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Basic Research – Types, Methods and Examples

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Basic Research

Definition:

Basic Research, also known as Fundamental or Pure Research , is scientific research that aims to increase knowledge and understanding about the natural world without necessarily having any practical or immediate applications. It is driven by curiosity and the desire to explore new frontiers of knowledge rather than by the need to solve a specific problem or to develop a new product.

Types of Basic Research

Types of Basic Research are as follows:

Experimental Research

This type of research involves manipulating one or more variables to observe their effect on a particular phenomenon. It aims to test hypotheses and establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Observational Research

This type of research involves observing and documenting natural phenomena without manipulating any variables. It aims to describe and understand the behavior of the observed system.

Theoretical Research

This type of research involves developing and testing theories and models to explain natural phenomena. It aims to provide a framework for understanding and predicting observations and experiments.

Descriptive Research

This type of research involves describing and cataloging natural phenomena without attempting to explain or understand them. It aims to provide a comprehensive and accurate picture of the observed system.

Comparative Research

This type of research involves comparing different systems or phenomena to identify similarities and differences. It aims to understand the underlying principles that govern different natural phenomena.

Historical Research

This type of research involves studying past events, developments, and discoveries to understand how science has evolved over time. It aims to provide insights into the factors that have influenced scientific progress and the role of basic research in shaping our understanding of the world.

Data Collection Methods

Some common data collection methods used in basic research include:

• Observation : This involves watching and recording natural phenomena in a systematic and structured way. Observations can be made in a laboratory setting or in the field and can be qualitative or quantitative.
• Surveys and questionnaires: These are tools for collecting data from a large number of individuals about their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and experiences. Surveys and questionnaires can be administered in person, by mail, or online.
• Interviews : Interviews involve asking questions to a person or a group of people to gather information about their experiences, opinions, and perspectives. Interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.
• Experiments : Experiments involve manipulating one or more variables and observing their effect on a particular phenomenon. Experiments can be conducted in a laboratory or in the field and can be controlled or naturalistic.
• Case studies : Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a particular individual, group, or phenomenon. Case studies can provide rich and detailed information about complex phenomena.
• Archival research : Archival research involves analyzing existing data, documents, and records to answer research questions. Archival research can be used to study historical events, trends, and developments.
• Simulation : Simulation involves creating a computer model of a particular phenomenon to study its behavior and predict its future outcomes. Simulation can be used to study complex systems that are difficult to study in the real world.

Data Analysis Methods

Some common data analysis methods used in basic research include:

• Descriptive statistics: This involves summarizing and describing data using measures such as mean, median, mode, and standard deviation. Descriptive statistics provide a simple and easy way to understand the basic properties of the data.
• Inferential statistics : This involves making inferences about a population based on data collected from a sample. Inferential statistics can be used to test hypotheses, estimate parameters, and quantify uncertainty.
• Qualitative analysis : This involves analyzing data that are not numerical in nature, such as text, images, or audio recordings. Qualitative analysis can involve coding, categorizing, and interpreting data to identify themes, patterns, and relationships.
• Content analysis: This involves analyzing the content of text, images, or audio recordings to identify specific words, phrases, or themes. Content analysis can be used to study communication, media, and discourse.
• Multivariate analysis: This involves analyzing data that have multiple variables or factors. Multivariate analysis can be used to identify patterns and relationships among variables, cluster similar observations, and reduce the dimensionality of the data.
• Network analysis: This involves analyzing the structure and dynamics of networks, such as social networks, communication networks, or ecological networks. Network analysis can be used to study the relationships and interactions among individuals, groups, or entities.
• Machine learning : This involves using algorithms and models to analyze and make predictions based on data. Machine learning can be used to identify patterns, classify observations, and make predictions based on complex data sets.

Basic Research Methodology

Basic research methodology refers to the approach, techniques, and procedures used to conduct basic research. The following are some common steps involved in basic research methodology:

• Formulating research questions or hypotheses : This involves identifying the research problem and formulating specific questions or hypotheses that can guide the research.
• Reviewing the literature: This involves reviewing and synthesizing existing research on the topic of interest to identify gaps, controversies, and areas for further investigation.
• Designing the study: This involves designing a study that is appropriate for the research question or hypothesis. The study design can involve experiments, observations, surveys, case studies, or other methods.
• Collecting data: This involves collecting data using appropriate methods and instruments, such as observation, surveys, experiments, or interviews.
• Analyzing data: This involves analyzing the collected data using appropriate methods, such as descriptive or inferential statistics, qualitative analysis, or content analysis.
• Interpreting results : This involves interpreting the results of the data analysis in light of the research question or hypothesis and the existing literature.
• Drawing conclusions: This involves drawing conclusions based on the interpretation of the results and assessing their implications for the research question or hypothesis.
• Communicating findings : This involves communicating the research findings in the form of research reports, journal articles, conference presentations, or other forms of dissemination.

Applications of Basic Research

Some applications of basic research include:

• Medical breakthroughs : Basic research in fields such as biology, chemistry, and physics has led to important medical breakthroughs, including the discovery of antibiotics, vaccines, and new drugs.
• Technology advancements: Basic research in fields such as computer science, physics, and engineering has led to advancements in technology, such as the development of the internet, smartphones, and other electronic devices.
• Environmental solutions: Basic research in fields such as ecology, geology, and meteorology has led to the development of solutions to environmental problems, such as climate change, air pollution, and water contamination.
• Economic growth: Basic research can stimulate economic growth by creating new industries and markets based on scientific discoveries and technological advancements.
• National security: Basic research in fields such as physics, chemistry, and biology has led to the development of new technologies for national security, including encryption, radar, and stealth technology.

Examples of Basic Research

Here are some examples of basic research:

• Astronomy : Astronomers conduct basic research to understand the fundamental principles that govern the universe, such as the laws of gravity, the behavior of stars and galaxies, and the origins of the universe.
• Genetics : Geneticists conduct basic research to understand the genetic basis of various traits, diseases, and disorders. This research can lead to the development of new treatments and therapies for genetic diseases.
• Physics : Physicists conduct basic research to understand the fundamental principles of matter and energy, such as quantum mechanics, particle physics, and cosmology. This research can lead to new technologies and advancements in fields such as medicine and engineering.
• Neuroscience: Neuroscientists conduct basic research to understand the structure and function of the brain, including how it processes information and controls behavior. This research can lead to new treatments and therapies for neurological disorders and brain injuries.
• Mathematics : Mathematicians conduct basic research to develop and explore new mathematical theories, such as number theory, topology, and geometry. This research can lead to new applications in fields such as computer science, physics, and engineering.
• Chemistry : Chemists conduct basic research to understand the fundamental properties of matter and how it interacts with other substances. This research can lead to the development of new materials, drugs, and technologies.

Purpose of Basic Research

The purpose of basic research, also known as fundamental or pure research, is to expand knowledge in a particular field or discipline without any specific practical application in mind. The primary goal of basic research is to advance our understanding of the natural world and to uncover fundamental principles and relationships that underlie complex phenomena.

Basic research is often exploratory in nature, with researchers seeking to answer fundamental questions about how the world works. The research may involve conducting experiments, collecting and analyzing data, or developing new theories and hypotheses. Basic research often requires a high degree of creativity, innovation, and intellectual curiosity, as well as a willingness to take risks and pursue unconventional lines of inquiry.

Although basic research is not conducted with a specific practical outcome in mind, it can lead to significant practical applications in various fields. Many of the major scientific discoveries and technological advancements of the past century have been rooted in basic research, from the discovery of antibiotics to the development of the internet.

In summary, the purpose of basic research is to expand knowledge and understanding in a particular field or discipline, with the goal of uncovering fundamental principles and relationships that can help us better understand the natural world. While the practical applications of basic research may not always be immediately apparent, it has led to significant scientific and technological advancements that have benefited society in numerous ways.

When to use Basic Research

Basic research is generally conducted when scientists and researchers are seeking to expand knowledge and understanding in a particular field or discipline. It is particularly useful when there are gaps in our understanding of fundamental principles and relationships that underlie complex phenomena. Here are some situations where basic research might be particularly useful:

• Exploring new fields: Basic research can be particularly valuable when researchers are exploring new fields or areas of inquiry where little is known. By conducting basic research, scientists can establish a foundation of knowledge that can be built upon in future studies.
• Testing new theories: Basic research can be useful when researchers are testing new theories or hypotheses that have not been tested before. This can help scientists to gain a better understanding of how the world works and to identify areas where further research is needed.
• Developing new technologies : Basic research can be important for developing new technologies and innovations. By conducting basic research, scientists can uncover new materials, properties, and relationships that can be used to develop new products or technologies.
• Investigating complex phenomena : Basic research can be particularly valuable when investigating complex phenomena that are not yet well understood. By conducting basic research, scientists can gain a better understanding of the underlying principles and relationships that govern complex systems.
• Advancing scientific knowledge: Basic research is important for advancing scientific knowledge in general. By conducting basic research, scientists can uncover new principles and relationships that can be applied across multiple fields of study.

Characteristics of Basic Research

Here are some of the main characteristics of basic research:

• Focus on fundamental knowledge : Basic research is focused on expanding our understanding of the natural world and uncovering fundamental principles and relationships that underlie complex phenomena. The primary goal of basic research is to advance knowledge without any specific practical application in mind.
• Exploratory in nature: Basic research is often exploratory in nature, with researchers seeking to answer fundamental questions about how the world works. The research may involve conducting experiments, collecting and analyzing data, or developing new theories and hypotheses.
• Long-term focus: Basic research is often focused on long-term outcomes rather than immediate practical applications. The insights and discoveries generated by basic research may take years or even decades to translate into practical applications.
• High degree of creativity and innovation : Basic research often requires a high degree of creativity, innovation, and intellectual curiosity. Researchers must be willing to take risks and pursue unconventional lines of inquiry.
• Emphasis on scientific rigor: Basic research is conducted using the scientific method, which emphasizes the importance of rigorous experimental design, data collection and analysis, and peer review.
• Interdisciplinary: Basic research is often interdisciplinary, drawing on multiple fields of study to address complex research questions. Basic research can be conducted in fields ranging from physics and chemistry to biology and psychology.
• Open-ended : Basic research is open-ended, meaning that it does not have a specific end goal in mind. Researchers may follow unexpected paths or uncover new lines of inquiry that they had not anticipated.

Advantages of Basic Research

Here are some of the main advantages of basic research:

• Advancing scientific knowledge: Basic research is essential for expanding our understanding of the natural world and uncovering fundamental principles and relationships that underlie complex phenomena. This knowledge can be applied across multiple fields of study and can lead to significant scientific and technological advancements.
• Fostering innovation: Basic research often requires a high degree of creativity, innovation, and intellectual curiosity. By encouraging scientists to pursue unconventional lines of inquiry and take risks, basic research can lead to breakthrough discoveries and innovations.
• Stimulating economic growth : Basic research can lead to the development of new technologies and products that can stimulate economic growth and create new industries. Many of the major scientific and technological advancements of the past century have been rooted in basic research.
• Improving health and well-being: Basic research can lead to the development of new drugs, therapies, and medical treatments that can improve health and well-being. For example, many of the major advances in medical science, such as the development of antibiotics and vaccines, were rooted in basic research.
• Training the next generation of scientists : Basic research is essential for training the next generation of scientists and researchers. By providing opportunities for young scientists to engage in research and gain hands-on experience, basic research helps to develop the skills and expertise needed to advance scientific knowledge in the future.
• Encouraging interdisciplinary collaboration : Basic research often requires collaboration between scientists from different fields of study. By fostering interdisciplinary collaboration, basic research can lead to new insights and discoveries that would not be possible through single-discipline research alone.

Limitations of Basic Research

Here are some of the main limitations of basic research:

• Lack of immediate practical applications : Basic research is often focused on long-term outcomes rather than immediate practical applications. The insights and discoveries generated by basic research may take years or even decades to translate into practical applications.
• High cost and time requirements: Basic research can be expensive and time-consuming, as it often requires sophisticated equipment, specialized facilities, and large research teams. Funding for basic research can be limited, making it difficult to sustain long-term projects.
• Ethical concerns : Basic research may involve working with animal models or human subjects, raising ethical concerns around the use of animals or the safety and well-being of human participants.
• Uncertainty around outcomes: Basic research is often open-ended, meaning that it does not have a specific end goal in mind. This uncertainty can make it difficult to justify funding for basic research, as it is difficult to predict what outcomes the research will produce.
• Difficulty in communicating results : Basic research can produce complex and technical findings that may be difficult to communicate to the general public or policymakers. This can make it challenging to generate public support for basic research or to translate basic research findings into policy or practical applications.

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Muhammad Hassan

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Basic research is research that focuses on expanding human knowledge, without obvious practical applications.

For a scholarly definition, we can turn to Grimsgaard (2023):

“Basic research, also called pure, theoretical or fundamental research, tends to focus more on ‘big picture’ topics, such as increasing the scientific knowledge base around a particular topic.”

It is contrasted with applied research , which “seeks to solve real world problems” (Lehmann, 2023).

Generally, basis research has no clear economic or market value, meaning it tends to take place in universities rather than private organizations. Nevertheless, this blue-skies basic research can lead to enormous technological breakthroughs that forms the foundation for future applied research .

Basic Research Examples

• Physics: Understanding the properties of neutrinos.
• Medicine: Investigating the role of gut microbiota in mental health.
• Anthropology: Studying the social structures of ancient civilizations.
• Biology: Exploring the mechanism of CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing.
• Psychology: Understanding the cognitive development in infants.
• Chemistry: Researching new catalytic processes for organic synthesis.
• Astronomy: Investigating the life cycle of stars.
• Sociology: Exploring the impacts of social media on society.
• Ecology: Studying the biodiversity in rainforests.
• Computer Science: Developing new algorithms for machine learning.
• Mathematics: Exploring new approaches to number theory.
• Economics: Investigating the causes and effects of inflation.
• Linguistics: Researching the evolution of languages over time.
• Political Science: Studying the effects of political campaigns on voter behavior.
• Geology: Investigating the formation of mountain ranges.
• Architecture: Studying ancient building techniques and materials.
• Education: Researching the impact of remote learning on academic performance.
• History: Investigating trade routes in the medieval period.
• Literature: Analyzing symbolism in 19th-century novels.
• Philosophy: Exploring concepts of justice in different cultures.
• Environmental Science: Studying the impact of plastics on marine life.
• Genetics: Investigating the role of specific genes in aging.
• Engineering: Researching materials for improving battery technology.
• Art History: Investigating the influence of politics on Renaissance art.
• Agricultural Science: Studying the impact of pest management practices on crop yield.

Case Studies

1. understanding the structure of the atom.

The study of atomic structure began in the early 1800s, with John Dalton’s atomic theory suggesting that atoms were indivisible and indestructible. However, it was not until the 20th century that Ernest Rutherford’s gold foil experiment led to the discovery of the nucleus and the proposal of the planetary model of the atom, which was further refined by Niels Bohr and eventually led to the quantum mechanical model, showing that electrons move in orbital shells around the nucleus.

Research Context:

• Topic: Investigating the structure and behavior of atoms.
• Purpose: Understand the fundamental particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons) and forces that govern atomic behavior.
• Methodology: Utilize particle accelerators, theoretical models, and experimental physics.
• Significance: Fundamental understanding of atomic structures has paved the way for numerous technological and scientific breakthroughs, such as the development of nuclear energy and advancements in chemistry and materials science.

Outcomes and Further Developments:

• Discovery and exploration of subatomic particles like quarks.
• Development of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory.
• Subsequent advancements in various scientific fields, such as nuclear physics, chemistry, and nanotechnology.

2. Researching the Human Genome

The Human Genome Project, an international research effort that began in 1990, aimed to sequence and map all of the genes – collectively known as the genome – of humans. Completed in 2003, it represented a monumental achievement in science, providing researchers with powerful tools to understand the genetic factors in human disease, paving the way for new strategies for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.

• Topic: Investigating the structure, function, and mapping of the human genome.
• Purpose: Understand the genetic makeup of humans, identify genes, and learn how they work.
• Methodology: Techniques like DNA sequencing, genetic mapping, and computational biology.
• Significance: Foundational for various advancements in genetics, medicine, and biology, providing insights into diseases, development, and evolution.
• Completion of the Human Genome Project, which mapped the entire human genome.
• Advancements in personalized medicine, genetic testing, and gene therapy.
• Development of CRISPR technology, enabling precise genetic editing.

Basic Research vs Applied Research

Basic research focuses on expanding knowledge and understanding fundamental concepts without immediate practical application, while applied research focuses on solving specific, practical problems using the knowledge gained from basic research (Akcigit, Hanley & Serrano-Velarde, 2021).

A simple comparison of definitions is below:

• Basic research seeks to gain greater knowledge or understanding of the fundamental aspects of phenomena.
• Applied research seeks to solve practical problems the researcher or their stakeholders are facing.

A researcher might choose basic research over applied if their primary motivation is to expand the boundaries of human knowledge and contribute to academic theories, whilst they might favor applied research if they are more interested in achieving immediate solutions, innovations, or enhancements impacting real-world scenarios (Akcigit, Hanley & Serrano-Velarde, 2021; Baetu, 2016).

To learn more about applied research, check out my article on applied research.

Basic Research: Disappearing in 21st Century Universities?

In the 1980s, universities increasingly came under pressure to prove their specific financial value to society. This has only intensified over the decades. So, whereas once universities were preoccupied with basic research, there’s been a big push toward academic-industry collaborations where research demonstrates its economic value, rather than its cultural or intellectual value, to society. This may, on the one hand, help make universities relevant to today’s world. But on the other hand, it may interfere with the blue skies research that could identify and solve the bigger, less financially pressing, questions and problems of our ages (Bentley, Gulbrandsen & Kyvik, 2015).

Pros and Cons of Basic Research

The primary advantage of basic research is that it generates knowledge and understanding of fundamental principles that can later serve as a foundation for technological advancement or social betterment.

It can lead to groundbreaking discoveries, stimulate creativity, and drive scientific innovation by satisfying human curiosity (Akcigit, Hanley & Serrano-Velarde, 2021; Baetu, 2016).

It is also often the catalyst for training the next generation of scientists and researchers.

However, basic research can be time-consuming, expensive, and its outcomes may not always be directly observable or immediately beneficial.

This is why it’s often left to government-funded research institutes and universities to conduct this sort of research. As Binswanger (2014) argues, “basic research constitutes, for the most part, a common good which cannot be sold profitably on markets.

Furthermore, its value is often underestimated because the applications are not immediately apparent or tangible.

Below is a summary of some advantages and disadvantages of basic research:

Abeysekera, A. (2019). Basic research and applied research.  Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka ,  47 (3).

Akcigit, U., Hanley, D., & Serrano-Velarde, N. (2021). Back to basics: Basic research spillovers, innovation policy, and growth.  The Review of Economic Studies ,  88 (1), 1-43.

Baetu, T. M. (2016). The ‘big picture’: the problem of extrapolation in basic research. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science.

Bentley, P. J., Gulbrandsen, M., & Kyvik, S. (2015). The relationship between basic and applied research in universities.  Higher Education ,  70 , 689-709. ( Source )

Binswanger, M. (2014). How nonsense became excellence: forcing professors to publish. In Welpe, I. M., Wollersheim, J., Osterloh, M., & Ringelhan, S. (Eds.), Incentives and Performance: Governance of Research Organizations . Springer International Publishing.

Grimsgaard, W. (2023). Design and strategy: a step by step guide . New York: Taylor & Francis.

Lehmann, W. (2023). Social Media Theory and Communications Practice . London: Taylor & Francis.

Wiid, J., & Diggines, C. (2009). Marketing Research . Juta.

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 10 Reasons you’re Perpetually Single
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What is Basic Research?

Introduction

What is the meaning of basic research, examples of basic research, how do i perform basic research.

Basic science research is an essential pillar of scientific knowledge, because it extends understanding, provides new insights, and contributes to the advancement of science and fundamental knowledge across disciplines. In contrast, applied research aims for the discovery of practical solutions, which can involve using a technology or innovation that stems from existing knowledge. Basic science research potentially allows for generating ideas on which applied science can build novel inquiry and useful applications.

The process for conducting basic research is essentially the same as in an applied research orientation, but a better understanding of the distinction may prove increasingly important when crafting your research inquiry. In this article, we'll detail the characteristics and importance of basic research.

One of the key distinctions in science is the divide between basic and applied research . Applied research is directly associated with practical applications such as:

• career development
• program evaluation
• policy reform
• community action

In inquiries regarding each of these applications, researchers identify a specific problem to be solved and design a study intentionally aimed at developing solutions to that problem. Basic research is less concerned about specific problems and more focused on the nature of understanding.

Characteristics of basic research

Research that advances understanding of knowledge has distinguishing characteristics and important considerations.

• Focus on theoretical development . Rather than focus on practical applications, scholars in basic science research are more interested in ordering data and understanding in a scientific manner. This means expanding the consensus understanding of theory and the proposal of new theoretical frameworks that ultimately further research.
• Exploratory research questions . Basic research tends to look at areas where there is insufficient theoretical coherence to empirically understand phenomena. In other words, basic research often employs research questions that seek greater definition of knowledge.
• Funding for basic science . The nature of the support available for research depends on whether the science is basic or applied . Government agencies, national institutes, and private organizations all have different objectives, making some more appropriate for basic research than others.
• Writing for research dissemination . Academic journals exist on a continuum between theoretical and practical orientations. Journals that are more interested in theoretical and methodological discussions are more appropriate for basic research than are journals that look for more practical implications arising from research.

The brief survey of these characteristics should guide researchers about how they should approach research design in terms of feasibility, methods, and execution. This discussion shouldn't preclude you from pursuing basic research if it is more appropriate to your research inquiry. Instead, it should inform you of the opportunities, advantages, and challenges of basic research.

Importance of basic research

Basic research may seem aimless and unfocused if it doesn't yield any direct practical implications. However, its contribution to scholarly discussion cannot be overstated as it guides the development of theories and facilitates critical discussion about what applied studies to pursue next.

Basic science has guided fields such as microbiology, engineering, and chemistry. Scientists ultimately use its findings to develop new methods in treating disease and innovating on new technology.

Its contribution to the social sciences through observation and longitudinal study is also immeasurable. While basic research is often a precursor to more applied science, the theories it generates spur further study that ultimately leads to professional development programs and policy reform in social institutions.

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Different fields rely on both applied and basic science for generating new knowledge. While applied research looks to yield direct benefits through real-world applications, basic research provides the necessary theoretical foundation for practical research in various fields.

Basic research example in education

Basic research in schooling contexts focuses on understanding the nature of teaching and learning or the processes within educational environments before any focused investigation can be designed, let alone conducted. Basic research is necessary in this case because of the various situated differences across learners who come from different cultures and backgrounds.

Basic research in education looks at various inquiries such as how teachers and students interact with each other and how alternative assessments can create positive learning outcomes. Ultimately, this may lead to applied research that can facilitate the creation of teacher education and professional development programs.

Basic research example in psychology

Psychology is a field that is under constant development. Basic research is essential to developing theories related to human behavior and mental processes. The subfield of cognition is a significant benefactor of basic research as it relies on novel theoretical frameworks relating to memory and learning.

Basic research example in health

A great deal of health research that reaches public consciousness is undoubtedly applied research. The development of vaccines and other medicine to combat the COVID-19 pandemic was one such line of inquiry that addressed a practical need.

That said, scientists will undoubtedly credit basic research as a precursor to medical breakthroughs in applied science research. The knowledge gained through basic research laid the foundation for genomic sequencing of the COVID-19 virus, while experiments on living systems created knowledge about how to safely vaccinate the human body.

The National Institute of Health sponsors such basic research and research in other areas such as human DNA, while the National Science Foundation funds basic research on topics such as gender stereotypes and stress levels.

At its core, all scientific inquiry seeks to identify causal factors, relationships, and distinguishing characteristics among concepts and phenomena. As a result, the process is essentially the same for basic or applied science. Nonetheless, it is worth reviewing the process.

• Research design . Identify gaps in existing research that novel inquiry can address. A rigorous literature review can help identify theoretical or methodological gaps that a new study with an exploratory research question can address.
• Data collection . Exploratory research questions tend to prioritize data collection methods such as interviews , focus groups , and observations . Basic research, as a result, casts a wide net for any and all potential data that can facilitate generation of theoretical developments.
• Data analysis . At this stage, the goal is to organize and view your data in such a way that facilitates the identification of key insights. Analysis in basic research serves the dual purpose of filtering data through existing theoretical frameworks and generating new theory.
• Research dissemination . Once you determine your findings, you will want to present your insights in an empirical and rigorous manner. Visualizing data in your papers and presentations is useful for pointing out the most relevant data and analysis in your study.

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• What is Pure or Basic Research? + [Examples & Method]

Sometimes, research may be aimed at expanding a field of knowledge or improving the understanding of a natural phenomenon. This type of research is known as a basic, pure or fundamental research, and it is a major means of generating new ideas, principles and theories. 

In many cases, basic research fuels scientific innovations and development because it is driven by the need to unravel the unknown. In this article, we will define what basic research is, its data collection methods and how it differs from other approaches to research. 

What is Basic Research?

Basic research is a type of research approach that is aimed at gaining a better understanding of a subject, phenomenon or basic law of nature. This type of research is primarily focused on the advancement of knowledge rather than solving a specific problem. 

Basic research is also referred to as pure research or fundamental research. The concept of basic research emerged between the late 19th century and early 20th century in an attempt to bridge the gaps existing in the societal utility of science. 

Typically, basic research can be exploratory , descriptive or explanatory; although in many cases, it is explanatory in nature. The primary aim of this research approach is to gather information in order to improve one’s understanding, and this information can then be useful in proffering solutions to a problem. 

Examples of Basic Research 

Basic research can be carried out in different fields with the primary aim of expanding the frontier of knowledge and developing the scope of these fields of study. Examples of basic research can be seen in medicine, education, psychology, technology, to mention but a few.

Basic Research Example in Education  

In education, basic research is used to develop pedagogical theories that explain teaching and learning behaviours in the classroom. Examples of basic research in education include the following:

• How does the Language Acquisition Device work  on children?
• How does the human retentive memory work?
• How do teaching methods affect student’s concentration in class?

Basic Research Example in Science

Basic research advances scientific knowledge by helping researchers understand the function of newly discovered molecules and cells, strange phenomena, or little-understood processes. As with other fields, basic research is responsible for many scientific breakthroughs; even though the knowledge gained may not seem to yield immediate benefits. 

Examples of basic research in science include: 

• A research to determine the chemical composition of organic molecules.
• A research to discover the components of the human DNA.

Basic Research Example in Psychology  

In psychology, basic research helps individuals and organisations to gain insights and better understanding into different conditions. It is entirely theoretical and allows psychologists to understand certain behaviors better without providing  solutions to these behaviours or phenomena.  

Examples of basic research in psychology include: 

• Do stress levels make individuals more aggressive?
• To what extent does caffeine consumption affect classroom concentration?
• A research on behavioral differences between children raised by separated families and children raised by married parents.
• To what extent do gender stereotypes  trigger depression?

Basic Research Example in Health   

Basic research methods improve healthcare by providing different dimensions to the understanding and interpretation of healthcare issues. For example, it allows healthcare practitioners to gain more insight into the origin of diseases which can help to provide cures to chronic medical conditions. 

Many health researchers opine that many vaccines are developed based on an understanding of the causes of the disease such as in the case of the polio vaccine. Several medical breakthroughs have been attributed to the wealth of knowledge provided through basic research. 

Examples of basic research in health include: 

• An investigation into the symptoms of Coronavirus.
• An investigation into the causative factors of malaria
• An investigation into the secondary symptoms of high blood pressure.

Basic Research Method

 An interview is a common method of data collection in basic research that involves having a one-on-one interaction with an individual in order to gather relevant information about a phenomenon. Interview can be structured, unstructured or semi-structured depending on the research process and objectives.  

In a structured interview , the researcher asks a set of premeditated questions while in an unstructured interview, the researcher does not make use of a set of premeditated questions. Rather he or she depends on spontaneity and follow-up questioning in order to gather relevant information. 

On the other hand, a semi-structured interview is a type of interview that allows the researcher to deviate from  premeditated questions in order to gather more  information about the research subject. You can conduct structured interviews online by creating and administering a survey online on Formplus .

• Observation

Observation is a type of data-gathering method that involves paying close attention to a phenomenon for a specific period of time in order to gather relevant information about its behaviors. When carrying out basic research, the researcher may need to study the research subject for a stipulated period as it interacts with its natural environment. 

Observation can be structured or unstructured depending on its procedures and approach. In structured observation, the data collection is carried out using a predefined procedure and in line with a specific schedule while unstructured observation is not restricted to a predetermined procedure. 

An experiment is a type of quantitative data-gathering method that seeks to validate or refute a hypothesis and it can also be used to test existing theories. In this method of data collection , the researcher manipulates dependent and independent variables to achieve objective research outcomes. 

Typically, in an experiment, the independent variable is modified or changed in order to determine its effects on the dependent variables in the research context. This can be done using 3 major methods; controlled experiments , field experiments, and natural experiments 

• Questionnaire

A questionnaire is a data collection tool that is made up of a series of questions to which the research subjects provide answers. It is a cost-effective method of data gathering because it allows you to collect large samples of data from the members of the group simultaneously. 

You can create and administer your pure research questionnaire online using Formplus and you can also make use of paper questionnaires; although these are  easily susceptible to damage. [

Here is a step-by-step guide of how to create and administer questionnaires for basic research using Formplus: 

• Sign in to Formplus

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create different questionnaires for applied research by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus. 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on “Create Form ” to begin.

Edit Form Title

Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Basic Research Questionnaire”.

Click on the edit button to edit the form.

i. Add Fields: Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form from  the Formplus builder   Inputs column. There are several field input options for questionnaires in the Formplus builder. 

ii. Edit fields

iii. Click on “Save”

iv. Preview form. 

Form Customization

With the form customization options in the form builder, you can easily change the look and feel of your form and make it more unique and personalized. Formplus allows you to change your form theme, add background images and even change the font according to your brand specifications. 

Multiple Sharing Options

Formplus offers multiple form sharing options which enables you to easily share your questionnaire with respondents. You can use the direct social media sharing buttons to share your form link to your  social media pages. 

In addition, Formplus has an option to convert form links to QR codes; you can personalize and display your form QR code on your website/banners for easy access. You also can send out survey forms as email invitations to your research subjects.  

• Data Reporting

 Data reporting is a type of data collection method where the researcher gathers relevant data and turns them in for further analysis in order to arrive at specific conclusions. The crux of this method depends, almost entirely, on the validity of the data collected. 

• Case Studies

A case study is a type of data collection method that involves the detailed examination of a specific subject matter in order to gather objective information about the features and behaviors of the research subject. This method of data gathering is primarily qualitative , although it can also be quantitative or numerical in nature.  

Case studies involve a detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships. In carrying out a case study, the researcher must take extra care to identify the research questions, collect relevant data then evaluate and analyze the data in order to arrive at objective conclusions. 

Read More: Research Questions: Definition, Types +[Examples]

How is Basic Research Different from Applied Research? 

 Applied research is a type of research that is concerned with solving practical problems using scientific methods while basic research is a type of research that is concerned with the expansion of knowledge. 

Basic research generates new theories or improves on existing theories hence, it is theoretical in nature. On the other hand, applied research creates practical solutions to specific problems hence, it is practical in nature. 

 Basic research is knowledge-specific while applied research is solution-specific. 

• Research Purpose

The purpose of basic research is to improve on existing knowledge or to discover new knowledge while the purpose of applied research is to solve specific problems. 

The scope of basic research is universal while applied research is limited in nature. This means that while applied research addresses a specific problem and is limited to the problem which it addresses, basic research explores multiple dimensions of various fields. 

• Basic research is primarily explanatory while applied research is descriptive in nature .
• Basic research adopts an indirect approach to problem-solving while applied research adopts a direct approach to problem-solving.
• In basic research, generalizations are common while in applied research, specific problems are investigated without the aim of generalizations.

Read Also: What is Applied Research? +[Types, Examples & Methods]

Characteristics of Basic Research 

• Basic research is analytical in nature.
• It aims at theorizing concepts and not solving specific problems.
• It is primarily concerned with the expansion of knowledge and not with the applicability of the research outcomes.
• Basic research is explanatory in nature.
• Basic research is carried out without any primary focus on possible practical ends.
• It improves the general knowledge and understanding of different fields of study.

Importance of Basic Research

• Acquisition of New Knowledge: Basic research results in new knowledge. It is responsible for many research breakthroughs in different fields of study and it is often considered as the pacesetter in technological and innovative solutions.
• Basic research also enhances the understanding of different subject matters and provides multiple possible dimensions for interpretation of these subject matters.
• Findings of fundamental research are extremely useful in expanding the pool of knowledge in different disciplines.
• Basic research offers the foundation for applied research.

Disadvantages of Basic Research

• Findings from pure research have little or no immediate practical implications. However, these findings may be useful in providing solutions to different problems, in the long run.
• Fundamental research does not have strict deadlines.
• Basic research does not solve any specific problems.

Basic research is an important research method because it exposes researchers to varying dimensions within a field of study. This proves useful, not only for improving scholarship and the general knowledge-base, but for solving problems as is the concern of applied research. 

When carrying out basic research, the investigator adopts one or more qualitative and quantitative observation methods which includes case studies, experiments and observation. These data collection methods help the researcher to gather the most valid and relevant information for the research. 

In the case of using a survey or questionnaire for data collection , this can easily be done with the use of Formplus forms. Formplus allows you to create and administer different kinds of questionnaires, online and you can easily monitor and categ orise your form responses too. 

Connect to Formplus, Get Started Now - It's Free!

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Basic vs. applied research: what’s the difference?

Last updated

27 February 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

Research can be used to learn new facts, create new products, and solve various problems. Yet, there are different ways to undertake research to meet a desired goal. 

The method you choose to conduct research will most likely be based on what question you want to answer, plus other factors that will help you accurately get the answer you need. 

Research falls into two main categories: basic research and applied research. Both types of research have distinct purposes and varied benefits. 

This guide will help you understand the differences and similarities between basic and applied research and how they're used. It also answers common questions about the two types of research, including:

Why is it called basic research?

What is more important, basic research or applied research?

What are examples of pure (basic) research and applied research?

Analyze basic and applied research

Dovetail streamlines analysis to help you uncover and share actionable insights

• What is basic research?

Basic research (sometimes called fundamental or pure) advances scientific knowledge to completely understand a subject, topic, or phenomenon. It's conducted to satisfy curiosity or develop a full body of knowledge on a specific subject.

Basic research is used to bring about a fundamental understanding of the world, different behaviors, and is the foundation of knowledge in the scientific disciplines. It is usually conducted based on developing and testing theories.

While there is no apparent commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research, it is the foundation of research used for other projects like developing solutions to solve problems. 

Examples of basic research

Basic research has always been used to give humans a better understanding of all branches of science and knowledge. However, it's not specifically based on identifying new things about the universe.

Basic research has a wide range of uses, as shown in the following examples:

Investigation into how the universe began

A study searching for the causes of cancer

Understanding the components that make up human DNA

An examination into whether a vegetarian diet is healthier than one with meat

A study to learn more about which areas in the world get the most precipitation

Benefits of conducting basic research

Called basic research because it is performed without an immediate or obvious benefit, this type of research often leads to vital solutions in the future. While basic research isn't technically solution-driven, it develops the underlying knowledge used for additional learning and research. 

There are many benefits derived from basic research, including:

Gaining an understanding of living systems and the environment

Gathering information that can help society prepare for the future

Expanding knowledge that can lead to medical advances

Providing a foundation for applied research

• What is applied research?

Applied research studies particular circumstances to apply the information to real-life situations. It helps improve the human condition by finding practical solutions for existing problems.

Applied research builds off facts derived from basic research and other data to address challenges in all facets of life. Instead of exploring theories of the unknown, applied research requires researchers to use existing knowledge, facts, and discoveries to generate new knowledge. 

Solutions derived from applied research are used in situations ranging from medical treatments or product development to new laws or regulations.

Examples of applied research

Applied research is designed to solve practical problems that exist under current conditions. However, it's not only used for consumer-based products and decisions.

Applied research can be used in a variety of ways, as illustrated by the following examples:

The investigation of ways to improve agricultural crop production

A study to improve methods to market products for Gen Z consumers

Examination of how technology can t make car tires last longer

Exploration of how to cook healthy meals with a limited budget

A study on how to treat patients with insomnia

Benefits of using applied research

Although applied research expands upon a foundation of existing knowledge, it also brings about new ideas. Applied research provides many benefits in various circumstances, including:

Designing new products and services

Creating new objectives

Providing unbiased data through the testing of verifiable evidence

• Basic research vs. applied research: the differences

Both basic and applied research are tactics for discovering specific information. However, they differ significantly in the way research is conducted and the objectives they achieve. 

Some of the most notable differences between basic and applied research include the following:

Research outcomes: curiosity-driven vs. solution-driven

Basic research is generally conducted to learn more about a specific subject. It is usually self-initiated to gain knowledge to satisfy curiosity or confirm a theory. 

Conversely, applied knowledge is directed toward finding a solution to a specific problem. It is often conducted to assist a client in improving products, services, or issues.

Research scope: universal scope vs. specific scope

Basic research uses a broad scope to apply various concepts to gain more knowledge. Research methods may include studying different subjects to add more information that connects evidence points in a greater body of data.

Meanwhile, applied research depends on a specific or narrow scope to gather specific evidence to address a certain problem.

Research approaches: expanding existing knowledge vs. finding new knowledge

Researchers conduct basic research to fill in gaps between existing information points. Basic knowledge is an expansion of existing knowledge to gain a deeper understanding. It is often based on how, what, or why something is the way it is. Although applied research may be based on information derived from basic research, it's not designed to expand the knowledge. Instead, the research is conducted to find new knowledge, usually in the form of a solution.

Research commercialization: Informational vs. commercial gain

The main basis of product development is to solve a problem for consumers.

Basic research might lead to solutions and commercial products in the future to help with this. Since applied research is used to develop solutions, it's often used for commercial gain.

Theory formulation: theoretical vs. practical nature

Basic research is usually based on a theory about a specific subject. Researchers may develop a theory that grows and changes as more information is discovered during the research process. Conversely, applied research is practical in nature since the goal is to solve a specific problem.

• Are there similarities between applied and basic research?

While some obvious differences exist, applied and basic research methods have similarities. For example, researchers may use the same methods to collect data (like interviews, surveys , and focus groups ) for both types of research. 

Both types of research require researchers to use inductive and deductive reasoning to develop and prove hypotheses . The two types of research frequently intersect when basic research serves as the foundation for applied research.

While applied research is solution-based, basic research is equally important because it yields information used to develop solutions to many types of problems. 

• Methods used in basic research and applied research

While basic and applied research have different approaches and goals, they require researchers or scientists to gather data. Basic and applied research makes use of many of the same methods to gather and study information, including the following:

Observations: Studying research subjects for an extended time allows researchers to gather information about how subjects behave under different conditions.

Interviews: Surveys and one-to-one discussions help researchers gain information from other subjects and validate data.

Experiments: Researchers conduct experiments to prove or disprove certain hypotheses based on information that has been gathered.

Questionnaires: A series of questions related to the research context helps researchers gather quantitative information applicable to both basic and applied research.

• How do you determine when to use basic research vs. applied research?

Basic and applied research are both helpful in obtaining knowledge. However, they aren't usually used in the same settings or under the same circumstances. 

When you're trying to determine which type of research to use for a particular project, it's essential to consider your product goals. Basic research seeks answers to universal, theoretical questions. While it works to uncover specific knowledge, it's generally not used to develop a solution. Conversely, applied research discovers answers to specific questions. It should be used to find out new knowledge to solve a problem.

• Bottom line

Both basic and applied research are methods used to gather information and analyze facts that help build knowledge around a subject. However, basic research is used to gain understanding and satisfy curiosity, while applied research is used to solve specific problems. Both types of research depend on gathering information to prove a hypothesis or create a product, service, or valuable process. 

By learning more about the similarities and differences between basic and applied research, you'll be prepared to gather and use data efficiently to meet your needs.

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Basic Research

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• Sohvi Leih 4 &
• David J. Teece 5 , 6  

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Basic research can be defined as systematic inquiry that involves a quest for some fundamental scientific aspects of phenomena without any specific practical applications in mind. The pay-off of basic research is often uncertain and, once published, difficult to appropriate. Accordingly, the social returns to basic research exceed the private returns, rendering it a ‘public good’. Basic research results in contributions to the world stock of scientific knowledge. It ultimately supports long-term economic growth, increased productivity and subsequent practical applications on a global basis.

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Research: Meaning and Purpose

Scientific Relevance

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Leih, S., Teece, D.J. (2018). Basic Research. In: Augier, M., Teece, D.J. (eds) The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Strategic Management. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-00772-8_332

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Fundamental Research

Fundamental research , also known as  basic research  or  pure research  does not usually generate findings that have immediate applications in a practical level. Fundamental research is driven by curiosity and the desire to expand knowledge in specific research area. This type of research makes a specific contribution to the academic body of knowledge in the research area.

Fundamental studies tend to make generalizations about the phenomenon, and the philosophy of this type of studies can be explained as ‘gathering knowledge for the sake of knowledge’. Fundamental researches mainly aim to answer the questions of why, what or how and they tend to contribute the pool of fundamental knowledge in the research area .

Opposite to fundamental research is  applied research  that aims to solve specific problems, thus findings of applied research do have immediate practical implications.

Differences between Fundamental and Applied Research

Differences between applied and fundamental research have been specified in a way that fundamental research studies individual cases without generalizing, and recognizes that other variables are in constant change.

Applied research, on the contrary, seeks generalizations and assumes that other variables do not change. The table below summarizes the differences between the two types of research in terms of purpose and context:

Differences between fundamental and applied research [1]

It is important to note that although fundamental studies do not pursue immediate commercial objectives, nevertheless, findings of fundamental studies may result in innovations, as well as, generating solutions to practical problems. For example, a study entitled “A critical assessment of the role of organizational culture in facilitating management-employee communications” is a fundamental study, but findings of this study may be used to increase the levels of effectiveness of management-employee communications, thus resulting in practical implications.

Examples of Fundamental Research

The following are examples for fundamental researches in business:

• A critical analysis of product placement as an effective marketing strategy
• An investigation into the main elements of brands and branding
• A study of factors impacting each stage of product life cycle

Advantages and Disadvantages of Fundamental Research

Advantages of fundamental research are considered as disadvantages of applied research and vice versa. Fundamental researches are important to expand the pool of knowledge in any discipline. Findings of fundamental studies are usually applicable in a wide range of cases and scenarios. Fundamental studies usually do not have strict deadlines and they are usually driven by the curiosity of the researcher.

At the same time, fundamental studies have disadvantages as well. Findings of this type of studies have little or no practical implications. In other words, fundamental studies do not resolve concrete and specific business problems.

My e-book,  The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step assistance   contains discussions of research types and application of research methods in practice. The e-book also explains all stages of the  research process  starting from the  selection of the research area  to writing personal reflection. Important elements of dissertations such as  research philosophy ,  research approach ,  research design ,  methods of data collection  and  data analysis , sampling and others are explained in this e-book in simple words.

John Dudovskiy

[1] Table adapted from Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012) “Research Methods for Business Students” 6 th  edition, Pearson Education Limited

The difference between basic and applied research – Key differences

 In a rapidly evolving landscape of scientific and technological innovation, understanding the inner workings of research is increasingly vital.

Whether you’re a seasoned academic, an industry professional, or simply a curious individual, comprehending the difference between applied and basic research is used to provide critical insights into how knowledge is both generated and utilized. 

These two kinds of research, while distinct in their aims and methodologies, often serve as two sides of the same coin, each with its unique contributions and challenges.

By examining research outcomes, funding sources, criticisms, and examples from both categories, this comprehensive blog demystifies the often blurry line that separates basic research vs applied research methods. 

If you’ve ever pondered which type of research to use for a project or questioned how basic principles derived from foundational studies turn into real-world applications, this exploration offers a lens into the multifaceted world of research.

Key Differences Between Basic and Applied Research

In the realm of scientific inquiry, understanding the key differences between basic and applied research is crucial. These two types of research serve distinct purposes and often utilize different research methods, but they are interconnected in the quest for new knowledge.

Basic Research

Basic research focuses on the acquisition of fundamental understanding without immediate application in mind. 

For example, when Einstein was formulating his theories in physics, he was conducting basic research.

He sought to explain the laws governing the universe but didn’t necessarily aim to solve a practical problem.

Basic research often gets criticized for not having apparent applications, but it lays the groundwork for future advancements. Years after Einstein, his theories paved the way for the development of laser technology, used in everything from DVDs to medical procedures.

Applied Research

Applied research focuses on solving specific, practical problems. It’s the type of research used when health psychologists want to tackle rising rates of cardiovascular diseases, for instance. Conducting applied research, they may investigate effective messaging strategies to encourage healthier diets, aiming to produce tangible benefits in public health. 

Applied research seeks to utilize scientific understanding for a particular real-world issue.

The line between basic and applied research is not always clear-cut. While applied research may yield new knowledge that contributes to a broader understanding of human behavior, basic research may inadvertently lead to practical applications.

For instance, research in quantum mechanics, which was initially considered highly theoretical, has found applications in modern computing.

It’s also worth noting that the research methods employed may differ based on the type of research being conducted.

Applied research often employs methods like case studies, surveys, or controlled experiments aimed at resolving a specific issue, whereas basic research might involve more theoretical or observational methods aimed at general understanding.

While basic research often explores theoretical concepts without an immediate application, applied research focuses on real-world issues. Both are integral in advancing our collective knowledge and sometimes unexpectedly complement each other in offering solutions to challenges we face.

 What’s better? Basic vs applied research?

The debate between the impact of basic and applied research is an enduring one, and both sides have compelling arguments. The key differences between the two types of research are their aims and methods.

• Basic research focuses on generating new knowledge and understanding fundamental principles, often without an immediate application in mind.
• Applied research, on the other hand, seeks to solve specific problems and is often guided by practical outcomes.

One could argue, as some experts do, that basic research often has a more profound long-term impact. For instance, the discovery of the structure of DNA was a feat of basic research.

Today, it serves as the cornerstone for a multitude of applied research projects in genetics, forensics, and medicine. Another example of basic research is the development of quantum mechanics, which initially appeared to be an abstract field but has led to the invention of technologies like semiconductors and MRI machines.

Conversely, applied research focuses on immediate needs and therefore, its impact can be more immediately visible.

Examples of applied research include the development of COVID-19 vaccines or the creation of energy-efficient technologies. This type of research often uses methods and knowledge generated by basic research to achieve its goals.

The contention that applied research can be counterproductive due to its narrow focus and the push to monetize findings is a nuanced issue.

While entrepreneurship courses in academic settings may appear to detract from the purity of research, they can also offer researchers tools to transform basic research into applied solutions, bridging the gap between theory and practice.

The two aren’t mutually exclusive; basic research and applied research often go hand in hand.

Researchers conducting applied research may stumble upon findings that contribute to new knowledge, just as those conducting basic research may see their work result in unexpected applications.

Examples of basic research vs applied research

Basic research:.

• Genetic Sequencing : Research to understand the sequences of DNA and what each gene does.
• Particle Physics : Experiments in places like CERN to understand the basic building blocks of the universe.
• Social Psychology Theories : Studying human behavior in a controlled environment to understand basic social interactions.
• Climate Models : Researching the fundamental mechanisms that control climate change without necessarily looking for immediate solutions.
• Pure Mathematics : Investigating abstract mathematical concepts that may not have an immediate application.
• Astronomy : Observing and mapping distant celestial bodies to understand the universe’s structure.
• Brain Mapping : Basic research on how neurons communicate within the brain, without a targeted application.
• Evolutionary Biology : Studying how organisms evolve over time to adapt to their environment.

Applied Research:

• Pharmaceuticals : Developing new drugs based on an understanding of disease mechanisms.
• Renewable Energy : Researching better solar panels or wind turbines to harness energy more efficiently.
• Market Research : Understanding consumer behavior to improve product design or advertising strategies.
• Educational Methods : Evaluating teaching strategies to improve educational outcomes.
• Medical Procedures : Research to develop new surgical techniques or medical devices.
• Cybersecurity : Designing new types of encryption or security measures based on vulnerabilities.
• Agricultural Techniques : Researching better ways to increase crop yield or protect against pests.
• Transportation : Developing new materials for lighter, more fuel-efficient vehicles.

Careers in basic research and applied research

Here are some examples of careers that use mainly basic or applied research – but some scientists do a mixture of both.

Careers in Basic Research:

• Theoretical Physicist : Focuses on understanding the fundamental laws governing physical phenomena.
• Astrophysicist : Studies the properties and behaviors of celestial bodies and the universe.
• Mathematician : Conducts research in pure mathematics, exploring abstract concepts.
• Geneticist : Investigates genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms.
• Neuroscientist : Researches the complexities of the nervous system, including the brain.
• Biochemist : Studies the chemical processes within and related to living organisms.
• Cognitive Psychologist : Explores the mental processes behind human behavior.
• Archaeologist : Conducts research to understand human history and pre-history through the excavation of sites and the analysis of artifacts.
• Geologist : Studies the Earth’s physical structure and substance, its history, and the processes that act on it.

Careers in Applied Research:

• Pharmaceutical Researcher : Develops new drugs or medical treatments.
• Environmental Consultant : Provides advice on environmental regulations and conducts research to solve environmental problems.
• Data Scientist : Uses statistical models to analyze data for actionable insights, often for businesses.
• Mechanical Engineer : Designs and tests new devices, often focused on solving specific mechanical problems.
• Market Research Analyst : Conducts research to understand market trends and consumer behavior.
• Clinical Psychologist : Applies psychological research to treat mental health disorders.
• Agricultural Scientist : Researches ways to improve the sustainability and productivity of agricultural systems.
• Software Developer : Creates new software based on research into user needs, technological advancements, or problem-solving.
• Nutritional Epidemiologist : Studies the relationship between diet and health outcomes, often aiming for public health applications.

Wrapping up – applied research and basic research

As we’ve journeyed through this comprehensive exploration of applied research and basic research, it’s clear that each holds its unique place in the expansive world of research.

The two are like siblings—different in personality but stemming from the same family of intellectual inquiry.

Basic research is theoretical and often provides the foundation for applied research. On the flip side, applied research is practical in nature and focuses on solving immediate real-world problems.

Despite their differences, one can’t exist optimally without the other.

Basic research helps pave the way for advancements in applied research, while findings from applied research can loop back to enrich our foundational knowledge.

While basic research tends to engage with more conceptual questions, applied research is driven by practical problems that require immediate solutions. These different types of research methods can serve different purposes but are not mutually exclusive.

The world of research is enriched by the interplay between basic and applied research methods. Whether theoretical or practical, long-term or immediate, both contribute significantly to our understanding and make up the vibrant tapestry of research that seeks to answer questions, solve problems, and improve our lives.

And there we have it—your guided tour through the landscape of applied and basic research is complete!

Whether you’re an aspiring researcher, an industry professional, or a curious individual, understanding these key differences between basic and applied research will surely add a valuable layer to your perspective.

Dr Andrew Stapleton has a Masters and PhD in Chemistry from the UK and Australia. He has many years of research experience and has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate at a number of Universities. Although having secured funding for his own research, he left academia to help others with his YouTube channel all about the inner workings of academia and how to make it work for you.

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Types of Research – Explained with Examples

• By DiscoverPhDs
• October 2, 2020

Types of Research

Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail with the aim of generating new knowledge about it.

It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters, environments and assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to knowledge as it allows research to be verified and replicated.

Knowing the types of research and what each of them focuses on will allow you to better plan your project, utilises the most appropriate methodologies and techniques and better communicate your findings to other researchers and supervisors.

Classification of Types of Research

There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several.

According to its Purpose

Theoretical research.

Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge , regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.

Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers.

Applied Research

Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and medicine.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

• Technological applied research : looks towards improving efficiency in a particular productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive processes.
• Scientific applied research : has predictive purposes. Through this type of research design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of commercial projects.

According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory research.

Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be generated.

Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain these phenomena.

Descriptive Research

The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.

In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in the observed object or phenomenon, as its behaviour may change if an external factor is involved.

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it provides additional information about the observed object and its interactions with the environment.

Correlational Research

The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of the observed system change.

According to the Type of Data Used

Qualitative research.

Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.

In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an event or phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’).

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them . This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time.

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Experimental research.

It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific method.

Non-Experimental Research

Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research.

Quasi-Experimental Research

It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations . This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.

According to the Type of Inference

Deductive investigation.

In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly.

Inductive Research

In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories.

Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation

It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience.

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal study (also referred to as diachronic research).

It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas .

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a given time.

According to The Sources of Information

Primary research.

This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information.

Secondary research

Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher.

According to How the Data is Obtained

Documentary (cabinet).

Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a case study.

Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed phenomenon occurs.

From Laboratory

Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its relationship with other variables through scientific methods.

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and primary sources through field or laboratory research.

Learn 10 ways to impress a PhD supervisor for increasing your chances of securing a project, developing a great working relationship and more.

The term rationale of research means the reason for performing the research study in question.

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In this post you’ll learn what the significance of the study means, why it’s important, where and how to write one in your paper or thesis with an example.

Prof Cotton gained her DPhil in the school of education at Oxford University. She is now the Director of Academic Practice and Professor of Higher Education at Plymouth Marjon University.

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• Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Basic and Applied Research

On the contrary, applied research implies the research that is put to practical use and is beneficial to solve practical problems. This article might help you in understanding the difference between basic and applied research.

Content: Basic Research Vs Applied Research

Comparison chart, definition of basic research.

Basic Research or otherwise called as pure or fundamental research, is one that focuses on advancing scientific knowledge for the complete understanding of a topic or certain natural phenomenon, primarily in natural sciences. In a nutshell, when knowledge is acquired for the sake of knowledge it is called basic research.

Basic Research is completely theoretical, that focuses on basic principles and testing theories. It tends to understand the basic law.

Basic Research deals with generalization and formulation of theory about human behaviour. It is aligned towards collecting information that has universal applicability. Therefore, basic research helps in adding new knowledge to the already existing knowledge.

Definition of Applied Research

Applied Research can be defined as research that encompasses real life application of the natural science. It is directed towards providing a solution to the specific practical problems and develop innovative technology.

In finer terms, it is the research that can be applied to real-life situations. It studies a particular set of circumstances, so as to relate the results to its corresponding circumstances.

Applied research includes research that focuses on certain conclusions experiencing a business problem. Moreover, research that is aligned towards ascertaining social, economic or political trends are also termed as applied research.

Key Differences Between Basic and Applied Research

The points given below explain the differences between basic and applied research:

• Basic Research can be explained as research that tries to expand the already existing scientific knowledge base. On the contrary, applied research is used to mean the scientific study that is helpful in solving real-life problems.
• While basic research is purely theoretical, applied research has a practical approach.
• The applicability of basic research is greater than the applied research, in the sense that the former is universally applicable whereas the latter can be applied only to the specific problem, for which it was carried out.
• The primary concern of the basic research is to develop scientific knowledge and predictions. On the other hand, applied research stresses on the development of technology and technique with the help of basic science.
• The fundamental goal of the basic research is to add some knowledge to the already existing one. Conversely, applied research is directed towards finding a solution to the problem under consideration.

The type of research may vary on the basis of the level at which research is carried out and its purpose. One can choose basic research over applied research when the purpose is to add certain scientific knowledge, whereas when it is important to identify a proper solution to the problem under study, applied research is preferable.

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November 7, 2018 at 5:41 pm

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January 30, 2019 at 9:44 am

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Step 1: Understand Your Project

Step 2: focus project, step 3: gather resources, step 4: develop notes, step 5: create an outline, step 6: develop notes draft, step 7: start the writing process, step 8: gather supplemental information, step 9: final touches.

• Using Databases
• Using "Libguides"
• Using the Internet
• Using the library's Search and Discover! box

Start at the Beginning:

• Grading Rubric

Your syllabus will have the requirements of the project carefully outlined. Read it! Make sure you understand what the assignment is, what the instructor is asking for, and what is required. It seems crazy, but the last thing you want is to be 6 pages into an 8 page research paper and find out you missed a requirement with 15% of the final grade that was in bold in the assignment notes! 

Next, look at the rubric for the assignment. What does an "A" paper look like compared to a "B" or "D" paper? How many Reference sources are required? What style guide should you be using? and so on.

Ask Questions:

Instructors and Librarians love answering questions, maybe not at 10 p.m. the night before the paper is due, but they'll do their best. Just make sure the answer to your question is not easily found in one of the resources mentioned above. Review your syllabus, rubric, and any provided examples, and THEN ask questions before you begin the process. Of course, others may arise, but at least you are starting on firm foundations, and headed in the right direction.

Define Scope of Project

What is your research question? The scope and focus of the project will depend heavily on the particulars of the assignment that we discussed in the section above. But here you should define "what do I want to find out?" "What is my Thesis Statement  or Research Question ?" or "What topic do I want to write about?"

I want research "sleep needs of teenagers" or "using music as a tool teaching English as a Second Language" is broad enough to ensure you'll find materials, but will also allow you to focus on specific subjects or areas within those questions as well. Again, if we start too broad, this next step can help us focus in better.

Preliminary Search:

The  preliminary search  is where we gather the basic editorial information on our subject. Using a basic Internet search (described in more detail on the "Using the Internet" page), or reference materials , you'll be answering the basic "who, what, where, why, and when" questions to get a basic understanding of your topic. The preliminary search is important because it will help you define the scope of your research question, which will dictate the information your paper will probably cover. As you search pay attention to key concepts that pop up, like major dates, keywords, or related materials that you might want to discuss in your project. You don't have to go in-depth on any of these things yet, just make note of things that may be important later.

Get everything together 

This step is pretty self explanatory and will start your "work" phase of the project. From your preliminary search, you should have some basic information to work with and you'll start to explore that information in-depth.

Use the rest of this guide:  The rest of this guide outlines how to use the Library Search box to find books, videos, articles, and other materials that will be useful in your project. It also provides useful tools to continue using the Internet in more detail to find more information as well. Jump to the other tabs to find out how to better use those tools to find more resources. Again, be mindful of what types of materials your instructor requires. Is there anything that they don't want, do you need a certain number of scholarly/peer-reviewed materials or primary-source materials? These are all things to keep in mind during this step. 

Interlibrary Loan : ILL is a free service provided by Link Library for the CUNE community. Simply, if we don't have access to a resource you need, we can get it for you! Jump over to the ILL Guide and request materials or learn more about how the process works.

Yes. You do have to read the materials once you get them, but don't let that overwhelm you! This is one of the areas that can seem most daunting, but doesn't need to be. Books and 20+ page academic articles can pile up quickly, but you're not reading every word, nobody has time for that! Rely on your preliminary research to give you a basic understanding of what you're looking for, then pinpoint that material in your resources. When reading look for:

• Major topic or section in your paper? Read it.
• Background information: Does it provide context or insight to your major topics? Read it.
• Chapters/Sections that specifically address things you're interested in. Only spend time on stuff that's worth your time.

You want to look for what is actually going to help you write your paper and will lend to your understanding of the topic at hand. If the author goes off on a tangent or starts discussing a specific point that you know you won't be putting in your paper, skip it. And don't sit down expecting to read word-for-word. Skim first, and find the interesting parts! Remember: You will potentially have quite a few resources you'll need to pull from, so learning how to prioritize and manage your time is a huge part of the research process that often gets overlooked. Be smart about it and use your time wisely.

Take LOTS of Notes!

There are a ton of ways to outline a paper. Your instructor may even give you an outline as part of the project. An outline serves many purposes, and is pretty important to the writing process, which you are about to begin!

• Introduction
• Main Point 1
• Main Point 2
• Main Point 3

See? Not much too it now, but this little outline can be built into anything from a 3 page book report to an actual book (though you probably won't be writing an entire book of research during your undergrad... or grad school). The reason this outline is so versatile is because each  Main Point  can be broken down into as many sub-points or minor-points as you need. 

Cite Properly:

You should be developing your main points as you read through your resources and take notes. What areas are being covered over an over? What points will help you drive your Thesis Statement home? If you're writing a persuasive paper, these are often the key points to your argument. if you're writing a book report these are your key themes. You should be somewhat aware of what your main points might be all the way back as you do your preliminary search, but these are usually well defined as you dive into reading your resources and gaining a better understanding of the topic. As you continue to read through your resources, you can develop a hierarchy of points and which subjects would be good sub-points to your main topics, and so-forth. 

Basic Outline

Defining Points:

Combine Your Notes and Outline

At this point in the process, you should be able to assess whether or not you are conveying the points that make the most sense and whether or not your research is building the argument you think it is. By looking at your newly beefed up outline, you should have a general feel for how your paper will go and what points are strong, what points are weak, and maybe where we should fill in some extra information or add a point, etc. Read through your notes as they now sit in a rough outline of what they'll look like in the paper. You should see a structure established. Thinking critically throughout this process will make sure your research covers the points you intend. Intentional inspection of all these elements as they go into your paper will help you build your paper before you even start writing.

Remember:  It's easier to edit a page down than it is to fluff useless information into a paper at the end.

Add your thoughts and perspective:

We have the bones and muscle of our paper, the outline is the skeleton and the research references are the muscle which allows it to move. But what makes this YOUR paper is your voice and your insight and input, and tying it all together. Your input is what is going to make the reader care about all this information you have found. The difference in doing a research project this way, is that you are now able to bite off tiny chunks and connect from point-to-point, instead of staring at a blank piece of paper in the hopes that a 10-page paper will appear. Focus on one section, and take one step at a time. 

More Assessment:

As you are writing, you'll start to recognize areas that make lots of sense, and seem really good. Other areas may not make as much sense or don't feel as strong or compelling. At this point, you have probably noticed one or more of the following:

• This is no longer a major section, and should probably be rolled into another section
• This is definitely a major section but it is not as well established or developed as the others
• I'm missing something that all my research seems to be pointing towards
• Now that I've gotten this far, I realize there's an area that I should continue to research and work in

These are all very natural aspects and you shouldn't feel bad if you get through one of your main points and realize any of these, or a combination of them. One more reason the outline we built is so nice, is it allows us to edit and reincorporate new information in without destroying everything we've done thus far. The trick is to continue to critically inspect all aspects of your paper.

What Am I Missing?

Flavor Text : depending on the focus of your paper or your topic or the level of writing, this is a time to find interesting bits of information or quotes that really add to the "voice" in your paper. Not all projects allow for this type of thing, so make sure the level of writing you are aiming for allows for it, but popular quotes, or interesting, wild, or shocking quotes and anecdotes can really inject life into a paper, and here would be a good time to snag a line or two for use.

Continue Writing

You should have all the materials you need to wrap up your rough draft. You've got all your extra supplemental information, you've gone back to Steps 3 and 4 and included these new materials in your draft. Rewrite, rework and reconfigure to make it make sense and connect your points the way you want/need them. Be mindful of page limits and other assignment specifics from your syllabus or rubric. 

Finally : Yes! once the body of your text is written, go back and write your intro and conclusion. I like to start with my conclusion (because why go in order now?) and then end with the introduction, but that's really up to you. Then when it's all said and done, read your paper. Then maybe read it again, out loud. Yes, reading your work out loud can help you rewrite funky parts or ask yourself "does that actually make sense?" once you've heard it instead of just reading it.   

Most word processors and text editors have built-in spell check and some grammar editing, but don't just trust those tools without at least skimming over it. In higher education, it is generally a great idea to get rid of conjunctions all-together (plus it helps the word count!), and  pro top:  the word "that" is often filler. Reread your sentence and ask yourself "do I really need that that there?" The answer is usually no, and your paper will read better for it. Once you've edited it yourself, make sure to take it to the  Tutoring Center  and have one of the student tutors read it for you. (Grad Students: use  Smart Thinking!  available in your Blackboard portal, find out more in the Grad Resource Room guide). 

Turn it in!

At this point, the end of your hard work is at hand, and it's time to turn in this artifact which hopefully represents quite a bit of learning and development on your part. Be proud of it, because not only do you have a better grasp on the subject but your hard work is about to pay off. Congrats! 

Final Note:  At any point if you have questions of your instructor or the library staff, we're here to help. Just because this guide is available online doesn't mean your library staff won't take time to show you the finer points, or walk you through a confusing section or help you find materials. If at any point in the above process you feel like you're getting stuck, let us know! A librarian's job is to help get you unstuck.

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The Principles of Biomedical Scientific Writing: Results

Zahra bahadoran, parvin mirmiran, azita zadeh-vakili, farhad hosseinpanah, asghar ghasemi.

• Author information
• Article notes
• Copyright and License information

Corresponding Author: Endocrine Physiology Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. Email: [email protected]

Received 2019 Apr 9; Revised 2019 Apr 15; Accepted 2019 Apr 16; Collection date 2019 Apr.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ ) which permits copy and redistribute the material just in noncommercial usages, provided the original work is properly cited.

The “results section” of a scientific paper provides the results related to all measurements and outcomes that have been posted earlier in the materials and methods section. This section consists of text, figures, and tables presenting detailed data and facts without interpretation and discussion. Results may be presented in chronological order, general to specific order, most to least important order, or may be organized according to the topic/study groups or experiment/measured parameters. The primary content of this section includes the most relevant results that correspond to the central question stated in the introduction section, whether they support the hypothesis or not. Findings related to secondary outcomes and subgroup analyses may be reported in this section. All results should be presented in a clear, concise, and sensible manner. In this review, we discuss the function, content, and organization of the “results section,” as well as the principles and the most common tips for the writing of this section.

Keywords: Result, Writing Scientific Papers, Medical Scientific Journals

The “results section” is the heart of the paper, around which the other sections are organized ( 1 ). Research is about results and the reader comes to the paper to discover the results ( 2 ). In this section, authors contribute to the development of scientific literature by providing novel, hitherto unknown knowledge ( 3 ). In addition to the results, this section contains data and statistical information for supporting or refuting the hypothesis proposed in the introduction ( 4 ).

“Results section” should provide an objective description of the main findings, clearly and concisely, without interpretation ( 5 , 6 ). The authors need to use an interesting combination of text, tables, and figures to answer the study questions and to tell the story without diversions ( 7 ). The systemic assessment of published articles highlights the fact that the literature frequently suffers from selective reporting of results only for certain assessed outcomes, selective reporting of statistical analyses, and confused, ambiguous, incomplete, or misleading presentation of data ( 8 , 9 ).

In this section of our series on the principles of biomedical scientific writing ( 10 , 11 ), we describe the function, content, and organization of the “results section” in a scientific paper (mostly for hypothesis-testing papers) and provide common recommendations that can help authors to write this section more effectively.

2. The Function of the Results Section

The function of the “results section” is to present the main results of experiments described in the materials and methods section ( 12 , 13 ) and to present the supporting data in the form of text, tables, and figures ( 13 ). This section should answer the basic question: “What did the authors find in research?” By providing the results, authors try to elucidate the research data, making it to the point and meaningful ( 13 ).

3. Content of the Results Section

The “results section” includes both results and data that are presented in text, tables, and figures. Results are presented in the text; data (the most important) are presented in figures and tables, with a limited amount presented in the text ( 13 ). Statistically relevant parameters including sample size, P values, and the type of statistics used are also presented in this section ( 13 ).

3.1. Difference Between Data and Results

Data and results are not the same ( 14 ); providing results but no data vs. data but no results should be avoided ( 14 , 15 ). Results are general statements in the main text that summarize or explain what the data (facts and numbers) show ( 13 , 14 ); in other words, results are text descriptions of what is important about data ( 16 ) and give meaning to the data ( 15 ). When reporting data or results, make sure that they are logical ( 2 ). See Box 1 for more differences between results and data.

Box 1. Difference Between Data and Results ( 13 , 15 ).

a The text presented in square brackets is data and the remainder is a result.

3.2. The Appropriate Format for Presenting Data/Results

Depending on how the data best support the findings of the study, the “results section” is structured as text, tables, and figures ( 12 ) and should consist of a dynamic interplay between text and figures/tables; the most important data are usually presented in both formats ( 17 ). The reader should select the mode of presentation in a way that optimizes comprehension of the data; however, as a general rule, if you want to present three or fewer numbers, you should use a sentence; otherwise, you consider a table or a graph ( 18 ).

Selecting the best format for presenting results/data depends on the level of details (exact values or patterns) to present ( 19 ). Tables are useful to present specific information or exact values ( 19 ), and function as reference tools for readers ( 20 ) whereas figures are useful to show comparisons and patterns ( 19 ), functioning as analytic tools ( 20 ).

Tables are meant to summarize large amounts of data, to organize and display data more clearly than words, to compare groups of data, to simplify found information, and to facilitate calculations ( 19 ). A table typically has three or more interrelated columns and three or more interrelated rows; otherwise, presenting the information in the text may be more appropriate ( 19 ).

The functions of figures include: (1) showing the underlying patterns of data that are not presentable in text or tables, (2) displaying data more clearly than they can be done in text or tables, (3) more summarizing a large amount of data than they can be done in text or tables, and (4) improving the understanding and locating the specific information easily and rapidly ( 21 ).

3.3. Results

The primary content of this section includes the most relevant (but not all) results corresponding to the central question posed in the introduction section, whether they support the hypothesis or not ( 12 , 13 ). The secondary findings, e.g., results related to secondary outcomes and subgroup analyses, may also be reported in this section ( 22 ). Results must be presented for both experimental and control groups ( 13 ). Results of each item mentioned in the materials and methods should be given in the results section ( 12 , 15 ).

The text of the “results section” should state and summarize the main results and explain the data presented within tables and/or figures ( 23 ); reiteration of all numbers presented in tables and figures is not recommended ( 22 ); however, readers must be given the main messages derived from a table or figure without having to interpret the data themselves ( 7 ). It means that if there is a large amount of data in a table or figure, restating a key piece of data in the text is acceptable and helps the reader zero in on important data ( 14 ).

3.3.1. Reporting Negative Findings

Authors are highly recommended excluding irrelevant results but not ignoring valid anomalous results that contradict the research hypothesis or do not support the current scientific literature ( 22 ). The Feynman, says “if you are doing an experiment, you should report everything that you think might make it invalid-not only what you think is right about it” ( 24 ). Although reporting null or negative findings is not as straightforward as positive findings, it may lead to reexamining current scientific thinking, and guide scientists towards unabridged science ( 25 ). Reporting negative findings can also prevent the replication of the study and prevent the waste of time and resources ( 25 ). The ignorance of null or negative findings also leads to an overestimation of an effect size or treatment effect in available data ( 9 ).

3.3.2. Referring to Unpublished Results

Referring to unpublished results is not recommend unless there is a strong argument supporting their inclusion ( 14 ); therefore, authors are advised to avoid using the term “data not shown” ( 4 ).

3.3.3. Methods or Interpretation in the Results Section

Generally, the “results section” is not the place for presenting methods and experimental details or interpreting data ( 14 ). When experiments are described in this section, if a result leads to additional experiments, it is better to report the new experimental details in the “results section” ( 14 ). Sometimes authors want to refer to a specific experiment or method in results; in these cases, they should not repeat experimental details, but preferably use a transition phrase to link methods with results ( 14 ). To justify the rationale behind the experiment, using topic sentences/phrases (e.g. in order to determine whether…) provides an overview before giving details ( 12 ); however, in this case, the method statement should not be used as a topic sentence and the main verbs should describe results, not methods (e.g., “ when propranolol was administered during normal ventilation, phospholipids decreased ”; here “ method ” is subordinated in a transition clause and result is the main clause) ( 13 ). Two patterns of sentence structure are recommended for including methods in a result statement: making the method the subject of the sentence or stating the method using a transition phrase or clause and the result in the main clause ( 13 ).

The traditional view of writing the “results section” is just to report data and results without any interpretation; accordingly, the result is not expected to contain statements that need to be referenced (comparisons of findings) ( 13 , 26 ). In another view, some interpretation or brief comparisons that do not fit into the discussion may be included ( 13 , 27 ).

Data are facts and numbers, mostly presented as non-textual elements (usually in tables and figures) where they are easy to read ( 13 , 14 , 28 ). A limited amount of data may also be presented in the text, following a result statement ( 13 ) although too much data in the text make it too long ( Box 1 ) ( 28 ). Data may be in the form of raw data, summarized data, or transformed data ( 13 ); however, it is suggested that raw data (i.e. patients’ records, individual observations) not be presented in results ( 12 ). Note that numerical data are absolute while some data, e.g. microscopic data, are subjective ( 2 ).

3.4.1. Non-Textual Elements

Providing study findings visually, rather than entire textualizing, enables authors to summarize a great deal of data compactly within the text with an appropriate reference; some images convey more than words ( 29 ). The primary purpose of non-textual elements, i.e. tables, graphs, figures, and maps, is to present data such that they can be easily and quickly grasped ( 23 ) while being more informative than when appearing in the text ( 6 ). Tables and figures should be complete/comprehensible, being able to stand alone without the text ( 5 , 12 ).

Non-textual elements should be referred to in the text at the appropriate point ( 5 , 6 , 12 ). Location statements, i.e. statements referring to non-textual elements, may be presented in different patterns (e.g., A. X is shown in table/figure; B. table/figure shows; C. see table/figure; D. as shown in table/figure); pattern B is more and pattern C is less common ( 27 ).

Figure 1. Components of a table in a scientific paper; because of spanner heading, the table has column subheading instead of the column heading. Note that there is no vertical line and limited horizontal lines.

Some general tips about using non-textual elements in the “results section” are reviewed in Box 2 . The most common rules in organizing tables and figures are given in the following. For more information about designing different types of tables/figures/graphs, please refer to additional references ( 7 , 19 , 20 , 30 , 31 ).

Box 2. General Tips for Presenting Data in Tables and Figures.

3.4.1.1. tables.

The use of tables is an effective way to summarize demographic information and descriptive statistics ( 23 ). Note that tables must have a purpose and be integrated into the text ( 21 ). Tables are most useful to present counts, proportions, and percentages ( 8 ), and are appropriate also for presenting details especially when exact values matter ( 32 ), being are more informative than graphs ( 29 ). However, limited information should be presented in tables; otherwise, most readers find them difficult to read and thus, may ignore them ( 5 , 23 ). Data in tables can be arranged horizontally or vertically; whenever possible, primary comparisons are preferably presented horizontally from left to right ( 19 ).

3.4.1.1.1. Basic Elements of Tables

Tables usually have at least six elements: (1) table number, (2) table title, (3) row headings (stubs), and (4) column headings (boxes), identifying information in rows and columns, (5) data in data field, and (6) horizontal lines (rules). Most also have footnotes, row subheadings, spanner headings (identifying subgroups in column headings), and expanded forms of abbreviations in the table ( 19 , 21 , 31 , 33 ).

The table title should clearly state what appears in it and provide sufficient information on the study, i.e. provide a context helping readers interpret the table information ( 19 ). Some specific details may also be provided including the type and number of subjects or the period of study ( 30 ). For developing the title of a table, one can describe the main cell entries, followed by qualification or more description ( 32 ). The table’s title is presented as a phrase not a full sentence ( 19 ). Authors need to refer to the journal’s style for rules on which words in titles are capitalized.

As a rule, comparing two (or even three) numbers should be side-by-side rather than above and below ( 30 ). Column and row headings help readers find information and they should be included group sizes and measurement units ( 19 ). Tables should be in borderless grids of rows and columns ( 5 , 32 ) with no vertical rule and limited horizontal rules ( 32 ). The first column of a table includes usually a list of variables that are presented in the table; although the first column usually does not need a header, sometimes a simple description of what appears in each row may be provided as the heading of the first column. Units for variables may be placed in parentheses immediately below the row descriptions ( 30 ).

Headings for other columns should also be informative without vague labels, e.g. group A, group B, group C, etc.; instead, a brief description summarizing group characteristics is used ( 30 ). The last column may show P values for comparison between study groups ( 34 ), except for randomized clinical trials, where P values are not needed to compare baseline characteristics of participants ( 7 ). The first letters of lines and column headings in tables should be capitalized.

The fields of tables are points at which columns and rows intersect ( 19 ). Cells of a table are the data field of the table, other than those containing row and column headings ( 21 ). Cells contain information as numerals, text, or symbols ( 19 ). Every cell must contain information; if no information is available, one can use NA in the cell and define it in the footnote as not available or not applicable; alternatively, a dash mark may be inserted ( 19 ). The content of columns need to be aligned ( 19 ); words are usually left aligned, numerals are aligned at decimals, parenthesis, and factors of 10 ( 19 , 21 ).

Table footnotes should be brief, and define abbreviations, provide statistical results, and explain discrepancies in data, e.g., “percentages do not total 100 because of rounding” ( 19 , 30 ). In addition to asterisks usually used to show statistical significance ( 33 ), the following symbols are used, in sequence, for further notes: †, ‡, §, ¶, #, ††, ‡‡ ( 30 ).

3.4.1.1.2. Different Types of Tables

Table of lists, table of baseline or clinical characteristics of subjects, table of comparisons, and table of multivariable results are various types of tables that may be used ( 30 ). The table’s format should be selected according to the purpose of the table ( 30 ). A table of lists just presents a list of items including diagnostic criteria or causes of a disease; it is critical to arrange such tables based on their contents by order (e.g., alphabetical order) or their importance (most to least) ( 30 ). Tables of study participants’ characteristics usually provide a general overview of the essential characteristics of subjects, such as age, sex, race, disease stage, and selected risk factors ( 30 ). The table of comparisons (≥ two groups) provides details for each group and differences between the groups. Tables of multivariable results elaborate results of statistical analyses assessing relationships between predictor (independent) and outcome (dependent) variables, and usually include regression coefficients, standard errors, slopes, partial correlation coefficients, and P values or odds ratio, hazard ratios, and 95% confidence intervals for regression models ( 30 ).

3.4.1.2. Figures

Graphical elements convey the important messages of research ( 20 ). A figure is “any graphical display to present information or data” ( 20 ), and it effectively presents complicated patterns ( 32 ), best used for presenting an important point at a glance or indicating trends or relationships ( 20 ). Like tables, figures should have a purpose and be integrated with the rest of the text ( 21 ).

3.4.1.2.1. Basic Elements of Figures

Most figures that present quantitative information (charts and graphs) have at least seven elements, including figure number, figure caption/legend, data field, vertical scale, horizontal scale, labels, and data (plotting symbols, lines, and so on) ( 21 ). Some figures also have reference lines in the data field to help orient readers and keys that identify data ( 21 ).

Figure caption/legend, usually given below the figure, describes the figure and must reflect the figure entirely, independent of the main text ( 21 , 31 ). For the figure to stand alone, a figure legend needs to be included four parts (a brief title, experimental or statistical information/details, definitions of symbols, line, or bar patterns, and abbreviations) ( 31 ).

Data field is a space in the figure in which data are presented; it is usually bordered on the left by the X-axis (abscissa) and on the bottom by the Y-axis (ordinate) ( 20 , 21 ). Labels identify the variables graphed and the units of measurement ( 21 ). Figure lines should be broad and the labeling text should be large enough to be legible after reduction to a single- or two-column size ( 32 ). Appropriate font size should be used to maintain legibility after fitting figures to publication size ( 31 ).

Scales on each axis should match the data range and be slightly above the highest value ( 20 ). Symbols should be uniform across the figures ( 20 ). The data point symbols should be easily distinguishable; using black and white circles (● - ∘) is the easiest way when two are needed ( 31 ); if more are needed, using up-pointing triangles (▲ - Δ) and squares (■ - □) is suggested ( 31 ). Using symbols, line types, and colors is also effective in differentiating important strata in figures ( 8 ).

3.4.1.2.2. Emphasizing Important Data on Figures

To make figures visually efficient, the subordination of all non-data elements vs. data elements is advised (gridlines should be used as thin as possible and very faint). Directly labeling objects, instead of legends, may keep readers’ attention on the most important parts of the figure ( 8 ). Using different line weights may also be helpful to emphasize the important information/data in figures ( 31 ). The use of color, shading, or 3D perspectives is not suggested unless they serve a specific explanatory function in figure ( 8 ).

3.4.1.2.3. Different Types of Figures

Two major categories of figures are statistical figures (graphs) and non-statistical figures (clinical images, photographs, diagrams, illustrations, and textual figures) ( 20 ). Graphs are suitable for presenting relationships whereas non-statistical figures are used to confirm findings or provide explanatory information ( 20 ).

In statistical figures, selecting a graphical format (bar graph, line graph, dot plot, and scatterplot) is done according to the type of relationship that authors wish to communicate ( 20 ); for example, line graphs are appropriate for showing trends and bar graphs for magnitudes ( 20 ). Using a graphing format that is easy to interpret is preferred ( 20 ); pie graphs are sparingly used because comparing different angles is complicated with them ( 20 ). Graphs should accurately represent findings; when possible, scales should start at zero, and figure axes should not be altered in order to make data more meaningful ( 20 ).

Non-statistical figures are those that visually present information that does not contain data ( 20 ). Clinical images and photographs [ultrasonograms, computed tomographic scans (CT scans), magnetic resonance images (MRI), images of patients, tissue samples, microscopic findings, and so on] provide absolute proof of findings ( 20 ). Illustrations are used for explaining structures (parts of a cell), mechanisms, and relationships ( 20 ). Diagrams (flowcharts, algorithms, pedigrees, and maps) are useful for displaying complex relations ( 20 ). Textual figures, containing only text, are mostly used for describing steps of a procedure or summarizing guidelines ( 20 ). For photographs, patient information or identifiers should be removed ( 20 ).

3.5. Statistics in the Results Section

Statistics in the “results section” must report data in a way that enables readers to assess the degree of experimental variation and to estimate the variability or precision of the findings ( 22 ). For more details, one can see SAMPL (Statistical Analysis and methods in the Published Literature) guidelines ( 35 ). To report normally distributed data, the mean and estimated variation from mean should be stated ( 13 ). Variability should be reported using standard deviation (SD), which is a descriptive statistic ( 36 ) and reflects the dispersion of individual sample observation of the sample mean ( 37 ). The standard error (SE), an inferential statistic ( 36 ) reflecting the theoretical dispersion of sample means about some population means, characterizes uncertainty about true values of population means ( 37 ). It is useful for assessing the precision of an estimator ( 36 ) and is not an appropriate estimate of the variability in observations ( 37 ). Using “mean (SD or SE)” is preferred to “mean ± SD or SE” because the “±” sign can cause confusion ( 22 ). Increasing sample size decreases SE but not SD ( 36 ). To report data with a skewed distribution, the median and the interquartile range (between 25th and 75th percentiles) should be provided ( 22 ).

To report risk, rates, and ratios, one should use a type of rate (incidence rate, survival rate), ratio (odds ratio, hazards ratio), or risk (absolute risk, relative risk, relative risk reduction) ( 35 ). The measure of precision (95% CI) for estimated risks, rates, and ratios should also be provided ( 35 ). For correlation analysis, the exact values of the correlation coefficient and 95% CI should be reported. Describing correlation using qualitative words (low, moderate, high) without providing a clear definition is not acceptable ( 35 ). Results of regression analysis should include regression coefficients (β) of each explanatory variable, corresponding 95% CI and/or P value and a measure of the “goodness-of-fit” of the model ( 35 ).

3.5.1. Significance Levels

A P value is the probability of consistency between data and the hypothesis being tested ( 38 ). Reporting the exact P values ( P = 0.34 or P = 0.02) rather than the conventional P ( P < 0.05) is recommended for all primary analyses ( 12 , 37 ) as it conveys more information ( 37 ). The use of the term “partially significant” or “marginally significant”, where the P value is almost significant (e.g. P = 0.057) is not acceptable if the significance level is defined as P = 0.05 ( 39 ). Some, however, argue that it is not always necessary to stick to P = 0.05 for the interpretation of results and it is better to report the exact P value and confidence interval for the estimator ( 40 ).

The use of the 95% confidence interval (95% CI) can provide further information compared to P values per se, and prefigures the direction of the effect size (negative or positive), its magnitude, and the degree of precision ( 17 ). A confidence interval characterizes uncertainty about the true value of population parameters ( 37 ). It is essential to provide the sample size (n) and probability values for tests of statistical significance ( 13 ).

Statements about significance must be qualified numerically ( 41 ). In the text, it is suggested that P values be reported as equalities rather than as inequalities in relation to the alpha criterion ( 41 ). In tables and figures, inequalities may be useful for groups of data ( 41 ) where asterisks *, **, and *** are usually used to show statistical significance at 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001 probability levels, respectively ( 33 ).

Although not consistent, P values < 0.001 are reported as P < 0.001; for 0.001 ≤ P values < 0.01, a three-significant digit is recommended, e.g. P = 0.003; for 0.01 ≤ P values < 0.1, a two-significant digit is sufficient (e.g. P = 0.05); for 0.1 ≤ P values ≤ 0.9, a one-significant digit is sufficient (e.g. P = 0.4); and P values > 0.9 are reported as P > 0.9 ( 42 ). For genome-wide association studies, the power of 10 is used for reporting P values, e.g. 6 × 10 -9 ( 42 ). It is generally suggested that zero be used before a decimal point when the value is below one, e.g. 0.37 ( 43 ). According to the American Psychological Association, zero before a decimal point is used for numbers that are below one, but it can also be used for values that may exceed one (e.g. 0.23 cm). Therefore, when statistics cannot be greater than one (e.g. correlations, proportions, and P values), do not use a zero before decimal fraction, e.g. P = .028 not P = 0.028 ( 18 ); this recommendation, however, is not always adopted by everyone. The international standard is P (large italic) although both ‘p’ and ‘P’ are allowed ( 40 ).

4. Organization of the Results Section

There are different ways for organizing the “results section” including ( 1 , 12 , 14 , 22 , 44 ): (1) chronological order, (2) general to specific, (3) most to least important, and (4) grouping results by topic/study groups or experiment/measured parameters. Authors decide which format is more appropriate for the presentation of their data ( 12 ); anyway, results should be presented in a logical manner ( 4 ).

4.1. Different Ways of Organizing the Results Section

4.1.1. chronological order.

The best order for organizing “results section” may be the chronological order ( 22 ). It is considered as the most straightforward approach using subheadings that parallel methods ( 14 ). This order facilitates referring to a method associated with a given result ( 14 ) such that results are presented in the same order as methods ( 15 ).

4.1.2. General to Specific

This format is mostly used in clinical studies involving multiple groups of individuals receiving different treatments ( 14 ). The “results section” usually proceeds from general to more specific findings ( 1 ). Characteristics of the overall study population (sex and age distribution and dropouts) are first given ( 14 ), followed by data and results for each group starting with the control group or the group receiving the standard treatment ( 14 ); finally, the disease group or group receiving the experimental treatment are addressed ( 14 ). As a general rule, secondary results should be given after presenting more important (primary) results, followed by any supporting information ( 22 ). A common order is stating recruitment/response, characteristics of the sample/study participants, findings from the primary analyses, findings from secondary analyses, and any additional or unexpected findings ( 17 ). In other words, the “results section” should be initiated by univariate statistics, followed by bivariate analyses to describe associations between explanatory and outcome variables; finally, it gets through by any multivariate analyses ( 7 ).

4.1.3. Most to Least Important

This format is used in case that the order of presenting results is not critical to their being comprehendible and allows the author to immediately highlight important findings ( 14 ). Results that answer the main question are presented at the beginning of the “results section,” followed by other results in next paragraphs ( 13 ).

4.1.4. Grouping by Topic or Experiment

Comparison of the diagnostic and analytical performance of a number of assays for analytes is an example of using this format ( 14 ).

4.2. Paragraphing of the Results Section

The “results section” may be initiated by two approaches: (1) by giving a general (not detailed) overview of the experiment and (2) by going directly to the results by referring to tables or figures ( 44 ). The first paragraph of this section, along with table 1, describes the characteristics of the study population (number, sex, age, and symptoms) ( 23 ). These data show the comparability of the study groups at baseline and the distribution of potential confounders between groups, as a source of bias that can affect the study findings ( 7 ). It allows the reader to decide whether or not the case and control groups are similar and represent the patient population in their private practice ( 23 ).

For clinical trials, the number of patients completing the protocol in each treatment/study group, the number of patients lost to follow-up, and the number and reasons for excluded/withdrawn subjects should be given. Commenting on whether baseline characteristics of study groups are statistically similar or different is also important ( 1 ). For further information, authors can consult reporting guidelines for the main study types available at http://www.equator-network.org.

The number of the middle paragraphs depends on the number of research questions/hypotheses and the types of statistical analyses; each hypothesis or specific analysis typically devotes at least a paragraph to itself ( 1 ). Figure legends, description of the methods and results for control groups should not be given at the beginning of paragraphs, as they do not narrate the story ( 28 ). However, sometimes, it is needed that results of the control group are presented first (e.g. for establishing the stability of baseline) ( 13 ).

5. Emphasizing Important Results

Since not all results are equally important, the reader must be able to distinguish important results and authors have to emphasize important information and de-emphasize less important information ( 13 ). There are various techniques for emphasizing important information, including condensing or omitting less important information, subordinating less important information, placing important results at the power position, and labeling, stating, and repeating important information ( 13 ).

For condensing or omitting less important information, you should be careful not to duplicate/repeat data in tables and figures or repeat them in the text ( 4 , 6 , 12 ); one or two values from tables/figures can be repeated in the text for emphasis ( 13 ).

For subordinating less important information, one should not use table titles, figure legends or methods statement as a topic sentence in the text ( 13 , 22 ). Instead, after stating the first result relevant to the table/figure, you can cite it in parenthesis ( 13 ). Since a result states a message and creates an expectation, it is a more powerful topic sentence than a figure legend or table title ( 13 ). Sometimes, control results can be subordinated by incorporating them into experimental results ( 13 ).

To highlight more important results (those that help answer questions), authors can put these results at the beginning of paragraphs, the strongest power position ( 12 , 22 , 28 ), followed by supporting details and control results ( 28 ).

Moreover, key findings may receive more attention by using a signal (e.g. we found or we observed) at the beginning of the sentence ( 13 ).

6. Other Considerations

6.1. length and paragraphing.

To see the forest for the tree, the “results section” should be as brief and uncluttered as possible ( 13 ), which can be accomplished by having a well-organized “materials and methods” section ( 3 ) and avoiding unnecessary repetition ( 13 ); for example, similar results for several variables can be reported together. The “results section” of an original manuscript usually includes 2 - 3 pages (~1000 words) with a 1.5 line spacing, font size 11 (including tables and figures) ( 45 ), and 4 - 9 paragraphs (each 130 words) on average ( 45 ); a paragraph should be devoted to one or more closely related figures ( 4 ).

Presenting additional results/data as supplementary materials is a suggestion for keeping the “results section” brief ( 17 ). In addition to save the text space, supplementary materials improve the presentation and facilitate communications among scientists ( 46 , 47 ). According to Springer, supplementary materials can be used for presenting data that are not needed to support the major conclusions but are still interesting. However, keep in mind that the unregulated use of supplementary materials is harmful to science ( 47 ). Supplementary materials should be referred to at the appropriate points in the main text.

For referring to results obtained in hypothesis testing studies, using past tenses is recommended ( 4 , 12 - 14 ); non-textual elements should be referred using present tenses, e.g. “as seen in table 1 …” or “table 1 shows …” in descriptive studies, results are reported in the present tense ( 13 ).

6.3. Word Choice

Although adverbs/adjectives are commonly used to highlight the importance of results, it is recommended altogether avoiding the use of such qualitative/emotive words in the “results section” ( 7 , 13 ). Some believe that qualitative words should not be used because they may imply an interpretation of findings ( 17 ). In biomedical publications, the terms ‘significant, significance, and significantly’ (followed by P values) are used to show statistical relationships and should not be used for other purposes for which, other terms such as substantial, considerable, or noteworthy can be used ( 14 ). See Box 3 for appropriate word choice for the “results section.”

Box 3. Some Do's and Don’ts for Word Choice in a “Results Section” ( 7 , 13 ).

In the “results section,” to make a comparison between the results, i.e. stating the similarity/equivalence or difference/non-equivalence, using appropriate signals is recommended ( 27 ). To show a similarity, a signal to the reader may be used such as “like”, “alike”, “similar to”, and “the same as”; to show differences, the following signals can be used: “but”, “while”, “however”, “in contrast”, “more likely than”, and “less likely than” ( 27 ).

6.4. Reporting Numbers

Numbers play an important role in scientific communication and there are some golden rules for reporting numbers in a scientific paper ( 43 , 48 ). Significant figures (significant digits) should reflect the degree of precision of the original measurement ( 12 ). The number of digits reported for a quantity should be consistent with scientific relevance ( 37 ); for example, a resolution to 0.001 units is necessary for pH but a resolution of < 1 mm Hg is unimportant for blood pressure ( 37 ). Avoid using “about” or “approximately” to qualify a measurement or calculation ( 12 ). The use of percentage for sample sizes of < 20 and decimal for sample sizes of < 100 is not recommended ( 43 ).

The numbers should be spelled out at the beginning of a sentence or when they are less than 10, e.g., twelve students improved… ( 43 ). In a sentence, the authors should be consistent where they use numbers as numerals or spelled-out ( 43 ). Before a unit of a measure, time, dates, and points, numbers should be used as numerals, e.g. 12 cm; 1 h 34 min; at 12:30 A.M., and on a 7-point scale ( 18 ).

A space between the numeral and the unit should be considered, except in the case of %. Because the terms “billion,” “trillion,” and “quadrillion” imply different numbers in Europe and the USA, they should not be used ( 48 ). To express ranges in text, the terms “to” or “through” are preferred to dashes; in tables, the use of dashes or hyphens is recommended ( 48 ).

7. Conclusions

The “results section” of a biomedical manuscript should clearly present findings of the study using an effective combination of results and data. Some dos and don’ts of writing the “results section” are provided in Box 4 . Authors should try to find the best format using a dynamic interplay between text and figures/tables. Results can be organized in different ways including chronological order or most to least important; however, results should be presented in a manner that makes sense.

Box 4. Do's and Don’ts of Writing a “Results Section“.

Acknowledgments.

The authors wish to acknowledge Ms. Niloofar Shiva for critical editing of English grammar and syntax of the manuscript.

Conflict of Interests: It is not declared by the authors.

Funding/Support: Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences supported the study.

Contributor Information

Zahra Bahadoran, Email: [email protected].

Parvin Mirmiran, Email: [email protected].

Azita Zadeh-Vakili, Email: [email protected].

Farhad Hosseinpanah, Email: [email protected].

Asghar Ghasemi, Email: [email protected].

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