub-groups used in this exercise were specified in advance.

Size of literature reviewed

Of the 8072 articles identified using the electronic search, 145 were deemed potentially relevant on the basis of title and abstract and the full papers were retrieved for a full text review. The full papers of a further 76 items identified through the non-database search were also manually examined. This process resulted in a total of 30 different studies, described in 55 separate publications, being identified as meeting the eligibility criteria. Of these, 26 studies were included in the review. a The study search and selection process is detailed in Figure  1 .

Study search and selection process flowchart.

Descriptive analysis

Publication dates of the 26 included studies ranged between 2001 and 2011, and over three-quarters were published as technical reports. Three studies were randomised experiments and 23 studies used a quasi-experimental design (QED). The QED evaluations used different econometric techniques to address selection bias and net out the impacts of other factors, most commonly propensity score matching (Rosenbaum and Rubin 1983 ). The majority of study samples included both male and female participants, and a single study focused exclusively on young women. The risk of bias assessments resulted in five studies graded medium quality (Attanasio et al. 2011 ; Card et al. 2011 ; Chong and Galdo 2006 ; Hicks et al. 2011 ; Espinoza 2010 ), 10 graded low/medium (Acero et al. 2011 ; Aedo and Nuñez 2004 ; Aedo and Pizarro 2004 ; Analítica Consultores 2006 ; Chong et al. 2008 ; Díaz and Jaramillo 2006 ; Elías et al. 2004 ; Ibarraran and Rosas-Shady 2006 ; Jaramillo et al. 2007 ; Ñopo et al. 2007 ) and 11 graded low (Alzuá and Brassiolo 2006 ; Alzúa et al. 2007 ; Benus et al. 2001 ; Bidani et al. 2002 ; Chun and Watanabe 2011 ; Delajara et al. 2006 ; Dmitrijeva 2009 ; López-Acevedo 2003 ; Medina and Nuñez 2005 ; Mensch et al. 2004 ; van Gameren 2010 ). d

Twenty different TVET programme interventions were evaluated. Settings include 10 upper-middle income countries (Argentina; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Brazil; Chile; China; Colombia; Dominican Republic; Latvia; Mexico; Panama and Peru); two lower-middle income countries (India and Bhutan); and one low-income country (Kenya). e Twelve programmes were specifically targeted at youth. The majority were targeted at disadvantaged populations, based on criteria such as household income, education level, and employment experience. A few were occupation- rather than age-focused (targeting, for example, demobilised soldiers or unemployed former employees of state-owned enterprises). A small number of interventions were directed exclusively at either urban or rural residents.

The 20 TVET interventions consisted of one or more of the different models or approaches to vocational skills development (see Table  1 ). The different types of TVET are not evenly represented, however; for instance, no apprenticeship training programmes were evaluated and a very small number of studies focused on technical education or vocational education. Many of the interventions in the included studies were complex, multi-component programmes. Alongside TVET-related training, some programmes incorporated labour mediation services (such as job readiness skills), some included training specifically for self-employment and some included other types of training (such as basic skills). However, the largest category of multi-component programme involved components consisting of different types of TVET. There were nine two-phase TVET interventions, most of which combined theoretical and practical training, usually in the format of classroom-based vocational training followed by a period of on-the-job training to provide beneficiaries with work experience. These interventions typically focused on short-term semi-skilled training in specific occupations demanded in the private sector.

Primary study authors often did not provide all the necessary data for computing effect sizes. It was possible to calculate at least one effect size for 10 of the studies included in the review (Acero et al. 2011 ; Aedo and Nuñez 2004 ; Aedo and Pizarro 2004 ; Attanasio et al. 2011 ; Card et al. 2011 ; Elías et al. 2004 ; Espinoza 2010 ; Hicks et al. 2011 ; Ibarraran and Rosas-Shady 2006 ; Medina and Nuñez 2005 ). The findings from these studies were statistically combined using meta-analytic techniques.

Overall mean effects of interventions

The overall mean effect sizes for five outcomes are presented in Table  2 . For three outcomes, an overall positive and statistically significant effect on TVET on youth was found: overall paid employment ( g  = 0.134; 95% CI [0.024, 0.243]); formal employment ( g  = 0.199; 95% CI [0.055, 0.344]); and earnings ( g  = 0.127; 95% CI [0.043, 0.21]). For working hours worked, the overall effect was also positive, but non-significant ( g  = 0.043; 95% CI [-0.017, 0.104]). In contrast, the overall effect on self-employment earnings was negative, and non-significant ( g  = -0.025; 95% CI [-0.11, 0.061]). b

Analysis of homogeneity

For three outcomes (overall paid employment, formal employment, and earnings) the grand mean provides some evidence that the TVET interventions were, on average, effective; although, effects are generally small and difficult to detect. Furthermore, in each case the result of the statistical test for homogeneity was statistically significant (Q = 23.8, p < 0.05; Q = 11.1, p < 0.05; Q = 25.5, p < 0.05), indicating that studies disagreed on the magnitude of effect. Our next step was to explore the reasons for this variability between studies.

Analysis of moderator effects

Moderator analyses were performed to examine independent variables that may be contributing to the heterogeneity. The results are presented in Table  3 .

Relationship of study characteristics to effect size

Two factors potentially associated with treatment effect were examined: study quality and length of follow up (i.e., timing of outcome measurement). As there were no high quality studies included in the review, studies rated medium quality were compared with those rated low or low-medium. c Short-term treatment effects (measured at approximately six months) were compared with medium-term effects (measured at approximately 12 months). The low quality studies were found to have consistently larger mean effects than the medium quality studies; and, for two outcomes, differences in mean effects observed between studies according to study quality were statistically significant: paid employment (Q b  = 6.49, p = 0.0108); formal employment (Q b  = 10.6, p = 0.0012). Although studies that measured short-term treatment effects consistently had slightly larger mean effects than studies in the medium-term follow up group, no statistically significant relationship between length of follow up and treatment effect was observed for any of the outcomes for which we had data.

Relationship of participant characteristics (gender) to effect size

For one of the five outcome categories (weekly hours), statistically significant differences in mean treatment effects were observed between studies according to gender (Qb = 10.1; p = 0.00151). Treatment effects for female youth were positive ( g  = 0.16; 95% CI [0.04, 0.28]), while those for male youth were negative ( g  = -0.09; 95% CI [-0.2, 0.01]). However, male youth participation in TVET demonstrated effects that were not statistically different from zero, lessening our confidence in this result.

Relationship of intervention characteristics (type) to effect size

Slight differences in mean effects between two-phase models of TVET and other models were observed, with two-phases usually, but not always, producing the larger effects. However, these differences were not statistically significant.

Conclusions

This review improves upon prior work by statistically synthesising TVET intervention research, strengthening the evidence base on which current policies and practices can draw. However, the nature of the available evidence, and limitations in the review itself, are such that drawing strong inferences from the results of the analyses is not recommended and considerable caution should be used when interpreting and applying the findings of the review.

Despite renewed investment in TVET and increased pressure for evidence-based decision-making, there remains an overall scarcity of research in this area and specific knowledge gaps. The interventions included in this systematic review are not representative of all TVET programmes in existence. Studies were undertaken in a relatively small number of counties, predominantly in Latin America and the Caribbean. Some types of TVET are poorly represented in the review; for example, no studies examined the effectiveness of apprenticeship training. The quality of the existing evidence base is also a concern. Only three RCTs were identified, and methodological and reporting shortcomings of the included studies were such that none provided high quality evidence to help answer the review questions.

Overall, interventions included in the meta-analyses were found to demonstrate a significant, though small, positive effect on a limited range of labour market outcomes: overall paid employment ( g  = 0.134; 95% CI [0.024, 0.243]); formal employment ( g  = 0.199; 95% CI [0.055, 0.344]); and monthly earnings ( g  = 0.127; 95% CI [0.043, 0.21]). However, the observed heterogeneity was also significant, indicating that different studies point to somewhat different conclusions. Attempts to explain the heterogeneity in overall mean effects suggest that methods matter. The low quality studies have consistently larger mean effects than the medium quality studies. For two outcomes, evidence of a statistically significant relationship between study quality and effect size magnitude suggest that the overall mean effect may be inflated and that our conclusions about treatment effect should be based only on those studies rated medium quality: paid employment ( g  = 0.06; 95% CI [-0.01, 0.12]); formal employment ( g  = 0.12; 95% CI [0.05, 0.19]). Treatment effects for both self-employment earnings and weekly hours worked were non-significant. On the whole, the other independent variables that were tested were unable to explain variability in effects. Length of follow up did not demonstrate a significant relationship with treatment effect. Two-phase TVET interventions (classroom-based vocational training followed by on-the-job training) produced statistically similar effects to other TVET models. Gender may have some influence, as an increase in the number of weekly hours worked by youth following participating in TVET appears to be driven by the effect on young women. It is important to note, however, that due to an insufficient number of studies reporting relevant data, only some of the moderator analyses that had been planned a priori could be performed. Furthermore, due to the very small number of studies for most of the variables tested, and thus low statistical power, we may not have been able to detect moderator effects that may indeed be present. In addition, there may be other moderating variables that either were not tested in this study or measured in the primary reports, such as implementation fidelity, whether the intervention was theoretically informed, and so on, which could account for the differences in effects between studies.

While a key strength of this study is its application of systematic review principles to improve upon prior work. There are several important limitations to this review that should be acknowledged. First, not all eligible studies are included in the meta-analysis. Second, the methods for calculating comparable effect sizes from studies using complex econometrics methods, as used in this review, are under-developed and require further research (for a complete discussion, see Becker and Wu 2007 ; Duvendack et al. 2012 ; Lipsey and Wilson 2001 ). Third, no high quality studies were identified and some of the methodological concerns associated with those that were included may mean that the studies have yielded biased estimates of treatment effect. All conclusions from the current review are therefore sensitive to the possibility that the results from the meta-analyses may be over- or under-estimating the effects of TVET on the outcome variables of interest.

Limitations notwithstanding, this systematic review provides some evidence to support the claim that participation in TVET improves the labour market situation of youth in LMICs, on average, when compared to youth who do not participate, with the strength of the evidence strongest for formal employment and monthly earnings. Thus, it is reasonable to conclude that it is worthwhile to continue investment in TVET provision. Although, statistically, the effects of TVET on youth may be small, even a slight increase in the employment rate, for example, could potentially translate into fairly large numbers of young people entering the labour market, especially where programmes are delivered nationally. Through its use of statistical meta-analysis, this review has improved upon previous work; nevertheless, there are two main related areas of likely disappointment for policymakers and programme implementers. First, not only were the observed effects generally small and difficult to detect, the review does not provide conclusive evidence of the effectiveness of TVET on youth employment outcomes. This suggests an urgent need to improve the rigour of the evidence base, and will require policymakers, practitioners and other relevant stakeholders engaging critically with the barriers to effective research production and dissemination in this area. The commissioning of RCTs and robust QEDs is crucial for generating evidence capable of supporting causal claims. To improve potential generalisability, it is also important that appropriate support, financial and otherwise, is given to rigorous outcome research on all types of TVET that have been implemented internationally for young people, and in a broader range of geographical settings than covered by the current evidence base. A cost-benefit analysis was outside the scope of the current review; however, attention should be given to the collection of data regarding the costs of TVET interventions, and examinations of cost-effectiveness should be a priority in future impact evaluations and systematic reviews. Second, the available evidence does not allow recommendations to be made for, or against, investments in a particular model of TVET. Although claims have been made in the literature and media for the success or effectiveness of a particular format of TVET widely implemented in Latin America and the Caribbean, the evidence from this systematic review suggests that such claims are premature. In the absence of evidence in support of any one model or approach to vocational skills development, it seems reasonable in the meantime for policymakers and other stakeholders to select the least costly, most culturally acceptable, and/or most easily implemented programmes, while at the same time becoming good consumers of evidence and working towards the strengthening of the evidence base on TVET. This review has demonstrated that not only is there is a clear need for additional primary research in this area, but that more of the same will not suffice. The methodological shortcomings of the current evidence base, and specific knowledge gaps, suggest a number of future research priorities. These are summarised in Table  4 .

a Four eligible Spanish-language studies could not be included in the review. Of these, one study was judged as meeting the review selection criteria on the basis of detailed descriptions in previous literature reviews, but efforts to obtain a copy of the publication were unsuccessful. The three remaining eligible non-English language studies were not included in the review due to exhaustion of financial resources. All four studies evaluated ProJoven, a Peruvian programme that was evaluated by a number of studies that were included in the review.

b A preliminary assessment of the ‘direction of effects’ of the 16 studies not included in the meta-analyses suggests that these studies generally support the meta-analytic findings.

c For this exercise, all of these studies were grouped together into a single category labelled low.

d One study (Espinoza 2010 ) was graded medium quality overall; however, individual assessments for the different outcome categories varied. For employment outcomes, this study was graded as proving medium quality evidence; for monthly earnings, the grading was low/medium.

e World Bank country classifications have been revised twice since the conduct of this review, and Chile and Latvia are currently ranked as high income economies.

Authors’ information

JT is a lecturer in Social Policy, based at the EPPI-Centre (Evidence for Policy and Practice Co-ordinating Centre), Social science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London. JH is a research analyst at J-PAL (Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab), based at its regional office in Latin America at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile.

Abbreviations

Low- and middle-income country

Quasi-experimental design

Randomised controlled trial

Standardised mean difference

Technical and vocational education and training.

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Acknowledgements

This manuscript arose from a systematic review commissioned in 2011 by the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID), in response to the International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie) systematic reviews call 3. JT was the grant holder and principal investigator. JH participated in the full review on an un-funded basis. JT and JH wish to acknowledge the contributions of those who helped in the creation of the full review: Mark Newman was involved in data collection and advised on the statistical analysis; Kimberley Hovish, Chris Brown, Katarzyna Steinka-Fry and Eric Wilkey participated in the acquisition of data. Special thanks are due to Sandra Jo Wilson, editor of the Education Coordination Group (ECG), for her guidance throughout the initial project. The funding agency informed the scope and development of the full review. The preparation of this manuscript was unfunded, and the funding agency had no role in the writing of this manuscript, or the decision to submit the manuscript for publication. The opinions expressed in this manuscript are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the funding agency. The full version of the review is published in the Campbell library ( http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/lib/project/227/ ), and the 3ie database of systematic reviews ( http://www.3ieimpact.org/en/evidence/systematic-reviews/details/152/ ).

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Tripney, J.S., Hombrados, J.G. Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) for young people in low- and middle-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Empirical Res Voc Ed Train 5 , 3 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1186/1877-6345-5-3

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Analysing Dewey’s vocational aspects of education and Maslow’s theory of motivation in support of vocational education and training

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• Seth Yeboah Ntim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7553-6905 2 &
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The aim of this article is to analyse Dewey’s writing on vocational aspects of education in his book Democracy and Education: An introduction to the philosophy of education to identify and to relate the main philosophical ideas to Maslow’s theory of motivation and to establish the key similarities between the two theories to support contemporary Vocational Education and Training.

The paper used content analysis to identify key themes from Dewey's vocational aspect of education and synthesised them with Maslow's theory of motivation. Based on both theories the article describes how motivation is critical in people’s pursuit of vocational career goals.

The study identified source of livelihood, sustainable livelihood, social recognition, social contributions, academic, and career progression from Dewey’s vocational aspect of education as key ideas that are like Maslow’s physiological needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs that influence people’s choice in vocational career goals.

We argue that if contemporary vocational education and training can be attractive to the young generation, the ideas expressed in Dewey’s vocational aspect of education and Maslow’s hierarchy of motivation should be considered by vocational education and training stakeholders when making vocational education career choice or goals.

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Theories of Motivation in Education: an Integrative Framework

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“Education is not a preparation for life but life itself”—John Dewey.

“A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write. If He is to be happy” “What a man can be, He must be”—Abraham Maslow.

1 Introduction

Arguably John Dewey was one of the momentous philosophers, psychologist, educational thinker whose authoritative writing about educational philosophy is expressed in his 1916 book Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education [ 1 ]. In his book he dedicated chapter twenty-three to write about issues surrounding vocational education at that time due to societal changes that accompanied the industrial revolution. The focus of this paper is to analyse that aspect of the book that talks about vocational aspects of education, by relating the main philosophical ideas of the chapter to Maslow’s theory of motivation and to establish the key relationships between the two theories to support contemporary vocational education and training. The overarching goal of the paper is to illuminate stakeholders understanding of vocational education and training in a way that will positively influence their vocational choices. The remaining parts of the paper is structured in the following manner: Contemporary vocational education and training section gives a brief explanation concerning the various of forms of vocational education and training, characteristics, and the challenges. The section on Dewey’s vocational aspect of education provides a brief summary of  the key ideas from Dewey's vocational aspects of education. Themes were later formulated from the key ideas. The section on Maslow’s theory of motivation presents the main principles on which the theory of motivation operates and the main arguments and findings from earlier studies on the theory’s strengths and weaknesses. The section synthesising Dewey’s vocational aspects of education and Maslow’s theory of human motivation uses dialectical approach to synthesise the key ideas identified in Dewey and Maslow’s theories to underscore the relevance of both theories on understanding vocational education and training. The concluding section contains the summary of the key ideas and discussions from the previous section and recommendations to vocational education and training stakeholders.

It is noteworthy that the contributions of these two theories to academic literature are significant and there is no doubt the application of these theories to vocational education and training will further enhance our understanding of the concept of vocation in modern times. For instance, what are the benefits of pursuing a particular vocation? (Individual’s reward), and what can those who pursue a career in certain vocations give back to their community or society? It is imperative that questions like these deserves philosophical discourse that expand our knowledge about vocational education and training and the motivation behind a person’s career choice or goals. Again, it is also important that we examine these questions in the light of the individual members of society’s dreams and aspirations, thus, considering what individuals want to achieve in life? Since such individual achievements in the end reflects the collective achievements of society. The hard part is that sometimes people miss choosing the right vocation and others may not have the strong inclination to pursue their chosen vocation. French philosopher Simondon’s concept of individuation undergirds both Dewey’s vocational aspect of education and Maslow’s theory of motivation by pointing out the problems that can arise concerning the individual’s ability to make the right decisions regarding their choice of vocation. Individuation is about the individual forming a stable personality or becoming aware of their self-identity and been able to distinguish themselves from other people [ 2 , 3 ]. The process of individuation is a complex phenomenon that occurs throughout the individual’s lifetime. The individual must find their personal identity in distinct stages of life, and therefore it becomes difficult for the individual to truly gain self-awareness. Simondon writes that any substantial being that exists in reality has already undergone or is already undergoing a process of individuation through which the singular individual is formed [ 2 ]. In the context of vocation, the individual realising their true self-identity in various stages of life is an important part of been able to choose and pursue the right vocation. Poor individuation can result in low satisfaction with one’s life, low self-worth, problems with motivation and goal setting and even poor decision making which can affect a person’s choice of vocation [ 3 ]. Undoubtedly, everyone is unique in their own way and can contribute to society’s development but unless the individual is able to identify their interest, abilities, and talents, based on their personal characters such abilities and talents would be underused. So, for this paper, we argue that the ideas and concerns raised by Dewey on the meaning of vocational education, its place in society, its opportunities and challenges will be best understood when it is examined in the light of Maslow’s motivation theory which focuses on understanding human motivation.

In chapter one of his book, Education as a Necessity of Life, Dewey defines education in its broadest sense as the means of social continuity of life. His definition points to the purpose of education, thus, the growth and survival of human beings in society. He further asserts that the primary ineluctable facts of the birth and death of each one of the constituent members in a social group determine the necessity of education [ 4 ]. On one hand, Dewey stated the sharp contrast that exists between the immature new-born members of the societal group who are “its sole future representatives” and the maturity of the adult members who have already acquired the knowledge and customs of the group. He stresses the necessity that these immature members be not merely physically preserved in adequate numbers, however must be initiated into the interests, purposes, information, skills, and practices of the mature members: otherwise, the group will cease its characteristic life [ 4 ]. The primary concern of Dewey in his definition and perspective of what education is supposed to achieve in a person’s life, is that society’s interests, purposes, information, skill, and practices are inculcated in the immature members to ensure social continuity.

The chapter on vocational aspects of education is written under three themes, the meaning of vocation which Dewey defines as nothing, but such a direction of life activities as renders them perceptibly significant to a person, because of the consequences they accomplish, and its usefulness to his associates. Secondly, he wrote about the place of vocational aims in education and cautions educators to not conceive vocational guidance as something which leads up to a definitive, retrievable, and complete choice which makes the education and the chosen vocation more rigid and hinder the individual's continuous growth and survival. Thirdly, he establishes the opportunities and challenges of vocational education, of which he refers to the increased esteem, in democratic communities, of whatever has to do with manual labour commercial occupations and the rendering of tangible services to society. He emphasises how vocations have become tremendously important because of industrialization at that time.

Dewey sort to establish that vocations must be something that can provide the basic needs of the person engaged in that vocation. which is to say it can provide certain significant benefits to the person engaged in such activities and the society such activities are undertaken. The key emphasis is that such activity must continue to grow and must require creativity and innovations to withstand the challenges of a changing society. Here, Dewey’s notion of what vocational education should offer draws parallels with the American Psychologist Abraham Maslow’s theory of human motivation. Maslow’s theory asserts that human beings are eager to engage in certain activities provided they can satisfy their hierarchy of needs. Individuals will be motivated to make a vocational choice if such vocation can help the person’s growth and survival. In 1943 and 1954 Maslow organized his theory of human motivation around five hierarchical levels which were later depicted in a pyramid shape with the pressing human need starting from the bottom to the top of the hierarchy [ 5 ]. He postulated that human beings are motivated to accomplish certain needs; however, some needs are of higher priority than others. According to Maslow, our first need is the basic needs such as food, drink, shelter, air, etc. which are important for our bodily function and survival as humans, second is our safety needs which is our desire to be safe and secure in our environment, third is our need for love, friendship, and company, our fourth need is our need for social recognition, status and respect from others and our final need he termed as self-actualization which is our need for growth and development [ 5 , 6 ]. For a person to reach the self-actualisation stage, the person’s vocation plays a critical role in reaching that stage. Therefore, we can argue that human motivation for survival and growth does influence our choice of vocational careers or engagements. Even though Maslow later in the 1960s and 1970s expanded his theory to include a seven-stage model (cognitive needs) and eight-stage model (aesthetics needs) the focus of this paper is on his initial five-stage model.

Dewey and Maslow both share ideologies that are useful for the development of vocational education and training. By relating both theories we can understand the nature of vocation, and how motivation plays critical roles in people’s pursuit of vocational career goals. For example, an individual’s understanding of the features, benefits of certain vocation are likely to influence his or her decision to choose and pursue such vocation with strong inclination. UNESCO defines contemporary vocational education and training as “those aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences, and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding, and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life” [ 7 ]. The definition vocational education and training covers a wide range of vocations and contributes to various sectors of a country’s economy and the social life of people through the acquisition of employability skills that helps students to transition from school to the workplace. Vocational education and training’s contribution to economic growth and societal development around the world is well acknowledged in its employment provisions, in the sense that it has helped reduce poverty, inequality, and social exclusion in many parts of the world [ 8 , 9 ].

2 Contemporary vocational education and training

Vocational education and training refer to a range of learning experiences that are intended to prepare its participants for the world of work and usually takes place in a myriad of learning contexts such as educational institutions and workplace learning, apprenticeship [ 10 ]. Vocational education and training provides learners with employability skills needed for a particular job and can also serve as a prerequisite for entering further education and training for a particular job [ 10 , 11 ]. Vocational education and training uses formal learning, non-formal learning, and informal learning, with formal learning being a set of organized learning for which the outcome results in certification [ 12 ]. The non-formal and the informal even though maybe well organised or less organized activities that take place within or outside the workplace does not lead to certification and usually encompass work-based training and on-the-job training and it is also the most common form of vocational education and training in most societies [ 12 ]. The nature of vocational education and training makes its curriculum very important especially since it is supposed to serve as a linkage between education, and employment [ 13 ].

Vocational education and training has suffered many challenges in the past and in this present time [ 14 ]. Despite the enormous benefits vocational education and training offers to the public around the world, vocational education and training still faces several challenges globally, especially in developing countries [ 15 ]. Some of the well-known challenges facing vocational education and training today are inadequate infrastructure, inadequate human resources, difficulty in career progression, gender inequality, stigmatization from the public which makes it unattractive and often leads to weak participation from stakeholders, and the phenomenon of mismatch between acquired skills and labour market needs also results in graduate unemployment [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ] However, it must be emphasized that these challenges depend on the country or region as different countries and regions face their peculiar challenges. Young and Horden contend that the educational element of vocational education should be given greater priority through the vocational curriculum and employers must recognise that their future profitability is dependent on human resource investment otherwise vocational education will continue to suffer the fate of low esteem as in the past [ 14 ]. The challenges vocational education and training faces today will even get worse in the future if proper measures are not implemented to mitigate these challenges. The issues of globalization, rapid technological change, demographic changes and climate change continue to shape the world of work [ 18 ]. New skills are required for work every day and the consequence for vocational education and training graduates is unemployment when they failed to meet these new job requirements. In the same vein, vocational education and training's already existing workers who fail to be re-educated or upskilled and equipped with the new skills required for their jobs become redundant or experience job displacement [ 19 ]. Considering the challenges facing vocational education and training, it is likely to disengage people from pursuing a career in vocational education. This is especially true if people perceive vocational education and training to be something they cannot depend on for their career survival and growth in society. These were some of the concerns that Dewey raised in his writing on the vocational aspects of education.

3 Dewey’s vocational aspects of education

This section of the paper presents the salient points of Dewey’s perspectives on vocational aspects of education in his book Democracy and Education, An Introduction to the philosophy of education. Much like today, during the time Dewey wrote about the vocational aspect of education, the world was experiencing the great industrial revolution. The changes that were occurring because of industrialization at that time influenced his writing on the subject. The world today is once again experiencing a new form of industrialization (industrial 4.0).

The vocational aspects of education  consist of three themes: the meaning of vocation, the place of vocational aims in education, and present opportunity and dangers. On the meaning of vocation, Dewey acknowledged the conflict of philosophic theories that focuses on the debate of the proper place and function of vocational factors in education. He stated there is a great gap between the remote and general terms in which philosophic ideas are formulated and the practical and details of vocational education. The philosophic dualisms surrounding the whole subject of vocational education led to his definition of vocation. He defined vocation “as nothing but such a direction of life activities as renders them perceptibly significant to a person, because of the consequences they accomplish and also usefulness to his associates” [ 20 ]. In simple terms, life activities are of significance to a person when a benefit is received or achieved and of significance to others. Dewey’s definition not only focuses on one’s career but one’s whole life activities since for Dewey, limiting vocation to an individual career amounts to aimlessness, capriciousness, the absence of cumulative achievement, inexperience on the personal side, idle display, parasitic dependence on others on the social side. He emphasized that the term occupation is a concrete term for continuity which includes the development of a person's artistic capacity of any kind, a person’s special scientific ability, and a person being an effective citizen as well as professional in business occupation. In his view, we must not limit the idea of vocation to the occupations for which physical commodities are produced and the perception that vocations are distributed exclusively and limited to only a person. To make his point clear, he posits that people have a variety of callings, therefore a person must be effective in all his or her callings. Occupation over time loses its meaning and becomes a routine to keep busy with something that might not be of interest to others. Nobody is just an artist and nothing else and if such a notion prevails such a person is a less developed human being. He expounds his argument by saying a person must at some point become a member of a family, he must have friends and companions. Again, he argues that a person’s vocation as an artist is only a specialised phase of his diverse and variegated vocational activities, therefore the individual must be efficient in it and be associated with his or her other callings. For instance, a person must have experience, he must live, if his or her artistry is to be more than a technical accomplishment. This implies an individual’s vocation must continue to emphasize skills or technical methods at the expense of meaning [ 20 ].

Secondly in his position of the place of vocational aims in education, Dewey sort to establish the role of vocational education in achieving vocational objectives by considering vocational education for the distinctive activity of an individual. Dewey considers occupation to be the only thing that balances the distinctive capacity of an individual with his social service. He argues that knowing what one is fitted to do and pursuing such a calling is the key to happiness and if an individual fails to discover his or her true calling in life or is not able to fulfil his or her true calling because of being forced by a circumstance into an uncongenial calling would be tragic. For Dewey, a right occupation simply means that person's aptitudes are adequate to play and work with minimum friction and maximum satisfaction and by this, a person is useful to the community because of the service they render to the community. Therefore, it is the role of education to discover the abilities of a person and to train him or her to excel because such development will harmoniously benefit society [ 20 ]. Furthermore, Dewey argues that occupation is a continuous activity having a purpose. The point here is that education through the occupation method provides the conditions necessary for conducive learning because it engages a person in learning by doing. He stresses the fact that a career must continue to progress and requires observation and ingenuity because it is through these that obstacles can be overcome, and discoveries can be made. A career is important because it helps us in organizing information and ideas for knowledge and intellectual growth. Again, Dewey contended that the only adequate training for occupations is training through training. Also, Dewey stresses that the educative process is at its end and that the only sufficient preparation for later responsibilities comes by making the most of immediately present life, which applies in full force to the vocational phases of education. Dewey was saying that vocational education is like all other forms of education which must continue the path of progress. For Dewey, if education is aimed at a particular occupation and becomes a strict preparation for future employment then the chances of the person's present development are eliminated [ 20 ].

The final part of Dewey’s vocational aspects of education elaborated on the present opportunities and dangers of vocational education at that time. According to Dewey, the education of the past was purely vocational in the sense that it was distinctly utilitarian. It was purely learning from experience, what can be called an apprenticeship and from school to work was normal. He further noted that the dominant classes in society at that time education was vocational in the sense that vocations or employments involved manual labour, labouring for a reward or money, or rendering a service to a specific person. But for Dewey all other activities that a person engages in are vocational. Therefore, he argues that the “business of directing social concerns, be it political or economic and whether such act is done in a period of war or peace is as much a calling as anything else.” Secondly, vocations that are specifically industrial have gained tremendously in importance in the last century and a half. Manufacturing and commerce were no longer domestic and local but were beyond borders. Manufacturing and commerce employed or gave many people their vocations. Industrialization brought about the problem of social readjustment that occurred through capital and labour. The changes that industrialization brought about affected the relationship between schooling to industrial life [ 20 ]. Thirdly, Dewey realized that industry has ceased to be an empirical rule of thumb procedure handed down by custom but has become technological which is purely based upon machinery resulting from discoveries in mathematics, physics, chemistry, bacteriology, etc. This influenced the demand for education in these areas to acquaint workers with the scientific and social bases and bearings of their pursuits become imperative because those who are unable to acquire the new knowledge and skills eventually sink to the role of appendages to the machine they operate. Fourthly, the pursuit of knowledge has become, in science, more experimental, less dependent upon literary tradition, and less associated with the dialectical method of reasoning, and with symbols. Dewey expressed how the subject matter of industrial occupation has become more of science than it used to and now poses a challenge for greater opportunity for a person to familiarize himself or herself with the method by which knowledge is made [ 20 ]. Finally, Dewey wrote that the advances which have been made in the psychology of learning in general and of childhood all fall into line with the increased importance of industry in life. Dewey concluded that based on the five points the solution to education at that time lies in a gradual reconstruction of school materials and methods to utilize various forms of occupation typifying social callings and to bring out their intellectual and moral content. The reconstruction must relegate purely literary methods including textbooks and dialectical methods to the position of necessary auxiliary tools in the intelligent development of consecutive and cumulative activities [ 20 ].

4 Maslow’s theory of human motivation

As rational human beings, we are motivated by certain needs according to Abraham Maslow’s theory of motivation. These needs help us to engage in certain activities that benefit the individual and society. In 1943, Maslow authored his book on the theory of human motivation by psychologically observing the behaviours of individuals to understand what motivates us as human beings. This is popularly known in the field of psychology as the hierarchy of needs. Evidence from different fields of research points to the contribution of Maslow’s theory of needs in management, psychology, education, etc. Therefore, the application of the theory to vocational education and training will benefit the development of vocational education and training in ways that contributes to workers' and students’ growth and survival.

The main concept of Maslow’s theory of need is that human needs are hierarchical and are characterized by the domination of one need over another. Simply put, the first need must be satisfied before the second, third, fourth, and fifth, respectively. Taormina and Gao [ 21 ], found that the satisfaction of each higher-level need is dependent on the satisfaction of the need that preceded it in the hierarchy, supporting the theory’s concept of dominance. In the same vein, Yuewei and Xi [ 22 ], study on a test of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs concept by a correlational among adult learners’ result reveals that lower-level needs can predict the next higher-level need and recommended Maslow’s theory of needs should follow the low–high to test human needs. Some studies, however, have opposed this idea of dominance. For instance, Mathes [ 23 ], study on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as a guide for living results indicated partial support for the hypothesis that people unknowingly go through life using Maslow’s hierarchy as a guide for living. Mathes, based on the partial results for the hypothesis suggested a revision of Maslow’s hierarchy to be three levels; physiological needs, belongingness, and self-actualization since security needs and esteem needs on the hierarchy were considered superfluous.

Nonetheless, other studies on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs reveal the significance of the theory in certain fields of vocation. Benson and Dundis [ 24 ], argue that to motivate health care employees to do more with fewer resources due to the ever-changing technology, leaders should make employees feel secure, needed, and appreciated. Because for health care employees, Maslow’s model provides a better understanding of individual employees’ needs and that notwithstanding the ever-present and growing technology, meeting the needs, and giving employees training makes the worker more secure, enhances their feeling of belongingness, and self-esteem whiles providing the opportunity for self-actualization. Lussier [ 25 ], also stated that Maslow’s theory of motivation provided a practical theory of management and a broad psychological and social theory that explains the changing social values and needs based on perceived post-war affluence and social movements.

The focus of this paper’s discussion, however, is not particularly on the dominance that each level follows but it is to analyse and synthesize Maslow’s theory of needs significance with Dewey’s vocational aspects of education to understand how these needs influence and motivate individuals’ decision making in terms of their choice of education, training, and career. As mentioned from the beginning, Maslow’s theory of needs is depicted in a hierarchical pyramid order with the less pressing needs starting from the bottom of the pyramid and the most pressing needs at the top of the pyramid. It is expected the lower needs at the bottom of the hierarchy must be satisfied before the individual can proceed to satisfy the next level of needs.

At the bottom of the hierarchy is the physiological needs that relate to human needs that are vital for a human being’s survival. It is the precondition for moving on to the next need on the hierarchy. Such needs include food, water, shelter, sufficient rest, clothing, sex, etc. Human beings will do anything to satisfy this need because their very existence depends on it. Therefore, it is reasonable to say an individual will be motivated to pursue the kind of education and career that can satisfy their physiological needs [ 26 ]. Safety needs are the second need, and it relates to a person's desire to be safe in their living environment. These needs include the need to be safe from violence, fear, theft, have job security, safe from diseases and sickness, etc. The satisfaction of these needs obviously will influence a person’s choice of education and career because human beings desire the kind of job that provides financial security, safer work environment and even to live in a safer home [ 26 ].

The third need on the hierarchy is love and belongingness needs which relate to human interactions or communications. Love and belonging needs cover a person’s social life such as friendship, intimacy, and social affiliations in the workplace. The individual has the desire to satisfy these needs because such needs are about their social recognition in the society. Therefore, such needs affect their choice of education and career [ 26 ]. The fourth need is what Maslow classifies as esteem needs. It relates to the individual’s desire to be self-confident, independent, be respected by fellow human beings in society. The belief is that one is valuable and deserving of dignity and a person is confident in his or her ability to grow and have accomplishments, such accomplishments become the person’s contribution to society [ 26 ].

Self-actualization is the final need and at the top of the hierarchy. It relates to an individual’s ability to fulfil his or her full potential and to become what he or she wants to be. Such needs include continuous education and training, the development and the improvement of skills or talents such as cooking, arts, learning a new language, music, etc. For Maslow, if we can satisfy these needs, we continue to (if not always) feel discontent and restless in our pursuit for more satisfaction unless a person discovers what he or she is fit to do. “A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet must write, if he is to be happy. What a man can be, he must be” [ 26 ].

McLeod [ 5 ], argues that Maslow’s five-stage model can be categorized as deficiency needs and growth needs. The first four needs from the bottom of the pyramid he labelled deficiency needs and the last need at the top of the pyramid he labelled growth needs. The underlying principle of Maslow’s theory of needs is that everyone has the ability and the desire to climb up the hierarchy to the top of the pyramid (self-actualization) but unfortunately progress or growth is often affected by the failure to achieve the satisfaction of the lower-level need. For example, the loss of the job of an individual is likely to hinder the person’s ability to progress to the next level of the hierarchy. Figure 1 represents Maslow's five staged hierarchy of needs.

Represents Maslow's five staged hierarchy of needs. Source: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. From Maslow, A. H (1970). Motivation and Personality (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row. Reprinted by permission of Harper Collins Publishers

5 Synthesizing Dewey’s vocational aspects of education and Maslow’s theory of human motivation in support of vocational education and training

This section of the paper discusses the main philosophical ideas that have been identified from Dewey’s writing on vocational aspects of education together with Maslow’s theory of motivation. Both writers’ ideas are useful for vocational education and training in the sense that Dewey express what vocational education should offer the individual and society and that is growth and survival. Maslow however helps us to understand this survival and growth since his theory explains what motivates human beings’ vocational career choice which is also survival and growth. From Dewey’s writing on vocational aspects of education, five themes: source of livelihood, sustainable livelihood, soicial recognition, social contribution, academic and career progression are identified and these themes are analysed through the lens of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in support of vocational education and training.

The first is, vocation is a source of livelihood. Livelihood here refers to the means an individual can attain the necessities of life such as food, clothing, shelter, water, etc. Dewey’s definition of vocation “as nothing but such a direction of life activities as renders them perceptibly significant to a person, because of the consequences they accomplish and also usefulness to his associates,” gives us a clear understanding of what vocation is supposed to accomplish in a person’s life. That vocation should be able to provide the individual with some benefits that will be of significance to the individual and the community as well. The idea of vocation as a source of livelihood also highlights the basic most pressing needs of Maslow’s theory of needs, the physiological needs. These are the human needs that are essential for survival, and it includes all forms of livelihood. One of the primary features of vocational education and training is the transition from school or training to the workplace where the individual gains immediate employment after school or training. Individuals who pursue a career in vocational education and training are expected to gain employment after graduation with that employment serving as a source of livelihood or survival [ 27 ]. If a career in vocational education and training fails to employ graduates, and to provide them their livelihoods, then it is likely to demotivate people from pursuing a career in vocational education and training.

Second is livelihood sustainability, that vocation as a source of livelihood must be sustainable. Since vocation is seen as a person’s calling it must be useful to the person in diversified ways that are sustainable. Dewey established that vocation should not be limited to an individual’s career alone because such limitations lead to aimlessness, capriciousness, and the absence of additional experience on the personal level and idle display, parasitic dependence on others on the social level. He, therefore, considers vocation to be a whole life activity and not just a single career. That means a person’s variegated vocation should sustain the individual in terms of job security, financial security, and other social security. For example, a chef can cook while at the same time writing about his creative delicacies for publication and earning additional income from it as a part-time job. These statements can be related to Maslow’s safety needs in the hierarchy as a person’s desire to have the kind of job that can sustain their existence. von Kotze [ 28 ], proposed that planners and providers of vocational education and training should follow three new approaches. The first is that vocational education and training should focus more on the informal economy rather than the formal, secondly, work should be defined as livelihood activities rather than work being defined as employment and thirdly, vocational education and training should be for sustainable livelihood rather than sustainable development.

The third point to consider from Dewey’s vocational aspects of education is social recognition. His assertion that a person must at some point become a member of a family and have friends and companions can be attributed to social recognition. Maslow wrote that human beings desire to be loved and appreciated by family, friends, colleagues, and companions. This can be  related to Maslow’s love and belonging needs on his pyramid of human motivation which involves interpersonal communication in our home, workplace, and community. People desire to be loved and to belong to the right association for social recognition. These desires can influence a person's choice of career goals and life aspirations. Vocational education and training career in this respect should provide the kind of social recognition that will attract people to it. Vocational education and training’s history indicates that such social recognition is limited and needs improvement. As Young and Hordern [ 14 ], pointed out vocational education has endured low esteem and poor quality due to the influence of social class inequalities that stems from the cultural structures in our society. Gericke [ 29 ], also stated for example in Germany occupations are an indicator of social identity and that even if the nature of work matches the interest of young people, the decision to pursue an occupation with unfavourable affiliation will lead to social cost (lack of recognition) so much so that it strongly influences vocational decision-making. To buttress Gericke’s point, vocational psychologist over the years have tried to substantiate the psychological impacts of social class on an individual’s career decision-making processes and outcomes [ 30 ]. For example, research shows that social status was predictive of career decision making self-efficacy and that students choice of career was based on greater economic resources, social power and social prestige [ 31 ].

The fourth point to consider from Dewey’s vocational aspects of education is social contribution. For Dewey, a person’s vocation is the only thing that balances the distinctive capacity of the individual with his or her social service. In other words, a person’s social service represents his or her social contribution to society and it is based on his social contribution that he or she will feel self-respected or self-valued. The idea of social contribution can be  related to the first of Maslow’s higher needs, the esteem needs on the pyramid. According to Maslow's fourth need on the hierarchy, human beings desire self-respect or self-value and for this purpose, a person’s career or vocation must have the distinctive capacity to balance his personality and his social service. A key emphasis that Dewey makes concerning vocational education is the individual ability to discover their capabilities and pursue such capabilities in a way that leads to self-value and self-respect in society. Individual’s ability to individuate and to form a stable personality is vital to his or her social contribution. However, the failure of an individual to discover their true vocation would be tragic because such circumstances will limit their self-esteem. Poor self-esteem will demotivate and affect the person’s career goal setting. Vocational education and training's ability to provide decent livelihoods plays a significant role in fulfilling a person’s esteem needs especially when the individual can discover and pursue their true calling in a manner that leads to continued growth.

The last point to consider in Dewey’s writing on vocational aspects of education is career and academic progression. Dewey stated emphatically that occupation is a continuous activity having a purpose. His assertion was because a career must continue to progress, and it requires observation, and ingenuity to overcome obstacles and make discoveries. To buttress his point, he further explained that the only adequate training for occupation is training through training. This part of Dewey’s writing can be related to Maslow’s higher need on the pyramid which is self-actualization. Self-actualization relates to an individual’s desire to fulfil his or her potential and to become what he or she desires to be. Such needs according to Maslow include having access to continuous education, and the ability to develop and improve upon existing skills or talents. For vocational education and training to be attractive to people, the opportunity for career and academic progress must be considered paramount in vocational education and training programs.

Vocational educational and training's ability to offer its pursuers a reliable source of livelihood and not just livelihoods but a sustainable livelihood and to make social contributions to society has the potential to reduce the challenges humans face in meeting their basic needs. Again, vocational education and training providing the platform for social recognition, career, and academic progression has the potential to erode some of the perceptions of low esteem attached to vocational education and training. Human needs motivate their choices in life; therefore, vocational education and training programs or careers end goals must prioritize human needs. Table 1 shows the relatedness between the identified themes from Dewey's vocational aspect of education and Maslow's theory of motivation.

6 Conclusion and recommendations

This paper sort to analyse Dewey’s writing on vocational aspects of education to identify and relate the main ideas from the book to Abraham Maslow’s theory of needs in support of Vocational Education and Training. Upon the critical content analysis of Dewey’s vocational aspects of education, five themes; sources of livelihood, sustainable livelihood, social recognition, social contributions, academic and career progression were identified as key ideas that are similar Maslow’s physiological needs, safety needs, love, and belonging needs, esteem needs and self-actualization which serves as motivation for people’s vocational career goals. Dewey argues that vocation is a calling, and it covers a person’s entire life activities, Maslow however, argues that his theory of needs explains human motivation for engagement in life activities. The findings from this study demonstrates how a person choice of vocation is paramount to his/her survival and growth. However, choosing the right vocation is a complex task, one that requires the individual’s self-realisation to be able to determine his or her competences. To borrow Dewey’s words, the term vocation is a concrete term for continuity which includes the development of a person’s artistic capacity of any kind, a person’s special scientific ability and a person’s being an effective citizen as well as professional in business [ 20 ]. In this regard, it is important that a person carefully consider their choice of vocation in terms of economic and social sustainability. Societal and economic changes have redefined the concept of work in today’s economy, one that is different from the industrial revolution, but it has not change what vocation is expected to offer to the individual and society. A key factor that influenced Dewey’s writing on the vocational aspects of education in his book at that time was the advent of the industrial revolution where machines were gradually replacing workforce in the production of goods and services. Dewey rightly emphasized in his book how Industrialization brought about the problem of social readjustment in a way that affected capital and labour at that time. The changes that industrialization brought about affected the relationship between schooling to industrial life. Today, factors such as globalization, technology, demographic change, and digitalization demand social readjustment because the changes these factors bring have a profound impact on capital and labour. These factors require a new set of skills and training if vocational education and training can successfully provide its pursuers decent and sustainable livelihoods, help them make contributions to society, receive recognition for their achievements, and to progress both in academics and careers.

According to UNESCO, [ 32 ] vocational education and training encompasses education, training, and skills development that covers a wide variety of occupational fields, production services, and livelihood. This implies that vocational education and training employs a greater number of people in different sectors of a country’s economy. Therefore, if vocational education and training is to excel in its role in modern society, then vocational educational stakeholders must consider the following measures. Firstly, the planning, design, and implementation of vocational education and training programs in various levels of institutions should focus on the factors shaping the world of work such as demographic change, climate change, technology, globalization, to reduce the occurrence of skills mismatch in the labour market. The focus of vocational education and training programs offered by various institutions should not only be an acquisition of operational skills but also transferrable skills. Skills such as analytical and critical thinking skills, people skills, teamwork, oral and written communication, time management, and leadership are essential to personal development and career success. Additionally, there should be a strong vocational education and training campaign in especially developing countries that promotes and encourage the youth to participate in vocational education and training programs, especially in areas that are of interest to their national economy. Finally, for contemporary vocational education and training to be attractive and to be pursued by the young generation, the ideas expressed in Dewey’s vocational aspect of education and Maslow’s hierarchy of motivation should be considered by vocational education and training stakeholders when making vocational education career choice.

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Takyi Mensah, E., Chen, M., Ntim, S.Y. et al. Analysing Dewey’s vocational aspects of education and Maslow’s theory of motivation in support of vocational education and training. Discov Educ 2 , 18 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-023-00042-1

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Vocational education, general education, and on-the-job learning over the life cycle

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Ilse Tobback, Dieter Verhaest, Stijn Baert, Kristof De Witte, Vocational education, general education, and on-the-job learning over the life cycle, European Sociological Review , Volume 40, Issue 2, April 2024, Pages 189–207, https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcad015

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We investigate whether vocationally and generally educated individuals differ in their on-the-job learning and how this difference evolves over the career. To this end, we exploit the European Skills and Jobs Survey dataset and rely on instrumental variable estimation. While our descriptive results suggest that workers with a vocational degree experience on average more learning, this conclusion largely changes once endogeneity is taken into account. First, we find that, immediately after graduation, workers with a vocational education are less likely to further improve their skills in their jobs. Second, while this gap in on-the-job learning gradually fades over time, it takes almost a full career to catch up in terms of further on-the-job learning with those with a general degree. Finally, the effects are driven by individuals residing in dual system countries and those with a programme involving workplace learning. We argue that these results are likely explained by a combination of compensating (because vocationally educated obtained their specific skills already during education) and complementary (because general skills lay down a foundation for further learning) effects.

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STEM in vocational education and training: The future direction

• Jie Feng Beijing Institute of Technology
• Haibo Hou Fiscal and Governance Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fiscal Sciences, Beijing 100142, China

Vocational education and training (VET) and Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education are two distinct but interconnected forms of education that play complementary roles in preparing individuals for the workforce. This work first discusses the relationship between vocational education and STEM education. The breakdown of students in secondary vocational schools (institutions) by subject categories in China in 2021 illustrates that 63% of students in current vocational education in China engage in STEM-related learning. Vocational education and STEM education have a solid inherent logical connection, but vocational education mainly focuses on training within a specific professional field, lacking the integration and comprehensive approach in STEM education. Furthermore, this work explores whether vocational learning would lose competitiveness due to increased labor mobility. It reveals that VET's competitiveness decreased with increased population mobility. Government policies might consider promoting the integration of vocational education and STEM education, enhancing workforce competitiveness through effective generalization of vocational skills in a STEM education framework.

How to Cite

Jie feng 1 , haibo hou 2,*.

1 School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China

2 Research Center for Public Finance and Governance, Chinese Academy of Fiscal Sciences, Beijing 100142, China

*Corresponding Author:

Haibo Hou, Fiscal and Governance Research Center, Fiscal and Governance Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fiscal Sciences, No.28, Fucheng Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100142, China. Email: [email protected] ; https://orcid.org/0009-0008-0439-2589

Received: 30 July 2023 Revised: 2 September 2023 Accepted: 26 September 2023 Published: 27 October 2023

Vocational education and training (VET) and Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education are two distinct but interconnected forms of education that play complementary roles in preparing individuals for the workforce. This work first discusses the relationship between vocational education and STEM education. The breakdown of students in secondary vocational schools (institutions) by subject categories in China in 2021 illustrates that 63% of students in current vocational education in China engage in STEM-related learning. Vocational education and STEM education have a solid inherent logical connection, but vocational education mainly focuses on training within a specific professional field, lacking the integration and comprehensive approach in STEM education. Furthermore, this work explores whether vocational learning would lose competitiveness due to increased labor mobility. It reveals that VET’s competitiveness decreased with increased population mobility. Government policies might consider promoting the integration of vocational education and STEM education, enhancing workforce competitiveness through effective generalization of vocational skills in a STEM education framework.

Key words: STEM, vocational education and training, mobility

INTRODUCTION

Vocational education and training (VET) and Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education are separated yet interrelated educational domains that synergistically contribute to preparing individuals for the workforce. VET provides students with practical proficiencies and specialized knowledge of particular occupations or industries. The type of education encompasses immersive, hands-on training, apprenticeships, and internships that foster skill development directly applicable to specific professional pathways. [ 1 , 2 ] Vocational education programs span diverse fields such as automotive technology, healthcare, construction, culinary arts, etc . The primary objective of vocational education is to endow individuals with the necessary aptitudes to seamlessly enter the job market and succeed in their chosen vocations.

STEM education is centered around science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, aiming to cultivate critical thinking, problem-solving, and analytical skills. [ 3 , 4 ] Its primary objective is to equip students with the knowledge and competencies necessary for careers in STEM-related fields. STEM education provides a robust foundation in scientific principles, mathematical concepts, and technological proficiencies. [ 5 , 6 ] This educational approach often incorporates theoretical learning, hands-on experimentation, and project-based activities to enhance students’ comprehension and application of STEM concepts. Though STEM education is becoming increasingly popular in China, STEM education in VET in China is facing a situation where the government is enthusiastic. At the same time, the public gives a frosty reception. Its essence lies not only in the educational dilemma of choosing between general high schools and VET but also in the economic question of selecting between general skills and specialized skills, often within the STEM subjects. Investigating the potential synergistic effects of combining STEM education with VET might benefit both education styles. The benefits might include increasing the attractiveness of vocational education, reducing adverse effects of population mobility on skill performance in the workplace, and enhancing alignment between educational offerings and industry demands. We, therefore, would like to employ in-depth research and analysis to delve into these complex interrelationships and provide valuable insights for policymakers, educators, and stakeholders in the field of vocational education.

To shed light on the future direction of the VET, this paper first analyzes the development of STEM education in VET in various countries to illustrate how VET in China should further progress with the integration of STEM concepts. The desirability of vocational education programs for specific skill acquisition has evolved in the past decades. The extent to which individuals aspire to engage in vocational education for targeted skill learning could be affected by increased population mobility. To comprehensively examine this phenomenon, the paper assesses the correlation between the birth year and the employers’ performance of vocational education programs for skill acquisition purposes. We find that the skill level differences between the cohort with VET education and high school education are decreasing with the time proceeding in the population born between 1965 and 1982. This partially confirmed our analysis of the relationship between population mobility and the competitiveness of VET education. Finally, the paper proposes future directions that show that the integration of STEM education into vocational training would increase individuals’ preference for vocational education and mitigate the impact of population mobility on the acquisition and application of professional skills.

STEM IN VET

The origin of STEM education can be traced back to the United States in the mid-20 th century. [ 7 , 8 ] Recognizing the interdisciplinary nature of STEM fields and the importance of integrating science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) began promoting the term “STEM” in 2001. STEM education emerged as a framework that emphasized the integration of these disciplines to foster critical thinking, problem-solving skills, creativity, and innovation. STEM education has since gained international recognition and has been embraced by many countries worldwide. STEM education is not limited to traditional academic settings but extends to VET, which aims to inspire students’ curiosity, promote inquiry-based learning, and prepare them for diverse STEM-related vocational careers and challenges.

STEM education in VET in Germany

“STEM” is equivalent to the term “MINT” education in Germany, which refers to an emphasis on the subjects of Mathematics (Mathematik), Informatics (Informatik), Natural sciences (Naturwissenschaften), and Technology (Technik) in the country’s education system. Germany has a strong tradition of VET, known as the “dual system”, which combines classroom instruction with practical, on-the-job training. In VET, STEM subjects are emphasized to equip students with the necessary technical skills and knowledge for specific professions and industries. The curriculum typically includes a combination of theoretical and practical coursework, ensuring that students develop a solid foundation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, which is exactly the representation of STEM education. Vocational schools in Germany offer a wide range of STEM-focused programs covering various fields such as engineering, information technology, construction, automotive technology, and electronics.

The STEM-integrated VET curriculum in Germany is closely aligned with the needs of industries and the labor market. Industry representatives actively participate in curricula development, ensuring that the skills taught align with the demands of the job market. This collaboration between vocational schools and industries helps to bridge the gap between education and employment, increasing graduates’ employability.

Germany’s vocational education system benefits from a well-established infrastructure and extensive resources. Vocational schools have modern facilities, equipment, and technology that reflect industry standards. The government provides substantial funding to support vocational education, ensuring the quality of programs and enabling continuous improvement. Germany offers numerous opportunities for career advancement within the vocational education system. After completing initial vocational training, individuals can pursue further education and acquire advanced qualifications, including a technical or engineering degree in STEM-related fields. The emphasis on continuous learning and professional development of VET in STEM-related fields enhances the long-term career prospects of vocational education graduates in Germany.

STEM education in VET in the USA

In the USA, vocational education is often called Career and Technical Education (CTE). STEM education is a crucial component of CTE programs, offering diverse STEM-focused courses and pathways. These include computer science, information technology, engineering technology, health sciences, and advanced manufacturing. Students enrolled in these programs receive classroom instruction, hands-on training, and work-based learning experiences.

STEM education in vocational schools in the USA strongly emphasizes practical application and real-world scenarios. Students engage in project-based learning, solving problems, designing prototypes, and collaborating in teams to address technical challenges. This approach helps students develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and teamwork skills essential for success in STEM-related careers. Vocational schools often partner with local businesses, industries, and community organizations to enhance the relevance and industry-readiness of CTE programs. These partnerships provide students with opportunities for internships, apprenticeships, and mentorship, allowing them to gain real-world experience and exposure to the demands of the workforce. CTE programs prioritize the development of career readiness skills and employability skills. The USA government has implemented supportive policies and allocated funding to strengthen and expand CTE programs.

STEM education in VET in Japan

The curriculum of STEM-oriented vocational schools in Japan is designed to align with industry needs and technological advancements. It often incorporates industry-standard equipment and facilities, allowing students to gain practical experience using modern tools and technologies. Additionally, vocational schools in Japan frequently collaborate with industry partners to provide students with internship opportunities, industry visits, and guest lectures, enhancing their understanding of real-world applications. Furthermore, vocational schools in Japan often offer pathways for students to further their education. Graduates can continue their studies at specialized technical colleges or pursue higher education at universities to deepen their knowledge in specific STEM disciplines.

STEM education in VET in China and its comparison with other countries

STEM in VET is a crucial aspect of China’s educational landscape, aimed at equipping students with practical skills and knowledge in science and technology-related fields. China has recognized the significance of promoting STEM education to maintain its position as a global leader in technology and innovation. The government has emphasized the importance of integrating STEM disciplines into VET programs as part of this effort. China’s approach to integrating STEM in vocational education involves collaborating with industry partners and academic institutions. This collaboration ensures that the curriculum remains relevant and up-to-date with the current needs of the job market. By aligning vocational training with STEM, students can acquire the necessary technical skills and knowledge to contribute effectively to various industries, including manufacturing, engineering, information technology, and other technology-driven sectors.

Furthermore, the Chinese government has invested significantly in establishing specialized STEM-focused vocational schools and upgrading existing vocational institutions to meet international standards. These schools provide students access to state-of-the-art laboratories, advanced equipment, and experienced instructors, enabling them to gain hands-on experience and expertise in STEM-related fields. STEM vocational education in China and other countries share some commonalities while exhibiting notable differences due to variations in education systems, cultural contexts, and economic priorities. STEM vocational education in most countries places a strong emphasis on hands-on learning and practical skills development in STEM vocational education. Students are trained to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world scenarios. Also, the curriculum faces real industrial needs, often with partnerships between educational institutions and industries. However, the major differences between China and other countries might include: (1) pathway to higher education: many other countries offer a more fluid system for VET students to acquire higher education or primary education; (2) social Recognition: vocational education in Germany or Japan is relatively highly esteemed and offers a respected career path comparable to academic routes. [ 9 , 10 ]

To further analyze the relationship between STEM and VET in China, we first identify STEM education and qualifications by their field of education. We further classify all the VET fields of education into six different categories ( Table 1 ).

We consider the first four categories all STEM-related. According to the summary statistics by the Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China, shown in Figure 1 , 64 % of all VET education is STEM-related. Among them, manufacturing, engineering, and related technologies ranked first, with about 27% of all the graduates studying this category, followed by information technology with 17% of all the graduates. The statistics indicate a strong correlation between VET and STEM-related fields, underscoring the significance of integrating VET with STEM to enhance the overall education level. This correlation suggests that by combining VET and STEM, educational institutions can create a more comprehensive and practical learning experience for students.

Figure 1. Enrollment in VET by selected STEM-related fields of education in China in 2021. [ 11 ] VET: vocational education and training; STEM: Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics.

Figure 2. The narrowing skill gap of VET and high school graduates. The calculation of the skill levels directly adopts the skill level evaluation statistics of different occupational practitioners measured by Ye based on the China Social Survey data. [ 27 ] The authors calculate the weighted average skill levels of the cohort born in from 1965 to 1984. After taking the reciprocal and logarithm, the larger the numerical value, the higher the skill level of the occupation they were engaged in. VET: vocational education and training.

THE DISADVANTAGED VET IN CHINA

VET in China faces a stark contrast in attitudes from the governmental and the public perspectives. The public regards VET as choosing specialized skills rather than general skills. Research on vocational education in China has predominantly focused on educational issues themselves. For instance, studies have examined the impact of expanded enrollment in universities on the job market for secondary vocational school graduates and the declining comparative advantages in education returns and occupational outcomes for secondary vocational school graduates relative to general high school graduates after the expansion of university enrollments, [ 12 , 13 ] which have contributed to the predicament of current secondary vocational education.

Based on the classification of specific and general skills, previous literature introduced the concept of wage growth over the life cycle of workers, with 20% to 25% attributed to specific skills and at least 50% to general skills. [ 14 , 15 ] Other scholars have examined the differential labor market performance of different types of skills from the perspective of industrial transformation [ 16 – 18 ] or explored the impact of different educational systems, specifically general education and vocational education, on technological innovation [ 19 – 22 ] and the medium- to long-term employability and unemployment of workers. [ 23 ] Consensus has been reached in these studies, indicating that vocational education’s specialized skills do not exhibit a clear comparative advantage in rapidly evolving market environments driven by technological advancements. In contrast, general education’s emphasis on learning ability and foundational knowledge highlights its comparative advantage.

Traditional skill theories assume that the labor market is static and that the level of labor market mobility remains unchanged. Under this premise, workers with specific skills are believed to have higher skill-job matching and shorter job search duration. [ 24 ] It is also assumed that through on-the-job learning, individuals can continuously enhance their specific skills and improve labor productivity. [ 25 ] On the other hand, general skills are considered more versatile but lack job specificity, thus lacking a skill premium compared to specific skills. [ 26 ] For example, during the planned economy in China, under the labor market regulations of “centralized assignment” and lifelong employment for graduates from universities and colleges, the level of mobility was low and almost static. Workers enjoyed strong employment stability, but general skills lacked job specificity, resulting in more incredible employment difficulty and relatively lower labor productivity. During this period, the public had a greater preference for vocational education. With the increased mobility level, we witness a narrowing skill gap between VET and High School graduates born between 1965 and 1982, shown in Figure 2 , accompanied by VET education’s decreasing popularity.

THE FUTURE DIRECTION OF VET

To increase the competitiveness of VET after the increased mobility of the labor force, we need to utilize the interaction between VET and STEM to achieve better resource allocation of the labor force. The similarities between STEM education and VET make these two areas more easily integrated. STEM fields and VET are closely aligned with technological advancements and industrial needs. Also, many vocational jobs require technical skills, problem-solving, and critical thinking in a project-oriented situation.

The global economy increasingly demands a workforce proficient in STEM skills. Vocational education programs integrating STEM concepts can help address this demand by equipping students with the technical skills and knowledge needed in STEM-related industries. By combining vocational and STEM education, individuals can be better prepared to meet the job market’s needs and access a broader range of career opportunities. Vocational education and STEM education are interconnected, with vocational programs integrating STEM concepts and principles and STEM education providing a foundation for students interested in pursuing careers in STEM fields. Integrating STEM with VET could also help students enhance their chances of employment after graduation and generate more innovation with interdisciplinary skills. Meanwhile, since STEM is also aligning with future industrial innovations, it could also help with the convergence of scientific and industrial innovation. Together, they contribute to a well-rounded education that prepares individuals for the demands of the modern workforce.

Regarding integration mode, there are several classifications regarding integration breadth and style. Researchers categorized the prevailing models conceptualizing integrating all four STEM education disciplines. [ 28 ] These models range from less integrated to more integrated, and they include: (1) single-discipline reference; (2) science and math reference: STEM refers to separate science and math disciplines; (3) science disciplines with incorporation; (4) separate disciplines; (5) science and math connected by technology or engineering; (6) coordination across disciplines; (7) combination of two or three disciplines; (7) integrated disciplines; (8) transdisciplinary course or program. These categorizations illustrate the integration continuum, progressing from isolated disciplines to more cohesive and comprehensive approaches that blend and merge STEM education disciplines. Regarding implementation modes in STEM education, previous literature [ 29 – 31 ] categorizes the implementation modes of STEM courses into the Correlated Curriculum model and the Broad Fields Curriculum model. Based on the integration modes, we suggest the future direction of VET is to integrate STEM education into the curricula and the daily teaching and learning process utilizing either the Correlated Curriculum model or the Broad Fields Curriculum model, to better align education with workforce needs in VET and technical education settings.

Firstly, the future VET should include STEM literacy into the VET. With the further development of science and technology, the world faces a more fast-changing environment evolving with its associated knowledge. Vocational education often incorporates STEM concepts and principles relevant to specific industries in the hands-on education system. For example, vocational programs in manufacturing may include training in engineering principles and computer-aided design (CAD). Integrating STEM literacy into vocational education enhances students’ technical skills, knowledge, and problem-solving abilities, making them more versatile and adaptable in the workforce.

Our analysis suggests that integrating VET with STEM promotes a more holistic education system that values academic knowledge and technical proficiency. Vocational education and STEM education are not mutually exclusive. Many educational institutions offer programs that blend vocational and STEM elements, creating an education continuum. For example, some schools offer STEM-focused vocational programs, such as biomedical technology or renewable energy engineering. These programs provide students with hands-on technical skills and a strong STEM foundation. STEM fields are often at the forefront of innovation. Students can gain the necessary skills to contribute to technological advancements and economic growth by integrating VET with STEM. This well-rounded approach can lead to a more comprehensive understanding of real-world challenges. STEM fields often require interdisciplinary collaboration. Integrating VET with STEM can encourage teamwork and cooperation among students with different skill sets, fostering a collaborative learning environment.

Finally, to capitalize on the benefits of integrating VET with STEM, educational policymakers and institutions should work together to design and implement curricula that seamlessly blend theoretical knowledge with practical applications. Additionally, partnerships between academic institutions and industry players can further strengthen the connection between VET and STEM, ensuring that education remains relevant and current with current industry trends and needs.

DECLARATIONS

Author contributions.

Feng J: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Resources, Writing—Original draft, Writing—Review and editing. Hou HB: Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology, Resources, Writing—Original draft, Writing—Review and Editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Source of funding

This study was supported by Beijing Institute of Technology Research Fund Program for Young Scholars.

Conflict of interest

The author has no conflicts of interest to declare.

Data sharing

Technical appendix, statistical code, and dataset available from the corresponding author at [email protected] .

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Apprenticeship Reforms in West Africa: An Outcome-Process Evaluation of a Pilot Dual Training Model-Based Apprenticeship Reform Scheme in Ghana

• Collins Nunyonameh Ho Technical University, Ghana
• Elizabeth Obinnim Ho Technical University, Ghana
• Eric Kodzo Adzivor Ho Technical University, Ghana

Context: Faced with deep challenges with access to formal education, many West African countries are increasingly taking steps to reform their informal apprenticeship systems to make them a quality skills development alternative for their teeming youth. A review of the literature shows that although different countries in the region are deploying different reform strategies, what is emerging as a dominant reform model is the "dual training model" (DTM), a collaborative arrangement in which the task of training apprentices is shared between informal trainers (master craftspersons, under their respective trade associations) and formal vocational training institutions (FVTIs). This paper presents an outcome-process evaluation of a DTM-based apprenticeship reform programme piloted in Ghana. 

Methods: Designed as a case study, the paper adopts an interpretivist approach, relying on diverse sources of data, both secondary and primary. Secondary data includes journal articles, attendance registers of participants, memorandums of understanding, relevant media reports, websites, and official reports by all relevant actors. The primary data originated from in-depth interviews with fourteen (14) key informants, as well as from overt and covert observations of respondents. 

Results: At the outcome level, the paper shows that the programme has largely failed in transferring new skills or in changing dominant poor practices among trainees, foundational objectives of the programme. At the process level, the paper revealed deep flaws in implementation; these are discussed in detail in an attempt to clarify the programme outcomes. 

Conclusion: The paper concludes that although the dual training model remains a potentially viable reform model in informal apprenticeships, its success ultimately depends on the quality of implementation, which in turn depends on the strength and quality of inter-stakeholder collaboration in programme design and implementation. 

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Training manufacturing technologists to be future shop floor leaders

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In higher education, MIT is best known for its world-class programs for undergraduate and graduate students. In addition, MIT’s Professional Education, MITx, and MITxPro, among others, have reached new audiences worldwide with MIT-caliber offerings. So have summer programs such as MIT Lincoln Laboratory’s BeaverWorks Summer Institute.

A new curriculum in development at MIT may soon open up learning opportunities for a new population of students — workers who are not necessarily college bound — to gain exposure to advanced technologies and industry-relevant expertise.

With collaborators at the University of Massachusetts at Lowell, Clemson University, Cape Cod Community College, and in the future the manufacturing software firm Tulip, a group of MIT researchers is developing a new curriculum aimed at strengthening the nation’s manufacturing workforce. The project was recently awarded funding from the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD)’s Innovation Capability and Modernization (ICAM) office and its Industrial Base Analysis and Sustainment (IBAS) program. 

In the manufacturing field, many students are natural tinkerers or standouts in their jobs, but aren’t seeking a four-year degree. The new curriculum, aimed at workers holding an associate’s degree or equivalent, will aim to build on their technical know-how by blending it with an engineer’s perspective on systems and processes.

"With increasing technological sophistication, the quickening pace of technology change, and ever-tightening standards, we need to incorporate quality education into manufacturing training programs," says John Liu , an MIT lecturer, co-principal investigator for the project, and director of MIT’s Learning Engineering and Practice Group . "By integrating MIT's mind-and-hand approach to how we develop the manufacturing workforce, we can re-energize America’s factory floors, empower companies to move into advanced manufacturing, and support firms in adopting advanced manufacturing technologies.”

After talking to large and small companies, schools, workforce boards, manufacturing extension programs, and education and workforce experts, a team led by Liu and affiliated with the Manufacturing@MIT Working Group discovered a gap in training that Liu felt he could address. Many vo-tech schools and community colleges offer programs to help students fill technician roles. Companies, too, train technicians, some of whom they hire with no manufacturing background. No one, however, had a clean solution to give technicians a ladder to become shop-floor leaders; “technologists” would bridge the gap between technicians and engineers. 

“Advanced manufacturing will not work unless it integrates production in new ways. This new program aims to educate a new kind of factory systems leader to undertake this,” says Bill Bonvillian, senior director of special projects for MIT Open Learning and a key member of the MIT team behind the technologist program. Bonvillian is coauthor of the book “Workforce Education: A New Roadmap.”

Earlier, Liu had facilitated the creation of the MITx Principles of Manufacturing Micromasters, which covers processes, systems, supply chains, and management of manufacturing. Dave Hardt , MIT professor of mechanical engineering and the Ralph E. and Eloise F. Cross Professor in Manufacturing, along with other faculty in the MIT Master of Engineering in Advanced Manufacturing and Design (MEng) program distilled these four “principles of manufacturing” so they might be applied to any industry in manufacturing. Liu felt these same skills would be valuable for technicians who wanted to become shop-floor leaders, and that the new project team could create a new curriculum, but for a different audience. This material would go into the “hub” of the technologist curriculum. The team would then also build “spoke” material, in areas like robotics, additive manufacturing, and advanced CNC machining.

The technologist program fits a major need in advanced manufacturing. While engineers are trained in design, technicians are trained to operate particular processes, such as CNC machining or welding. Yet advanced manufacturing requires a new level of expertise — technologists who understand the systems on the factory floor, who can integrate the new technologies like robotics or additive manufacturing along with existing equipment, and apply data analytics to make the new system highly efficient. While engineers design and technicians operate, the technologist would be a bridge. Liu and Bonvillian make the case for this new technologist occupation in a new article published by  Issues in Science and Technology , a policy journal of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine.

“The technologist program will be a major contribution to advancing the manufacturing workforce, which is arguably the greatest need of manufacturing companies of all sizes in the United States. It’s also a great example of collaboration between MIT, other institutions, industry, and government, and aligns incentives among stakeholders to create meaningful impact," says John Hart , who is head of the MIT Department of Mechanical Engineering, co-director of the Manufacturing@MIT Working Group, and the PI for MIT’s part of the DoD-funded technologist program. “Manufacturing technologists will have exciting, advanced technology careers, and the IBAS program funding is instrumental in launching this program. It is an important opportunity for MIT, and our team led by Dr. John Liu and our collaborators, to extend MIT’s leadership in manufacturing education in a new realm,” explains Hart, who is also director of the Laboratory for Manufacturing and Productivity and director of the Center for Advanced Production Technologies.

The DoD’s ICAM office is supporting the multi-institutional project led by UMass Lowell with a $4.25 million investment over two years. MIT’s contributions to the program are supported by $3.09 million in DoD funding via a two-year subaward. Adele Ratcliff, ICAM office director, says, “The University of Massachusetts Lowell and MIT are creating a one-year advanced manufacturing technologist certificate curriculum and content aligned with our defense manufacturing industry needs. This technologist education will help with huge shortages in skilled labor facing many defense companies supporting critical manufacturing technologies for years to come. The technologist program is a natural blending of 2-year and 4-year manufacturing and engineering programs and curricula that is being driven largely by Industry 4.0 in the digital age, keenly recognizing the need to help foster that evolution.”

Collaborators at Clemson University will help design and build virtual reality simulations for the program, so students who might not have access to cutting-edge equipment can learn using virtual tools. 

“Our goal at Clemson University is to create transformative learning experiences where students and incumbent workers, regardless of their access to state-of-the-art equipment, can engage with virtual digital learning tools.  This initiative of reskilling and upskilling opportunities for all is essential to bolster U.S. competitiveness in an ever-evolving technological landscape," says Kapil Chalil Madathil, the Wilfred P. Tiencken Professor of Industrial and Civil Engineering at Clemson University, director of the Clemson University Center for Workforce Development, and the PI for Clemson University’s part of this DoD-funded technologist program.

The Manufacturing@MIT Working Group is coordinating with an advisory council of several New England community colleges that would be ready to offer a year-long, blended-learning program, and when the curriculum is ready it will continue to seek funding to support the program’s rollout. Manufacturing@MIT has also collected scores of letters from companies that say they would be ready to pay a wage of at least $25 an hour to graduates of such a program.

“The new certificate program will help develop critical thinking and practical skills,” says Brad Mingels, director of workforce development for professional and undergraduate education at the Francis College of Engineering at the University of Massachusetts Lowell. “It should also help graduates advance in their careers and move on to more education and higher-paid jobs.” 

Indeed, companies have told the Manufacturing@MIT group that not only would graduates of the technologist program provide a bridge between technicians and engineers, but they would also bring new, advanced manufacturing know-how to their factories. The education, toolsets, and mindsets that graduates will take away from the program will empower them to share their ideas, so those ideas might “bubble up” to companies’ engineers and management. The program will empower workers who faced opportunity and education gaps.

Alongside ICAM’s IBAS-funded program, Manufacturing@MIT is also working to scale its collaborations with companies and community colleges across the country. Individuals seeking more information can contact John Liu .

Now the work will begin to build the curriculum, which MIT and UMass Lowell plan to ultimately offer for free to any community college, company, or military production facility (including shipyards and arsenals) that wants to educate the next generation of technologists to become shop-floor leaders.

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