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African History Extra

A history of the Lozi kingdom. ca. 1750-1911.

State and society in south-central africa.

In the first decade of the 20th century, only a few regions on the African continent were still controlled by sovereign kingdoms. One of these was the Lozi kingdom, a vast state in south-central Africa covering nearly 250,000 sqkm that was led by a shrewd king who had until then, managed to retain his autonomy.

The Lozi kingdom was a powerful centralized state whose history traverses many key events in the region, including; the break up of the Lunda empire, the Mfecane migrations, and the colonial scramble. In 1902, the Lozi King Lewanika Lubosi traveled to London to meet the newly-crowned King Edward VII in order to negotiate a favorable protectorate status. He was met by another African delegate from the kingdom of Buganda who described him as "a King, black like we are, he was not Christian and he did what he liked" 1

This article explores the history of the Lozi kingdom from the 18th century to 1916, and the evolution of the Lozi state and society throughout this period.

Map of Africa in 1880 highlighting the location of the Lozi kingdom (Barosteland) 2

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Early history of the Lozi kingdom

The landscape of the Lozi heartland is dominated by the Zambezi River which cuts a bed of the rich alluvial Flood Plain between the Kalahari sands and the miombo woodlands in modern Zambia.

The region is dotted with several ancient Iron Age sites of agro-pastoralist communities dating from the 1st/5th century AD to the 12th/16th century, in which populations were segmented into several settlement sites organized within lineage groups. 3 It was these segmented communities that were joined by other lineage groups arriving in the upper Zambezi valley from the northern regions under the Lunda empire, and gradually initiated the process of state formation which preceded the establishment of the Lozi kingdom. 4

The earliest records and traditions about the kingdom's founding are indirectly associated with the expansion and later break-up of the Lunda empire, in which the first Lozi king named Rilundo married a Lunda woman named Chaboji. Rulindo was succeeded by Sanduro and Hipopo, who in turn were followed by King Cacoma Milonga, with each king having lived long enough for their former capitals to become important religious sites. 5

The above tradition about the earliest kings, which was recorded by a visitor between 1845-1853, refers to a period when the ruling dynasty and its subjects were known as the Aluyana and spoke a language known as siluyana. In the later half of the 19th century, the collective ethnonym for the kingdom's subjects came to be known as the lozi (rotse), an exonym that emerged when the ruling dynasty had been overthrown by the Makololo, a Sotho-speaking group from southern Africa. 6

King Cacoma Milonga also appears in a different account from 1797, which describes him as “a great souva called Cacoma Milonga situated on a great island and the people in another.” He is said to have briefly extended his authority northwards into Lunda’s vassals before he was forced to withdraw. 7 He was later succeeded by King Mulambwa (d. 1830) who consolidated most of his predecessors' territorial gains and reformed the kingdom's institutions inorder to centralize power under the kingship at the expense of the bureaucracy. 8

Mulambwa is considered by Lozi to have been their greatest king, and it was during his very long reign that the kingdom’s political, economic, and judicial systems reached that degree of sophistication noted by later visitors. 9

the core territories of the Lozi kingdom 10

The Government in 19th century buLozi

At the heart of the Lozi State is the institution of kingship, with the Lozi king as the head of the social, economic and administrative structures of the whole State. After the king's death, they're interred in a site of their choosing that is guarded by an official known as Nomboti who serves as an intermediary between the deceased king and his successors and is thus the head of the king's ancestral cult. 11

The Lozi bureaucracy at the capital, which comprised the most senior councilors ( Indunas ) formed the principal consultative, administrative, legislative, and judicial bodies of the nation. A single central body the councilors formed the National Council ( Mulongwanji) which was headed by a senior councilor ( Ngambela) as well as a principal judge ( Natamoyo) . A later visitor in 1875 describes the Lozi administration as a hierarchy of “officers of state” and “a general Council” comprising “state officials, chiefs, and subordinate governors,” whose foundation he attributed to “a constitutional ruler now long deceased”. 12

The councilors were heads of units of kinship known as the Makolo , and headed a provincial council ( kuta ) which had authority over individual groups of village units ( silalo ) that were tied to specific tracts of territories/land. These communities also provided the bulk of the labour and army of the kingdom, and in the later years, the Makolo were gradually centralized under the king who appointed non-hereditary Makolo heads. This system of administration was extended to newly conquered regions, with the southern capital at Nalolo (often occupied by the King’s sister Mulena Mukwai ), while the center of power remained in the north with the roving capital at Lealui. 13

The valley's inhabitants established their settlements on artificially built mounds ( liuba ) tending farms irrigated by canals, activities that required large-scale organized labor. Some of the surplus produced was sent to the capital as tribute, but most of the agro-pastoral and fishing products were exchanged internally and regionally as part of the trade that included craft manufactures and exports like ivory, copper, cloth, and iron. Long-distance traders from the east African coast (Swahili and Arab), as well as the west-central African coast (Africans and Portuguese), regularly converged in Lozi’s towns. 14

Palace of the King (at Lealui) ca. 1916, Zambia. USC Libraries.

Palace of the Mulena Mukwai/Mokwae (at Nalolo), 1914, Zambia. USC Libraries.

The Lozi kingdom under the Kololo dynasty.

After the death of Mulambwa, a succession dispute broke out between his sons; Silumelume in the main capital of Lealui and Mubukwanu at the southern capital of Nalolo, with the latter emerging as the victor. But by 1845, Mubukwanu's forces were defeated in two engagements by a Sotho-speaking force led by Sebetwane whose followers ( baKololo ) had migrated from southern Africa in the 1820s as part of the so-called mfecane . Mubukwanu's allies fled to exile and control of the kingdom would remain in the hands of the baKololo until 1864. 15

Sebetwane (r. 1845-1851) retained most of the pre-existing institutions and complacent royals like Mubukwanu's son Sipopa, but gave the most important offices to his kinsmen. The king resided in the Caprivi Strip (in modern Namibia) while the kingdom was ruled by his brother Mpololo in the north, and daughter Mamochisane at Nololo, along with other kinsmen who became important councilors. The internal agro-pastoral economy continued to flourish and Lozi’s external trade was expanded especially in Ivory around the time the kingdom was visited by David Livingstone in 1851-1855, during the reign of Sebetwane's successor, King Sekeletu (r. 1851-1864). 16

The youthful king Sekeletu was met with strong opposition from all sections of the kingdom, spending the greater part of his reign fighting a rival candidate named Mpembe who controlled most of the Lozi heartland. After Sekeletu's death in 1864, further succession crisis pitted various royals against each other, weakening the control of the throne by the baKololo. The latter were then defeated by their Luyana subjects who (re)installed Sipopa as the Lozi king. While the society was partially altered under baKololo rule, with the Luyana-speaking subjects adopting the Kololo language to create the modern Lozi language, most of the kingdom’s social institutions remained unchanged. 17

The (re) installation of King Sipopa (r. 1864-1876) involved many Lozi factions, the most powerful of which was led by a nobleman named Njekwa who became his senior councilor and was married to Sipopa's daughter and co-ruler Kaiko at Nalolo. But the two allies eventually fell out and shortly after the time of Njekwa's death in 1874, the new senior councilor Mamili led a rebellion against the king in 1876, replacing him with his son Mwanawina. The latter ruled briefly until 1878 when factional struggles with his councilors drove him off the throne and installed another royal named Lubosi Lewanika (r.1878-84, 1885-1916) while his sister and co-ruler Mukwae Matauka was set up at Nalolo. 18

The Royal Barge on the Zambezi river , ca. 1910, USC Library

King Lewanika’s Lozi state

During King Lubosi Lewanika's long reign, the Lozi state underwent significant changes both internally as the King's power became more centralized, and externally, with the appearance of missionaries, and later colonialists.

After King Lubosi was briefly deposed by his powerful councilor named Mataa in favor of King Tatila Akufuna (r. 1884-1885), the deposed king returned and defeated Mataa's forces, retook the throne with the name Lewanika, and appointed loyalists. To forestall external rebellions, he established regional alliances with King Khama of Ngwato (in modern Botswana), regularly sending and receiving embassies for a possible alliance against the Ndebele king Lobengula. He instituted several reforms in land tenure, created a police force, revived the ancestral royal religion, and created new offices in the national council and military. 19

King Lewanika expanded the Lozi kingdom to its greatest extent by 1890, exercising varying degrees of authority over a region covering over 250,000 sqkm 20 . This period of Lozi expansion coincided with the advance of the European missionary groups into the region, followed by concessioners (looking for minerals), and the colonialists. Of these groups, Lewanika chose the missionaries for economic and diplomatic benefits, to delay formal colonization of the kingdom, and to counterbalance the concessionaries, the latter of whom he granted limited rights in 1890 to prospect for minerals (mostly gold) in exchange for protection against foreign threats (notably the powerful Ndebele kingdom in the south and the Portuguese of Angola in the west). 21

The Lozi kingdom at its greatest extent in the late 19th century

Lewanika oversaw a gradual and controlled adoption of Christianity (and literacy) confined to loyal councilors and princes, whom he later used to replace rebellious elites. He utilized written correspondence extensively with the various missionary groups and neighboring colonial authorities, and the Queen in London, inorder to curb the power of the concessionaires (led by Cecil Rhodes’ British South Africa company which had taken over the 1890 concession but only on paper), and retain control of the kingdom. He also kept updated on concessionary activities in southern Africa through diplomatic correspondence with King Khama. 22

The king’s Christian pretensions were enabled by internal factionalism that provided an opportunity to strengthen his authority. Besides the royal ancestral religion, lozi's political-religious sphere had been dominated by a system of divination brought by the aMbundu (from modern Angola) whose practitioners became important players in state politics in the 19th century, but after reducing the power of Lewanika's loyalists and the king himself, the later purged the diviners and curbed their authority. 23

This purge of the Mbundu diviners was in truth a largely political affair but the missionaries misread it as a sign that the King was becoming Christian and banning “witchcraft”, even though they were admittedly confused as to why the King did not convert to Christianity. Lewanika had other objectives and often chided the missionaries saying; "What are you good for then? What benefits do you bring us? What have I to do with a bible which gives me neither rifles nor powder, sugar, tea nor coffee, nor artisans to work for me." 24

The newly educated Lozi Christian elite was also used to replace the missionaries, and while this was a shrewd policy internally as they built African-run schools and trained Lozi artisans in various skills, it removed the Lozi’s only leverage against the concessionaires-turned-colonists. 25

The Lozi kingdom in the early 20th century: From autonomy to colonialism.

The King tried to maintain a delicate balance between his autonomy and the concessionaries’ interests, the latter of whom had no formal presence in the kingdom until a resident arrived in 1897, ostensibly to prevent the western parts of the kingdom (west of the Zambezi) from falling under Portuguese Angola. While the Kingdom was momentarily at its most powerful and in its most secure position, further revisions to the 1890 concessionary agreement between 1898 and 1911 steadily eroded Lewanika's internal authority. 26

Internal opposition by Lozi elites was quelled by knowledge of both the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893 and the Anglo-Boer war of 1899-1902. But it was the Anglo-Boer war that influenced the Lozi’s policies of accommodation in relation to the British, with Lozi councilors expressing “shock at the thought of two groups of white Christians slaughtering each other”. 27 The war illustrated that the Colonialists were committed to destroying anyone that stood in their way, whether they were African or European, and a planned expulsion of the few European settlers in Lozi was put on hold.

Always hoping to undermine the local colonial governors by appealing directly to the Queen in London, King Lewanika prepared to travel directly to London at the event of King Edward’s coronation in 1902, hoping to obtain a favorable agreement like his ally, King Khama had obtained on his own London visit in 1895. When asked what he would discuss when he met King Edward in London, the Lozi king replied: “When kings are seated together, there is never a lack of things to discuss.” 28

King Lewanika (front seat on the left) and his entourage visiting Deeside, Wales, ca. 1901 , Aberdeen archives

It is likely that the protection of western Lozi territory from the Portuguese was also on the agenda, but the latter matter was considered so important that it was submitted by the Portuguese and British to the Italian king in 1905, who decided on a compromise of dividing the western region equally between Portuguese-Angola and the Lozi. While Lewanika had made more grandiose claims to territory in the east and north that had been accepted, this one wasn’t, and he protested against it to no avail 29

After growing internal opposition to the colonial hut tax and the King’s ineffectiveness had sparked a rebellion among the councilors in 1905, the colonial governor sent an armed patrol to crush the rebellion, This effectively meant that Lewanika remained the king only nominally, and was forced to surrender the traditional authority of Kingship for the remainder of his reign. By 1911, the kingdom was incorporated into the colony of northern Rhodesia, formally marking the end of the kingdom as a sovereign state. 30

the Lozi king lewanika ca. 1901. Aberdeen archives

A few hundred miles west of the Lozi territory was the old kingdom of Kongo, which created an extensive international network sending its envoys across much of southern Europe and developed a local intellectual tradition that includes some of central Africa’s oldest manuscripts.

Read more about it here:

KONGO'S FOREIGN RELATIONS & MANUSCRIPTS

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• An Introduction To Zambias Lozi...

An Introduction to Zambia's Lozi People

Freelance Writer

The Lozi tribe of Western Zambia are a proud people with a complex history. They are the only tribe in Zambia with a King instead of a chief, and account for approximately 900,000 people. This is an introduction to Zambia’s Lozi people.

According to myth, the Lozi tribe began when the sun god Nyambe descended from heaven onto Barotseland, which is the Lozi homeland. He came with his wife Nasilele (the moon), and together they began the line of Luyi-Luyana kings. Before ascending back to the heavens, they left their daughter Mbuyu to continue the line of leadership through her male offspring.

Another account of the creation of the Lozi tribe is that they came from the Lunda Kingdom in present day Democratic Republic of Congo, and were led into Western Zambia by a Lunda princess called Mbuywamwamba between the 17th and 18th centuries. This was during the Bantu Migration from which other Zambian tribes such as the Bemba also moved into Zambia.

The historical account is that the Lozi were originally called the ‘ Luyi ‘ (meaning ‘Foreigner’) and spoke a language called Siluyana. They lived in Bulozi, a plain in the Upper Zambezi. In 1830, the Luyi people were conquered by the Makololo tribe under a leader called Sebetwane, who was part of many tribes that escaped the Mfecane , a series of wars under the Zulu king Shaka from present day South Africa. The Makololo changed the Luyi’s name to ‘Lozi’, which translates to ‘plain’. Although the Makololo were overthrown in 1864, the Luyi kept their new name.

Political history

It was believed that Barosteland had copper, gold and other minerals, so Cecil Rhodes, a colonialist figure known for his dreams of building a road from Cape Town , South Africa to Cairo, Egypt convinced the Litunga (the King – known by the name Lewanika) to sign over mining rights to Rhodes British South African Company under the Lochner Concession of 1890. Barosteland then became a British protectorate with the Lozis offered protection from neighboring tribes interested in conquering the Lozi. Barotseland became part of Northern Rhodesia (now known as Zambia) in May 1964, five months before Northern Rhodesia became an independent nation.

The Lozi are mostly concentrated in the Western Province of Zambia, although they are also based in smaller numbers in the Caprivi strip of Namibia, Botswana, Mozambique and Zimbabwe . The Lozi homeland is called Barotseland, and was once considered to be an independent kingdom with its own flag. The administrative capital is called Lealui, and the winter capital is called Limulunga – the towns are separated by a distance of approximately 11 miles (17.7 km). The town of Mongu is the political capital and is approximately 10 miles (16km) west of Lealui.

The Lozis show respect through a practice called likute . According to the essay ‘Moonlight and Clapping Hands: Lozi Cosmic Arts of Barosteland’ by Karen E Milbourne from the book African Cosmos published by Stellar Arts, it is “the performance of politeness, deference and cooperation… Its most visible feature consists of Lozi men and women clapping their hands in respect to one another, their leaders and the divine”. When members of the Lozi tribe meet the Litunga , they put their arms in the air, recite tributes and kneel several times as a form of respect.

Political structure

The Litunga is known as the ‘holder of the earth’ which is a literal translation of his name. This means all land in Barotseland belongs to the King, and his subjects are granted permission to live on the land. The Litunga is ruler of all Lozis. Under him is his prime minister, the Ngambela. The indunas or councilors are under the prime minister.

Traditional ceremony

The Lozis celebrate the Kuomboka ceremony annually in March or April at the end of the rainy season. It is one of the most popular traditional ceremonies in Zambia. ‘ Kuomboka ‘ translates to ‘get out of the water’ and involves the Litunga , his Queen and a number of their subjects moving from his residence at Lealui which floods annually, to Limulunga. The journey is a spectacle to watch, with the royal barge called the Nalikwanda (meaning ‘for the people’ which referred to the fact that the boat could be used by anyone, although later it came to be only used for the King) drawing attention with the large model elephant on the top. The Queen travels in a separate barge. The night before Kuomboka, the King beats a royal drum called the maoma which is a call to able-bodied men from the kingdom to prepare to escort their king. “Up to 120 men in leopard skins, red berets and lions manes to lead a flotilla of barges, banana boats and dugout canoes across lilly-studded waters” (Milborune, African Cosmos ).

Other drums that are played during the Kuomboka include the manjabila, lishoma, mwenduko, mutanga. “Manjabila is played in the Nalikwanda to give praises to the former leader of the canoe makers, and it alternates with maoma. Andlishoma is played up to the second landing at the harbour of Limulunga. Mwenduko together with mwatota and ngw’awawa (xylophones) are played while Nalikwanda is leaving. Mutango is played early in the morning to confirm to the people that the Litunga or Litunga la Mboela (The Queen) will not spend the night in Lealui or Nalolo. Firstly it will be played in the courtyard and thereafter at Namoo” (Barotse Royal Establishment, Kuomboka Ceremony, 2008: 14-15).

The Litunga’s traditional attire is called sikutindo, which is worn when boarding the royal barge. He also carries a namaya which is a fly whisk. He then changes into his other royal attire, a black and gold British admiral’s uniform which is said to have been given to the Litunga who was ruling in 1902 by King Edward VIII in recognition of a treaty that had been signed between the Lozis and Queen Victoria.

Male members of Barosteland (the Lozi kingdom) wear a siziba – a skirt which is red, black and white chitenge (a cotton print fabric usually with bold patterns). They wear a matching waistcoat and red beret called a lishushu . The women wear a satin outfit called musinsi which consists of two skirts , a top called a baki and a small wrapper called a chali.

Women and men from the Lozi tribe sometimes wear ivory bangles which are given at different points in life such as birth, puberty etc.

Another way to learn about Lozi culture is to visit the Nayuma Museum which is located opposite the Litunga’s palace in Mongu.

Identity and naming

The Lozi sometimes name their children after former royal leaders. For instance, the name Matauka is usually given to a female child and was the name of the Queen whose brother was the Litunga from 1875 – 1885 and 1886 – 1916. Nasilele is also a common female name and refers to the wife of Nyambe (the sun god) who according to myth founded the Lozi tribe.

Traditionally, the eyes and mouth were kept open at the point of death. Men were buried facing east, while women were buried facing west. The dead were buried with their personal possessions as it was believed that they would be needed in the afterlife. According to the kwekudee-tripdownmemorylane blog , “The grave of a person of status, which is situated to the side of the commoner s cemetery, is surrounded by a circular barrier of grass and branches. As sign of grief, the kin of the deceased wear their skin cloaks inside out. The hut of the deceased is pulled down, the roof being placed near the grave, while the remaining possessions of the dead person are burned so that nothing will attract the ghost back to the village”. The funeral for a deceased King is a more elaborate affair.

The Lozi perform a variety of dances based on occasion. During a girl’s initiation, a dance called siyomboka is performed. It is also the name of the conical drum that is used during the occasion. During royal occasions such as Kuomboka , men and women perform different dances. The ngomalume is a warrior-style dance performed only by men. It “demands skillful co-ordination of steps and the abdominal movements” (Agrippa Njungu, Music of My People (II): Dances in Barotseland ). The liwale is performed by women at royal events. Other dances include the liimba, lishemba and sipelu, which is the most popular.

Like the myth of the creation of the Lozi tribe, there are many others. One of the most fascinating is the myth of the Lengolengole , a creature with the head of a snake and lizard-like feet that lives in the Zambezi river and was said to have been spotted by a Litunga in the early 20th century.

Food and drink

According to a Food and Consumption Report titled ‘ The Common Zambian Foodstuff, Ethnicity, Preparation and Nutrient Composition of selected foods’ by Drinah Banda Nyirenda, Ph.D., Martha Musukwa, MSc. and Raider Habulembe Mugode, BSc, the Lozi ethnic grouping occupy and control access to the floodplain with its potential for cattle production, fishing, wetland/floodplain agriculture (rice and maize), and harvesting of foodstuffs from the natural fauna and flora of the floodplain. The preferred fruits of the Lozi are exotic fruits. Apart from local fruits such as mumbole and namulomo which are preferred for their good taste, the local fruits that are most preferred by the Lozi people are those that have several uses such as mubula, which is used for making porridge, scones called manyende, and a drink known as maheu. Nuts are added as an alternative to groundnuts. Muzauli is added to relishes as an alternative to groundnuts or as a source of cooking oil, and mukuwa may be made into a drink.

The staple food of Zambia nshima is eaten by the Lozi as well, although it is called buhobe .

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United in Separation? Lozi Secessionism in Zambia and Namibia

• First Online: 21 August 2018

Cite this chapter

• Wolfgang Zeller 7 &
• Henning Melber 8 , 9 , 10 , 11  

Part of the book series: Palgrave Series in African Borderlands Studies ((PSABS))

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This chapter analyzes why secessionist movements on both sides of the Namibia-Zambia border have—despite shared roots—so far never joined forces in a united cause of pan-Lozi nationalism. We outline the historical processes through which the Lozi kingdom was partitioned and gradually transformed into Barotseland and the Caprivi Strip during the colonial period. We then examine how decolonization planted the seeds of Lozi separatism in Western Province and the secessionist movement in Caprivi, and how these evolved separately after Zambia’s and Namibia’s independence. The final section traces the initial thawing and renewed freezing of relations between successive central governments and separatists in the Zambian case, as well as the high treason trial that defined the aftermath of the Caprivi secession in Namibia.

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The terms Lozi and Barotse are synonymous.

In the Lozi administrative hierarchy the Ngambela is the most senior councilor who communicates decisions between the Litunga and the khuta , as well as the public. In obvious relation to the Westminster Model, he is often referred to as “Prime Minister.”

United Democratic Party ( 2005 ).

The exact number is disputed but this is the verifiable minimum number of casualties.

WP: 2010 Zambia national census; Caprivi: 2011 Population and Housing Census.

Cf. Lemarchand ( 1972 ) and Eifert et al. ( 2010 ).

cf. Zeller ( 2007a , b , 2009 ,  2010 ) and Melber ( 2009 ).

Hobsbawm and Ranger ( 1983 ), Mamdani ( 1996 ) and Forrest ( 2004 )

Mainga ( 1973 ), Caplan ( 1970 ), Gluckman ( 1959 ), Trollope ( 1937 : 19) and Flint ( 2003 )

Gluckman ( 1955 , 1965 ). See also Sumbwa ( 2000 ).

Caplan ( 1970 ) and Mainga ( 1973 : 139).

Flint ( 2003 : 402–410), Mainga ( 1973 : 132f) and Gluckman ( 1941 : 96).

Caplan ( 1969 )

Mainga Bull ( 1995 : 5).

Flint ( 2004 : 119)

Mainga ( 1973 : 171)

Anglo-German agreement of 1890, Article III. 2.

The English name of the document is “Anglo-German Agreement of 1890.”

The population of the area referred to the place as “Luhonono” and in August 2013, the Namibian government announced that this would replace “Schuckmannsburg” as its official name.

Streitwolf ( 1911 : 229–234).

Mainga Bull ( 1995 : 5), Mainga ( 1973 : 161) and Caplan ( 1970 : 74–118).

Caplan ( 1970 : 86f).

Van Horn ( 1977 : 164) and Gluckman ( 1941 : 164).

Mainga ( 1973 : 206)

Mainga Bull ( 1995 : 6)

Streitwolf ( 1911 : 110).

Two of these groups claimed autonomous chieftaincies in the post-independence period and their official recognition by the South West African People Organisation (SWAPO) government infuriated the core leadership of the Mafwe.

Mainga Bull ( 1995 : 6).

Caplan ( 1970 : 145)

Kangumu ( 2000 , 2011 )

Caplan ( 1970 : 168ff)

Mainga Bull ( 1995 : 9) and Caplan ( 1968 : 346f)

Caplan ( 1968 : 350f) and Mulford ( 1967 : 212ff)

Sumbwa ( 2000 )

Caplan ( 1968 : 355)

Mainga Bull ( 1995 : 12)

Kenneth Kaunda in a speech at Lealui on August 6, 1964, cited in Sumbwa ( 2000 , 114).

Caplan ( 1968 : 356)

Silozi is used for regular administrative proceedings, Siluyana for royal and ceremonial affairs.

MP Mrs. Judith Hart http://www.theyworkforyou.com/debates/?id=1966-12-13a.227.9&s=barotse#g229.4 .

Flint ( 2004 : 167f).

Cf. Hobsbawm and Ranger ( 1983 ).

In 1963 the South African government published the Report of the Commission of Enquiry into South West African Affairs, commonly known as the Odendaal Report after its chairman, Fox Odendaal. Its official purpose was to make recommendations on the best ways to promote the socioeconomic development of Namibia’s black majority population, but it is widely regarded as an attempt to fend off anti-Apartheid critics.

Flint ( 2004 : 174) and Kangumu ( 2011 : 214 ff)

Fisch ( 1999 : 42)

Muyongo served as SWAPO Representative in Zambia (1964–1965), Educational Secretary (1966–1970), and Vice President (1970–80)

United Democratic Party ( 2005 ) and Flint ( 2004 : 188).

http://www.caprivivision.com/who-has-the-power-to-revive-canu/ .

Caprivi Freedom ( 2013 )

South Africa ( 1964 ).

Fosse ( 1996 ) and Kangumu ( 2011 )

Cf. Melber and Saunders ( 2007 )

Virtual Zambia ( 2008 )

MMD ( 1991 )

Times of Zambia (January 31, 2009).

Englebert ( 2005 : 29–59) and Sumbwa ( 2000 : 115f)

Mainga Bull ( 1995 : 8) and Sumbwa ( 2000 : 116)

Sumbwa ( 2000 : 117)

Sumbwa ( 2000 : 119f)

Minorities at Risk ( 2009 ).

Barotse National Conference ( 1995 ).

The Post (1994) and Englebert ( 2005 )

Englebert ( 2005 ). Compare with Mbikusita-Lewanika ( 2001 ) and Barotse Patriotic Front ( 2004 )

Muyongo was the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance (DTA) Vice President from 1987 until 1992 and DTA President from 1992 to 1999. http://www.klausdierks.com/Biographies/Biographies_M.htm l. Accessed June 30, 2008

As Soiri (2001: 200) notes, it is difficult to establish whether politics entered into ethnicity or vice versa.

Fosse ( 1996 : 165–168) and Flint ( 2004 : 244–266)

Fosse ( 1996 : 165)

Fisch ( 1999 : 20)

Compare with Streitwolf ( 1911 : 126)

Soiri ( 2001 : 201).

See also Flint ( 2003 : 427).

Amnesty International ( 2003a )

cf. Zeller ( 2007b , 2010 )

Amnesty International ( 2003b )

afrolNews/IRIN ( 2006 )

The Namibian , February 12, 2013 and Menges ( 2013 ).

Analysis Africa ( 2013 ). The overall figures slightly differ according to sources and cannot be verified beyond any doubt. As the report also concludes: “Many have been tortured, and the state now faces potentially huge civil claims from the 43 men set free by the court after spending 13 years in jail.” See also The Namibian of February 2, 2002, and of June 16, 2007, reporting on the claims of some of the accused to be “Caprivians” and not “Namibians » and hence refusing to accept the jurisdiction of the Namibian courts.

Examples include a pro-secessionist opinion piece published in Caprivi Vision 1 September 2005, and the controversy over the revival and subsequent banning of the United Democratic Party (UDP) ( The Namibian , July 28, 2006, and September 8, 2006; Allgemeine Zeitung , September 4, 2006; New Era , September 4–5, 2006). Caprivi separatists claim that this (hitherto undisclosed) document proves that the 1964 Caprivi African National Union (CANU)-SWAPO merger was agreed on the condition that Caprivi would become an independent state separate from Namibia ( The Namibian , January 24, 2007), the reinstallment of CANU by locals and the repeated public claims by accused and acquitted high treason suspects that Caprivi is historically “not part of Namibia” ( The Namibian , February 2, 2005; January 17, 2007, April 17, 2007, and June 14, 2007, respectively).

Sankwasa ( 2013 )

Sasman ( 2017 )

Namibian Sun ( 2013 ).

http://www.caprivifreedom.com/news.i?cmd=view&nid=1198 .

http://www.caprivifreedom.com/news.i?cmd=view&nid=1185 ; see also www.capriviconcernedgroup.com .

http://geocurrents.info/news-map/war-and-strife-news/continuing-tension-in-namibias-caprivi-strip#ixzz2VXa0UJv5 ; http://www.thevillager.com.na/news_article.php?id=1439&title=Caprivi%20rises%20%20again .

The ruling party’s handling of the SWAPO detainee issue and the National Society for Human Rights and, the emergence of opposition parties Congress of Democrats and Rally for Democracy and Progress are prominent examples.

Reader’s Letter (2008). The Namibian , accessed at: http://www.namibian.com.na/2008/March/letters/08ED201395.html .

The Namibian ( 2008 ). See also “Pohamba at political rally.” 2008. The Namibian , accessed at: http://www.namibian.com.na/2008/February/national/08EB20FA4F.html .

Mutenda ( 2013 ).

Guijarro ( 2013 ).

Sanzila ( 2013 )

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Kaure ( 2013 ).

The Windhoek Observer ( 2013 ).

Interview, Inyambo Yeta (2005).

http://www.postzambia.com/post-read_article.php?articleId=25516 .

http://www.postzambia.com/post-read_article.php?articleId=21897 .

http://www.postzambia.com/post-read_article.php?articleId=18135 .

http://www.ukzambians.co.uk/home/2012/02/28/president-satas-reaction-to-barotse-report-a-u-turn-or-a-consciously-calculated-electoral-deception/?695d7100 .

http://www.barotseland.info/Freedom_Resolution_2012.htm .

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Wolfgang Zeller

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Zeller, W., Melber, H. (2019). United in Separation? Lozi Secessionism in Zambia and Namibia. In: de Vries, L., Englebert, P., Schomerus, M. (eds) Secessionism in African Politics. Palgrave Series in African Borderlands Studies. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-90206-7_11

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A look at the Lozi, the only people in Zambia with a king instead of a chief

The Lozi are perhaps well known for their Kuomboka ceremony that takes place almost every year in March or April at the end of the rainy season. The ceremony, described as one of the last great Southern African ceremonies, became necessary due to the flooding of the Zambezi plains (mainly where the Lozi live). The only people with a king instead of a chief, their Kuomboka essentially marks the ceremonial journey of the Litunga (the king) from his dry-season palace at the town of Lealui to his wet-season palace on higher ground at Limulunga.

The ceremony wins over thousands of spectators from the region and beyond, and so has recent calls by the homeland to become independent attracted many. Barotseland, the kingdom of the Lozi people, was a protectorate under British colonial rule and became part of Zambia at the country’s independence in 1964.

But the area, now known as Western Province, in 2012, resolved to be separated from Zambia, accusing the Zambian government of ignoring the region, which to date is one of the poorest and least-developed regions in the country. What’s more, activists have accused the government of ignoring a 1964 treaty, which granted powers to the Litunga (king) to make laws of Barotseland in respect to matters such as land, natural resources and taxation.

But to get a better understanding of the arguments of the Lozi and their demand for independence, it is ideal to look at the historical roots of the people. Numbering more than a million , the Lozi, also known as the Malozi, Nyambe, Rozi, Rutse, Makololo, Barotose, or Rotse, are believed to have migrated from the Lunda Kingdom in present-day Democratic Republic of Congo in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Originally called the ‘Luyi’ (meaning ‘Foreigner’), they lived in Bulozi, a plain in the Upper Zambezi, and spoke a language known as Siluyana. They were ruled by a long line of female rulers until they settled in Bulozi, where they started having male rulers. Around 1830, their kingdom (Barotseland) fell to the Makololo people under a leader called Sebetwane from present-day South Africa who invaded the kingdom and changed the name Luyi to ‘Lozi’, which means “plain.”

The Makololo ruled until 1864 when they were overthrown following a Lozi revolt . The Luyi kept their new name, nevertheless. During colonial times, their kingdom (Barotseland) was a British protectorate. Blessed with gold, copper, and other minerals, colonialist Cecil Rhodes, who wanted to build a road from Cape Town, South Africa to Cairo, Egypt had “convinced” the king (then known by the name Lewanika) to sign over mining rights to Rhodes British South African Company under the Lochner Concession of 1890. With this, the Lozi homeland, Barotseland, became a British protectorate, a status that gave the Lozi protection from neighboring tribes who had plans of conquering the Lozi.

Five months before Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) became independent in 1964, the Lozi king was persuaded to make Barotseland a part of what would become the new country of Zambia, on condition that his kingdom “maintained that element of self-rule” . This led to the Barotseland Agreement of 1964 . Successive Zambian governments have failed to honor the agreement for the kingdom to enjoy autonomy, and people in the kingdom have since demanded the right to independence, a call the Zambian government describes as treason.

In spite of these demands, which in 2011 resulted in injuries, fatalities, arrests and detentions, the king of the Lozi has continued to maintain the traditions and culture of the people. His title “Litunga” means “of the earth” or “owner of the earth,” signifying that he is the caretaker of the entire Lozi kingdom, which is a collection of regional/provincial principalities with several chiefdoms under them. Under the king (now Imwiko II) is his prime minister, also known as the Ngambela. The prime minister also has councilors or indunas under him. Among the Lozi in Zambia, the term ‘Paramount Chief’ applies to those who head the regional/provincial principalities. They also have many ‘chiefs’ under them, a report explained .

Under the monarchy of the Lozi, also known as the Barotse Royal Establishment (BRE), the administrative capital remains Lealui while the political capital is in the town of Mongu, approximately 10 miles west of Lealui. The winter capital is Limulunga, where the king and his subjects move to during the Kuomboka ceremony at the end of the rainy season.

The ceremonial journey from the king’s palace at Lealui to Limulunga takes about six hours, with the focus of attention largely being the royal barge called the Nalikwanda, a huge wooden canoe for the king with paddlers. The canoe comes with a large model elephant on the top. Drums, which are over 170 years old, play huge roles in the ceremony. The king begins the Kuomboka in traditional dress but changes it during the journey to the full uniform of a British admiral. British King Edward VII reportedly gave the black and gold uniform to the king who was ruling the Lozi in 1902 in recognition of a treaty that was signed between the Lozi and Queen Victoria.

To date, the Lozi, who hold their king in high esteem, do name their children after former royal leaders. They bury their dead with their personal possessions with the belief that those items would be needed in the afterlife. Largely occupying the floodplain of the Zambezi River, the Lozi are engaged in fishing, agriculture (rice and maize), and animal husbandry. Despite some misunderstandings between the monarchy in Lozi and the Zambian government, the two, according to a report , have “cooperated to improve the enforcement of new, sustainable fishing regulations and reverse the serious decline in the economic health of Barotse fisheries.”

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Trip down memory lane.

Celebrating our African historical personalities,discoveries, achievements and eras as proud people with rich culture, traditions and enlightenment spanning many years.

LOZI PEOPLE: UNIQUE ZAMBIAN TRIBE OF THE KINGDOM OF BAROTSELAND AND THEIR FAMOUS KUOMBOKA CEREMONY

This is great! Well documented history of my people! We indeed have a golden culture!

I'll just have to visit our motherland soon...well documented information for our rich culture.

Very Interesting. My father's folks are Lozi (In Botswana) and no one has ever given me information as comprehensive as this. They are the Mbangas. I have to extract them from this history and locate them specifically in this arresting history.

Dear Sir, Could it be possible to contact you for some help about those tribes? I will really apreciate your help. My contact is [email protected] Thanks in advance.

Good day my name is Sibeti Numwa from Kaoma living in south Africa. I been to kaoma once as a kid and have never been since. I would like to locate my late fathers relatives His name was George Muyangwa Numwa and was a pilot for Zambia airways. He died in 1987 in Swaziland. Kindly assist. my email is [email protected]

I lived in Barotseland from 1958 to 1960. Absolutely golden years in my memory. Thank you for this excellent article.

Thanks for collectiong information. But you should mention your sources. You didn't write a single word by your own. All is STOLEN from others on the internet.

I'm not sure if you are still maintaining this blog. I am a teacher and would love to have my students view your images and read the info, but I have not shared this link with them because of the links to pornography in the comments. Are you able to delete those so that this site is "safe" for students? Thanks!

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