cancer essay in english

Essay on Cancer for Students and Children

500+ words essay on cancer.

Cancer might just be one of the most feared and dreaded diseases. Globally, cancer is responsible for the death of nearly 9.5 million people in 2018. It is the second leading cause of death as per the world health organization. As per studies, in India, we see 1300 deaths due to cancer every day. These statistics are truly astonishing and scary. In the recent few decades, the number of cancer has been increasingly on the rise. So let us take a look at the meaning, causes, and types of cancer in this essay on cancer.

Cancer comes in many forms and types. Cancer is the collective name given to the disease where certain cells of the person’s body start dividing continuously, refusing to stop. These extra cells form when none are needed and they spread into the surrounding tissues and can even form malignant tumors. Cells may break away from such tumors and go and form tumors in other places of the patient’s body.

Types of Cancers

As we know, cancer can actually affect any part or organ of the human body. We all have come across various types of cancer – lung, blood, pancreas, stomach, skin, and so many others. Biologically, however, cancer can be divided into five types specifically – carcinoma, sarcoma, melanoma, lymphoma, leukemia.

Among these, carcinomas are the most diagnosed type. These cancers originate in organs or glands such as lungs, stomach, pancreas, breast, etc. Leukemia is the cancer of the blood, and this does not form any tumors. Sarcomas start in the muscles, bones, tissues or other connective tissues of the body. Lymphomas are the cancer of the white blood cells, i.e. the lymphocytes. And finally, melanoma is when cancer arises in the pigment of the skin.

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Causes of Cancer

In most cases, we can never attribute the cause of any cancer to one single factor. The main thing that causes cancer is a substance we know as carcinogens. But how these develop or enters a person’s body will depend on many factors. We can divide the main factors into the following types – biological factors, physical factors, and lifestyle-related factors.

Biological factors involve internal factors such as age, gender, genes, hereditary factors, blood type, skin type, etc. Physical factors refer to environmental exposure of any king to say X-rays, gamma rays, etc. Ad finally lifestyle-related factors refer to substances that introduced carcinogens into our body. These include tobacco, UV radiation, alcohol. smoke, etc. Next, in this essay on cancer lets learn about how we can treat cancer.

Treatment of Cancer

Early diagnosis and immediate medical care in cancer are of utmost importance. When diagnosed in the early stages, then the treatment becomes easier and has more chances of success. The three most common treatment plans are either surgery, radiation therapy or chemotherapy.

If there is a benign tumor, then surgery is performed to remove the mass from the body, hence removing cancer from the body. In radiation therapy, we use radiation (rays) to specially target and kill the cancer cells. Chemotherapy is similar, where we inject the patient with drugs that target and kill the cancer cells. All treatment plans, however, have various side-effects. And aftercare is one of the most important aspects of cancer treatment.

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Essay on Cancer

List of essays on cancer, essay on cancer – introduction, types and conclusion (essay 1 – 150 words), essay on cancer (essay 2 – 250 words), essay on cancer – for school students (essay 3 – 300 words), essay on cancer – for medical students (essay 4 – 400 words), essay on cancer – for science students (essay 5 – 500 words), essay on cancer (essay 6 – 600 words), essay on cancer – written in english (essay 7 – 750 words), essay on cancer – for ias, civil services, upsc, ips and other competitive exams (essay 8 – 1000 words).

Cancer is a disease which is related to the abnormal growth of cells in a particular part of the body. Since the last decade, cancer has become one of the most feared diseases of all times, particularly due to the difficult treatment one has to undergo and the limitations of the treatment in curing this disease during later stages of cancer.

Audience: The below given essays are exclusively written for school and college students. Furthermore, those students preparing for IAS, IPS, UPSC, Civil Services and other competitive exams can also increase their knowledge by studying these essays.

Introduction:

Cancer is a group of more than 100 diseases that can develop in almost anywhere in the body. Cancer is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.

Types of Cancer:

There are various types of cancer. They include:

1] Breast cancer: This is type of cancer that forms in the cells of the breast.

2] Prostate cancer: This is type of cancer that occurs in a man’s prostate. This is a small walnut sized gland that has the duty of producing seminal fluid.

3] Lung cancer: This is a type of cancer that begins in the lungs and this occurs mostly in people who smoke.

4] Leukemia: A cancer of blood forming tissues, hindering the body’s ability to fight infection.

Conclusion:

We have seen various types of cancer but the types of cancer we have are hundreds but we had mentioned just a few. Each type of cancer comes with various symptoms and various ways of curbing it.

Cancer is a disease that has been around for centuries, but it has never had such an impact on public health as it has now. Cancer is the increase in the number of cells in human beings at an abnormal rate. Doctors have been discussing the reasons behind this increase for the past fifty years. One is tempted to think that there are no reasons behind this occurrence and that it is just a natural phenomenon, people die all the time. Right?

The thing is that the number of cancer cases has increased in the past decades and a lot of this increase is attributed to the influence of different types of radiation. Even though most of the really dangerous substances (or sources of radiation) are not allowed near people. What else can be causing such an increase in cancer cases?

Some doctors have made a discovery regarding cancer that can really help us get rid of this problem. Following down the line of the argumentation presented in the famous “China Study” more doctors are advising their patients to change their diet because it can help  in their fight against cancer. Not only that but a proper diet can also be the best prevention.

When you are a student your metabolism is young so you do not feel the bad effect of your habits as much as older people do but as we age the side effects of our bad choices will become obvious. We can teach ourselves to listen to our bodies and to prevent cancer but to do that we, first of all, have to defeat our habits.

Cancer is uncontrolled and unchecked development of abnormal cells in a part of the body. Cancerous cells develop just like another cell in the body. They, however, keep growing and can form a mass then subsequently becomes tumors. Since cells are present in every part of our body, cancer can also grow in all parts of our body.

Causes of Cancer:

One great scientific mystery in our world is the cause of cancer. Scientists from all over have tried and failed in isolating any particular action, substance or environmental factors that can lead to cancer.

However, scientists all over the world agree that cancer is caused by substances known as carcinogens. These substances are introduced to the body when we are exposed to or consume materials containing them. One of the confirmed sources of carcinogens is exposure to radiation from x-ray machines.

Cancer Treatment:

There are various ways to treat a person infected with cancer. These modes of treatment are chosen depending on the type of cancer, the stage of development and the health peculiarities of the cancer patient. In other cases, several modes of treatment are combined to treat a single patient.

Some of the modes of treating cancer are in fly highlighted below:

1. Surgery to remove Cancerous tumors from the body.

2. Radiation therapy to reduce the growth of cells.

3. Chemotherapy for destroying cancer cells.

4. Stem cell transplant.

Prevention of Cancer:

Just as there are no agreed actions, materials and exposure that causes cancer, there are no generally accepted means of preventing cancer. However, there are certain habits that can limit a person’s exposure.

Some of them are highlighted below:

1. Healthy environment and diet.

2. Reduction of exposure from the sun.

3. Keep your weight low.

4. Avoid the use of tobacco.

Early detection of cancer has been hailed as the most potent way of treating this menace. Though scientists are still in the business of searching for a cure, we as humans can prevent cancer by regular medical check-ups.

Cancer is one of the second largest fatal illnesses across the world. One of the horrific words a human being can listen to is being diagnosed with Cancer. The word Cancer brings alarm and anxiety to the listener. Cancer is the abnormal growth of cells in one part of the body which can even spread to other parts if not treated at an early stage. Neoplasms or tumour are the subset of these abnormally grown-up cells which often results in a mass or lump.

What causes Cancer?

Those agents which cause cancer are termed as Carcinogens . These can be classified into physical, chemical and biological. Physical Carcinogens include ultra violet and other ionizing radiations. Food adulterants such as aflatoxin, tobacco smoke, drinking water contaminant such as Arsenic, asbestos etc., are termed as Chemical Carcinogens. Viruses, Bacteria and other parasites which cause infections and eventually lead to Cancer are categorized under Biological Carcinogens. Ageing also causes cancer as the risk of the cellular repair mechanism weakens as we age.

Significant Symptoms of Cancer:

Some of the major symptoms of cancer include unexplained weight loss, extreme fatigue, persistent sores that do not heal, changes in the bladder and bowel movements, odd bleeding and discharges, change in voice due to cancer indication in larynx and lumps and bumps on the skin.

Preventive Measures:

Some of the risk factors which needs to be addressed to prevent cancer may include avoidance of tobacco, being overweight or obese, unhealthy eating with less vegetables and greens, physical in-activity, avoiding pollution etc. Apart from the mentioned, vaccination against HPV and Hepatitis B Virus, controlling hazards while at work, reducing exposure to ultra violet and ionizing radiation etc., can help prevent being infected by Cancer.

Assessing the type of cancer and the stage is very important because every cancer type has a different pattern of treatment from surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy . The treatment that is used to relieve the cancer patient from their pain and enhance the quality of life for the patients and their families is termed as Palliative care.

World Health Organization has partnered with UNO and other non-profit organizations to ensure every country is being made aware of the non-communicable diseases and the prevention of cancer and its control. Insights to develop Centers of Excellence to provide quality treatments and to conduct research on the carcinogenesis should be provided to governments and to help the people.

The abnormal cell growth in our body which spreads to other parts as well is what is termed as cancer. Around four lakh of people in India are known to be affected by this disease every year. More so, around half of them are not able to survive as they are usually detected in the last stages of cancer. Hence it is all the more important to educate the people about this disease and its symptoms so that it can be detected early and the lives of the people suffering from it can be saved.

Cancer can affect any body part. The part that is affected gives it the name, for instance, lung cancer which affects the lungs, skin cancer in which the skin is affected and so on. However, we can broadly divide cancer into four types. The first one is Sarcoma which is known to affect the blood vessels, bones, muscles cartilages and connective tissues. The second type of cancer is Carcinoma which affects the internal organs of the body or the skin. The third type is the Lymphoma. This cancer affects the lymph glands and the lymph nodes. The last type in which cancer can be categorised is Leukaemia which largely affects the parts forming blood such as the bone marrow.

Symptoms of Cancer:

Although no particular cause is known to trigger this disease, some activities have been associated as the cause of different types of cancer. The first and foremost is smoking. Excess smoking affects the entire respiratory system thereby leading to the onset of lung cancer. More so chewing tobacco is also attributed to giving rise to mouth and throat cancer. Similarly, alcohol is attributed to be the cause of stomach, liver and gallbladder cancer. Summarising it, all the ill habits of society and urbanisation have been attributed to this disease. Even radiations coming from X-ray machines can prove harmful and lead to cancer. That is why there are proper laws an protection in place when exposing people to these harmful radiations.

Treatments Available:

If detected in early stages, cancer can surely be curable. Surgery is one of the primary steps of curing this disease. If required, doctors remove the body part affected such as the uterus, gallbladder or the breast. Thereafter, through radiotherapy, the cancerous cells on the other affected parts of the body are killed so that they don’t spread to other parts. Chemotherapy is done using the strong chemical in order to kill the cancerous cells. Other methods such as tumour suppressing genes are used in different types of cancer as may be the need advised by the doctors. Whatever the method, it is extremely difficult to go through the pain and social stigma such as loss hair which comes alongside the treatment of cancer.

Living with this Disease:

It is indeed very difficult to live with this disease as not only this disease is not fully curable but the treatment is so tough that it scares even the toughest of individuals. We, as a society, must support the people suffering from cancer and help in their difficult times. We must not discriminate them and must understand that is already suffering a lot and must not do anything which further aggravates their sufferings.

Cancer is a severe disease in which there is abnormal growth of cell that spreads around the human body. Many people in the world are struggling with this disease. Consistently around 10 million cases are analyzed. These number of cases are expected to increase around 20 million by 2020. It turns into the most widely recognized reasons for death. Due to abnormal cell growth, it develops & affects the overall body weight. Prolonged cough and abnormal bleeding are some symptoms of this severe disease. The developed abnormal cells first make their impact on organs then slowly moved as poison. Cancer disease can be identified in the beginning periods. The medical professionals are still trying to catch this disease.

One of the main causes of cancer is smoking. Other causes include tobacco, consumption of alcohol, obesity, lack of physical activities, exposure to UV radiations, etc. Age factor and changes in genes are yet other factors that cause cancer.

Cancer has different types which can be divided into various forms:

i. Skin Cancer:

It is the most common type of cancer which can be seen in many people. Every year more than 1 million people are affected by skin cancer. Skin cancer happens due to the overexposure from the sun. The thicker ozone layers directly harms our skin, which increases the chances of skin cancer.

ii. Lung Cancer:

This type of cancer is related to the cells inside the lungs. The symptoms of this type of cancer are chest pain & sudden weight loss. It is also known as lung carcinoma. As a process of metastasis, the growth of abnormal cell growth spread inside the lungs. Smoking is a fundamental driver of Lung cases.

iii. Kidney Cancer:

Another name of kidney cancer is renal cancer. Renal Cell Carcinoma and Transitional Cell Carcinoma are the types of kidney cancer. This development of cancer happens after the age of 40 years. Smoking can twofold the danger of kidney malignant growth.

iv. Leukemia:

This cancer starts developing in the bone marrow, which leads to a high number of abnormal white cells. Acute myeloid leukemia or acute lymphocytic leukemia are the sorts of leukemia. Chemotherapy or radiation therapy can be used as the treatment for Leukemia.

Cancer Staging:

It is important to understand the staging factor of this severe disease. Diagnosis of cancer in early stages helps to tackle this disease by proper treatments. During the initial stages of cancer, proper surgeries or radiotherapy can help to overcome cancer. When the broken cancer cells move to other parts of the human body, then advance treatment is suggested by the professionals. But when a patient is in the final stages of cancer, he needs a treatment which covers his whole body. Chemotherapy is a therapy which is used to circulate the bloodstream. Professional doctors use various test techniques to identify the stages of cancer. Stages are used to describe the severity of cancer.

In the initial stage, cancer can be prevented through medication, proper surgeries and light treatment. In the advance stages of cancer, chemotherapy and radiation therapy is useful. Above all, the best way to keep cancer away is to stay away from smoking and tobacco, eat healthy food and a lot of green vegetables, and do some physical exercise daily.

It is very difficult for a cancer patient to fight with the final stages of cancer. To deal with this severe problem cancer symptoms should never be ignored. More than 70% of cases are seen only due to smoking. At every stage, it is essential that everyone must adopt a healthy diet plan & exercise daily to prevent this disease. A person who has a good and healthy lifestyle can fight with cancer more strongly.

Current trends in global health mention cancer. Cancer is currently one of the leading causes of death globally. It is an illness in which abnormal cell growth develops and affects parts of the human body as it advances, it has the potential to spread from one part of the body to the other. It is a chronic illness that imposes a great economic burden on a nation because its management is costly. Cancer occurs in different parts of the body and are classified according to where it has affected. In India, men are mostly acted by lung, oral, lip and neck cancers whereas women are affected by cervical, breast and ovarian cancer. The detection procedure varies with the type of cancer while the treatment varies with the stage of the cancer progression. Mostly early stages of cancer have better prognosis compared to late stages of cancer.

There are modifiable and non-modifiable factors that predispose an individual to cancer. Non modifiable factors include age and genetics. With an increase in age, the rate of cancer incidence increases. The genetic predisposition to cancer increases the incidences of suffering the disease. Modifiable factors include lifestyle habits like drinking and smoking tobacco which increase the incidences of lung, oral, esophageal among other cancers. Diet is also a predisposing factor especially one that is less in vitamin supplements.

Physical inactivity and obesity predispose to cancers of the colon, breast and others. Sexual activity in women with multiple sexual partners predisposes them to cervical cancer due to the transmission of HPV (Human Papilloma Virus). The environment also predisposes to cancer because of the chemicals, radicals and radiations that interact with human beings.

Detection of Cancer:

The detection varies with the type of cancer and so screening is done for each type differently. It is advisable that people get regular checkups of the whole body so that early detection facilitates effective and curative treatment. Screening of cancer is done using detailed examination of the physique, laboratory and histology tests, radiological and magnetic imaging techniques among other methods.

The campaigns against cancer advocate for early detection by teaching the public on the early signs of cancer. In breast cancer awareness for example, the public is made aware of physical examination of the breast and if they detect any abnormal growth or lump, they are to seek further investigation. Early detection is important because it results in successful treatment. In the detection, the cancer staging is done, which is usually four stages, stage one, two, three and four. Stage one has the best prognosis whereas stage four has the poorest prognosis.

Treatment of Cancer:

Once cancer is detected, a range of treatment options is provided. Treatment depends on the types of cancer and the staging. It can be treated by surgery whereby excision of the abnormal growth is done. Surgery is done for non-hematological cancers and those that have not metastasized to other parts of the body. An example of surgery is mastectomy to treat breast cancer.

Chemotherapy is another treatment option that involves the administration of anticancer medication that eliminate the abnormal cells in the body. Another treatment option is radiation therapy that uses ionizing radiations to destroy cancer cells. Radiation is also used to make tumors small. It is used to treat solid tumors and it depends on the sensitivity of the tumor to the radiations. It is targeted at the nucleic acid destruction in the tumor cells.

Consequences of Cancer:

Cancer is a chronic illness that could result in very serious consequences even with treatment. Cachexia is the extreme wasting of the body that causes death in cancer patients. Economic burden to both the individual and the nation is experienced in cancer treatment because the treatment modalities are costly. The economic burden results in decline of the nation’s economy and increased healthcare costs to the population.

Mental illnesses result from cancer because it is a terminal illness and most patients become mentally unstable upon diagnosis. The quality of health is affected in a country when there is high incidences of cancer and the performance is greatly affected, which cause poverty and economic crisis for individuals.

Cancer is a serious illness that impacts the lives of people and the nation negatively. It is evident that cancer has diverse treatment options but the problem is that people do not go for checkups. Checkups are important in early detection, which usually results in successful treatment and less burden of cancer in a nation and in individuals.

Cancer is basically an agglomeration of various diseases that involves the abnormal growth of cells with the ability to spread or invade other body parts. Cancers are quite different from benign tumours in that the latter does not spread or invade other body parts. Some of the many symptoms and signs of cancer include abnormal bleeding, a lump, weight loss that is unusual, prolonged cough and bowel movement change. Even though these listed symptoms and signs of cancer, they might be caused by other things so it is necessary to be diagnosed. Today, we have more than 100 various kinds of cancer that affect us humans.

History of Cancer:

It is believed that cancer has been in existence for a majority if not all of the history of man. Breast cancer was the first form of cancer that was recorded and this happened around 1600 BC in Egypt. Between 460 BC and 370 BC, Hippocrates spent time analysing various types of cancer and referred to them as crayfish or crab. The name was as a result of the crab-like look of the malignant tumour and the lateral extension of the distended veins and tumours.

Factors Causing Cancer:

It has been discovered that the major cause of deaths as a result of cancer is the use of tobacco and it accounts for about 22 percent of the total number of deaths due to cancer. Poor diet, obesity, excessive alcohol consumption and a lack of exercise and physical activities accounts for another 10 percent of deaths caused by cancer. Some other causes and factors that contribute to cancer include environmental pollutants, ionizing radiation exposure and certain infections.

In most developing countries, infections like hepatitis B, Helicobacter pylori, papillomavirus infection of humans, Hepatitis C, HIV and Epstein Barr contribute to fifteen percent of all cancers. All of the factors listed above change the cell genes. There are always a lot of genetic changes before the development of cancer. About 10% of all cancers are as a result of genetic defects that are inherited from a parent. Asides the symptoms and signs that are used to detect cancer, screening tests are also a good way of detecting cancer. Cancer is normally thoroughly investigated using medical imaging; it is then confirmed through biopsy.

Development of Cancer:

A tumour or neoplasm is a collection of cells which have gone through growth that is not regulated and most times form a lump or mass. Every tumour cell exhibits the six important characters that are necessary for the production of the malignant tumour.

The six characteristics are:

1. Cell division and growth without all the signals that are proper.

2. Continuous division and growth even though the signals given are contrary.

3. Cell death that is usually programmed is avoided.

4. The divisions of the cell are quite limitless in number.

5. The construction of blood vessel is promoted.

6. The tissues are invaded and metastases are formed.

Cancer Prevention:

The prevention of a lot of cancers can be ensured by trying to maintain a weight that is healthy, not smoking, consuming a lot of whole grains, fruits and vegetable, avoiding the consumption of a lot of alcohol, reduction in the amount of red and processed meat that is consumed, getting vaccinated against some infectious diseases and the avoidance of too much exposure to sunlight. It is sometimes useful that there is early detection in cases of colorectal and cervical cancer and this can be achieved through screening. The usefulness of breast cancer screening is highly controversial.

The treatment of cancer is usually done by combining surgery, radiation therapy, targeted therapy and chemotherapy. A very important element of care is the management of symptoms and pain. In cases of advanced disease, palliative care is of utmost importance. The extent of the disease at the commencement of treatment and also the form of cancer that is involved go a long way to determine the odds of survival. Using the adopted survival rate at five years, children that were under the age of 15 when they were diagnosed have an average rate of survival of 80% in most developed countries. In the US, the average rate of survival for the five year period is 66%.

90.5 million  people were living with different cancers in 2015. It has been reported that every year, close to 15 million reports of new cancer cases are filed. These do not include the cases of skin cancer. Cancer results in more than eight million deaths every year which is about 15.7% of the total number of deaths every year.

In males, prostate cancer, lung cancer, stomach cancer and colorectal cancer are the most widespread cancer types. In females, colorectal cancer, breast cancer, cervical cancer and lung cancer are the most widespread cancer types. Apart from melanoma, if we include skin cancer in the amount of new cases of cancer every year, it is going to be 40% of the total number of cases.

Brain tumours and lymphoblastic leukemia that is acute are the most widespread cancer types in children but in Africa, lymphoma that is no-Hodgkin is the most widespread. The total number of children that are under the age of 15 that ended up being diagnosed with one type of cancer or the other in 2012 is around 165,000.

With an increase in age, it has been seen that the risk of getting cancer also increases significantly and the number and occurrence of cases of cancer in developed countries in more than the number and occurrence of cancer cases in other countries. The change in lifestyle and increase in the number of people living to a very old age in countries that are developing contributes to the increase in the rate of the occurrence of cancer. Cancer is believed to have a financial cost of up to 1.16 trillion dollars every year.

Cancer can be extremely dangerous when it is not discovered early and when adequate and proper care and attention is not given to the treatment. Therefore it is very important to go for regularly screening to find out if there is need for caution or treatment.

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A dividing breast cancer cell.

The Definition of Cancer

Cancer is a disease in which some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the body. 

Cancer can start almost anywhere in the human body, which is made up of trillions of cells. Normally, human cells grow and multiply (through a process called cell division) to form new cells as the body needs them. When cells grow old or become damaged, they die, and new cells take their place.

Sometimes this orderly process breaks down, and abnormal or damaged cells grow and multiply when they shouldn’t. These cells may form tumors, which are lumps of tissue. Tumors can be cancerous or not cancerous ( benign ). 

Cancerous tumors spread into, or invade, nearby tissues and can travel to distant places in the body to form new tumors (a process called metastasis ). Cancerous tumors may also be called malignant tumors. Many cancers form solid tumors, but cancers of the blood, such as leukemias , generally do not.

Benign tumors do not spread into, or invade, nearby tissues. When removed, benign tumors usually don’t grow back, whereas cancerous tumors sometimes do. Benign tumors can sometimes be quite large, however. Some can cause serious symptoms or be life threatening, such as benign tumors in the brain.

Differences between Cancer Cells and Normal Cells

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Have questions? Connect with a Cancer Information Specialist for answers.

Cancer cells differ from normal cells in many ways. For instance, cancer cells:

• grow in the absence of signals telling them to grow. Normal cells only grow when they receive such signals. 
• ignore signals that normally tell cells to stop dividing or to die (a process known as programmed cell death , or apoptosis ).
• invade into nearby areas and spread to other areas of the body. Normal cells stop growing when they encounter other cells, and most normal cells do not move around the body. 
• tell blood vessels to grow toward tumors.  These blood vessels supply tumors with oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products from tumors.
• hide from the immune system . The immune system normally eliminates damaged or abnormal cells. 
• trick the immune system into helping cancer cells stay alive and grow. For instance, some cancer cells convince immune cells to protect the tumor instead of attacking it.
• accumulate multiple changes in their chromosomes , such as duplications and deletions of chromosome parts. Some cancer cells have double the normal number of chromosomes.
• rely on different kinds of nutrients than normal cells. In addition, some cancer cells make energy from nutrients in a different way than most normal cells. This lets cancer cells grow more quickly. 

Many times, cancer cells rely so heavily on these abnormal behaviors that they can’t survive without them. Researchers have taken advantage of this fact, developing therapies that target the abnormal features of cancer cells. For example, some cancer therapies prevent blood vessels from growing toward tumors , essentially starving the tumor of needed nutrients.  

How Does Cancer Develop?

Cancer is caused by certain changes to genes, the basic physical units of inheritance. Genes are arranged in long strands of tightly packed DNA called chromosomes.

Cancer is a genetic disease—that is, it is caused by changes to genes that control the way our cells function, especially how they grow and divide.

Genetic changes that cause cancer can happen because:

• of errors that occur as cells divide. 
• of damage to DNA caused by harmful substances in the environment, such as the chemicals in tobacco smoke and ultraviolet rays from the sun. (Our Cancer Causes and Prevention section has more information.) 
• they were inherited from our parents. 

The body normally eliminates cells with damaged DNA before they turn cancerous. But the body’s ability to do so goes down as we age. This is part of the reason why there is a higher risk of cancer later in life.

Each person’s cancer has a unique combination of genetic changes. As the cancer continues to grow, additional changes will occur. Even within the same tumor, different cells may have different genetic changes.

Fundamentals of Cancer

Cancer is a disease caused when cells divide uncontrollably and spread into surrounding tissues.

Cancer is caused by changes to DNA. Most cancer-causing DNA changes occur in sections of DNA called genes. These changes are also called genetic changes.

A DNA change can cause genes involved in normal cell growth to become oncogenes. Unlike normal genes, oncogenes cannot be turned off, so they cause uncontrolled cell growth.

 In normal cells, tumor suppressor genes prevent cancer by slowing or stopping cell growth. DNA changes that inactivate tumor suppressor genes can lead to uncontrolled cell growth and cancer.

Within a tumor, cancer cells are surrounded by a variety of immune cells, fibroblasts, molecules, and blood vessels—what’s known as the tumor microenvironment. Cancer cells can change the microenvironment, which in turn can affect how cancer grows and spreads.

Immune system cells can detect and attack cancer cells. But some cancer cells can avoid detection or thwart an attack. Some cancer treatments can help the immune system better detect and kill cancer cells.

Each person’s cancer has a unique combination of genetic changes. Specific genetic changes may make a person’s cancer more or less likely to respond to certain treatments.

Genetic changes that cause cancer can be inherited or arise from certain environmental exposures. Genetic changes can also happen because of errors that occur as cells divide.

Most often, cancer-causing genetic changes accumulate slowly as a person ages, leading to a higher risk of cancer later in life.

Cancer cells can break away from the original tumor and travel through the blood or lymph system to distant locations in the body, where they exit the vessels to form additional tumors. This is called metastasis.

Types of Genes that Cause Cancer

The genetic changes that contribute to cancer tend to affect three main types of genes— proto-oncogenes , tumor suppressor genes , and DNA repair genes. These changes are sometimes called “drivers” of cancer.

Proto-oncogenes are involved in normal cell growth and division. However, when these genes are altered in certain ways or are more active than normal, they may become cancer-causing genes (or oncogenes), allowing cells to grow and survive when they should not.

Tumor suppressor genes are also involved in controlling cell growth and division. Cells with certain alterations in tumor suppressor genes may divide in an uncontrolled manner.

DNA repair genes are involved in fixing damaged DNA. Cells with mutations in these genes tend to develop additional mutations in other genes and changes in their chromosomes, such as duplications and deletions of chromosome parts. Together, these mutations may cause the cells to become cancerous.

As scientists have learned more about the molecular changes that lead to cancer, they have found that certain mutations commonly occur in many types of cancer. Now there are many cancer treatments available that target gene mutations found in cancer . A few of these treatments can be used by anyone with a cancer that has the targeted mutation, no matter where the cancer started growing .

When Cancer Spreads

In metastasis, cancer cells break away from where they first formed and form new tumors in other parts of the body. 

A cancer that has spread from the place where it first formed to another place in the body is called metastatic cancer. The process by which cancer cells spread to other parts of the body is called metastasis.

Metastatic cancer has the same name and the same type of cancer cells as the original, or primary, cancer. For example, breast cancer that forms a metastatic tumor in the lung is metastatic breast cancer, not lung cancer.

Under a microscope, metastatic cancer cells generally look the same as cells of the original cancer. Moreover, metastatic cancer cells and cells of the original cancer usually have some molecular features in common, such as the presence of specific chromosome changes.

In some cases, treatment may help prolong the lives of people with metastatic cancer. In other cases, the primary goal of treatment for metastatic cancer is to control the growth of the cancer or to relieve symptoms it is causing. Metastatic tumors can cause severe damage to how the body functions, and most people who die of cancer die of metastatic disease.  

Tissue Changes that Are Not Cancer

Not every change in the body’s tissues is cancer. Some tissue changes may develop into cancer if they are not treated, however. Here are some examples of tissue changes that are not cancer but, in some cases, are monitored because they could become cancer:

• Hyperplasia occurs when cells within a tissue multiply faster than normal and extra cells build up. However, the cells and the way the tissue is organized still look normal under a microscope. Hyperplasia can be caused by several factors or conditions, including chronic irritation.
• Dysplasia is a more advanced condition than hyperplasia. In dysplasia, there is also a buildup of extra cells. But the cells look abnormal and there are changes in how the tissue is organized. In general, the more abnormal the cells and tissue look, the greater the chance that cancer will form. Some types of dysplasia may need to be monitored or treated, but others do not. An example of dysplasia is an abnormal mole (called a dysplastic nevus ) that forms on the skin. A dysplastic nevus can turn into melanoma, although most do not.
• Carcinoma in situ  is an even more advanced condition. Although it is sometimes called stage 0 cancer, it is not cancer because the abnormal cells do not invade nearby tissue the way that cancer cells do. But because some carcinomas in situ may become cancer, they are usually treated.

Normal cells may become cancer cells. Before cancer cells form in tissues of the body, the cells go through abnormal changes called hyperplasia and dysplasia. In hyperplasia, there is an increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue that appear normal under a microscope. In dysplasia, the cells look abnormal under a microscope but are not cancer. Hyperplasia and dysplasia may or may not become cancer.

Types of Cancer

There are more than 100 types of cancer. Types of cancer are usually named for the organs or tissues where the cancers form. For example, lung cancer starts in the lung, and brain cancer starts in the brain. Cancers also may be described by the type of cell that formed them, such as an epithelial cell or a squamous cell .

You can search NCI’s website for information on specific types of cancer based on the cancer’s location in the body or by using our A to Z List of Cancers . We also have information on childhood cancers and cancers in adolescents and young adults .

Here are some categories of cancers that begin in specific types of cells:

Carcinomas are the most common type of cancer. They are formed by epithelial cells, which are the cells that cover the inside and outside surfaces of the body. There are many types of epithelial cells, which often have a column-like shape when viewed under a microscope.

Carcinomas that begin in different epithelial cell types have specific names:

Adenocarcinoma is a cancer that forms in epithelial cells that produce fluids or mucus. Tissues with this type of epithelial cell are sometimes called glandular tissues. Most cancers of the breast, colon, and prostate are adenocarcinomas.

Basal cell carcinoma is a cancer that begins in the lower or basal (base) layer of the epidermis, which is a person’s outer layer of skin.

Squamous cell carcinoma is a cancer that forms in squamous cells, which are epithelial cells that lie just beneath the outer surface of the skin. Squamous cells also line many other organs, including the stomach, intestines, lungs, bladder, and kidneys. Squamous cells look flat, like fish scales, when viewed under a microscope. Squamous cell carcinomas are sometimes called epidermoid carcinomas.

Transitional cell carcinoma is a cancer that forms in a type of epithelial tissue called transitional epithelium, or urothelium. This tissue, which is made up of many layers of epithelial cells that can get bigger and smaller, is found in the linings of the bladder, ureters, and part of the kidneys (renal pelvis), and a few other organs. Some cancers of the bladder, ureters, and kidneys are transitional cell carcinomas.

Soft tissue sarcoma forms in soft tissues of the body, including muscle, tendons, fat, blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves, and tissue around joints.

Sarcomas are cancers that form in bone and soft tissues, including muscle, fat, blood vessels, lymph vessels , and fibrous tissue (such as tendons and ligaments).

Osteosarcoma is the most common cancer of bone. The most common types of soft tissue sarcoma are leiomyosarcoma , Kaposi sarcoma , malignant fibrous histiocytoma , liposarcoma , and dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans .

Our page on soft tissue sarcoma has more information.

Cancers that begin in the blood-forming tissue of the bone marrow are called leukemias. These cancers do not form solid tumors. Instead, large numbers of abnormal white blood cells (leukemia cells and leukemic blast cells) build up in the blood and bone marrow, crowding out normal blood cells. The low level of normal blood cells can make it harder for the body to get oxygen to its tissues, control bleeding, or fight infections.  

There are four common types of leukemia, which are grouped based on how quickly the disease gets worse (acute or chronic) and on the type of blood cell the cancer starts in (lymphoblastic or myeloid). Acute forms of leukemia grow quickly and chronic forms grow more slowly.

Our page on leukemia has more information.

Lymphoma is cancer that begins in lymphocytes (T cells or B cells). These are disease-fighting white blood cells that are part of the immune system. In lymphoma, abnormal lymphocytes build up in lymph nodes and lymph vessels, as well as in other organs of the body.

There are two main types of lymphoma:

Hodgkin lymphoma – People with this disease have abnormal lymphocytes that are called Reed-Sternberg cells. These cells usually form from B cells.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma – This is a large group of cancers that start in lymphocytes. The cancers can grow quickly or slowly and can form from B cells or T cells.

Our page on lymphoma has more information.

Multiple Myeloma

Multiple myeloma is cancer that begins in plasma cells , another type of immune cell. The abnormal plasma cells, called myeloma cells, build up in the bone marrow and form tumors in bones all through the body. Multiple myeloma is also called plasma cell myeloma and Kahler disease.

Our page on multiple myeloma and other plasma cell neoplasms has more information.

Melanoma is cancer that begins in cells that become melanocytes, which are specialized cells that make melanin (the pigment that gives skin its color). Most melanomas form on the skin, but melanomas can also form in other pigmented tissues, such as the eye.

Our pages on skin cancer and intraocular melanoma have more information.

Brain and Spinal Cord Tumors

There are different types of brain and spinal cord tumors. These tumors are named based on the type of cell in which they formed and where the tumor first formed in the central nervous system. For example, an astrocytic tumor begins in star-shaped brain cells called astrocytes , which help keep nerve cells healthy. Brain tumors can be benign (not cancer) or malignant (cancer).

Our page on brain and spinal cord tumors has more information.

Other Types of Tumors

Germ cell tumors.

Germ cell tumors are a type of tumor that begins in the cells that give rise to sperm or eggs. These tumors can occur almost anywhere in the body and can be either benign or malignant.

Our page of cancers by body location/system includes a list of germ cell tumors with links to more information.

Neuroendocrine Tumors

Neuroendocrine tumors form from cells that release hormones into the blood in response to a signal from the nervous system. These tumors, which may make higher-than-normal amounts of hormones, can cause many different symptoms. Neuroendocrine tumors may be benign or malignant.

Our definition of neuroendocrine tumors has more information.

Carcinoid Tumors

Carcinoid tumors are a type of neuroendocrine tumor. They are slow-growing tumors that are usually found in the gastrointestinal system (most often in the rectum and small intestine). Carcinoid tumors may spread to the liver or other sites in the body, and they may secrete substances such as serotonin or prostaglandins, causing carcinoid syndrome .

Our page on gastrointestinal neuroendocrine tumors has more information.

Cancer Essay

500+ words cancer essay.

Cancer is a leading cause of death globally. The World Health Organisation estimates that 10 million people will die of cancer in 2020, and more people will die in the coming years if action is not taken. More than 70% of all cancer deaths occur in low and middle-income countries, where resources available for prevention, diagnosis and treatment of cancer are limited or nonexistent. This essay on cancer will help students know about this disease and the prevention method.

Students can also go through the list of CBSE Essays on different topics. It will help them to improve their writing skills and also increase their scores on the English exam. Moreover, they can participate in different essay writing competitions which are conducted at the school level.

What Is Cancer?

Cancer is a group of diseases characterised by the uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells. Cancer cells develop because of multiple changes in their genes. These changes can have many possible causes. If the spread of cells is not controlled, it can result in death. There are many known causes of cancer; they include tobacco use, smoking, alcohol, excess body weight, inherited genetic mutations, hormones, and immune conditions. These risk factors may act simultaneously or in sequence to initiate and/or promote cancer growth. There are many types of cancer. Cancer can develop anywhere in the body and is named after the part of the body where it started. For instance, breast cancer that starts in the breast is still called breast cancer, even if it spreads (metastasises) to other parts of the body.

Cancer Prevention

Cancer prevention is achieved through primary, secondary, and tertiary methods. Primary cancer prevention is achieved through two mechanisms: the promotion of health and wellness and the reduction of risks known to contribute to cancer development. Primary prevention aims to reverse or inhibit the carcinogenic process through modifications in a patient’s diet or environment. Secondary cancer prevention includes screening and early detection. Screening for cancer refers to checking for the presence of disease in populations at risk, and early detection is defined as testing for cancer when no symptoms are present.

Secondary prevention seeks to detect cancer at the earliest possible stage when the disease is most likely to be treated successfully. Tertiary cancer prevention is applied to those individuals who have already been diagnosed with malignancy but are now candidates for screening and early detection of secondary malignancies.

How to Fight Cancer?

The promotion of a healthy diet and physical activity is one of the best ways to fight against cancer. Avoid the use of alcohol, tobacco, cigarettes and such items which are hazardous to health. Cancer mortality can be reduced if cases are detected and treated early. So, early diagnosis, screening and treatment reduce the severity of cancer; and it can be cured.

Apart from spreading awareness among people and educating them to know the early signs of this disease. Also, the education will upgrade the information about exercise, dietary habits, sun exposure, smoking cessation, and recommended screening practices. We all can together fight against this disease and make our country cancer-free.

Cancer is a dangerous disease, but it can be cured. Required instruments should be provided to the hospitals so that the screening and initial detection of cancer can be done at the early stage. In national health insurance, the treatment of cancer should be included with an emphasis on providing financial support to the patient and his family. The expensive immune and targeted therapies should not only be for those upper-income people. These facilities should be made accessible to all people at affordable costs. Thus, it will increase access to health services and strengthen the health systems for low and middle-income people.

Students must have found the “Cancer” essay useful for improving their essay writing skills. They can get the study material and the latest updates on CBSE/ICSE/State Board/Competitive Exams at BYJU’S.

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• v.28; Jan-Dec 2021

Cancer Biology, Epidemiology, and Treatment in the 21st Century: Current Status and Future Challenges From a Biomedical Perspective

Patricia piña-sánchez.

1 Oncology Research Unit, Oncology Hospital, Mexican Institute of Social Security, Mexico

Antonieta Chávez-González

Martha ruiz-tachiquín, eduardo vadillo, alberto monroy-garcía, juan josé montesinos, rocío grajales.

2 Department of Medical Oncology, Oncology Hospital, Mexican Institute of Social Security, Mexico

Marcos Gutiérrez de la Barrera

3 Clinical Research Division, Oncology Hospital, Mexican Institute of Social Security, Mexico

Hector Mayani

Since the second half of the 20th century, our knowledge about the biology of cancer has made extraordinary progress. Today, we understand cancer at the genomic and epigenomic levels, and we have identified the cell that starts neoplastic transformation and characterized the mechanisms for the invasion of other tissues. This knowledge has allowed novel drugs to be designed that act on specific molecular targets, the immune system to be trained and manipulated to increase its efficiency, and ever more effective therapeutic strategies to be developed. Nevertheless, we are still far from winning the war against cancer, and thus biomedical research in oncology must continue to be a global priority. Likewise, there is a need to reduce unequal access to medical services and improve prevention programs, especially in countries with a low human development index.

Introduction

During the last one hundred years, our understanding of the biology of cancer increased in an extraordinary way. 1 - 4 Such a progress has been particularly prompted during the last few decades because of technological and conceptual progress in a variety of fields, including massive next-generation sequencing, inclusion of “omic” sciences, high-resolution microscopy, molecular immunology, flow cytometry, analysis and sequencing of individual cells, new cell culture techniques, and the development of animal models, among others. Nevertheless, there are many questions yet to be answered and many problems to be solved regarding this disease. As a consequence, oncological research must be considered imperative.

Currently, cancer is one of the illnesses that causes more deaths worldwide. 5 According to data reported in 2020 by the World Health Organization (WHO), cancer is the second cause of death throughout the world, with 10 million deaths. 6 Clearly, cancer is still a leading problem worldwide. With this in mind, the objective of this article is to present a multidisciplinary and comprehensive overview of the disease. We will begin by analyzing cancer as a process, focusing on the current state of our knowledge on 4 specific aspects of its biology. Then, we will look at cancer as a global health problem, considering some epidemiological aspects, and discussing treatment, with a special focus on novel therapies. Finally, we present our vision on some of the challenges and perspectives of cancer in the 21 st century.

The Biology of Cancer

Cancer is a disease that begins with genetic and epigenetic alterations occurring in specific cells, some of which can spread and migrate to other tissues. 4 Although the biological processes affected in carcinogenesis and the evolution of neoplasms are many and widely different, we will focus on 4 aspects that are particularly relevant in tumor biology: genomic and epigenomic alterations that lead to cell transformation, the cells where these changes occur, and the processes of invasion and metastasis that, to an important degree, determine tumor aggressiveness.

Cancer Genomics

The genomics of cancer can be defined as the study of the complete sequence of DNA and its expression in tumor cells. Evidently, this study only becomes meaningful when compared to normal cells. The sequencing of the human genome, completed in 2003, was not only groundbreaking with respect to the knowledge of our gene pool, but also changed the way we study cancer. In the post-genomic era, various worldwide endeavors, such as the Human Cancer Genome Project , the Cancer Genome ATLAS (TCGA), the International Cancer Genome Consortium, and the Pan-Cancer Analysis Working Group (PCAWG), have contributed to the characterization of thousands of primary tumors from different neoplasias, generating more than 2.5 petabytes (10 15 ) of genomic, epigenomic, and proteomic information. This has led to the building of databases and analytical tools that are available for the study of cancer from an “omic” perspective, 7 , 8 and it has helped to modify classification and treatment of various neoplasms.

Studies in the past decade, including the work by the PCAWG, have shown that cancer generally begins with a small number of driving mutations (4 or 5 mutations) in particular genes, including oncogenes and tumor-suppressor genes. Mutations in TP53, a tumor-suppressor gene, for example, are found in more than half of all cancer types as an early event, and they are a hallmark of precancerous lesions. 9 - 12 From that point on, the evolution of tumors may take decades, throughout which the mutational spectrum of tumor cells changes significantly. Mutational analysis of more than 19 000 exomes revealed a collection of genomic signatures, some associated with defects in the mechanism of DNA repair. These studies also revealed the importance of alterations in non-coding regions of DNA. Thus, for example, it has been observed that various pathways of cell proliferation and chromatin remodeling are altered by mutations in coding regions, while pathways, such as WNT and NOTCH, can be disrupted by coding and non-coding mutations. To the present date, 19 955 genes that codify for proteins and 25 511 genes for non-coding RNAs have been identified ( https://www.gencodegenes.org/human/stats.html ). Based on this genomic catalogue, the COSMIC (Catalogue Of Somatic Mutations In Cancer) repository, the most robust database to date, has registered 37 288 077 coding mutations, 19 396 fusions, 1 207 190 copy number variants, and 15 642 672 non-coding variants reported up to August 2020 (v92) ( https://cosmic-blog.sanger.ac.uk/cosmic-release-v92/ ).

The genomic approach has accelerated the development of new cancer drugs. Indeed, two of the most relevant initiatives in recent years are ATOM (Accelerating Therapeutics for Opportunities in Medicine), which groups industry, government and academia, with the objective of accelerating the identification of drugs, 13 and the Connectivity Map (CMAP), a collection of transcriptional data obtained from cell lines treated with drugs for the discovery of functional connections between genes, diseases, and drugs. The CMAP 1.0 covered 1300 small molecules and more than 6000 signatures; meanwhile, the CMAP 2.0 with L1000 assay profiled more than 1.3 million samples and approximately 400 000 signatures. 14

The genomic study of tumors has had 2 fundamental contributions. On the one hand, it has allowed the confirmation and expansion of the concept of intratumor heterogeneity 15 , 16 ; and on the other, it has given rise to new classification systems for cancer. Based on the molecular classification developed by expression profiles, together with mutational and epigenomic profiles, a variety of molecular signatures have been identified, leading to the production of various commercial multigene panels. In breast cancer, for example, different panels have been developed, such as Pam50/Prosigna , Blue Print , OncotypeDX , MammaPrint , Prosigna , Endopredict , Breast Cancer Index , Mammostrat, and IHC4 . 17

Currently, the genomic/molecular study of cancer is more closely integrated with clinical practice, from the classification of neoplasms, as in tumors of the nervous system, 18 to its use in prediction, as in breast cancer. 17 Improvement in molecular methods and techniques has allowed the use of smaller amounts of biological material, as well as paraffin-embedded samples for genomic studies, both of which provide a wealth of information. 19 In addition, non-invasive methods, such as liquid biopsies, represent a great opportunity not only for the diagnosis of cancer, but also for follow-up, especially for unresectable tumors. 20

Research for the production of genomic information on cancer is presently dominated by several consortia, which has allowed the generation of a great quantity of data. However, most of these consortia and studies are performed in countries with a high human development index (HDI), and countries with a low HDI are not well represented in these large genomic studies. This is why initiatives such as Human Heredity and Health in Africa (H3Africa) for genomic research in Africa are essential. 21 Generation of new information and technological developments, such as third-generation sequencing, will undoubtedly continue to move forward in a multidisciplinary and complex systems context. However, the existing disparities in access to genomic tools for diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of cancer will continue to be a pressing challenge at regional and social levels.

Cancer Epigenetics

Epigenetics studies the molecular mechanisms that produce hereditable changes in gene expression, without causing alterations in the DNA sequence. Epigenetic events are of 3 types: methylation of DNA and RNA, histone modification (acetylation, methylation, and phosphorylation), and the expression of non-coding RNA. Epigenetic aberrations can drive carcinogenesis when they alter chromosome conformation and the access to transcriptional machinery and to various regulatory elements (promoters, enhancers, and anchors for interaction with chromatin, for example). These changes may activate oncogenesis and silence tumor-suppressor mechanisms when they modulate coding and non-coding sequences (such as micro-RNAs and long-RNAs). This can then lead to uncontrolled growth, as well as the invasion and metastasis of cancer cells.

While genetic mutations are stable and irreversible, epigenetic alterations are dynamic and reversible; that is, there are several epigenomes, determined by space and time, which cause heterogeneity of the “epigenetic status” of tumors during their development and make them susceptible to environmental stimuli or chemotherapeutic treatment. 22 Epigenomic variability creates differences between cells, and this creates the need to analyze cells at the individual level. In the past, epigenetic analyses measured “average states” of cell populations. These studies revealed general mechanisms, such as the role of epigenetic marks on active or repressed transcriptional states, and established maps of epigenetic composition in a variety of cell types in normal and cancerous tissue. However, these approaches are difficult to use to examine events occurring in heterogeneous cell populations or in uncommon cell types. This has led to the development of new techniques that permit marking of a sequence on the epigenome and improvement in the recovery yield of epigenetic material from individual cells. This has helped to determine changes in DNA, RNA, and histones, chromatin accessibility, and chromosome conformation in a variety of neoplasms. 23 , 24

In cancer, DNA hypomethylation occurs on a global scale, while hypermethylation occurs in specific genomic loci, associated with abnormal nucleosome positioning and chromatin modifications. This information has allowed epigenomic profiles to be established in different types of neoplasms. In turn, these profiles have served as the basis to identify new neoplasm subgroups. For example, in triple negative breast cancer (TNBC), 25 and in hepatocellular carcinoma, 26 DNA methylation profiles have helped to the identification of distinct subgroups with clinical relevance. Epigenetic approaches have also helped to the development of prognostic tests to assess the sensitivity of cancer cells to specific drugs. 27

Epigenetic traits could be used to characterize intratumoral heterogeneity and determine the relevance of such a heterogeneity in clonal evolution and sensitivity to drugs. However, it is clear that heterogeneity is not only determined by genetic and epigenetic diversity resulting from clonal evolution of tumor cells, but also by the various cell populations that form the tumor microenvironment (TME). 28 Consequently, the epigenome of cancer cells is continually remodeled throughout tumorigenesis, during resistance to the activity of drugs, and in metastasis. 29 This makes therapeutic action based on epigenomic profiles difficult, although significant advances in this area have been reported. 30

During carcinogenesis and tumor progression, epigenetic modifications are categorized by their mechanisms of regulation ( Figure 1A ) and the various levels of structural complexity ( Figure 1B ). In addition, the epigenome can be modified by environmental stimuli, stochastic events, and genetic variations that impact the phenotype ( Figure 1C ). 31 , 32 The molecules that take part in these mechanisms/events/variations are therapeutic targets of interest with potential impact on clinical practice. There are studies on a wide variety of epidrugs, either alone or in combination, which improve antitumor efficacy. 33 However, the problems with these drugs must not be underestimated. For a considerable number of epigenetic compounds still being under study, the main challenge is to translate in vitro efficacy of nanomolar (nM) concentrations into well-tolerated and efficient clinical use. 34 The mechanisms of action of epidrugs may not be sufficiently controlled and could lead to diversion of the therapeutic target. 35 It is known that certain epidrugs, such as valproic acid, produce unwanted epigenetic changes 36 ; thus the need for a well-established safety profile before these drugs can be used in clinical therapy. Finally, resistance to certain epidrugs is another relevant problem. 37 , 38

Epigenetics of cancer. (A) Molecular mechanisms. (B) Structural hierarchy of epigenomics. (C) Factors affecting the epigenome. Modified from Refs. 31 and 32 .

As we learn about the epigenome of specific cell populations in cancer patients, a door opens to the evaluation of sensitivity tests and the search for new molecular markers for detection, prognosis, follow-up, and/or response to treatment at various levels of molecular regulation. Likewise, the horizon expands for therapeutic alternatives in oncology with the use of epidrugs, such as pharmacoepigenomic modulators for genes and key pathways, including methylation of promoters and regulation of micro-RNAs involved in chemoresponse and immune response in cancer. 39 There is no doubt that integrated approaches identifying stable pharmagenomic and epigenomic patterns and their relation with expression profiles and genetic functions will be more and more valuable in our fight against cancer.

Cancer Stem Cells

Tumors consist of different populations of neoplastic cells and a variety of elements that form part of the TME, including stromal cells and molecules of the extracellular matrix. 40 Such intratumoral heterogeneity becomes even more complex during clonal variation of transformed cells, as well as influence the elements of the TME have on these cells throughout specific times and places. 41 To explain the origin of cancer cell heterogeneity, 2 models have been put forward. The first proposes that mutations occur at random during development of the tumor in individual neoplastic cells, and this promotes the production of various tumor populations, which acquire specific growth and survival traits that lead them to evolve according to intratumor mechanisms of natural selection. 42 The second model proposes that each tumor begins as a single cell that possess 2 functional properties: it can self-renew and it can produce several types of terminal cells. As these 2 properties are characteristics of somatic stem cells, 43 the cells have been called cancer stem cells (CSCs). 44 According to this model, tumors must have a hierarchical organization, where self-renewing stem cells produce highly proliferating progenitor cells, unable to self-renew but with a high proliferation potential. The latter, in turn, give rise to terminal cells. 45 Current evidence indicates that both models may coexist in tumor progression. In agreement with this idea, new subclones could be produced as a result of a lack of genetic stability and mutational changes, in addition to the heterogeneity derived from the initial CSC and its descendants. Thus, in each tumor, a set of neoplastic cells with different genetic and epigenetic traits may be found, which would provide different phenotypic properties. 46

The CSC concept was originally presented in a model of acute myeloid leukemia. 47 The presence of CSCs was later proved in chronic myeloid leukemia, breast cancer, tumors of the central nervous system, lung cancer, colon cancer, liver cancer, prostate cancer, pancreatic cancer, melanoma, and cancer of the head and neck, amongst others. In all of these cases, detection of CSCs was based on separation of several cell populations according to expression of specific surface markers, such as CD133, CD44, CD24, CD117, and CD15. 48 It is noteworthy that in some solid tumors, and even in some hematopoietic ones, a combination of specific markers that allow the isolation of CSCs has not been found. Interestingly, in such tumors, a high percentage of cells with the capacity to start secondary tumors has been observed; thus, the terms Tumor Initiating Cells (TIC) or Leukemia Initiating Cells (LIC) have been adopted. 46

A relevant aspect of the biology of CSCs is that, just like normal stem cells, they can self-renew. Such self-renewal guarantees the maintenance or expansion of the tumor stem cell population. Another trait CSCs share with normal stem cells is their quiescence, first described in chronic myeloid leukemia. 49 The persistence of quiescent CSCs in solid tumors has been recently described in colorectal cancer, where quiescent clones can become dominant after therapy with oxaliplatin. 50 In non-hierarchical tumors, such as melanoma, the existence of slow-cycling cells that are resistant to antimitogenic agents has also been proved. 51 Such experimental evidence supports the idea that quiescent CSCs or TICs are responsible for both tumor resistance to antineoplastic drugs and clinical relapse after initial therapeutic success.

In addition to quiescence, CSCs use other mechanisms to resist the action of chemotherapeutic drugs. One of these is their increased numbers: upon diagnosis, a high number of CSCs are observed in most analyzed tumors, making treatment unable to destroy all of them. On the other hand, CSCs have a high number of molecular pumps that expulse drugs, as well as high numbers of antiapoptotic molecules. In addition, they have very efficient mechanisms to repair DNA damage. In general, these cells show changes in a variety of signaling pathways involved in proliferation, survival, differentiation, and self-renewal. It is worth highlighting that in recent years, many of these pathways have become potential therapeutic targets in the elimination of CSCs. 52 Another aspect that is highly relevant in understanding the biological behavior of CSCs is that they require a specific site for their development within the tissue where they are found that can provide whatever is needed for their survival and growth. These sites, known as niches, are made of various cells, both tumor and non-tumor, as well as a variety of non-cellular elements (extracellular matrix [ECM], soluble cytokines, ion concentration gradients, etc.), capable of regulating the physiology of CSCs in order to promote their expansion, the invasion of adjacent tissues, and metastasis. 53

It is important to consider that although a large number of surface markers have been identified that allow us to enrich and prospectively follow tumor stem cell populations, to this day there is no combination of markers that allows us to find these populations in all tumors, and it is yet unclear if all tumors present them. In this regard, it is necessary to develop new purification strategies based on the gene expression profiles of these cells, so that tumor heterogeneity is taken into account, as it is evident that a tumor can include multiple clones of CSCs that, in spite of being functional, are genetically different, and that these clones can vary throughout space (occupying different microenvironments and niches) and time (during the progression of a range of tumor stages). Such strategies, in addition to new in vitro and in vivo assays, will allow the development of new and improved CSC elimination strategies. This will certainly have an impact on the development of more efficient therapeutic alternatives.

Invasion and Metastasis

Nearly 90% of the mortality associated with cancer is related to metastasis. 54 This consists of a cascade of events ( Figure 2 ) that begins with the local invasion of a tumor into surrounding tissues, followed by intravasation of tumor cells into the blood stream or lymphatic circulation. Extravasation of neoplastic cells in areas distant from the primary tumor then leads to the formation of one or more micrometastatic lesions which subsequently proliferate to form clinically detectable lesions. 4 The cells that are able to produce metastasis must acquire migratory characteristics, which occur by a process known as epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), that is, the partial loss of epithelial characteristics and the acquirement of mesenchymal traits. 55

Invasion and metastasis cascade. Invasion and metastasis can occur early or late during tumor progression. In either case, invasion to adjacent tissues is driven by stem-like cells (cancer stem cells) that acquire the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) (1). Once they reach sites adjacent to blood vessels, tumor cells (individually or in clusters) enter the blood (2). Tumor cells in circulation can adhere to endothelium and extravasation takes place (3). Other mechanisms alternative to extravasation can exist, such as angiopelosis, in which clusters of tumor cells are internalized by the endothelium. Furthermore, at certain sites, tumor cells can obstruct microvasculature and initiate a metastatic lesion right there. Sometimes, a tumor cells that has just exit circulation goes into an MET in order to become quiescent (4). Inflammatory signals can activate quiescent metastatic cells that will proliferate and generate a clinically detectable lesion (5).

Although several of the factors involved in this process are currently known, many issues are still unsolved. For instance, it has not yet been possible to monitor in vivo the specific moment when it occurs 54 ; the microenvironmental factors of the primary tumor that promote such a transition are not known with precision; and the exact moment during tumor evolution in which one cell or a cluster of cells begin to migrate to distant areas, is also unknown. The wide range of possibilities offered by intra- and inter-tumoral heterogeneity 56 stands in the way of suggesting a generalized strategy that could resolve this complication.

It was previously believed that metastasis was only produced in late stages of tumor progression; however, recent studies indicate that EMT and metastasis can occur during the early course of the disease. In pancreatic cancer, for example, cells going through EMT are able to colonize and form metastatic lesions in the liver in the first stages of the disease. 52 , 57 Metastatic cell clusters circulating in peripheral blood (PB) are prone to generate a metastatic site, compared to individual tumor cells. 58 , 59 In this regard, novel strategies, such as the use of micro-RNAs, are being assessed in order to diminish induction of EMT. 60 It must be mentioned, however, that the metastatic process seems to be even more complex, with alternative pathways that do not involve EMT. 61 , 62

A crucial stage in the process of metastasis is the intravasation of tumor cells (alone or in clusters) towards the blood stream and/or lymphatic circulation. 63 These mechanisms are also under intensive research because blocking them could allow the control of spreading of the primary tumor. In PB or lymphatic circulation, tumor cells travel to distant parts for the potential formation of a metastatic lesion. During their journey, these cells must stand the pressure of blood flow and escape interaction with natural killer (NK) cells . 64 To avoid them, tumor cells often cover themselves with thrombocytes and also produce factors such as VEGF, angiopoietin-2, angiopoietin-4, and CCL2 that are involved in the induction of vascular permeability. 54 , 65 Neutrophils also contribute to lung metastasis in the bloodstream by secreting IL-1β and metalloproteases to facilitate extravasation of tumor cells. 64

The next step in the process of metastasis is extravasation, for which tumor cells, alone or in clusters, can use various mechanisms, including a recently described process known as angiopellosis that involves restructuring the endothelial barrier to internalize one or several cells into a tissue. 66 The study of leukocyte extravasation has contributed to a more detailed knowledge of this process, in such a way that some of the proposed strategies to avoid extravasation include the use of integrin inhibitors, molecules that are vital for rolling, adhesion, and extravasation of tumor cells. 67 , 68 Another strategy that has therapeutic potential is the use of antibodies that strengthen vascular integrity to obstruct transendothelial migration of tumor cells and aid in their destruction in PB. 69

Following extravasation, tumor cells can return to an epithelial phenotype, a process known as mesenchymal–epithelial transition and may remain inactive for several years. They do this by competing for specialized niches, like those in the bone marrow, brain, and intestinal mucosa, which provide signals through the Notch and Wnt pathways. 70 Through the action of the Wnt pathway, tumor cells enter a slow state of the cell cycle and induce the expression of molecules that inhibit the cytotoxic function of NK cells. 71 The extravasated tumor cell that is in a quiescent state must comply with 2 traits typical of stem cells: they must have the capacity to self-renew and to generate all of the cells that form the secondary tumor.

There are still several questions regarding the metastatic process. One of the persisting debates at present is if EMT is essential for metastasis or if it plays a more important role in chemoresistance. 61 , 62 It is equally important to know if there is a pattern in each tumor for the production of cells with the capacity to carry out EMT. In order to control metastasis, it is fundamental to know what triggers acquisition of the migratory phenotype and the intrinsic factors determining this transition. Furthermore, it is essential to know if mutations associated with the primary tumor or the variety of epigenetic changes are involved in this process. 55 It is clear that metastatic cells have affinity for certain tissues, depending on the nature of the primary tumor (seed and soil hypothesis). This may be caused by factors such as the location and the direction of the bloodstream or lymphatic fluid, but also by conditioning of premetastatic niches at a distance (due to the large number of soluble factors secreted by the tumor and the recruitment of cells of the immune system to those sites). 72 We have yet to identify and characterize all of the elements that participate in this process. Deciphering them will be of upmost importance from a therapeutic point of view.

Epidemiology of Cancer

Cancer is the second cause of death worldwide; today one of every 6 deaths is due to a type of cancer. According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), in 2020 there were approximately 19.3 million new cases of cancer, and 10 million deaths by this disease, 6 while 23.8 million cases and 13.0 million deaths are projected to occur by 2030. 73 In this regard, it is clear the increasing role that environmental factors—including environmental pollutants and processed food—play as cancer inducers and promoters. 74 The types of cancer that produce the greatest numbers of cases and deaths worldwide are indicated in Table 1 . 6

Total Numbers of Cancer Cases and Deaths Worldwide in 2020 by Cancer Type (According to the Global Cancer Observatory, IARC).

Data presented on this table were obtained from Ref. 6.

As shown in Figure 3 , lung, breast, prostate, and colorectal cancer are the most common throughout the world, and they are mostly concentrated in countries of high to very high human development index (HDI). Although breast, prostate, and colorectal cancer have a high incidence, the number of deaths they cause is proportionally low, mostly reflecting the great progress made in their control. However, these data also reveal the types of cancer that require further effort in prevention, precise early detection avoiding overdiagnosis, and efficient treatment. This is the case of liver, lung, esophageal, and pancreatic cancer, where the difference between the number of cases and deaths is smaller ( Figure 3B ). Social and economic transition in several countries has had an impact on reducing the incidence of neoplasms associated with infection and simultaneously produced an increase in the types related to reproductive, dietary, and hormonal factors. 75

Incidence and mortality for some types of cancer in the world. (A) Estimated number of cases and deaths in 2020 for the most frequent cancer types worldwide. (B) Incidence and mortality rates, normalized according to age, for the most frequent cancer types in countries with very high/& high (VH&H; blue) and/low and middle (L&M; red) Human Development Index (HDI). Data include both genders and all ages. Data according to https://gco.iarc.fr/today , as of June 10, 2021.

In the past 3 decades, cancer mortality rates have fallen in high HDI countries, with the exception of pancreatic cancer, and lung cancer in women. Nevertheless, changes in the incidence of cancer do not show the same consistency, possibly due to variables such as the possibility of early detection, exposure to risk factors, or genetic predisposition. 76 , 77 Countries such as Australia, Canada, Denmark, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom have reported a reduction in incidence and mortality in cancer of the stomach, colon, lung, and ovary, as well as an increase in survival. 78 Changes in modifiable risk factors, such as the use of tobacco, have played an important role in prevention. In this respect, it has been estimated that decline in tobacco use can explain between 35% and 45% of the reduction in cancer mortality rates, 79 while the fall in incidence and mortality due to stomach cancer can be attributed partly to the control of Helicobacter pylori infection. 80 Another key factor in the fall of mortality rates in developed countries has been an increase in early detection as a result of screening programs, as in breast and prostate cancer, which have had their mortality rates decreased dramatically in spite of an increase in their incidence. 76

Another important improvement observed in recent decades is the increase in survival rates, particularly in high HDI countries. In the USA, for example, survival rates for patients with prostate cancer at 5 years after initial diagnosis was 28% during 1947–1951; 69% during 1975–1977, and 100% during 2003–2009. Something similar occurred with breast cancer, with a 5-year survival rate of 54% in 1947–1951, 75% in 1975–1977, and 90% in 2003–2009. 81 In the CONCORD 3 version, age-standardize 5-year survival for patients with breast cancer in the USA during 2010–2014 was 90%, and 97% for prostate cancer patients. 82 Importantly, even among high HDI countries, significant differences have been identified in survival rates, being stage of disease at diagnosis, time for access to effective treatment, and comorbidities, the main factors influencing survival in these nations. 78 Unfortunately, survival rates in low HDI countries are significantly lower due to several factors, including lack of information, deficient screening and early detection programs, limited access to treatment, and suboptimal cancer registration. 82 It should be noted that in countries with low to middle HDI, neoplasms with the greatest incidence are those affecting women (breast and cervical cancer), which reflects not only a problem with access to health services, but also a serious inequality issue that involves social, cultural, and even religious obstacles. 83

Up to 42% of incident cases and 47% of deaths by cancer in the USA are due to potentially modifiable risk factors such as use of tobacco, physical activity, diet, and infection. 84 It has been calculated that 2.4 million deaths by cancer, mostly of the lung, can be attributed to tobacco. 73 In 2020, the incidence rate of lung cancer in Western Africa was 2.2, whereas in Polynesia and Eastern Asia was 37.3 and 34.4, respectively. 6 In contrast, the global burden of cancer associated with infection was 15.4%, but in Sub-Saharan Africa it was 30%. 85 Likewise, the incidence of cervical cancer in Eastern Africa was 40.1, in contrast with the USA and Canada that have a rate of 6.2. This makes it clear that one of the challenges we face is the reduction of the risk factors that are potentially modifiable and associated with specific types of cancer.

Improvement of survival rates and its disparities worldwide are also important challenges. Five-year survival for breast cancer—diagnosed during 2010-2014— in the USA, for example, was 90%, whereas in countries like South Africa it was 40%. 82 Childhood leukemia in the USA and several European countries shows a 5-year survival of 90%, while in Latin-American countries it is 50–76%. 86 Interestingly, there are neoplasms, such as pancreatic cancer, for which there has been no significant increase in survival, which remains low (5–15%) both in developed and developing countries. 82

Although data reported on global incidence and mortality gives a general overview on the epidemiology of cancer, it is important to note that there are great differences in coverage of cancer registries worldwide. To date, only 1 out of every 3 countries reports high quality data on the incidence of cancer. 87 For the past 50 years, the IARC has supported population-based cancer registries; however, more than one-third of the countries belonging to the WHO, mainly countries of low and middle income (LMIC), have no data on more than half of the 18 indicators of sustainable development goals. 88 High quality cancer registries only cover 4% of the population in Africa, 8% in Asia, and 7% in Latin America, contrasting with 83% in the USA and Canada, and 33% in Europe. 89 In response to this situation, the Global Initiative for Cancer Registry Development was created in 2012 to generate improved infrastructure to permit greater coverage and better quality registries, especially in countries with low and middle HDI. 88 It is expected that initiatives of this sort in the coming years will allow more and better information to guide strategies for the control of cancer worldwide, especially in developing regions. This will enable survival to be measured over longer periods of time (10, 15, or 20 years), as an effective measure in the control of cancer. The WHO has established as a target for 2025 to reduce deaths by cancer and other non-transmissible diseases by 25% in the population between the ages of 30–69; such an effort requires not only effective prevention measures to reduce incidence, but also more efficient health systems to diminish mortality and increase survival. At the moment, it is an even greater challenge because of the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic which has negatively impacted cancer prevention and health services. 90

Oncologic Treatments

A general perspective.

At the beginning of the 20th century, cancer treatment, specifically treatment of solid tumors, was based fundamentally on surgical resection of tumors, which together with other methods for local control, such as cauterization, had been used since ancient times. 91 At that time, there was an ongoing burst of clinical observations along with interventions sustained on fundamental knowledge about physics, chemistry, and biology. In the final years of the 19 th century and the first half of the 20th, these technological developments gave rise to radiotherapy, hormone therapy, and chemotherapy. 92 - 94 Simultaneously, immunotherapy was also developed, although usually on a smaller scale, in light of the overwhelming progress of chemotherapy and radiotherapy. 95

Thus began the development and expansion of disciplines based on these approaches (surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, and immunotherapy), with their application evolving ever more rapidly up to their current uses. Today, there is a wide range of therapeutic tools for the care of cancer patients. These include elements that emerged empirically, arising from observations of their effects in various medical fields, as well as drugs that were designed to block processes and pathways that form part of the physiopathology of one or more neoplasms according to knowledge of specific molecular alterations. A classic example of the first sort of tool is mustard gas, originally used as a weapon in war, 96 but when applied for medical purposes, marked the beginning of the use of chemicals in the treatment of malignant neoplasms, that is, chemotherapy. 94 A clear example of the second case is imatinib, designed specifically to selectively inhibit a molecular alteration in chronic myeloid leukemia: the Bcr-Abl oncoprotein. 97

It is on this foundation that today the 5 areas mentioned previously coexist and complement one another. The general framework that motivates this amalgam and guides its development is precision medicine, founded on the interaction of basic and clinical science. In the forecasts for development in each of these fields, surgery is expected to continue to be the fundamental approach for primary tumors in the foreseeable future, as well as when neoplastic disease in the patient is limited, or can be limited by applying systemic or regional elements, before and/or after surgical resection, and it can be reasonably anticipated for the patient to have a significant period free from disease or even to be cured. With regards to technology, intensive exploration of robotic surgery is contemplated. 98

The technological possibilities for radiotherapy have progressed in such a way that it is now possible to radiate neoplastic tissue with an extraordinary level of precision, and therefore avoid damage to healthy tissue. 99 This allows administration of large doses of ionizing radiation in one or a few fractions, what is known as “radiosurgery.” The greatest challenges to the efficacy of this approach are related to radio-resistance in certain neoplasms. Most efforts regarding research in this field are concentrated on understanding the underlying biological mechanisms of the phenomenon and their potential control through radiosensitizers. 100

“Traditional” chemotherapy, based on the use of compounds obtained from plants and other natural products, acting in a non-specific manner on both neoplastic and healthy tissues with a high proliferation rate, continues to prevail. 101 The family of chemotherapeutic drugs currently includes alkylating agents, antimetabolites, anti-topoisomerase agents, and anti-microtubules. Within the pharmacologic perspective, the objective is to attain a high concentration or activity of such molecules in specific tissues while avoiding their accumulation in others, in order to achieve an increase in effectiveness and a reduction in toxicity. This has been possible with the use of viral vectors, for example, that are able to limit their replication in neoplastic tissues, and activate prodrugs of normally nonspecific agents, like cyclophosphamide, exclusively in those specific areas. 102 More broadly, chemotherapy also includes a subgroup of substances, known as molecular targeted therapy, that affect processes in a more direct and specific manner, which will be mentioned later.

There is no doubt that immunotherapy—to be explored next—is one of the therapeutic fields where development has been greatest in recent decades and one that has produced enormous expectation in cancer treatment. 103 Likewise, cell therapy, based on the use of immune cells or stem cells, has come to complement the oncologic therapeutic arsenal. 43 Each and every one of the therapeutic fields that have arisen in oncology to this day continue to prevail and evolve. Interestingly, the foreseeable future for the development of cancer treatment contemplates these approaches in a joint and complementary manner, within the general framework of precision medicine, 104 and sustained by knowledge of the biological mechanisms involved in the appearance and progression of neoplasms. 105 , 106

Immunotherapy

Stimulating the immune system to treat cancer patients has been a historical objective in the field of oncology. Since the early work of William Coley 107 to the achievements reached at the end of the 20 th century, scientific findings and technological developments paved the way to searching for new immunotherapeutic strategies. Recombinant DNA technology allowed the synthesis of cytokines, such as interferon-alpha (IFN-α) and interleukin 2 (IL-2), which were authorized by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of hairy cell leukemia in 1986, 108 as well as kidney cancer and metastatic melanoma in 1992 and 1998, respectively. 109

The first therapeutic vaccine against cancer, based on the use of autologous dendritic cells (DCs), was approved by the FDA against prostate cancer in 2010. However, progress in the field of immunotherapy against cancer was stalled in the first decade of the present century, mostly due to failure of several vaccines in clinical trials. In many cases, application of these vaccines was detained by the complexity and cost involved in their production. Nevertheless, with the coming of the concept of immune checkpoint control, and the demonstration of the relevance of molecules such as cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4), and programmed cell death molecule-1 (PD-1), immunotherapy against cancer recovered its global relevance. In 2011, the monoclonal antibody (mAb) ipilimumab, specific to the CTLA-4 molecule, was the first checkpoint inhibitor (CPI) approved for the treatment of advanced melanoma. 110 Later, inhibitory mAbs for PD-1, or for the PD-1 ligand (PD-L1), 111 as well as the production of T cells with chimeric receptors for antigen recognition (CAR-T), 112 which have been approved to treat various types of cancer, including melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), head and neck cancer, bladder cancer, renal cell carcinoma (RCC), and hepatocellular carcinoma, among others, have changed the paradigm of cancer treatment.

In spite of the current use of anti-CTLA-4 and anti-PD-L1 mAbs, only a subgroup of patients has responded favorably to these CPIs, and the number of patients achieving clinical benefit is still small. It has been estimated that more than 70% of patients with solid tumors do not respond to CPI immunotherapy because either they show primary resistance, or after responding favorably, develop resistance to treatment. 113 In this regard, it is important to mention that in recent years very important steps have been taken to identify the intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms that mediate resistance to CPI immunotherapy. 114 Intrinsic mechanisms include changes in the antitumor immune response pathways, such as faulty processing and presentation of antigens by APCs, activation of T cells for tumor cell destruction, and changes in tumor cells that lead to an immunosuppressive TME. Extrinsic factors include the presence of immunosuppressive cells in the local TME, such as regulatory T cells, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs), and type 2 macrophages (M2), in addition to immunosuppressive cytokines.

On the other hand, classification of solid tumors as “hot,” “cold,” or “excluded,” depending on T cell infiltrates and the contact of such infiltrates with tumor cells, as well as those that present high tumor mutation burden (TMB), have redirected immunotherapy towards 3 main strategies 115 ( Table 2 ): (1) Making T-cell antitumor response more effective, using checkpoint inhibitors complementary to anti-CTLA-4 and anti-PD-L1, such as LAG3, Tim-3, and TIGT, as well as using CAR-T cells against tumor antigens. (2) Activating tumor-associated myeloid cells including monocytes, granulocytes, macrophages, and DC lineages, found at several frequencies within human solid tumors. (3) Regulating the biochemical pathways in TME that produce high concentrations of immunosuppressive molecules, such as kynurenine, a product of tryptophan metabolism, through the activity of indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase; or adenosine, a product of ATP hydrolysis by the activity of the enzyme 5’nucleotidase (CD73). 116

Current Strategies to Stimulate the Immune Response for Antitumor Immunotherapy.

Abbreviations: TME, tumor microenvironment; IL, interleukin; TNF, Tumor Necrosis Factor; TNFR, TNF-receptor; CD137, receptor–co-stimulator of the TNFR family; OX40, member number 4 of the TNFR superfamily; CD27/CD70, member of the TNFR superfamily; CD40/CD40L, antigen-presenting cells (APC) co-stimulator and its ligand; GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; IFN, interferon; STING, IFN genes-stimulator; RIG-I, retinoic acid inducible gene-I; MDA5, melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5; CDN, cyclic dinucleotide; ATP, adenosine triphosphate; HMGB1, high mobility group B1 protein; TLR, Toll-like receptor; HVEM, Herpes virus entry mediator; GITR, glucocorticoid-induced TNFR family-related gene; CTLA4, cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4; PD-L1, programmed death ligand-1; TIGIT, T-cell immunoreceptor with immunoglobulin and tyrosine-based inhibition motives; CSF1/CSF1R, colony-stimulating factor-1 and its receptor; CCR2, Type 2 chemokine receptor; PI3Kγ, Phosphoinositide 3-Kinase γ; CXCL/CCL, chemokine ligands; LFA1, lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1; ICAM1, intercellular adhesion molecule 1; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor; IDO, indolamine 2,3-dioxigenase; TGF, transforming growth factor; LAG-3, lymphocyte-activation gene 3 protein; TIM-3, T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin-domain containing-3; CD73, 5´nucleotidase; ARs, adenosine receptors; Selectins, cell adhesion molecules; CAR-T, chimeric antigen receptor T cell; TCR-T, T-cell receptor engineered T cell.

Apart from the problems associated with its efficacy (only a small group of patients respond to it), immunotherapy faces several challenges related to its safety. In other words, immunotherapy can induce adverse events in patients, such as autoimmunity, where healthy tissues are attacked, or cytokine release syndrome and vascular leak syndrome, as observed with the use of IL-2, both of which lead to serious hypotension, fever, renal failure, and other adverse events that are potentially lethal. The main challenges to be faced by immunotherapy in the future will require the combined efforts of basic and clinical scientists, with the objective of accelerating the understanding of the complex interactions between cancer and the immune system, and improve treatment options for patients. Better comprehension of immune phenotypes in tumors, beyond the state of PD-L1 and TME, will be relevant to increase immunotherapy efficacy. In this context, the identification of precise tumor antigenicity biomarkers by means of new technologies, such as complete genome sequencing, single cell sequencing, and epigenetic analysis to identify sites or subclones typical in drug resistance, as well as activation, traffic and infiltration of effector cells of the immune response, and regulation of TME mechanisms, may help define patient populations that are good candidates for specific therapies and therapeutic combinations. 117 , 118 Likewise, the use of agents that can induce specific activation and modulation of the response of T cells in tumor tissue, will help improve efficacy and safety profiles that can lead to better clinical results.

Molecular Targeted Therapy

For over 30 years, and based on the progress in our knowledge of tumor biology and its mechanisms, there has been a search for therapeutic alternatives that would allow spread and growth of tumors to be slowed down by blocking specific molecules. This approach is known as molecular targeted therapy. 119 Among the elements generally used as molecular targets there are transcription factors, cytokines, membrane receptors, molecules involved in a variety of signaling pathways, apoptosis modulators, promoters of angiogenesis, and cell cycle regulators. 120

Imatinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor for the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia, became the first targeted therapy in the final years of the 1990s. 97 From then on, new drugs have been developed by design, and today more than 60 targeted therapies have been approved by the FDA for the treatment of a variety of cancers ( Table 3 ). 121 This has had a significant impact on progression-free survival and global survival in neoplasms such as non-small cell lung cancer, breast cancer, renal cancer, and melanoma.

FDA Approved Molecular Targeted Therapies for the Treatment of Solid Tumors.

Abbreviations: mAb, monoclonal antibody; ALK, anaplastic lymphoma kinase; CDK, cyclin-dependent kinase; CTLA-4, cytotoxic lymphocyte antigen-4; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; FGFR, fibroblast growth factor receptor; GIST, gastrointestinal stroma tumor; mTOR, target of rapamycine in mammal cells; NSCLC, non-small cell lung carcinoma; PARP, poli (ADP-ribose) polimerase; PD-1, programmed death protein-1; PDGFR, platelet-derived growth factor receptor; PD-L1, programmed death ligand-1; ER, estrogen receptor; PR, progesterone receptor; TKR, tyrosine kinase receptors; SERM, selective estrogen receptor modulator; TKI, tyrosine kinase inhibitor; VEGFR, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor. Modified from Ref. [ 127 ].

Most drugs classified as targeted therapies form part of 2 large groups: small molecules and mAbs. The former are defined as compounds of low molecular weight (<900 Daltons) that act upon entering the cell. 120 Targets of these compounds are cell cycle regulatory proteins, proapoptotic proteins, or DNA repair proteins. These drugs are indicated based on histological diagnosis, as well as molecular tests. In this group there are multi-kinase inhibitors (RTKs) and tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), like sunitinib, sorafenib, and imatinib; cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors, such as palbociclib, ribociclib and abemaciclib; poli (ADP-ribose) polimerase inhibitors (PARPs), like olaparib and talazoparib; and selective small-molecule inhibitors, like ALK and ROS1. 122

As for mAbs, they are protein molecules that act on membrane receptors or extracellular proteins by interrupting the interaction between ligands and receptors, in such a way that they reduce cell replication and induce cytostasis. Among the most widely used mAbs in oncology we have: trastuzumab, a drug directed against the receptor for human epidermal growth factor-2 (HER2), which is overexpressed in a subgroup of patients with breast and gastric cancer; and bevacizumab, that blocks vascular endothelial growth factor and is used in patients with colorectal cancer, cervical cancer, and ovarian cancer. Other mAbs approved by the FDA include pembolizumab, atezolizumab, nivolumab, avelumab, ipilimumab, durvalumab, and cemiplimab. These drugs require expression of response biomarkers, such as PD-1 and PD-L1, and must also have several resistance biomarkers, such as the expression of EGFR, the loss of PTEN, and alterations in beta-catenin. 123

Because cancer is such a diverse disease, it is fundamental to have precise diagnostic methods that allow us to identify the most adequate therapy. Currently, basic immunohistochemistry is complemented with neoplastic molecular profiles to determine a more accurate diagnosis, and it is probable that in the near future cancer treatments will be based exclusively on molecular profiles. In this regard, it is worth mentioning that the use of targeted therapy depends on the existence of specific biomarkers that indicate if the patient will be susceptible to the effects of the drug or not. Thus, the importance of underlining that not all patients are susceptible to receive targeted therapy. In certain neoplasms, therapeutic targets are expressed in less than 5% of the diagnosed population, hindering a more extended use of certain drugs.

The identification of biomarkers and the use of new generation sequencing on tumor cells has shown predictive and prognostic relevance. Likewise, mutation analysis has allowed monitoring of tumor clone evolution, providing information on changes in canonic gene sequences, such as TP53, GATA3, PIK3CA, AKT1, and ERBB2; infrequent somatic mutations developed after primary treatments, like SWI-SNF and JAK2-STAT3; or acquired drug resistance mutations such as ESR1. 124 The study of mutations is vital; in fact, many of them already have specific therapeutic indications, which have helped select adequate treatments. 125

There is no doubt that molecular targeted therapy is one of the main pillars of precision medicine. However, it faces significant problems that often hinder obtaining better results. Among these, there is intratumor heterogeneity and differences between the primary tumor and metastatic sites, as well as intrinsic and acquired resistance to these therapies, the mechanisms of which include the presence of heterogeneous subclones, DNA hypermethylation, histone acetylation, and interruption of mRNA degradation and translation processes. 126 Nonetheless, beyond the obstacles facing molecular targeted therapy from a biological and methodological point of view, in the real world, access to genomic testing and specific drugs continues to be an enormous limitation, in such a way that strategies must be designed in the future for precision medicine to be possible on a global scale.

Cell Therapy

Another improvement in cancer treatment is the use of cell therapy, that is, the use of specific cells as therapeutic agents. This clinical procedure has 2 modalities: the first consists of replacing and regenerating functional cells in a specific tissue by means of stem/progenitor cells of a certain kind, 43 while the second uses immune cells as effectors to eliminate malignant cells. 127

Regarding the first type, we must emphasize the development of cell therapy based on hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. 128 For over 50 years, hematopoietic cell transplants have been used to treat a variety of hematologic neoplasms (different forms of leukemia and lymphoma). Today, it is one of the most successful examples of cell therapy, including innovative modalities, such as haploidentical transplants, 129 as well as application of stem cells expanded ex vivo . 130 There are also therapies that have used immature cells that form part of the TME, such as MSCs. The replication potential and cytokine secretion capacity of these cells make them an excellent option for this type of treatment. 131 Neural stem cells can also be manipulated to produce and secrete apoptotic factors, and when these cells are incorporated into primary neural tumors, they cause a certain degree of regression. They can even be transfected with genes that encode for oncolytic enzymes capable of inducing regression of glioblastomas. 132

With respect to cell therapy using immune cells, several research groups have manipulated cells associated with tumors to make them effector cells and thus improve the efficacy and specificity of the antitumor treatment. PB leckocytes cultured in the presence of IL-2 to obtain activated lymphocytes, in combination with IL-2 administration, have been used in antitumor clinical protocols. Similarly, infiltrating lymphocytes from tumors with antitumor activity have been used and can be expanded ex vivo with IL-2. These lymphocyte populations have been used in immunomodulatory therapies in melanoma, and pancreatic and kidney tumors, producing a favorable response in treated patients. 133 NK cells and macrophages have also been used in immunotherapy, although with limited results. 134 , 135

One of the cell therapies with better projection today is the use of CAR-T cells. This strategy combines 2 forms of advanced therapy: cell therapy and gene therapy. It involves the extraction of T cells from the cancer patient, which are genetically modified in vitro to express cell surface receptors that will recognize antigens on the surface of tumor cells. The modified T cells are then reintroduced in the patient to aid in an exacerbated immune response that leads to eradication of the tumor cells ( Figure 4 ). Therapy with CAR-T cells has been used successfully in the treatment of some types of leukemia, lymphoma, and myeloma, producing complete responses in patients. 136

CAR-T cell therapy. (A) T lymphocytes obtained from cancer patients are genetically manipulated to produce CAR-T cells that recognize tumor cells in a very specific manner. (B) Interaction between CAR molecule and tumor antigen. CAR molecule is a receptor that results from the fusion between single-chain variable fragments (scFv) from a monoclonal antibody and one or more intracellular signaling domains from the T-cell receptor. CD3ζ, CD28 and 4-1BB correspond to signaling domains on the CAR molecule.

Undoubtedly, CAR-T cell therapy has been truly efficient in the treatment of various types of neoplasms. However, this therapeutic strategy can also have serious side effects, such as release of cytokines into the bloodstream, which can cause different symptoms, from high fever to multiorgan failure, and even neurotoxicity, leading to cerebral edema in many cases. 137 Adequate control of these side effects is an important medical challenge. Several research groups are trying to improve CAR-T cell therapy through various approaches, including production of CAR-T cells directed against a wider variety of tumor cell-specific antigens that are able to attack different types of tumors, and the identification of more efficient types of T lymphocytes. Furthermore, producing CAR-T cells from a single donor that may be used in the treatment of several patients would reduce the cost of this sort of personalized cell therapy. 136

Achieving wider use of cell therapy in oncologic diseases is an important challenge that requires solving various issues. 138 One is intratumor cell heterogeneity, including malignant subclones and the various components of the TME, which results in a wide profile of membrane protein expression that complicates finding an ideal tumor antigen that allows specific identification (and elimination) of malignant cells. Likewise, structural organization of the TME challenges the use of cell therapy, as administration of cell vehicles capable of recognizing malignant cells might not be able to infiltrate the tumor. This results from low expression of chemokines in tumors and the presence of a dense fibrotic matrix that compacts the inner tumor mass and avoids antitumor cells from infiltrating and finding malignant target cells.

Further Challenges in the 21st Century

Beyond the challenges regarding oncologic biomedical research, the 21 st century is facing important issues that must be solved as soon as possible if we truly wish to gain significant ground in our fight against cancer. Three of the most important have to do with prevention, early diagnosis, and access to oncologic medication and treatment.

Prevention and Early Diagnosis

Prevention is the most cost-effective strategy in the long term, both in low and high HDI nations. Data from countries like the USA indicate that between 40-50% of all types of cancer are preventable through potentially modifiable factors (primary prevention), such as use of tobacco and alcohol, diet, physical activity, exposure to ionizing radiation, as well as prevention of infection through access to vaccination, and by reducing exposure to environmental pollutants, such as pesticides, diesel exhaust particles, solvents, etc. 74 , 84 Screening, on the other hand, has shown great effectiveness as secondary prevention. Once population-based screening programs are implemented, there is generally an initial increase in incidence; however, in the long term, a significant reduction occurs not only in incidence rates, but also in mortality rates due to detection of early lesions and timely and adequate treatment.

A good example is colon cancer. There are several options for colon cancer screening, such as detection of fecal occult blood, fecal immunohistochemistry, flexible sigmoidoscopy, and colonoscopy, 139 , 140 which identify precursor lesions (polyp adenomas) and allow their removal. Such screening has allowed us to observe 3 patterns of incidence and mortality for colon cancer between the years 2000 and 2010: on one hand, an increase in incidence and mortality in countries with low to middle HDI, mainly countries in Asia, South America, and Eastern Europe; on the other hand, an increase in incidence and a fall in mortality in countries with very high HDI, such as Canada, the United Kingdom, Denmark, and Singapore; and finally a fall in incidence and mortality in countries like the USA, Japan, and France. The situation in South America and Asia seems to reflect limitations in medical infrastructure and a lack of access to early detection, 141 while the patterns observed in developed countries reveal the success, even if it may be partial, of that which can be achieved by well-structured prevention programs.

Another example of success, but also of strong contrast, is cervical cancer. The discovery of the human papilloma virus (HPV) as the causal agent of cervical cancer brought about the development of vaccines and tests to detect oncogenic genotypes, which modified screening recommendations and guidelines, and allowed several developed countries to include the HPV vaccine in their national vaccination programs. Nevertheless, the outlook is quite different in other areas of the world. Eighty percent of the deaths by cervical cancer reported in 2018 occurred in low-income nations. This reveals the urgency of guaranteeing access to primary and secondary prevention (vaccination and screening, respectively) in these countries, or else it will continue to be a serious public health problem in spite of its preventability.

Screening programs for other neoplasms, such as breast, prostate, lung, and thyroid cancer have shown outlooks that differ from those just described, because, among other reasons, these neoplasms are highly diverse both biologically and clinically. Another relevant issue is the overdiagnosis of these neoplasms, that is, the diagnosis of disease that would not cause symptoms or death in the patient. 142 It has been calculated that 25% of breast cancer (determined by mammogram), 50–60% of prostate cancer (determined by PSA), and 13–25% of lung cancer (determined by CT) are overdiagnosed. 142 Thus, it is necessary to improve the sensitivity and specificity of screening tests. In this respect, knowledge provided by the biology of cancer and “omic” sciences offers a great opportunity to improve screening and prevention strategies. All of the above shows that prevention and early diagnosis are the foundations in the fight against cancer, and it is essential to continue to implement broader screening programs and better detection methods.

Global Equity in Oncologic Treatment

Progress in cancer treatment has considerably increased the number of cancer survivors. Nevertheless, this tendency is evident only in countries with a very solid economy. Indeed, during the past 30 years, cancer mortality rates have increased 30% worldwide. 143 Global studies indicate that close to 70% of cancer deaths in the world occur in nations of low to middle income. But even in high-income countries, there are sectors of society that are more vulnerable and have less access to cancer treatments. 144 Cancer continues to be a disease of great social inequality.

In Europe, the differences in access to cancer treatment are highly marked. These treatments are more accessible in Western Europe than in its Eastern counterpart. 145 Furthermore, highly noticeable differences between high-income countries have been detected in the cost of cancer drugs. 146 It is interesting to note that in many of these cases, treatment is too costly and the clinical benefit only marginal. Thus, the importance of these problems being approached by competent national, regional, and global authorities, because if these new drugs and therapeutic programs are not accessible to the majority, progress in biomedical, clinical and epidemiological research will have a limited impact in our fight against cancer. We must not forget that health is a universal right, from which low HDI countries must not be excluded, nor vulnerable populations in nations with high HDI. The participation of a well-informed society will also be fundamental to achieve a global impact, as today we must fight not only against the disease, but also against movements and ideas (such as the anti-vaccine movement and the so-called miracle therapies) that can block the medical battle against cancer.

Final Comments

From the second half of the 20th century to the present day, progress in our knowledge about the origin and development of cancer has been extraordinary. We now understand cancer in detail in genomic, molecular, cellular, and physiological terms, and this knowledge has had a significant impact in the clinic. There is no doubt that a patient who is diagnosed today with a type of cancer has a better prospect than a patient diagnosed 20 or 50 years ago. However, we are still far from winning the war against cancer. The challenges are still numerous. For this reason, oncologic biomedical research must be a worldwide priority. Likewise, one of the fundamental challenges for the coming decades must be to reduce unequal access to health services in areas of low- to middle income, and in populations that are especially vulnerable, as well as continue improving prevention programs, including public health programs to reduce exposure to environmental chemicals and improve diet and physical activity in the general population. 74 , 84 Fostering research and incorporation of new technological resources, particularly in less privileged nations, will play a key role in our global fight against cancer.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Hector Mayani https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2483-3782

353 Cancer Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best cancer topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on cancer, 📌 most interesting cancer topics to write about, 💡 good research topics about cancer, ⭐ simple & easy cancer essay titles, 🔎 interesting topics to write about cancer.

• Different Applications of Calculus in Cancer Treatment and Monitoring The type of treatments applied is pre-determined by the location, the type, and the severity of the tumors. The mathematical concept of calculus is applied when doctors consider the diffusion of different drugs into the […]
• Breast Cancer: Concept Map and Case Study Each member of the interdisciplinary team involved in treating patients with cancer and heart disease should focus on educational priorities such as: We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• Esophageal Cancer Overview and Analysis Esophageal Cancer mainly refers to the growths that forms within the tissues that line the walls of the esophagus; the tube composed of muscles that aid the passage of the food from the exterior opening […]
• American Cancer Society History Its main duty is to ensure there is a reduction of the number of patients suffering from cancer and eradication of the disease as one of the major health problem faced by many Americans today.
• Health Psychology: Going Through a Breast Cancer Diagnosis He is unaware that she has been diagnosed with depression and that she is going for breast screening Stress from work is also a contributing factor to her condition.
• Cervical Cancer Prevention and Treatment Plan Cervical cancer is a type of cancer that affects the lower part of the uterus known as the cervix. The presence of these cells in the cervix is an indication that a woman may be […]
• Viruses as a Cause of Cancer This is done by switching on a dormant cancer gene when it enters the cell’s DNA of the host. Some practices like smoking and drinking increase the risk of developing cancer as they work together […]
• Children With Cancer and Schooling Challenges The rationale for the study was to identify what society has done to meet the social needs of children with cancer.
• Cervical Cancer: Medical Imaging and Radiotherapy Understanding the role of imaging and radiation therapy in the diagnosis and treatment of cervical cancer is important, especially for effective prevention and management.
• Enhancing Cancer Screening Access and Treatment Equity Increasing the accessibility and equity in cancer screening solutions is extremely important. The existing screening criteria should be expanded through changes in guidelines, and increased funding.
• Progress in Cancer Control: Rhetorical Analysis According to their study, these behaviors are more likely to lead to cancer, and the authors’ goal is to convince the audience that they should take responsibility for their health and strive to minimize the […]
• Breast Cancer and Its Population Burden The other objectives that are central to this paper are highlighted below: To determine which group is at a high risk of breast cancer To elucidate the impact of breast cancer on elderly women and […]
• Pap Smear and Cervical Cancer: Oncology Nursing The piece of legislation I believe has most significantly affected women’s healthcare in the past century is the regulation for women to take Pap smear regularly to prevent cervical cancer development.
• Colorectal Cancer Screening Methodology CRC affects the colon, the large intestine, and the rectum a passageway between the colon and the anus. In 2019, the average incidence rate for CRC in the United States was 41.
• Screening Colonoscopy for Colorectal Cancer Prevention Colonoscopy allows visualization of the entire mucosa of the distal terminal ileum and the large intestine. Before the screening, the natural history of the disease is essential for the practitioner to identify the prevention levels.
• Prostate Cancer: Urinary Frequency and Incontinence In terms of the back and spine pain that the patient reported, it is notable that the x-ray revealed some mild degenerative changes in the form of a cystic mass near the spine.
• Discussion: Understanding of Cancer Annually, the IARC estimates the number of new cancer cases and fatalities worldwide and in the United States and gathers the most up-to-date data on the prevalence of cancer in populations.
• Ovarian Cancer: Risk Factors, Health Disparities, and Preventive Measures The most common signs and symptoms of ovarian cancer include weight loss, pain in the pelvic region, swelling and bloating in the abdomen, low appetite, and increased urination.
• Mindfulness Practice During Adjuvant Chemotherapy for Breast Cancer She discusses the significance of the study to the nursing field and how nurses can use the findings to help their patients cope with stress.
• The Role of hnRNPs in Acute Myeloid Leukemia Blood and lymph are tissues of mesenchymal origin, which consist of plasma and corpuscles suspended in it and form the internal environment of the body.
• Benefits of Good Nutrition During Cancer Treatment Eating various foods is an important part of a healthy diet to get the nutrients the patient needs to fight cancer.
• Community-Based Health Education on Cervical Cancer Through awareness, women will be able to understand the life of the diseases and the control measures that should be put in place to eradicate the infection.
• Antioxidants: The Role in Preventing Cancer and Heart Disease Some of antioxidants are more widely known as vitamins E, C, and carotenoids, and have a reputation of preventing cardiovascular diseases and cancer.
• The Lung Cancer Incidence Research The attributed risk is calculated by dividing the newly diagnosed incidence of cancer attributed to smoking by the total number of newly diagnosed cases of lung cancer.
• Breast Cancer: The Effective Care Domain Information about how the patient is seen, how often the patient is seen, and whether she will return for mammograms can be collected and analyzed to verify the successful intervention to extend consistency with mammograms.
• Colorectal Cancer Screening and Its Effect on Disease Incidence The purpose of this quantitative quasi-experimental quality improvement project was to determine if or to what degree the implementation of the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality’s System Approach to Tracking and Increasing Screening for […]
• The Burden of Cancer in the United States Both Hispanic men and women are the least affected by lung cancer in terms of incidence and mortality. Therefore, considering the DALYs measure and smoking rates in the Hispanic group, it can be concluded that […]
• Statistical Analysis of Lung and Bronchus Cancer Data Using the mean obtained, the Black community has recorded the highest cases of lung and bronchus cancer, with the lowest ethnic group recording, such being the Hispanic race.
• Garden Pesticide and Breast Cancer Therefore, taking into account the basic formula, the 1000 person-years case, the number of culture-positive cases of 500, and culture-negative of 10000, the incidence rate will be 20 new cases.
• Breast Cancer as a Genetic Red Flag It is important to note that the genetic red flags in Figure 1 depicted above include heart disease, hypertension, and breast cancer.
• Breast Cancer Surveillance Consortium Analysis Simultaneously, the resource is beneficial because it aims to “improve the delivery and quality of breast cancer screening and related outcomes in the United States”.
• Drinking Green Tea: Breast Cancer Patients Therefore, drinking green tea regularly is just a necessity- it will contribute to good health and physical vigor throughout the day and prevent severe diseases.
• Pathophysiology of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Lung Cancer It is also evident that the illness acts fast due to the continuous multiplication of the cancer cells leading to breathing disruptions and eventual death. This sustained weight loss is primarily essential to the advancement […]
• Breast Cancer Prevention: Ethical and Scientific Issues Such information can potentially impact the patient and decide in favor of sharing the information about the current condition and risks correlating with the family history.
• Prostate Cancer Statistics for a Term Paper Prostate cancer is also known as ‘Carcinoma of the Prostate’ and it starts when cells in the prostate glands develop an abnormality that allows them to grow out of control.
• Colorectal Cancer: Promoting a Healthy Diet The aims and goals were to analyze the goals, techniques of solution, and outcomes of particular research and enhance knowledge about the topic area based on a review of freshly released data. I would also […]
• Colorectal Cancer Development Due to Dietary Habits A fundamental research interest of the present dissertation was to run a pilot test on a small sample to assess the possibility of using questionnaires as a tool to assess Saudis’ perception of dietary habits […]
• Cancer Patients’ Late Admission to a Hospice Mulville et al.set out to evaluate and identify the reasons that prevent timely admission to the hospice of cancer patients at the end of life.
• Breast Cancer: Epidemiology, Risks, and Prevention In that way, the authors discuss the topics of breast cancer and obesity and the existing methods of prevention while addressing the ethnic disparities persistent in the issue.
• Breast Cancer Development in Black Women With consideration of the mentioned variables and target population, the research question can be formulated: what is the effect of nutrition and lifestyle maintained on breast cancer development in black women?
• Dietary Habits as a Risk Factor of Colorectal Cancer The risks, however, reduce with the adoption of healthy dietary habits, such as the intake of fresh fruits and vegetables. The author advised conducting more qualitative studies on factors affecting the Saudis population to adhere […]
• Traditional and Complementary Medicine Among Indigenous Cancer Patients Therefore, it is necessary to increase the overall understanding of the role of CAM among breast cancer patients alongside identifying the key motivating factors, where the prime manifestations of the phenomenon are faith and prayer.
• Mechanisms Behind Cancer Development This shows that epigenetics can be employed to determine the type of cancer an individual is expected to develop and make it easier to detect the disease at its early stages. Thus, the combination of […]
• Education for Parents of Children With Cancer The hospital was selected because I am have been working there for a long time, and the personnel is willing to help me with the implementation of the process.
• Health Inequities in Cancer Patients Despite a recent slowdown in overall spending, the United States spends more on health care than other high-income nations and still has some of the worst health results.
• 177Lu-PSMA Radioligand Therapy for Prostate Cancer The therapy is proved to be safer and more effective than its alternatives, with a great deal of success in reducing PSMA.
• Lung Cancer: Diagnostics and Treatment Thus, it is essential to invest in research about lung cancer and be aware of the factors that contribute to its emergence to protect themselves.
• Khalaf’s Burden of Pancreatic Cancer Study Analysis The outcome factors in this study are that regular-dose and low-dose Aspirin were observed to decrease the risk of pancreatic cancer.
• Cancer Blood Tests Saving Lives It is important to note that the article explores novel ways of cancer diagnostics and screening methods using blood tests for various signs of the condition.
• Breast Cancer in Miami Florida The situation with the diagnosis of breast cancer is directly related to the availability of medicine in the state and the general awareness of the non-population.
• 177LU-PSMA Radiological Therapy of Prostate Cancer More clinical trials are necessary to define the efficacy of PSMA treatment and develop more concomitant medication. Also, Gafia et al.found that PSMA is a long-term clinical condition whose changes in management are observed after […]
• Cancer Among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People When compared to non-Indigenous Australians, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, also known as Indigenous Australians, are disadvantaged across a number of health and socioeconomic indices.
• The Ethical Problem in the Case of the Cancer Patient On the other hand, urgently inducing the patient’s death may have been an administrative problem for the patient, and it is not sure that it was caused by the wife’s deliberate decision.
• Cancer Treatment Strategies and Challenges Inspired by the merits of the natural nanovesicles and the state of the art of the advanced engineering versatility of synthetic nanomaterials, we previously presented the synthetic and biological hybrid exosomes for targeted synergistic chemo […]
• Urinary Tract Infections and Pancreatic Cancer The laboratory technician is supposed to culture the urine and use Gram’s staining method to detect the microbes in the sample. The practitioners used a combination of mecillinam and cefotaxime to manage the condition.
• Patient HealthCare: Early Diagnosis of Cancer The NCQA describes the three patients’ interventions and explains how the Nurse Practitioner explicitly measures the listed interventions’ effects. While the patient is in the clinic for routine care, problems with preventive tests and their […]
• Machine Learning Algorithms in Cancer Detection One of the most fundamental tools for machine learning in cancer detection is the use of imaging, with the premise that prognostic data is embedded in pathology images and digital pathology can provide big data […]
• Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia and Nutritional Influences A complete blood count is used to determine the precise number of each blood cell type in an individual, whereas a peripheral blood smear is used to determine alteration in the appearance and mobility of […]
• Breast Cancer: Genetics and Malignancy In the presence of such conditions, the formation of atypical cells is possible in the mammary gland. In the described case, this aspect is the most significant since it includes various details of the patient’s […]
• Video Consultations Between Patients and Clinicians in Diabetes, Cancer, and Heart Failure Services For example, during one of my interactions with the patient, I was asked whether the hospital had the policy to avoid face-to-face interaction during the pandemic with the help of video examinations.
• Diets to Prevent Heart Disease, Cancer, and Diabetes In order to prevent heart disease, cancer, and diabetes, people are required to adhere to strict routines, including in terms of diet. Additionally, people wanting to prevent heart disease, cancer, and diabetes also need to […]
• Smoking as a Risk Factor for Lung Cancer Lung cancer is one of the most frequent types of the condition, and with the low recovery rates. If the problem is detected early and the malignant cells are contained to a small region, surgery […]
• Skin Cancer: Description, Causes, and Treatment Skin cancer is one of the most common types of cancer; the three most common types of skin cancer are basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma.
• Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia, Its Prevalence and Incidence The purpose of this paper is to present the first part of the case study by describing the disease’s pathophysiology, treatment options, prevalence, and incidence.
• Colon Cancer: Symptoms, Genes, and Immunosuppression Colon cancer is the type of cancer that starts in the large intestine, which is the last section of the digestive tract.
• Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia: Causes, Origin, and Gene Mutation Apart from analyzing chromosome abnormalities present in patients with ALL, the purpose of this paper is to investigate the disorder’s origin, including primary causes and the process of gene mutations.
• Researching the Colon Cancer and Nursing It is critical for the nurse to have trusted information about cancer tumors because many studies have indicated that patients appreciate and rely on the competence of nurses.
• Nebraska State Department of Health Registries for Cancer and Immunization There is a need to report the progress of breast cancer in Nebraska to help do more research on preventing and introducing improved chemotherapy plans. Nebraska state has immunization and cancer registries which are helpful […]
• Cancer Terminology and Characteristics Carcinomas arise from epithelial tissue, lymphomas are cancers of lymphatic tissue, leukemias are cancers of blood-forming cells, and sarcomas come from connective tissue.
• The Cancer Cell Development: Causes and Sources Loss of function of suppressor genes resulting from mutations becomes the cause of cancer development: the cell divides abnormally, increasing the cell mass of the tissue.
• Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia and Granulocytosis: Causes and Treatment The accumulation of the underdeveloped stem cells impairs the functioning of the blood cells resulting in such diseases as cancer. This is because white blood cells are part of the immune system and help fight […]
• Epidemiology: Lung Cancer Risk The continued exploration of the factors, as well as agents, leading to the spread of pandemics led to a quantitative and qualitative examination and the development of immunization to reduce infections.
• Case Study for a Patient With Cancer Because Julia refused to continue chemotherapy and radiation treatment, her adenocarcinoma should be expected to get worse, which means she may need further services of a nurse, who would create plans for supportive care; as […]
• Financing of Public Health Initiative on Prostate Cancer Additionally, they need to demonstrate to the public that the resources bestowed on them are adding value to the facilities they are in charge of.
• Genetic Testing: Screening for Colon Cancer This disorder is characterized by the development of hundreds of thousands of adenomatous polyps in the colon and rectum early in life.
• Cancer: Causes, Diagnostic and Treatment This article recommends that the new dietary patterns can be used to reduce the risk of cancer and other diseases. Vegetables can be used to reduce the occurrence of stomach cancer and colorectal cancer.
• Prostate Cancer Among Blacks in Maryland: Public Health Initiative This paper evaluates the economic principles underlying community health needs assessment of the initiative and the health economics relevant to the utilization of the service.
• New Gene Discovered That Stops Spread of Cancer At this point, it is crucial to mention that the discovery by the Salk institute is just a beginning of a long scientific journey that is anticipated to culminate in a comprehensive and conclusive study […]
• Genes Cause Breast Cancer Evidence suggests the role of BRCA1 in DNA repair is more expansive than that of BRCA2 and involves many pathways. Therefore, it is suggested that BRCT ambit containing proteins are involved in DNA repair and […]
• Do Cellphones Cause Brain Cancer? The reason for the worries is that cellphones emit RF energy that contains both electric and magnetic energy, and exposure to it may be unhealthy for a human being.
• Cancer Survivorship and Reproductive Health Outcomes This life includes the social, emotional, psychological, and financial effects that start at the beginning of diagnosis and commences up to the final stage of the disease.
• Patients With Cancer: The Importance of Early Referrals to Hospitals The purpose of this study was to prove the connection between early referrals to hospitals for patients with cancer and the possibility of a positive outcome of treatment for them.
• Aspects of Testicular Cancer The cancer is narrowed to the testicles and the epididymis as the tumor markers level reads normal at the first stage and has not grown into the blood.
• New Venture: Cancer Risks of Firefighters In my opinion, being a firefighter is not just a profession, it is the ability to come to the rescue, to have compassion, to feel pain, and to empathize with people who are in a […]
• Acute Myeloid Leukemia: Genetic Features of Black Patients According to the researcher, the differences in the biological impact of disease and the socioeconomic factors play a crucial role in the disparity between the Blacks and the Whites in the recovery process.
• Cancer Alley and Environmental Racism One of the sources under study is valuable, as it examines the current situation of the coronavirus and the impact of pollution on human health.
• Descriptive Data Statistics: National Cancer Institute The definitions for the measures presented are as follows: Mean = sum of all data points / number of data points; Median = the value that’s exactly in the middle when it is ordered from […]
• Cancer: Risk, Treatment and Prevention Cancer is a condition characterized by abnormal cells that do not function usefully in the body, thereby destroying normal body tissues.
• Colon Cancer: Treatment Options, Medication Research Colon cancer typically begins in the large intestine, which is at the end of the digestive tract and is called a colon.
• Managing Patient With Pancreatic Cancer Overall, pancreatic cancer affects the cellular functioning of the pancreas and disrupts the operation of the digestive system. PanIN is the most common antecedent of pancreatic cancer and occurs in the small pancreatic ducts.
• Cancer Medication and Treatment Alternatives: Project Proposal Indeed, despite the advances made in the management of cancer, particularly, the surgical removal of the tumor and the following therapy allowing to reduce health risks, cancer remains one of the major causes of death […]
• Dr. Paul Demers Presentations: Asbestos and Occupational Cancers and Carcinogens With the cases of asbestos-related cancer rising and the vast amounts of asbestos existing in buildings, water pipes, and workplaces, there is a dire need for stringent policies to remove all asbestos from the environment.Dr.
• Does the Sun Radiation Cause Skin Cancer? Moreover, from the article written by American Cancer Society, it is evident that Ultraviolet A and Ultraviolet B from the sun lead to skin cancer.
• Light Use in Cancer Treatment The notable strength of this article is that it goes further to identify ZnPc-Q1 as a possible candidate for using light therapy in the treatment of cancer. In this work, the authors examine and describe […]
• The Virus That Causes Throat Cancers The research article used after the insight of the summary in the New York Times was from the journal of American medical association.
• Esophageal Cancer: Credible Internet Information Esophageal cancer has become one of the main forms of cancers which usually causes a lot of suffering to patients due to immense pain, difficulty in swallowing or dysphagia.
• Breast Cancer. Service Management The trial specifically looks at the effect on breast-cancer mortality of inviting women to screening from age 40 years compared with invitation from age 50 years as in the current NHS breast-screening programme.
• Fibrocystic Breast Condition or Breast Cancer? The presence of the fibrocystic breast condition means that the tissue of the breast is fibrous, and cysts are filled with the liquid or fluid. The main characteristic feature of this cancer is that it […]
• Cervical Cancer: Causes and Treatment Cervical cancer develops in the cervix – the lower part of the uterus. It starts in a particular part of the cervix, where its squamous and glandular cells connect.
• Analysis in Epidemiology: “Epithelial Ovarian Cancer and Oral Contraceptives” Therefore, in the current case, since the use of combination oral contraceptives reduces the occurrence of epithelial ovarian cancer, then the factors that affect the OCs MUST ALWAYS precede the factors affecting the occurrence of […]
• Coping With Stress in Breast Cancer Patients Therefore, it is important for research experts to ensure and guarantee adherence to methodologies and guidelines that define scientific inquiry. However, various discrepancies manifest with regard to the initiation and propagation of research studies.
• Breast Self-Examination and Breast Cancer Mortality Though it is harsh to dismiss self-exams entirely due to studies that indicate little in deaths of women who performed self-exams and those who did not, the self-exams should not be relied on exclusively as […]
• Breast Self-Exams Curbing Breast Cancer Mortality The results of the study were consistent with the findings of other studies of the same nature on the effectiveness of breast self-examination in detecting and curbing breast cancer.
• Prostate Cancer: Pathophysiology and Diagnostics The disease is normally multimodal in the prostate gland and just about 70% of the illness exists in the or the Peripheral zone.
• Cancer: Factors of Prevention and Treatment The paper focuses on studying polyploidy/multinucleated giant cancer cells, calcium, BXL Protein, Acetylsalicylic Acid, and their specific roles in the prevention and treatment of cancer.
• Herbal Therapy for Cancer Herbal therapy is a theoretical and practical medicine based on the scientific study and use of medicinal plants or drugs obtained from them for therapeutic or prophylactic purposes.
• An Approach to Care of Cancer Overview Suspecting the presence of ovarian cancer is primarily based on a number of symptoms, especially abnormal physical examination, CT and NRI scans of the abdomen as well as the pelvis region.
• Taxol Effectiveness in Inhibiting Breast Cancer Cells The following were the objectives of this experiment: To determine the effectiveness of Taxol in inhibiting breast cancer cells and ovarian cancer cells using culture method.
• Control Breast Cancer: Nursing Phenomenon, Ontology and Epistemology of Health Management Then, the evidence received is presented in an expert way leading to implementation of the decision on the management of the disease.
• Leukemia: Causes, Pathogenesis, Morphological Changes, Basic Management Studies are ongoing to establish the exact cause of the disease, which is still unknown according to the Leukemia and Lymphoma Society.
• MD Anderson Cancer Center: Community Health Assessment The focus of the assessment is the city of Houston, Texas, and the MD Anderson Cancer Center. Most health issues are related to income disparities, immigration status, and the insurance status of Houston residents.
• Researching the Ovarian Cancer In the European continent, for every 100,000 females, 12 to 17 will have ovarian cancer, depending on the nation of origin; this is the age-standardized rate. BRCA1 and BRCA2 profoundly account for the prevalence of […]
• Local Inflammation and Human Papillomavirus Status of Head and Neck Cancers The objective of the study was to assess whether periodontitis is related to the human papillomavirus status of the head and neck squamous cell carcinoma.
• Throat Cancer With Diagnosis of Human Papillomavirus The infection by the HPVs often appears in the epithelium, particularly in the areas with tissue lesions. In this respect, by means of the RNA scope, it is possible to transcribe the HPV genome and […]
• Breast Cancer: Effects of Breast Health Education The design of the research focused on research variables like skills, performance, self-efficacy, and knowledge as the researchers aimed at examining the effectiveness of these variables among young women who underwent training in breast cancer […]
• Community Nursing Role in Breast Cancer Prevention However, early detection still remains important in the prevention and treatment of breast cancer. The community has thus undertaken activities aimed at funding the awareness, treatment and research in order to reduce the number of […]
• Radiotherapy: The Efficient Cancer Treatment Method The main purpose for the proposal of this policy is to increase the safety levels and promote efficiency in the delivery of radiotherapy services to patients.
• Measuring the Uncertainty in Children With Cancer The Limitations of using Mishel Uncertainty Illness Scale and Children Uncertainty Illness Scale led to the development of Uncertainty scale for kids.
• Self-Examination and Knowledge of Breast Cancer Among Female Students Shin, Park & Mijung found that a quarter of the participants practiced breast self-examination and a half had knowledge regarding breast cancer.
• Prognosis in Ulcerative Colitis for Risk of Cancer After that the attempt was to extract the information about incidence of colon cancer in populations previously diagnosed with ulcerative colitis, to check whether the cancer risk increased with the duration of disease and finally […]
• “Tracking Breast Cancer Cells on the Move” by Gomis The article serves the purpose of examining the role of NOG, a gene that is essential in bone development and its role in breast cancer.
• Nutritional Assessment for Cancer Patients The consumption of fatty fish and a reduction in the consumption of unhealthy fats can reduce the risk of colon cancer that is brought about by the consumption of animal fat.
• Cancer Treatment Measures in the Sydney Cancer Center Overall, the study enhanced the proper understanding of the effectiveness through the analysis of the number of health specialists working in the Sydney Cancer Centre and the number of cancer patients attended per day.
• Association Between Pre-Diagnostic Circulating 25-(OH) D and Cancer This was what made the authors to undertake an investigation on correlation between pre-diagnostic of circulating 25- D concentration in the body and dietary intakes of vitamin D and calcium with colon and rectum cancer […]
• Sonodynamic Therapy for Cancer Treatment Sonodynamic therapy also known as ultrasound therapy is a hopeful innovative cancer treatment method that focuses on synergistic effect on tumor cell killing of a photosensitizer and ultrasound. Cavitation refers to the growth, oscillation and […]
• The Relationship Between Cancer and Lifestyle In addition, other lifestyle aspects, such as cigarette smoking, sun exposure and stress need to be addressed to reduce the risks of cancer.
• Cancer: Angiogenesis, Recent Research, Ethical Concerns Zayed et al.’s research reveals that the CIB1 protein controlling the endothelial cell functions is the same as the one causing red blood cell formation in cancer tumors.
• Breast Cancer Survivorship: Are African American Women Considered? The finding of the analysis is that the issue of cancer survivorship is exclusive, developing, and at the same time it depends on what individuals perceive to be cancer diagnosis as well as personal experiences […]
• Gaining Ground on Breast Cancer: Advances in Treatment The article by Esteva and Hortobagyi discusses breast cancer from the aspect of increased survival rates, the novel treatments that have necessitated this and the promise in even more enhanced management of breast cancer.
• Pain Management in Hillman Cancer Center’s Patients Medical and surgical approaches are considered to be the main ways for pain treatment in cancer patients. Advanced stages of cancer result into a multidimensional pain and are where the clinical psychologists step in.
• Ovarian Cancer: Description and Treatment In applying various treatment options, it is important for doctors to ensure that they understand all options, means of navigating through the process, as well as the development stage of the cancer.
• Effects of Hypoxia, Surrounding Fibroblasts, and p16 Expression on Breast Cancer The study was conducted to determine whether migration and invasion of breast cancer cells were stimulated by hypoxia, as well as determining whether the expression of p16 ectopically had the potential to modulate the cell […]
• Breast Cancer: Preventing, Diagnosing, Addressing the Issue In contrast to the MRI, which presupposes that the image of the tissue should be retrieved with the help of magnetic fields, the mammography tool involves the use of x-rays.
• Smoking and Lung Cancer Among African Americans Primarily, the research paper provides insight on the significance of the issue to the African Americans and the community health nurses.
• Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia in Adult Patients Acute lymphocytic leukemia is the cancer of the blood and the bone marrow. The final type of lymph cells is natural killer cells whose role in the body is to nullify the effect of cancerous […]
• Dietary Fat Intake and Development of Breast Cancer This study aimed to determine the relationship between dietary fat intake and the development of breast cancer in women. The outcome of the study strongly suggests that there is a close relationship between a high […]
• The Detection and Diagnosis of Breast Cancer The severity of cancer depends on the movement of the cancerous cells in the body and the division and growth or cancerous cells.
• Smoking and Cancer in the United States In this research study, data on tobacco smoking and cancer prevalence in the United States was used to determine whether cancer in the United States is related to tobacco smoking tobacco.
• Prostate Cancer: Preventive Approaches and Treatment However, the case of prostate cancer seems to oppose this ideology; hence, the purpose of this paper is to understand preventive approaches and therapies used to manage prostate cancer.
• Skin Cancer: Comparison of Samples The aim of this experiment is to examine and thereafter represent low and high power illustrations of a normal skin specimen and of skin specimens that have been affected by various forms types of skin […]
• The Female Reproductive System and Ovarian Cancer The ovary is the one of the central organs of the female reproductive system. The zona granulosa is the exterior layer of cells enclosing the follicles.
• Property Rights to the Cancer Genes The easiest way to understand the protection of patents and the rationale behind them is by appreciating the fact that patents are part of human rights.
• Dietary Approach to Colon Cancer Prevention These research findings appear to support the hypothesis that the presence of folate in the diet is linked to the risk factor for colon cancer.
• Treatment of Ovarian Cancer Factors that predispose women to ovarian cancer include infertility, use of certain medication, hormone replacement therapy, use of oral contraceptives, and party.
• The Pennsylvania Cancer Registry (PCR) This data is essential in that, doctors or clinical experts are able to identify the form of treatment to be provided to each cancer patient, to follow up on the patients’ progress, give any necessary […]
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Home > Cancer Research Catalyst > Cancer Survivors: In Their Words

Cancer Survivors: In Their Words

This year alone, an estimated 1.8 million people will hear their doctor say they have cancer. The individual impact of each person can be clouded in the vast statistics. In honor of National Cancer Survivor Month,  Cancer Today would like to highlight several personal essays we’ve published from cancer survivors at different stages of their treatment. 

In  this essay , psychiatrist Adam P. Stern’s cerebral processing of his metastatic kidney cancer diagnosis gives rise to piercing questions. When he drops off his 3-year-old son to daycare, he ponders a simple exchange: his son’s request for a routine morning hug before he turns to leave. “Will he remember me, only a little, just enough to mythologize me as a giant who used to carry him up the stairs? As my health declines, will he have to learn to adjust to a dad who used to be like all the other dads but then wasn’t?” he questions. 

In  another essay from a parent with a young child, Amanda Rose Ferraro describes the abrupt change from healthy to not healthy after being diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia in May 2017. After a 33-day hospital stay, followed by weeklong chemotherapy treatments, Ferraro’s cancer went into remission, but a recurrence required more chemotherapy and a stem cell transplant. Ferraro describes harrowing guilt over being separated from her 3-year-old son, who at one point wanted nothing to do with her. “Giving up control is hard, but not living up to what I thought a mother should be was harder. I had to put myself first, and it was the hardest thing I had ever done,” she writes.

In January 1995, 37-year-old Melvin Mann was diagnosed with chronic myelogenous leukemia, which would eventually mean he would  need to take a chance on a phase I clinical trial that tested an experimental drug called imatinib—a treatment that would go on to receive U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval under the brand name Gleevec. It would also mean trusting a system with a documented history of negligence and abuse of Black people like him: “Many patients, especially some African Americans, are afraid they will be taken advantage of because of past unethical experiments like the infamous Tuskegee syphilis study​,” Mann writes, before describing changes that make current trials safer. Mann’s been on imatinib ever since and has enjoyed watching his daughter become a physician and celebrating 35 years of marriage.

In  another essay , Carly Flumer addresses the absurdity of hearing doctors reassure her that she had a good cancer after she was diagnosed with stage I papillary thyroid cancer in 2017. “What I did hear repeatedly from various physicians was that I had the ‘good cancer,’ and that ‘if you were to have a cancer, thyroid would be the one to get,’” she writes.

In another piece for Cancer Today , Flumer shares  how being diagnosed with cancer just four months after starting a graduate program shaped her education and future career path.

For Liza Bernstein, her breast cancer diagnosis created a paradox as she both acknowledged and denied the disease the opportunity to define who she was. “In the privacy of my own mind, I refused to accept that cancer was part of my identity, even though it was affecting it as surely as erosion transforms the landscape,” she writes . “Out in the world, I’d blurt out, ‘I have cancer,’ because I took questions from acquaintances like ‘How are you, what’s new?’ literally. Answering casual questions with the unvarnished truth wasn’t claiming cancer as my identity. It was an attempt to dismiss the magnitude of it, like saying ‘I have a cold.’” By her third primary breast cancer diagnosis, Bernstein reassesses and moves closer to acceptance as she discovers her role as advocate.

As part of the staff of  Cancer Today , a magazine and online resource for cancer patients, survivors and caregivers, we often refer to a succinct tagline to sum up our mission: “Practical knowledge. Real hope.” Part of providing information is also listening closely to cancer survivors’ experiences. As we celebrate National Cancer Survivor Month, we elevate these voices, and all patients and survivors in their journeys.

Cancer Today is a magazine and online resource for cancer patients, survivors, and caregivers published by the American Association for Cancer Research.  Subscriptions to the magazine are free ​ to cancer patients, survivors and caregivers who live in the U.S. 

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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Oncology — Cancer

Essays About Cancer

When it comes to writing an essay about cancer, choosing the right topic is crucial. The topic you choose will determine the depth and breadth of your research, as well as the impact your essay will have on your readers. In this article, we will discuss the importance of choosing the right topic, provide advice on how to choose a topic, and offer a detailed list of recommended essay topics, divided by category.

The topic of your essay is important because it will determine the focus of your research and the angle from which you will approach the subject. A well-chosen topic will allow you to delve deep into a specific aspect of cancer, while also engaging your audience with a fresh and insightful perspective. Additionally, the right topic will enable you to make a valuable contribution to the existing body of knowledge about cancer, whether by shedding light on a lesser-known aspect of the disease or by presenting a novel interpretation of established facts.

When choosing a topic for your cancer essay, consider your interests, expertise, and the potential impact of the topic. Think about what aspect of cancer you are most passionate about, what you have the most knowledge about, and what you believe will be most valuable to your audience. Additionally, consider the current state of research in the field and look for gaps or controversies that you may be able to address in your essay. Finally, make sure to choose a topic that is sufficiently narrow to allow for in-depth analysis, but also broad enough to be of interest to a wide range of readers.

Recommended Cancer Essay Topics

Types of cancer.

• The Role of Genetics in Breast Cancer
• The Impact of Lifestyle Choices on Lung Cancer
• The Challenges of Early Detection of Pancreatic Cancer
• Exploring the Link Between HPV and Cervical Cancer
• The Rising Incidence of Skin Cancer in Young Adults

Treatment and Prevention

• The Promise of Immunotherapy in Cancer Treatment
• The Role of Nutrition in Cancer Prevention and Recovery
• The Impact of Exercise on Cancer Survival Rates
• Alternative Therapies for Cancer Patients
• The Ethical Dilemmas of Cancer Clinical Trials

Social and Psychological Impact

• The Stigma of Lung Cancer and Its Impact on Patients
• The Support Networks for Families of Children with Cancer
• Cancer Survivorship: Challenges and Triumphs
• The Psychological Effects of Hair Loss in Cancer Patients
• The Role of Palliative Care in Cancer Treatment

Public Policy and Advocacy

• The Economics of Cancer: The Cost of Treatment and Care
• The Role of Government in Funding Cancer Research
• Cancer Awareness Campaigns: Effectiveness and Ethical Considerations
• The Role of Advocacy Groups in Shaping Cancer Policy
• The Impact of Insurance Policies on Cancer Patients' Access to Care

Emerging Trends and Technologies

• The Potential of Artificial Intelligence in Cancer Diagnosis
• The Role of Precision Medicine in Cancer Treatment
• The Promise of Nanotechnology in Targeted Cancer Therapies
• Exploring the Gut Microbiome's Influence on Cancer Development
• The Role of Liquid Biopsies in Early Cancer Detection

With these recommended essay topics, you can explore various aspects of cancer from different perspectives, ensuring that your essay is both informative and engaging. Remember to choose a topic that resonates with you and has the potential to make a meaningful contribution to the discourse on cancer. Good luck!

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Essay on World Cancer Day

Students are often asked to write an essay on World Cancer Day in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on World Cancer Day

Introduction.

World Cancer Day is a global event observed every year on 4th February. This day aims to raise awareness about cancer, its prevention, detection, and treatment.

The purpose of World Cancer Day is to educate people about this deadly disease. It emphasizes the importance of early detection and treatment to save lives.

Significance

World Cancer Day is significant as it unites people worldwide to fight against cancer. It encourages everyone to take action to prevent and reduce the impact of cancer.

On World Cancer Day, we should commit ourselves to spread awareness and support those fighting against cancer. It’s a day to show our solidarity in the global fight against this disease.

Also check:

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250 Words Essay on World Cancer Day

World Cancer Day, observed annually on February 4th, is a global initiative led by the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC). This day is dedicated to raising worldwide awareness, improving education, and catalyzing personal, collective, and government action to reduce the global impact of cancer.

Significance of World Cancer Day

World Cancer Day plays a crucial role in the global health calendar. It provides an opportunity to rally the international community to end the injustice of preventable suffering from cancer. The day emphasizes the need for early detection, prevention, and treatment, and aims to reduce illness and death caused by cancer by 2020.

The Power of Collective Action

The theme for World Cancer Day, ‘I Am and I Will’, is an empowering call-to-action urging personal commitment and represents the power of individual action taken now to impact the future. It underscores the fact that everyone has the capacity to address the cancer burden.

Role of Education and Awareness

Education is a powerful weapon in this battle. By spreading information about cancer, its symptoms, and the importance of a healthy lifestyle, we can help people make informed decisions about their health. Awareness campaigns on this day encourage regular medical check-ups for early detection and prevention.

World Cancer Day serves as a reminder that our fight against cancer is ongoing. It encourages us all to take action, whether big or small, to reduce the impact of cancer on individuals, families, and communities. Through collective and individual actions, we can create a future without cancer. The time to act is now.

500 Words Essay on World Cancer Day

World Cancer Day, observed annually on February 4th, is a global initiative led by the Union for International Cancer Control (UICC). The day aims to raise worldwide awareness, improve education, and catalyze personal, collective, and government action against this life-threatening disease.

The Significance of World Cancer Day

Cancer is a critical health concern, with millions of new cases diagnosed each year. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that cancer is the second leading cause of death globally. World Cancer Day serves as a platform for individuals and communities to discuss, understand, and address the disease. It encourages prevention, early detection, and treatment, which are key elements in the fight against cancer.

Themes and Objectives

Each year, World Cancer Day focuses on a specific theme to guide its campaigns. The theme for 2019-2021, “I Am and I Will,” is an empowering call-to-action, urging every individual to make a personal commitment towards reducing the impact of cancer. This theme underscores the power of individual action taken now to impact the future.

The primary objectives of World Cancer Day include debunking myths and misconceptions about cancer, promoting cancer research and services, advocating for supportive policies, and encouraging individuals to adopt healthier lifestyles.

The Role of Education and Awareness

Education plays a pivotal role in the fight against cancer. By raising awareness about the different types of cancer, their causes, symptoms, and preventive measures, World Cancer Day helps individuals make informed decisions about their health. It also highlights the importance of regular screenings and early detection, which significantly increase the chances of successful treatment.

World Cancer Day emphasizes the power of collective action. By uniting under a common cause, individuals, communities, and governments can make significant strides in reducing the global cancer burden. This includes funding for cancer research, improving healthcare infrastructures, implementing effective cancer control plans, and advocating for equitable access to cancer care.

World Cancer Day is more than a global awareness day; it is a call to action for everyone to do their part in reducing the global cancer burden. Through education, advocacy, and collective action, we can challenge perceptions, improve understanding, and catalyze change. As the theme “I Am and I Will” suggests, our actions today have the power to shape a cancer-free tomorrow.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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• Essay on World Cancer Day 2024 in English for Students

Essay on World Cancer Day 2024

Unlocking insights for students, this ' Essay on World Cancer Day 2024 ' provides a comprehensive understanding of the World Cancer Day theme 2024, 'Close the Care Gap.' Tailored for simplicity, students can freely utilize this essay whenever they seek to raise the significance of World Cancer Day . Let this essay be a helping hand in guiding students in raising awareness and having a united front against the challenges of cancer. Your words have the power to inspire change. Said that, let’s begin with the Essay on World Cancer Day 2024 !

What is Cancer?

Cancer is a bunch of diseases where cells in your body start growing in a weird way and can invade other parts of your body. This is different from non-spreading tumors .

Cancer cells can arise from any type of cell in the body. When cells become cancerous, they begin to divide uncontrollably, forming masses of tissue called tumors . These tumors can interfere with the normal functioning of organs and tissues .

Cancer is a big reason for deaths worldwide, but it's crucial to know that many cancers can be treated and even cured if found early. There are lots of types of cancer, each with its own causes, symptoms, and treatments. Remember, Early detection and treatment can dramatically improve the chances of a successful outcome.

World Cancer Day: Empowering Lives and Closing the Care Gap

World Cancer Day, celebrated annually on February 4th, is a crucial global initiative uniting people in the fight against cancer. This day serves as a reminder that together, we can make a difference. The theme for World Cancer Day 2024 is " Close the Care Gap ," highlighting the disparities in cancer care that exist worldwide.

Cancer is a tough challenge affecting millions of lives, but World Cancer Day empowers us to take control of our health and raise awareness. As students, you can play a crucial role by creating informative posters, organizing educational sessions, and discussing healthy living.

The history of World Cancer Day dates back to 2000, when it was established to promote awareness, education, and research in the battle against cancer. Over the years, it has grown into a global movement, bringing communities together to work towards a world where everyone has access to quality care.

The " Close the Care Gap " theme urges us to address inequalities in cancer care, emphasizing the importance of equal access to treatment. By understanding the significance of this day and actively participating, students can contribute to creating a future where the impact of cancer is minimized and lives are saved through awareness and support. Together, let's empower lives and close the care gap in the fight against cancer .

Current Global Cancer Scenario:

According to the World Health Organization (WHO) , cancer is a significant global health challenge. Millions of people worldwide are diagnosed with cancer each year. The WHO plays a crucial role in collecting data, conducting research, and providing guidance on cancer prevention and treatment . The global cancer scenario emphasizes the need for collaborative efforts to address this health concern on an international scale.

Technology in Cancer:

Technology plays a significant role in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. Advanced imaging techniques, such as MRI and CT scans, aid in the early detection of tumors. Precision medicine uses genetic information to tailor treatment plans based on an individual's unique characteristics. Telemedicine facilitates remote consultations, allowing patients to connect with healthcare professionals easily. The integration of technology in cancer research accelerates the development of innovative therapies. Overall, technology enhances the effectiveness and accessibility of cancer care on a global scale.

Prevention in the Fight Against Cancer:

Prevention is a key aspect in the battle against cancer. Adopting a healthy lifestyle, including a balanced diet, regular exercise, and avoiding tobacco and excessive alcohol consumption, can reduce the risk of developing certain types of cancer . Vaccinations against infections linked to cancer, such as the human papillomavirus (HPV), are also important preventive measures. Education and awareness campaigns are essential to inform people about lifestyle choices that can contribute to cancer prevention.

Supporting Cancer Patients:

Supporting cancer patients is vital for their well-being. Emotional support from friends and family, along with access to counselling services, can help individuals cope with the challenges of cancer diagnosis and treatment . Support groups provide a sense of community and understanding among those facing similar experiences. Additionally, initiatives by healthcare organizations and charities contribute to improving the quality of life for cancer patients by offering resources, information, and assistance.

World Cancer Day , therefore, demands action. It demands that we call upon our leaders, policymakers, and healthcare systems to bridge these gaps. We need investments in public health infrastructure, accessible screening programs, and affordable treatment options. We need targeted interventions to address the specific needs of underserved communities, breaking down cultural and linguistic barriers that stand in the way of care.

This Essay on World Cancer Day 2024 serves as a powerful tool for students to comprehend, reflect, and advocate for a world where the impact of cancer is minimized. Its insights into the theme " Close the Care Gap " and narratives of resilience empower students to raise awareness. Feel free to utilize this essay whenever needed – in schools, colleges, or any platform. Let it be a catalyst for conversations, actions, and a collective commitment to building a future where cancer is conquerable. Together, as students, let's amplify the voice against cancer and inspire positive change.

FAQs on Essay on World Cancer Day 2024

1. Why is an essay on World Cancer Day 2024 important for students?

This essay provides valuable insights into the theme "Close the Care Gap," fostering awareness and empowering students to actively participate in the fight against cancer.

2. What key information does the essay cover about World Cancer Day 2024?

The essay delves into the significance of World Cancer Day, the theme for 2024, and how students can contribute to closing the care gap, and creating a comprehensive understanding.

3. How can students utilize the information from the essay on World Cancer Day 2024 in their schools or colleges?

Students can leverage the insights from the essay to spark discussions, raise awareness, and actively participate in World Cancer Day activities, contributing to a more informed and compassionate community.

4. Does the essay highlight any stories or examples of resilience in the face of cancer?

Yes, the essay includes narratives of resilience and survival, offering inspiring stories that can motivate and uplift students, showing that cancer is conquerable.

5. Can students share this essay on World Cancer Day with others, and how can it be used beyond World Cancer Day?

Absolutely, students are encouraged to share the essay widely. It serves as a resource for awareness not just on World Cancer Day but throughout the year, offering timeless insights into the ongoing fight against cancer.

• Patient Care & Health Information
• Diseases & Conditions

Cancer refers to any one of a large number of diseases characterized by the development of abnormal cells that divide uncontrollably and have the ability to infiltrate and destroy normal body tissue. Cancer often has the ability to spread throughout your body.

Cancer is the second-leading cause of death in the world. But survival rates are improving for many types of cancer, thanks to improvements in cancer screening, treatment and prevention.

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Signs and symptoms caused by cancer will vary depending on what part of the body is affected.

Some general signs and symptoms associated with, but not specific to, cancer, include:

• Lump or area of thickening that can be felt under the skin
• Weight changes, including unintended loss or gain
• Skin changes, such as yellowing, darkening or redness of the skin, sores that won't heal, or changes to existing moles
• Changes in bowel or bladder habits
• Persistent cough or trouble breathing
• Difficulty swallowing
• Persistent indigestion or discomfort after eating
• Persistent, unexplained muscle or joint pain
• Persistent, unexplained fevers or night sweats
• Unexplained bleeding or bruising

When to see a doctor

Make an appointment with your doctor if you have any persistent signs or symptoms that concern you.

If you don't have any signs or symptoms, but are worried about your risk of cancer, discuss your concerns with your doctor. Ask about which cancer screening tests and procedures are appropriate for you.

Cancer is caused by changes (mutations) to the DNA within cells. The DNA inside a cell is packaged into a large number of individual genes, each of which contains a set of instructions telling the cell what functions to perform, as well as how to grow and divide. Errors in the instructions can cause the cell to stop its normal function and may allow a cell to become cancerous.

What do gene mutations do?

A gene mutation can instruct a healthy cell to:

• Allow rapid growth. A gene mutation can tell a cell to grow and divide more rapidly. This creates many new cells that all have that same mutation.
• Fail to stop uncontrolled cell growth. Normal cells know when to stop growing so that you have just the right number of each type of cell. Cancer cells lose the controls (tumor suppressor genes) that tell them when to stop growing. A mutation in a tumor suppressor gene allows cancer cells to continue growing and accumulating.
• Make mistakes when repairing DNA errors. DNA repair genes look for errors in a cell's DNA and make corrections. A mutation in a DNA repair gene may mean that other errors aren't corrected, leading cells to become cancerous.

These mutations are the most common ones found in cancer. But many other gene mutations can contribute to causing cancer.

What causes gene mutations?

Gene mutations can occur for several reasons, for instance:

• Gene mutations you're born with. You may be born with a genetic mutation that you inherited from your parents. This type of mutation accounts for a small percentage of cancers.
• Gene mutations that occur after birth. Most gene mutations occur after you're born and aren't inherited. A number of forces can cause gene mutations, such as smoking, radiation, viruses, cancer-causing chemicals (carcinogens), obesity, hormones, chronic inflammation and a lack of exercise.

Gene mutations occur frequently during normal cell growth. However, cells contain a mechanism that recognizes when a mistake occurs and repairs the mistake. Occasionally, a mistake is missed. This could cause a cell to become cancerous.

How do gene mutations interact with each other?

The gene mutations you're born with and those that you acquire throughout your life work together to cause cancer.

For instance, if you've inherited a genetic mutation that predisposes you to cancer, that doesn't mean you're certain to get cancer. Instead, you may need one or more other gene mutations to cause cancer. Your inherited gene mutation could make you more likely than other people to develop cancer when exposed to a certain cancer-causing substance.

It's not clear just how many mutations must accumulate for cancer to form. It's likely that this varies among cancer types.

More Information

Cancer care at Mayo Clinic

• Myths about cancer causes

Risk factors

While doctors have an idea of what may increase your risk of cancer, the majority of cancers occur in people who don't have any known risk factors. Factors known to increase your risk of cancer include:

Cancer can take decades to develop. That's why most people diagnosed with cancer are 65 or older. While it's more common in older adults, cancer isn't exclusively an adult disease — cancer can be diagnosed at any age.

Your habits

Certain lifestyle choices are known to increase your risk of cancer. Smoking, drinking more than one drink a day for women and up to two drinks a day for men, excessive exposure to the sun or frequent blistering sunburns, being obese, and having unsafe sex can contribute to cancer.

You can change these habits to lower your risk of cancer — though some habits are easier to change than others.

Your family history

Only a small portion of cancers are due to an inherited condition. If cancer is common in your family, it's possible that mutations are being passed from one generation to the next. You might be a candidate for genetic testing to see whether you have inherited mutations that might increase your risk of certain cancers. Keep in mind that having an inherited genetic mutation doesn't necessarily mean you'll get cancer.

Your health conditions

Some chronic health conditions, such as ulcerative colitis, can markedly increase your risk of developing certain cancers. Talk to your doctor about your risk.

Your environment

The environment around you may contain harmful chemicals that can increase your risk of cancer. Even if you don't smoke, you might inhale secondhand smoke if you go where people are smoking or if you live with someone who smokes. Chemicals in your home or workplace, such as asbestos and benzene, also are associated with an increased risk of cancer.

Complications

Cancer and its treatment can cause several complications, including:

• Pain. Pain can be caused by cancer or by cancer treatment, though not all cancer is painful. Medications and other approaches can effectively treat cancer-related pain.
• Fatigue. Fatigue in people with cancer has many causes, but it can often be managed. Fatigue associated with chemotherapy or radiation therapy treatments is common, but it's usually temporary.
• Difficulty breathing. Cancer or cancer treatment may cause a feeling of being short of breath. Treatments may bring relief.
• Nausea. Certain cancers and cancer treatments can cause nausea. Your doctor can sometimes predict if your treatment is likely to cause nausea. Medications and other treatments may help you prevent or decrease nausea.
• Diarrhea or constipation. Cancer and cancer treatment can affect your bowels and cause diarrhea or constipation.
• Weight loss. Cancer and cancer treatment may cause weight loss. Cancer steals food from normal cells and deprives them of nutrients. This is often not affected by how many calories or what kind of food is eaten; it's difficult to treat. In most cases, using artificial nutrition through tubes into the stomach or vein does not help change the weight loss.
• Chemical changes in your body. Cancer can upset the normal chemical balance in your body and increase your risk of serious complications. Signs and symptoms of chemical imbalances might include excessive thirst, frequent urination, constipation and confusion.
• Brain and nervous system problems. Cancer can press on nearby nerves and cause pain and loss of function of one part of your body. Cancer that involves the brain can cause headaches and stroke-like signs and symptoms, such as weakness on one side of your body.
• Unusual immune system reactions to cancer. In some cases the body's immune system may react to the presence of cancer by attacking healthy cells. Called paraneoplastic syndromes, these very rare reactions can lead to a variety of signs and symptoms, such as difficulty walking and seizures.
• Cancer that spreads. As cancer advances, it may spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body. Where cancer spreads depends on the type of cancer.
• Cancer that returns. Cancer survivors have a risk of cancer recurrence. Some cancers are more likely to recur than others. Ask your doctor about what you can do to reduce your risk of cancer recurrence. Your doctor may devise a follow-up care plan for you after treatment. This plan may include periodic scans and exams in the months and years after your treatment, to look for cancer recurrence.

Doctors have identified several ways to reduce your risk of cancer, such as:

• Stop smoking. If you smoke, quit. If you don't smoke, don't start. Smoking is linked to several types of cancer — not just lung cancer. Stopping now will reduce your risk of cancer in the future.
• Avoid excessive sun exposure. Harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun can increase your risk of skin cancer. Limit your sun exposure by staying in the shade, wearing protective clothing or applying sunscreen.
• Eat a healthy diet. Choose a diet rich in fruits and vegetables. Select whole grains and lean proteins. Limit your intake of processed meats.
• Exercise most days of the week. Regular exercise is linked to a lower risk of cancer. Aim for at least 30 minutes of exercise most days of the week. If you haven't been exercising regularly, start out slowly and work your way up to 30 minutes or longer.
• Maintain a healthy weight. Being overweight or obese may increase your risk of cancer. Work to achieve and maintain a healthy weight through a combination of a healthy diet and regular exercise.
• Drink alcohol in moderation, if you choose to drink. If you choose to drink alcohol, do so in moderation. For healthy adults, that means up to one drink a day for women and up to two drinks a day for men.
• Schedule cancer screening exams. Talk to your doctor about what types of cancer screening exams are best for you based on your risk factors.
• Ask your doctor about immunizations. Certain viruses increase your risk of cancer. Immunizations may help prevent those viruses, including hepatitis B, which increases the risk of liver cancer, and human papillomavirus (HPV), which increases the risk of cervical cancer and other cancers. Ask your doctor whether immunization against these viruses is appropriate for you.

Living with cancer?

Connect with others like you for support and answers to your questions in the Cancer support group on Mayo Clinic Connect, a patient community.

Cancer Discussions

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• Ulcerative colitis. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/ulcerative-colitis/all-content. Accessed Feb. 16, 2021.
• Paraneoplastic syndromes information page. National Institute of Neurological Disorder and Stroke. https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Paraneoplastic-Syndromes-Information-Page. Accessed Feb. 16, 2021.
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• Taking time: Support for people with cancer. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/publications/patient-education/taking-time. Accessed Feb. 16, 2021.
• The American Cancer Society, eds. The principles and drivers of cancer. In: The American Cancer Society's Principles of Oncology: Prevention to Survivorship. Wiley-Blackwell; 2018.
• Hypercalcemia (high level of calcium in the blood). Merck Manual Consumer Edition. https://www.merckmanuals.com/home/hormonal-and-metabolic-disorders/electrolyte-balance/hypercalcemia-high-level-of-calcium-in-the-blood#. Accessed Feb. 16, 2021.
• What is cancer? National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/understanding/what-is-cancer. Accessed Feb. 16, 2021.
• Cancer prevention overview (PDQ) — Health professional version. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/hp-prevention-overview-pdq. Accessed Feb. 16, 2021.
• The genetics of cancer. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/genetics. Accessed Feb. 16, 2021.
• Understanding cancer risk. Cancer.Net. https://www.cancer.net/navigating-cancer-care/prevention-and-healthy-living/understanding-cancer-risk. Accessed Feb. 16. 2021.
• Cancer screening overview (PDQ) — Health professional version. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/screening/hp-screening-overview-pdq. Accessed Feb. 16, 2021.
• How cancer is diagnosed. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/diagnosis-staging/diagnosis. Accessed Feb. 16, 2021.
• Cancer staging. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/diagnosis-staging/staging. Accessed Feb. 16, 2021.
• Making decisions about cancer treatment. Cancer.Net. https://www.cancer.net/navigating-cancer-care/how-cancer-treated/making-decisions-about-cancer-treatment. Accessed Feb. 16, 2021.
• How cancer is treated. Cancer.Net. https://www.cancer.net/navigating-cancer-care/how-cancer-treated. Accessed Feb. 16, 2021.
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Cancer Essay

During the summer of 2003, I plunged into a two week nightmare. I felt robbed of my dreams and my hopes for sharing another year with my grandfather, or at least to utter the words of goodbye. On July 28th, 2003 my grandfather, Pantaleon Cabiao, passed away just a day after his birthday, from Prostate Cancer. The story I will share with you will be written in the best way that I can, although no one will ever understand how powerful my grandfather was in my life or how sorrowful this journey has been without him in my life. I was given only two weeks to encapsulate the entire notion of the first person in my family to have cancer. My family has always been intimate. The word cancer was foreign to our vocabulary. I only saw glimpses of what it was in the news and in my health textbook. In some way, I thought I was immune to getting cancer, for my family to develop cancer, or to even see the first person in my immediate family die from it. Death was also a term I was very unfamiliar with. At only fourteen years of age, I had only experienced the death of animals I raised. I have never been to a funeral. In my mind I internalized my grandparents would never leave me. I knew they were getting older as years passed. However, I would have never imagined to have death come pull my grandfather away from me so soon. My grandfather has been my best friend. He taught me how to hold a pencil and to write my name. He taught me how to be a leader, emphasizing our ancestor lineage of warriors. He taught me how to be a man and for that I will always be thankful. In 1999, my grandparents retired and they moved to Moses Lake. My grandfather was a very muscular individual. He exercised daily while he tended the family farm. He ate organically grown vegetables from his crops and in 2003, was only seventy-two years old. Almost every other weekend of the month, my family would drive three and a half hours from Seattle to Moses Lake to see him. I could remember his smile, as it gleamed with one missing tooth, as we pulled up on the Ranch driveway every other Friday evening. He was strong, intelligent, comical and loved discussing politics. He was the best grandfather figure I could ask for. In the first week of June, we were awakened with a call with my grandmother’s worried tone. My grandfather had suddenly fell from his bed while getting up to go to the bathroom, and was rushed to the hospital because he was paralyzed from the waist down. The entire family was shocked and confused because we all knew of his great health habits. They performed emergency surgery that night to remove the tumor in his back. The next morning when we arrived, his doctor informed us he had cancer and it was terminal. They warned us he only had a few months to live and our hearts sank to the floor. My grandfather smiled as we walked towards him. He assured us this will all pass. He told us sternly to be strong and to pray because prayer is the strongest form of medicine. I continued to pray days on end. The beginning of the school week, I could not focus on my academics. I was worried for my grandfather and just the thought of losing him caused me to be in denial. I rejected the thought of his passing and ignored the chatter going on at home. That week was the longest week of my life. I feared for his life. Soon, I started to ponder about my own life and how temporary our lives on this Earth really are. I started to rationalize maybe if he were to pass, I could go with him to ease my sorrow. I could not imagine losing him and I would not know what to do without him. Soon, many more thoughts clashed in my head as I worried about what would happen to the farm, how would my father react. I asked myself questions about why doctors could not have diagnosed it sooner. I hated my grandfather for not telling me. I could not eat or sleep for days. At the end of the week, on Friday afternoon while my family was packing a second trip to see him, I wept furiously wondering how much worse everything could be. To ease my pain, I created a life size poster. I cut up many of my baby pictures with him and pictures of us throughout the years. I found a special picture with him next to me holding my pencil. I had my parents enlarge the photo and created it as the focal point of my art piece. Because I was a very expressive writer, I decided to dedicate a poem to him. I wrote it in large cursive letters on his poster. I packed it away to bring it with me to the hospital and was again excited to see him. On Saturday morning when I arrived, my grandmother sat me down and explained over the week, his mental state had deteriorated. He was in and out of radiation therapy which was not successful. He no longer was able to recognize even her and she was worried on how I would react. My eyes started to swell with tears as I realized I missed my chance to say good-bye. I missed the final chance to tell him I loved him and how thankful I was for everything he had done. I have grown up so much as an established young man who excelled in school. Without his motivation, his guidance and inspiration – I would be lost. I had the urge to tear up my poster because it was useless. My grandmother held my arm tightly and explained that although he may not be talking correctly with his disillusioned state with the medication, she would advise me to sit on his side and recite my poem. I walked into his dark hospital room as the room reeked of a distinctive medical smell. I held his cold hand and told him I was there for him. My grandfather’s face was emotionless. Difficultly, as I trembled at each word, I recited my poem as best I could. I could no longer deal with the pain, so I put my poster down and left the room. My family bid their farewells until Sunday night. My mother, siblings and I drove back to Seattle on Sunday night. I was devastated he no longer remembered who I was or the fact that we could not spend his birthday with him. My father called and said they decided to rush him home to the Moses Lake ranch, which was almost two hours away from the Wenatchee hospital. As my grandmother, father and auntie rode in the rushing ambulance, they saw an unusual beautiful arch of white butterflies. My father also informed me of the weird visuals my grandfather was uttering about children gathering around him and seeing his mother and siblings who had passed years before. They knew his time was coming. They remember him saying he would like to pass in peace at his home. Until this day, I believe I still receive messages from my grandfather. At Moses Lake, on every visit, a little white butterfly would follow us grandchildren around. Surprisingly, whenever a celebration occurs within our immediate family, we would see a white butterfly on our Seattle window pane. At times when I am by myself, I suddenly receive a rush of the same hospital odor. He also talks to me in my dreams. With just two weeks notice, it stuns me every time that I remember how fast and traumatic that moment was in my life. Each year that summer comes by, I dedicate a moment to remember his life and celebrate the memories in the years I was able to share with him. In a way, the sorrow will be never ending, as a void will continue to reside in my heart. Cancer has robbed me of my chance to have my grandfather see me walk down my college graduation aisle, a moment he promised. I dreamed one day to see him waiting at the end of the line for his embrace. I learned that life should never be taken for granted and people you love are not with you forever. Human beings only live once. Within the limited previous time we have, it is essential to let people know how we feel and what difference they have made in our lives. Cancer does not just affect the victim but captures families as its prey as well. Watching my grandfather fight for his life is something I never want my own children to experience. Although he has passed away, his words continue to live on. I know he will forever reside in me and he truly has never left. Until this day, he has continued to help me achieve my dreams and still remains my main inspiration in all that I do. Howard Cabiao

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“In Our Own Words”: Cancer patients tell their stories

• Features When art and medicine meet Closing the circle—medicine re-engages with the humanities Thirty years of the humanities at the School of Medicine Students share their “sharp and poignant moments” in literary journal Selections from Murmurs On the other side: listening to patients Writing toward better care How art sharpens students’ clinical skills “In Our Own Words”: Cancer patients tell their stories Art therapy: helping families cope with cancer In the midst of an epidemic ¡ANDA! Walk and Run raises more than $25,000
• News Crossing disciplines, Yale scientists unravel Zika’s secrets Robert Rock, art, justice, and medicine Immune system also controls weight In Syria, the world’s shame Deputy dean deeply mourned at the School of Medicine A thesis in three minutes An opioid crisis in the city and a bad night in the emergency room “Blue state” parents more likely to vaccinate their teens Wildfire surge traced to climate change Ancestral role for female orgasm Town hall features new dean for diversity
• People Through writing, a psychologist extends her reach From English lit to gene expression in neurons How grassroots activism Vivek Murthy dismissed as U.S. Surgeon
• Dialogue What the humanities mean to medicine An alternative to the Affordable Care Act Medical student wellness Second Opinion Is there a standard for evaluation?

By turns ironic, inspiring, sobering, and funny, essays in a booklet called “In Our Own Words” relate key moments in diagnosis and treatment, as well as observations and realizations made along the way.

The cedar strings quartet, composed of medical students aishwarya vijay, michelle ferreira, william chen, and charles hsu.

For Christine Shadle, Ph.D., the writers group for patients at Smilow Cancer Hospital at Yale New Haven Health was a godsend.

She seized the opportunity to write frankly about her breast cancer and share her writing with fellow patients, without softening the “gory and disgusting” realities of her disease. “It’s really lonely to have a severe illness,” said Shadle, who is now in remission. “This is a way of telling my story, and it ends up being a way to find ourselves.”

Shadle and nine other patients shared their work in a booklet called “In Our Own Words,” published thanks in part to a grant from the annual Closer to Free fundraising campaign. On a Thursday evening in October, four patients and three guest readers read essays from the booklet before an audience of physicians, caregivers, and family members in the Park Building. The authors and guest readers, including Yale New Haven Health CEO Marna P. Borgstrom, M.P.H. ’79, read from the works. By turns ironic, inspiring, sobering, and funny, the essays relate key moments in diagnosis and treatment, as well as observations and realizations made along the way. “I feel honored to have been part of this program and have a chance to look into some of your personal moments,” said Dana Shaffer, Smilow’s art expression coordinator.

In her essay, Shadle, a research scientist at the Haskins Laboratories in New Haven, noted that oncotype scores that determine whether she’ll need chemotherapy and National Institutes of Health scores for grant applications share one characteristic—a low score is better. And in both cases a score over 31 is bad. “I saw my oncologist this morning, and she told me my score,” Shadle wrote. “It’s 34. A new era is starting.”

Judith Drew Mauzaka wrote of her yearning to take a vacation and “swim with sea turtles in the warm blue waters of the Caribbean” despite the risks involved. Mauzaka, who has since died, indeed made the trip.

Kathleen Miles Schumacher, a breast cancer survivor, described an elevator ride with a hospital employee who pretended he was an elevator operator. “Sixth floor! Menswear!” he called out. “Fifth floor! Cocktail lounge! Fourth floor! Baked goods!” That ride, Schumacher wrote, turned a car full of strangers into a temporary community, and the ride into “an interactive comedy club for a few brief minutes.” As she read her essay, Donald Macmillan, the hospital’s flight services coordinator who provides helicopter transportation for patients and the employee in her story, stood at her side barking out the floor announcements.

The writers’ program was founded in 2013 thanks to retired New York Times editor and reporter Charlotte Evans, Shaffer said. During her journalism career, Evans said, she felt her work was important to readers, but at a distance from them. In retirement, however, she sought a closer connection. “I thought it would be rewarding to try to help people one on one and get to know them as people,” she said.

The group meets every other week and typically includes four to six patients, Shaffer said. About 30 patients have taken part since its inception, she said.

The program is one of many run by Integrative Medicine at Smilow Cancer Hospital, including art, yoga, and meditation, to address cancer patients’ psychological and emotional needs. “These are all things that help you step back and put you more in tune with yourself,” she said.

The booklet is just the beginning, Shaffer said. She is already choosing essays for a second collection.

• Graduate School of Arts & Sciences
• Diseases & Conditions

Featured in this article

• Marna Borgstrom, MPH Lecturer in Public Health (Health Policy); President and CEO, Yale New Haven Health System

Cancer Essay Writing: Crucial Tips

The success of every essay strongly depends on the topic you cover. If you choose a boring and irrelevant theme, you will hardly meet success. Your main idea ought to be captivating and bring some importance. Therefore, you should study your theme from different angles and choose the most effective. Students of medical colleges compose assignments on various diseases. Undoubtedly, an essay on cancer is amongst the most popular.

That is one of the most serious and widely spread diseases in the world history. It exists in various forms. Accordingly, there are lots of similarities and differences. A researcher will definitely have what to write about. You won’t lack ideas. It’s only necessary to decide, which kind you will disclose in your college essay about cancer and what significance it may bring to your readers.

Writing about Cancer in a College Essay Step-by-Step

Writing about cancer in a college essay is a pretty typical, yet not too easy task. Decide which topic you wish to disclose. One of the most popular concepts is to write about lung cancer. It is a widely spread kind of disease throughout the globe.

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Afterward, you should gather some evidence on this matter. Make sure you can trust the informative sources you wish to use in your cancer essay. Craft an outline to see how the things are supposed to develop. Your next move is to write an initial draft. Then, you should revise your draft and possibly, write another one if the first was too weak. After you are entirely sure that you’ve depicted all things as they should be, write the final version and submit it.

Cancer Essay Introduction

After you have a plan and the necessary information, you may start to compose a cancer essay introduction. At first, you should grab the attention and introduce the general idea of your paper. Thus, you may begin with a short historical overview.

For instance, begin like this “Lung cancer is a common and serious disease. It wasn’t recognized as a disease until 1761. Thus, it took many lives without any hope to survive.”

The next part of your writing about cancer in an essay is the implementation of the thesis. “Lung cancer continues to take the lives of many people throughout the globe, and it should be prevented at any cost.”

Cancer Essay Body

The next stage is the cancer essay body. It is when you should develop the main argument and some sub-arguments. You should use effective and approved facts. For instance, you should mention the statistics. Approximately 1.3 million people die because of this terrible ailment each year.

Mention the role of the genes as one of your subtopics. That is not a hereditary ailment. Nonetheless, there were registered multiple cases when children suffered the same disease as their parents did. Therefore, you ought to investigate this matter too.

Another sub-topic may be based upon mental and physical outcomes of this cancer kind. Reveal how it affects the human body in both directions.

Afterward, speak about some preventive measures to reduce the percentage of its occurrence. In addition, mention the ordinary and new methods to treat this ailment. For instance, many severe health problems are being treated with the help of the stem cell therapy. Cancer is no exception. Find facts about this methodology.

Cancer Essay Conclusion

The final stage of your writing is a cancer essay conclusion. It should be concise and summarize your main point with other words. Mention your central question once again. Afterward, express your opinion.

For example, it may sound like this “Lung cancer is the disease of millions and it should be prevented and treated properly. The stem cell therapy has a huge potential to help this matter. Nonetheless, people should also give up smoking and maintain the lifestyle to improve their health conditions and escape this horrible disease.” As you can see, the conclusion of a cancer essay doesn’t differ from any other research projects.

Cancer Essay Outline Example

If you want to compose your paper fast, you’ll need a good plan. It shows what sections you need to fulfill. Thus, the work runs smoothly and quickly. Therefore, a cancer essay outline will come to you in handy.

• General idea
• A thesis statement
• Development of your concepts
• Implementation of the evidence and examples
• Summarization of your project

Make a captivating first line, introduce subtopics and the main argument. Develop your thesis and sub-topics in the main plot, which should be supported by good examples. The defining chapter is a summary of your main points and your opinion about the entire issue.

Cancer Topics for an Essay: Interesting Suggestions

Under the condition, you lack some ideas about what topic to choose we can help you. We have a list of propositions on this important theme. Make allowances for the next cancer topics for an essay:

• The main reasons why breast cancer takes place.
• W hat are the most effective preventive measures against cancer?
• How can cancer be treated?
• The major differences and similarities among various forms of cancer.
• Can the stem cell therapy really help to overcome cancer?
• Why chemotherapy is dangerous when people treat cancer and what are the alternatives?
• What form of cancer disease is spread the most and why?
• Which cancer form is the most dangerous?

Memorize these concepts. Create similar ones. Thus, you’ll surely write a good cancer essay about the problem, which really matters and contribute to its solving.

Cancer – an overview

• PMID: 29952494

Cancer is characterized by proliferation of cells that have managed to evade central endogenous control mechanisms. Cancers are grouped according to their organ or tissue of origin, but increasingly also based on molecular characteristics of the respective cancer cells. Due to the rapid technological advances of the last years, it is now possible to analyze the molecular makeup of different cancer types in detail within short time periods. The accumulating knowledge about development and progression of cancer can be used to develop more precise diagnostics and more effective and/or less toxic cancer therapies. In the long run, the goal is to offer to every cancer patient a therapeutic regimen that is tailored to his individual disease and situation in an optimal way.

Publication types

• Antineoplastic Agents / therapeutic use*
• Drug Resistance, Neoplasm
• Neoplasms / drug therapy*
• Neoplasms / pathology
• Precision Medicine
• Antineoplastic Agents

Essay on Cancer in English for Children and Students

Table of Contents

This is basically a disease that involves abnormal growth of cells that have the potential to spread in different parts of the body. The disease may be curable if detected in early stages. Cancer basically develops due to abnormal cell growth. It generates in one part of the body and has the capacity to enter different body parts. Possible symptoms of cancer are the formation of lumps, prolonged cough, abnormal bleeding, excessive weight loss and changes in the bowel movement.

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Long and Short Essay on Cancer in English

We are providing here some easy and effective cancer essays of varying lengths to help you with the topic. You can select any short or long essay on cancer according to your need and requirement:

Cancer Essay – 1 (200 words)

There are around 100 types of cancers that impact the human body. While some of these are curable if detected during initial stages, the medical professionals across the globe are still trying to identify cure for others.

Some of the possible symptoms of cancer are abnormal bleeding, blockage in the bowel, excessive weight loss, pneumonia, excessive fatigue, changes in the skin and prolonged cough. These symptoms do not appear in the initial stages of cancer and are often dismissed as general bodily issues by the patients even when detected. These symptoms however may even occur in those with other less serious health conditions. It is common for the cancer patients to have undergone treatment for other diseases before finally being diagnosed with cancer.

A subset of neoplasms is formed in individuals suffering from cancer. A neoplasm, commonly referred to as tumor, is basically a group of cells that undergo abnormal growth to the extent to form a lump.

Some of the common causes of cancer include stress, lack of physical activity, pollution, infections, radiations, diet, tobacco and obesity. In 5-10% of the cases, this disease is inherited. It has been stated that around 70 – 90% of the cancers are formed due to environmental factors such as poor lifestyle choices and pollution. These can thus be prevented with some caution.

World Cancer Day

Cancer Essay 2 (300 words)

Cancer, a condition that is caused by excessive growth of cells, can be cured if detected at an early stage. However, as the severity of the problem increases it becomes more and more difficult to deal with it. As painful as the condition is, the treatments used to cure it are equally agonizing. It is thus important to be alert and avert the problem from arising in the first place. It is also essential not to neglect its symptoms to get rid of it at the earliest.

Symptoms That Must Not Be Ignored

Here are a few symptoms that are an early sign of cancer:

• Weight Loss

Excessive weight loss without any drastic lifestyle change can be one of the early signs of cancer. Keep a check on your weight and get alert if it goes down rather abnormally.

While it is common to feel fatigued due to various reasons however if you continue to feel fatigued for no particular reason, it is time to consult your doctor.

• Nagging Cough

A cough that goes over a couple of weeks must not be ignored as it may be a sign of lung cancer.

• Changes in Bowel Movements

Prolonged constipation, diarrhea, pain while passing stool/ urine, blood in urine or any other change in the bladder function or bowel movement may also be a sign of cancer.

• Prolonged Sores

A prolonged sore that does not show any sign of healing must also not be ignored. It may be a sign of skin cancer. One inside the mouth may be a symptom of oral cancer.

• Lump Formation

Lump formation near the breast or the thickening of breast may be a sign of breast cancer.

With the disease spreading like wild fire with millions of people being affected by it each year, it is imperative for you to learn how to prevent it and ensure that you do not ignore any of the symptoms if they happen to crop up. Be aware, be safe!

Cancer Essay – 3 (400 words)

Cancer is nothing but an unusual growth of cancer cells in any part of the body. Certain body parts are more prone to developing these cells. If not treated on time, these can spread to the other parts of the body. While most cancers are deadly, especially if detected at a later stage, the good news is that you can prevent this problem.

Ways to Prevent Cancer

Prevention is always better than cure. So here are a few ways in which you can prevent this condition:

• Drink Plenty of Water

The health benefits of drinking plentiful water are known to all. This is especially helpful in bringing down the risk of bladder cancer as water can dilute the concentration of agents causing cancer and flush them. Have at least 8 glasses of water each day. The water must be filtered and clean.

• Healthy Diet

A healthy diet is no doubt the key to a healthy lifestyle. Have a healthy diet loaded with various fruits, vegetables, cereals and pulses to lower the risk of developing various kinds of cancers.

• Have Green Vegetables

It is suggested to go for the greenest varieties of the green vegetables as these are rich in magnesium that lowers the risk of cancer. It particularly reduces the risk of colon cancer in women.

• Include Brazil Nuts in Your Diet

These are loaded with selenium that is said to reduce the risk of developing bladder, lung and colorectal cancer. It is a good idea to have a handful of these in between your meals instead of hogging on unhealthy snacks.

As per a research, those who have 5 or more cups of caffeinated coffee each day have a lower chance of developing brain, oral and throat cancer compared to those who drink less.

The importance of exercising has stressed upon time and again. Besides offering numerous other health benefits, indulging in moderate exercise regularly helps in lowering the risk of developing various types of cancers.

• Avoid Filling Fuel Tank to the Top

A recent research shows that filling the fuel tank to the top can thwart the pump’s vapour recovery system which created to keep the toxic cancer causing air out.

Apart from inculcating these healthy habits, it is important to steer clear of tobacco consumption and lower your alcohol intake.

As per the researchers, around 70% of the known causes of cancers are related to lifestyle and can avoided with little effort. It is essential to make it a habit to follow a healthy diet and exercise regularly to stay fit and prevent this vicious condition.

Cancer Essay – 4 (500 words)

Cancer occurs due to abnormal cell growth that typically occurs in any one part of the body and spreads to others if not treated on time. There are numerous types of cancers. Some of the common types of cancers include lung cancer, prostate cancer, breast cancer, skin cancer, kidney cancer and blood cancer. Millions of people incur this deadly disease each year. While some fight it back bravely others succumb to it after some time.

Stages of Cancer

There are four stages of cancer. If detected at an early stage, it can be cured with the help of surgery and medication however when detected at a later stage it usually proves fatal for the patient. Here is a detailed look at the four stages of cancer:

In stage one, the cancer small and still contained within the organ it sprung up in.

The size of the tumour is larger in stage 2 however it hasn’t yet begun to spread in the surrounding tissues. At times stage 2 of cancer means that the cancer cells have gone further and spread in the lymph nodes near the tumour.

The tumour is much larger in this stage and it may have begun spreading in the surrounding tissues. Cancer cells also spread in the lymph nodes in the area in this stage.

In this stage, the cancer has spread to other organ/ organs. It also referred to as secondary or metastatic cancer.

Sometimes these stages further divided by the use of letters A, B and C.

Why is Staging Essential?

It is essential to diagnose the cancer stage as it helps in understanding the treatment required for the patient. For instance, if a patient is still in the first stage of cancer then a surgery or radiotherapy may help cure the same. It is a local treatment that only treats one part of the body.

If the cancer cells broken from the original place and entered the lymph nodes which means the patient entered the third stage of cancer then adjuvant treatment is suggested. This usually involves chemotherapy post surgery. This done to kill the cancer cells broken away from the primary tumour.

In case the cancer has spread to other parts of the body then local and adjuvant treatments are not enough. It requires a treatment that covers the entire body. Such a treatment known as systemic treatment. It involves chemotherapy hormone therapy and biological therapies that circulate in the bloodstream.

Staging thus used as a means to describe the size of the cancer and the severity of the problem. A number of tests carried out by the doctors when a patient diagnosed of cancer. These done to understand the size of the cancer and whether it spread to the other organs. This helps in identifying the stage of cancer a patient is suffering from.

Many types of cancers are curable if detected at stage 1 or 2. However, it becomes difficult to deal with the problem as the stage goes up. The symptoms of this disease must not ignored and the patient must undergo treatment while there is still time.

Cancer Essay – 5 (600 words)

Cancer, considered to be a deadly disease, caused due to various factors including unhealthy lifestyle, exposure to pollution, stress, exposure to radiations, infections, consumption of tobacco and unhealthy dietary choices. There are numerous types of cancers that impact the human body and the cause of their development varies based on their type.

Types of Cancers

While there are more than 100 types of cancers that can affect the human body here is a look at the some of the most common types and learn a few important points about the same:

• Lung Cancer : This type of cancer occurs in the cells inside the lining of the lungs. There are mainly two types of lung cancers. These are small cell and non-small cell lung cancer. Some of the common symptoms of lung cancer include coughing up blood, breathlessness, chest pain and weight loss.
• Breast Cancer : This type of cancer is most common in women. However, men may also develop breast cancer. Early signs of this type of cancer include a lump in the breast, dimpling of skin, liquid discharge from the nipples and change in the breast shape.
• Skin Cancer : Skin cancer is one of the most common types of cancers. It affects more than a million people every year. It can form in the skin cells in any body part. Skin cancer mainly caused due to overexposure to sun. Skin cancer further divided into different categories such as basal cell skin cancer that occurs in the round cells inside the skin’s outer layer and squamous cell skin cancer that occurs in flat cells on the top of the skin.
• Melanoma : This is another kind of skin cancer that forms in the skin’s melanocyte cells. It leads to the production of brown pigment melanin and said to be the most dangerous types of skin cancer. It may even found in pigmented parts such as intestines and in the eyes.
• Prostate Cancer : This mostly occurs in men over the age of 50 years. It develops in the tissues inside the prostate gland. This gland forms a part of the male reproductive system. While most prostate cancers grow slowly some might grow at a relatively rapid speed. Cancer cells may spread from prostate to other parts of the body.
• Kidney Cancer : Also known as renal cancer, it forms in the ducts of the kidney. Two common types of kidney cancer are Renal Cell Carcinoma (RCC) and Transitional Cell Carcinoma (TCC). Kidney cancer usually develops in people over the age of 40 years however there is one type of kidney cancer that mostly affects young children.
• Colorectal Cancer : Colon and Rectal cancers have also seen a rise. Colon is part of the large intestine and helps in digestion while rectum found at the end of the large intestine.
• Bladder Cancer : The cancer cells that develop within the bladder tissue result in bladder cancer. Lower back pain, pain in urination and blood in urine are some of the symptoms of bladder cancer.
• Leukemia : There are basically four major types of leukemia. These are acute myeloid leukemia, acute lymphocytic leukemia, chronic myeloid leukemia and chronic lymphocytic leukemia. This type usually forms inside the bone marrow or tissues that a part of the blood cells and referred to as blood cancer.
• Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma : This includes different types of cancers involving white blood cells. It usually causes lymph nodes, weight loss and fever. It can occur in different parts of the body.

It suggested to follow a healthy lifestyle by indulging in regular exercise and following a nutritious diet plan to prevent this problem. A person with good immune system is less likely to develop this disease compared to someone with a poor lifestyle and weak immunity.

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Cancer Essay

It is basically a disease in which there is abnormal development of body cells which spread to different parts of the body. If this disease is detected at an early stage then this disease can be cured. Cancer basically develops due to abnormal cell/cell growth. It originates in one part of the body and has the ability to penetrate into different organs. Possible signs of cancer are lumps, prolonged cough, unusual bleeding, excessive weight loss and changes in internal bowel.

Long and Short Essay on Cancer in English

Essay – 1 (300 words).

Cancer is a condition that occurs due to excessive growth of cells and can be cured if detected at an early stage. However, as the severity of the problem increases, it becomes difficult to deal with it. If the condition of cancer is painful then the methods used to treat it are equally painful. It is therefore important to be vigilant and address the problem before it arises in the first place. Recognizing its symptoms and ignoring it is also a big mistake.

Symptoms that should not be ignored

Here are some symptoms that are an early sign of cancer:

• weight loss

Excessive weight loss without any drastic lifestyle changes can be one of the early signs of cancer. If it is consistently low then check your weight and keep an eye on it.

Though it is common to feel tired due to various reasons but if you feel tired for any particular reason then it is time to consult your doctor.

If the cough lasts for more than a few weeks, then it should not be ignored as it can be a sign of lung cancer.

• change in bowel movements

Blood in stool/urine or any other change in the body and prolonged constipation, diarrhoea, pain can also be a sign of cancer.

• long time wounds

Chronic pain that does not show any symptoms during treatment should also not be ignored. This could be a sign of skin cancer or a symptom of a cancer inside the mouth.

• lump structure

The formation or thickening of the breast near the breast can be a sign of breast cancer.

The disease is spreading like wild fire with millions of people affected by it every year. It is important to know how to prevent it and make sure not to ignore any of its symptoms. Take care, stay safe!

Essay – 2 (400 words)

Cancer is the abnormal growth of cancer cells in any part of the body. Few cells are more affected by these abnormal growths. If it is not treated on time, it can spread to other parts of the body as well. If cancer is detected later, it can prove to be very dangerous. The good news is that you can prevent this problem in time.

ways to prevent cancer

Prevention is always better than cure. So here are some of the ways in which you can prevent this situation:

• drink plenty of water

Drinking plenty of water is known to have health benefits. It is particularly useful in reducing the risk of bladder cancer because water can reduce the concentration of cancer-causing agents and destroy them. Drink at least 8 glasses of water each day. Be sure to filter and clean the water.

• Healthy Diet

There is no doubt about eating a healthy diet. A healthy diet filled with various fruits, vegetables, grains and pulses is the key to a healthy lifestyle that keeps the risk of developing various types of cancer low.

• eat green vegetables

Eating green vegetables is suggested because they are rich in magnesium which lowers the risk of cancer. It reduces the risk of colon cancer especially in women.

• Include Brazil Nuts in Your Diet

Brazil nuts are loaded with selenium which works to reduce the risk of developing bladder, lung and colorectal cancers. It is a good idea to eat Brazil nuts instead of adding unstable snacks to your diet.

According to research, those who drink 5 or more cups of caffeinated coffee are less likely to develop cancer of the brain, mouth and throat than those who drink less coffee.

The importance of exercise is emphasized time and again. Indulging in moderate exercise regularly helps reduce the risk of developing various types of cancer, apart from providing many other health benefits.

• avoid overeating

A recent research suggests that overeating can cause the respiratory system to fail, leading to the release of toxic cancer-causing air.

In addition to following these healthy habits, it is important to reduce tobacco consumption and reduce alcohol consumption.

According to researchers, about 70% of the known causes of cancer are lifestyle-related and can be avoided with little effort. Following a healthy diet and exercising regularly are necessary to make it a habit to stay fit and prevent this dreaded condition.

Essay – 3 (500 words)

Cancer is caused due to abnormal cell/cell growth which usually originates in one part of the body and spreads to another place if it is not treated in time. There are many types of cancer, including some common types of cancer such as lung cancer, prostate cancer, breast cancer, skin cancer, kidney cancer and blood cancer. Millions of people have to face this deadly disease every year. Some people cope with it while some give up in front of it.

cancer stages

There are four stages of cancer. If it is detected at an early stage then it can be cured with the help of surgery and medicine and if it is detected later then it can usually prove to be fatal for the patient. The detailed information about the four stages of cancer is as follows:

Cancer is in the stage of emergence in the first stage in which it tries to grow.

In stage 2 the size of the tumor increases. However, it has not yet spread to the surrounding tissues. Sometimes stage 2 of the cancer means that the cancer cells have progressed and the tumor has spread to nearby lymph nodes.

In this stage, the size of the tumor becomes very large and it can spread to the surrounding tissues. Cancer cells also spread to the lymph nodes in this level of the region.

In this stage the cancer has spread to other organ/s. This is called secondary or metastatic cancer.

Sometimes these stages can also be divided by the names of A, B and C.

Why is the stage of cancer important?

It is essential to find out the cancer stage as it helps in understanding the treatment required for the patient. For example, if a patient is still in an earlier stage of cancer, surgery or radiotherapy may help as a treatment. It is a local treatment that only treats one part of the body.

If cancer cells have broken off from the original site and have entered the lymph nodes, which means that the patient has entered the third stage of cancer, adjuvant treatment is suggested. This usually involves chemotherapy post surgery. This is done to kill broken cancer cells from the primary tumor.

If the cancer has spread to other parts of the body, local and supportive treatments are not enough. It requires a treatment involving the whole body. Such treatment is known as systemic treatment. This includes chemotherapy, hormone therapy, and biological treatments that circulate in the bloodstream.

The variable method is thus used as a means of describing the size of the cancer and the severity of the problem. Many tests are done by doctors when a patient is being treated for cancer. This is done to understand the size of the cancer to know whether it has spread to other organs. This helps in identifying the stage of cancer from which the patient is suffering.

Many types of cancer can be treated if found in stage 1 or 2. However, dealing with this problem becomes difficult when it escalates. The symptoms of this disease should not be ignored and the patient should be treated in time.

Essay – 4 (600 words)

Cancer is considered a fatal disease. It is caused by a variety of factors including unhealthy lifestyle, pollution, stress, radiation exposure, infection, tobacco consumption and unhealthy food choices. There are several types of cancer that affect the human body and their growth varies depending on the type.

types of cancer

There are over 100 types of cancer that can affect the human body. Here’s a look at some of the more common types and some important points to discuss about it:

• Lung cancer : This type of cancer occurs in the cells inside the lining of the lungs. There are mainly two types of lung cancer. These are small cell and non-small cell lung cancer. Some common symptoms of lung cancer include coughing up blood, difficulty breathing, chest pain and weight loss.
• Breast cancer: This type of cancer is most common in women. However men can also develop breast cancer. Early symptoms of this type of cancer include a lump in the breast, fluid discharge from the nipples, and changes in the shape of the breast.
• Skin cancer: Skin cancer is one of the most common types of cancer. It affects more than a million people every year. It can form skin cells in any body part. This is mainly due to prolonged exposure to the sun. Skin cancers are divided into different categories such as basal cell skin cancer which occurs in the round cells inside the outer layer of the skin and squamous cell skin cancer which occurs in the flat cells on the top of the skin.
• Melanoma: This is another type of skin cancer that forms in the melanocyte cells of the skin. It produces the brown pigment melanin and is considered the most dangerous type of skin cancer. It can also be found in the parts described as the intestines and eyes.
• Prostate cancer: This occurs in men over the age of 50. It develops in the tissues inside the prostate gland. This gland is a part of the male reproductive system. While prostate cancer grows slowly, some can grow relatively quickly. Cancer cells can spread from the prostate to other parts of the body.
• Kidney cancer: This occurs in the tubules of the kidney. The two common types of kidney cancer are renal cell carcinoma (RCC) and transitional cell carcinoma (TCC). Kidney cancer usually develops in people over the age of 40. However, there is another type of kidney cancer that mostly affects young children.
• Colorectal cancer: Complications of colon and rectal cancer are also increasing. The colon is part of the large intestine and helps with digestion while the rectum is found at the end of the large intestine.
• Bladder cancer: Bladder cancer is a type of bladder cancer characterized by cancerous cells that develop within the tissues of the bladder. Lower back pain, pain in urination and blood in urine are some of the symptoms of bladder cancer.
• Leukemia: There are basically four major types of leukemia. There are myeloid leukemia, acute lymphocytic leukemia, chronic myeloid leukemia and chronic lymphocytic leukemia. This type usually occurs inside the bone marrow or tissues that are part of the blood cells and is called blood cancer.
• Non -Hodgkin lymphoma: This includes various types of cancer involving the white blood cells. It usually causes swollen lymph nodes, weight loss and fever. It can happen in different parts of the body.

Cancer survival tips include following a healthy lifestyle by doing regular exercise and following a nutritious diet plan to prevent this problem. A person with a good immune system is less likely to develop the disease than someone with a poor lifestyle and weak immunity.

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