how does homework promote self learning

Does Homework Really Help Students Learn?

A conversation with a Wheelock researcher, a BU student, and a fourth-grade teacher

“Quality homework is engaging and relevant to kids’ lives,” says Wheelock’s Janine Bempechat. “It gives them autonomy and engages them in the community and with their families. In some subjects, like math, worksheets can be very helpful. It has to do with the value of practicing over and over.” Photo by iStock/Glenn Cook Photography

Do your homework.

If only it were that simple.

Educators have debated the merits of homework since the late 19th century. In recent years, amid concerns of some parents and teachers that children are being stressed out by too much homework, things have only gotten more fraught.

“Homework is complicated,” says developmental psychologist Janine Bempechat, a Wheelock College of Education & Human Development clinical professor. The author of the essay “ The Case for (Quality) Homework—Why It Improves Learning and How Parents Can Help ” in the winter 2019 issue of Education Next , Bempechat has studied how the debate about homework is influencing teacher preparation, parent and student beliefs about learning, and school policies.

She worries especially about socioeconomically disadvantaged students from low-performing schools who, according to research by Bempechat and others, get little or no homework.

BU Today  sat down with Bempechat and Erin Bruce (Wheelock’17,’18), a new fourth-grade teacher at a suburban Boston school, and future teacher freshman Emma Ardizzone (Wheelock) to talk about what quality homework looks like, how it can help children learn, and how schools can equip teachers to design it, evaluate it, and facilitate parents’ role in it.

BU Today: Parents and educators who are against homework in elementary school say there is no research definitively linking it to academic performance for kids in the early grades. You’ve said that they’re missing the point.

Bempechat : I think teachers assign homework in elementary school as a way to help kids develop skills they’ll need when they’re older—to begin to instill a sense of responsibility and to learn planning and organizational skills. That’s what I think is the greatest value of homework—in cultivating beliefs about learning and skills associated with academic success. If we greatly reduce or eliminate homework in elementary school, we deprive kids and parents of opportunities to instill these important learning habits and skills.

We do know that beginning in late middle school, and continuing through high school, there is a strong and positive correlation between homework completion and academic success.

That’s what I think is the greatest value of homework—in cultivating beliefs about learning and skills associated with academic success.

You talk about the importance of quality homework. What is that?

Quality homework is engaging and relevant to kids’ lives. It gives them autonomy and engages them in the community and with their families. In some subjects, like math, worksheets can be very helpful. It has to do with the value of practicing over and over.

What are your concerns about homework and low-income children?

The argument that some people make—that homework “punishes the poor” because lower-income parents may not be as well-equipped as affluent parents to help their children with homework—is very troubling to me. There are no parents who don’t care about their children’s learning. Parents don’t actually have to help with homework completion in order for kids to do well. They can help in other ways—by helping children organize a study space, providing snacks, being there as a support, helping children work in groups with siblings or friends.

Isn’t the discussion about getting rid of homework happening mostly in affluent communities?

Yes, and the stories we hear of kids being stressed out from too much homework—four or five hours of homework a night—are real. That’s problematic for physical and mental health and overall well-being. But the research shows that higher-income students get a lot more homework than lower-income kids.

Teachers may not have as high expectations for lower-income children. Schools should bear responsibility for providing supports for kids to be able to get their homework done—after-school clubs, community support, peer group support. It does kids a disservice when our expectations are lower for them.

The conversation around homework is to some extent a social class and social justice issue. If we eliminate homework for all children because affluent children have too much, we’re really doing a disservice to low-income children. They need the challenge, and every student can rise to the challenge with enough supports in place.

What did you learn by studying how education schools are preparing future teachers to handle homework?

My colleague, Margarita Jimenez-Silva, at the University of California, Davis, School of Education, and I interviewed faculty members at education schools, as well as supervising teachers, to find out how students are being prepared. And it seemed that they weren’t. There didn’t seem to be any readings on the research, or conversations on what high-quality homework is and how to design it.

Erin, what kind of training did you get in handling homework?

Bruce : I had phenomenal professors at Wheelock, but homework just didn’t come up. I did lots of student teaching. I’ve been in classrooms where the teachers didn’t assign any homework, and I’ve been in rooms where they assigned hours of homework a night. But I never even considered homework as something that was my decision. I just thought it was something I’d pull out of a book and it’d be done.

I started giving homework on the first night of school this year. My first assignment was to go home and draw a picture of the room where you do your homework. I want to know if it’s at a table and if there are chairs around it and if mom’s cooking dinner while you’re doing homework.

The second night I asked them to talk to a grown-up about how are you going to be able to get your homework done during the week. The kids really enjoyed it. There’s a running joke that I’m teaching life skills.

Friday nights, I read all my kids’ responses to me on their homework from the week and it’s wonderful. They pour their hearts out. It’s like we’re having a conversation on my couch Friday night.

It matters to know that the teacher cares about you and that what you think matters to the teacher. Homework is a vehicle to connect home and school…for parents to know teachers are welcoming to them and their families.

Bempechat : I can’t imagine that most new teachers would have the intuition Erin had in designing homework the way she did.

Ardizzone : Conversations with kids about homework, feeling you’re being listened to—that’s such a big part of wanting to do homework….I grew up in Westchester County. It was a pretty demanding school district. My junior year English teacher—I loved her—she would give us feedback, have meetings with all of us. She’d say, “If you have any questions, if you have anything you want to talk about, you can talk to me, here are my office hours.” It felt like she actually cared.

Bempechat : It matters to know that the teacher cares about you and that what you think matters to the teacher. Homework is a vehicle to connect home and school…for parents to know teachers are welcoming to them and their families.

Ardizzone : But can’t it lead to parents being overbearing and too involved in their children’s lives as students?

Bempechat : There’s good help and there’s bad help. The bad help is what you’re describing—when parents hover inappropriately, when they micromanage, when they see their children confused and struggling and tell them what to do.

Good help is when parents recognize there’s a struggle going on and instead ask informative questions: “Where do you think you went wrong?” They give hints, or pointers, rather than saying, “You missed this,” or “You didn’t read that.”

Bruce : I hope something comes of this. I hope BU or Wheelock can think of some way to make this a more pressing issue. As a first-year teacher, it was not something I even thought about on the first day of school—until a kid raised his hand and said, “Do we have homework?” It would have been wonderful if I’d had a plan from day one.

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Senior Contributing Editor

Sara Rimer A journalist for more than three decades, Sara Rimer worked at the Miami Herald , Washington Post and, for 26 years, the New York Times , where she was the New England bureau chief, and a national reporter covering education, aging, immigration, and other social justice issues. Her stories on the death penalty’s inequities were nominated for a Pulitzer Prize and cited in the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision outlawing the execution of people with intellectual disabilities. Her journalism honors include Columbia University’s Meyer Berger award for in-depth human interest reporting. She holds a BA degree in American Studies from the University of Michigan. Profile

She can be reached at [email protected] .

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There are 81 comments on Does Homework Really Help Students Learn?

Insightful! The values about homework in elementary schools are well aligned with my intuition as a parent.

when i finish my work i do my homework and i sometimes forget what to do because i did not get enough sleep

same omg it does not help me it is stressful and if I have it in more than one class I hate it.

Same I think my parent wants to help me but, she doesn’t care if I get bad grades so I just try my best and my grades are great.

I think that last question about Good help from parents is not know to all parents, we do as our parents did or how we best think it can be done, so maybe coaching parents or giving them resources on how to help with homework would be very beneficial for the parent on how to help and for the teacher to have consistency and improve homework results, and of course for the child. I do see how homework helps reaffirm the knowledge obtained in the classroom, I also have the ability to see progress and it is a time I share with my kids

The answer to the headline question is a no-brainer – a more pressing problem is why there is a difference in how students from different cultures succeed. Perfect example is the student population at BU – why is there a majority population of Asian students and only about 3% black students at BU? In fact at some universities there are law suits by Asians to stop discrimination and quotas against admitting Asian students because the real truth is that as a group they are demonstrating better qualifications for admittance, while at the same time there are quotas and reduced requirements for black students to boost their portion of the student population because as a group they do more poorly in meeting admissions standards – and it is not about the Benjamins. The real problem is that in our PC society no one has the gazuntas to explore this issue as it may reveal that all people are not created equal after all. Or is it just environmental cultural differences??????

I get you have a concern about the issue but that is not even what the point of this article is about. If you have an issue please take this to the site we have and only post your opinion about the actual topic

This is not at all what the article is talking about.

This literally has nothing to do with the article brought up. You should really take your opinions somewhere else before you speak about something that doesn’t make sense.

we have the same name

so they have the same name what of it?

lol you tell her

totally agree

What does that have to do with homework, that is not what the article talks about AT ALL.

Yes, I think homework plays an important role in the development of student life. Through homework, students have to face challenges on a daily basis and they try to solve them quickly.I am an intense online tutor at 24x7homeworkhelp and I give homework to my students at that level in which they handle it easily.

More than two-thirds of students said they used alcohol and drugs, primarily marijuana, to cope with stress.

You know what’s funny? I got this assignment to write an argument for homework about homework and this article was really helpful and understandable, and I also agree with this article’s point of view.

I also got the same task as you! I was looking for some good resources and I found this! I really found this article useful and easy to understand, just like you! ^^

i think that homework is the best thing that a child can have on the school because it help them with their thinking and memory.

I am a child myself and i think homework is a terrific pass time because i can’t play video games during the week. It also helps me set goals.

Homework is not harmful ,but it will if there is too much

I feel like, from a minors point of view that we shouldn’t get homework. Not only is the homework stressful, but it takes us away from relaxing and being social. For example, me and my friends was supposed to hang at the mall last week but we had to postpone it since we all had some sort of work to do. Our minds shouldn’t be focused on finishing an assignment that in realty, doesn’t matter. I completely understand that we should have homework. I have to write a paper on the unimportance of homework so thanks.

homework isn’t that bad

Are you a student? if not then i don’t really think you know how much and how severe todays homework really is

i am a student and i do not enjoy homework because i practice my sport 4 out of the five days we have school for 4 hours and that’s not even counting the commute time or the fact i still have to shower and eat dinner when i get home. its draining!

i totally agree with you. these people are such boomers

why just why

they do make a really good point, i think that there should be a limit though. hours and hours of homework can be really stressful, and the extra work isn’t making a difference to our learning, but i do believe homework should be optional and extra credit. that would make it for students to not have the leaning stress of a assignment and if you have a low grade you you can catch up.

Studies show that homework improves student achievement in terms of improved grades, test results, and the likelihood to attend college. Research published in the High School Journal indicates that students who spent between 31 and 90 minutes each day on homework “scored about 40 points higher on the SAT-Mathematics subtest than their peers, who reported spending no time on homework each day, on average.” On both standardized tests and grades, students in classes that were assigned homework outperformed 69% of students who didn’t have homework. A majority of studies on homework’s impact – 64% in one meta-study and 72% in another – showed that take home assignments were effective at improving academic achievement. Research by the Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) concluded that increased homework led to better GPAs and higher probability of college attendance for high school boys. In fact, boys who attended college did more than three hours of additional homework per week in high school.

So how are your measuring student achievement? That’s the real question. The argument that doing homework is simply a tool for teaching responsibility isn’t enough for me. We can teach responsibility in a number of ways. Also the poor argument that parents don’t need to help with homework, and that students can do it on their own, is wishful thinking at best. It completely ignores neurodiverse students. Students in poverty aren’t magically going to find a space to do homework, a friend’s or siblings to help them do it, and snacks to eat. I feel like the author of this piece has never set foot in a classroom of students.

THIS. This article is pathetic coming from a university. So intellectually dishonest, refusing to address the havoc of capitalism and poverty plays on academic success in life. How can they in one sentence use poor kids in an argument and never once address that poor children have access to damn near 0 of the resources affluent kids have? Draw me a picture and let’s talk about feelings lmao what a joke is that gonna put food in their belly so they can have the calories to burn in order to use their brain to study? What about quiet their 7 other siblings that they share a single bedroom with for hours? Is it gonna force the single mom to magically be at home and at work at the same time to cook food while you study and be there to throw an encouraging word?

Also the “parents don’t need to be a parent and be able to guide their kid at all academically they just need to exist in the next room” is wild. Its one thing if a parent straight up is not equipped but to say kids can just figured it out is…. wow coming from an educator What’s next the teacher doesn’t need to teach cause the kid can just follow the packet and figure it out?

Well then get a tutor right? Oh wait you are poor only affluent kids can afford a tutor for their hours of homework a day were they on average have none of the worries a poor child does. Does this address that poor children are more likely to also suffer abuse and mental illness? Like mentioned what about kids that can’t learn or comprehend the forced standardized way? Just let em fail? These children regularly are not in “special education”(some of those are a joke in their own and full of neglect and abuse) programs cause most aren’t even acknowledged as having disabilities or disorders.

But yes all and all those pesky poor kids just aren’t being worked hard enough lol pretty sure poor children’s existence just in childhood is more work, stress, and responsibility alone than an affluent child’s entire life cycle. Love they never once talked about the quality of education in the classroom being so bad between the poor and affluent it can qualify as segregation, just basically blamed poor people for being lazy, good job capitalism for failing us once again!

why the hell?

you should feel bad for saying this, this article can be helpful for people who has to write a essay about it

This is more of a political rant than it is about homework

I know a teacher who has told his students their homework is to find something they are interested in, pursue it and then come share what they learn. The student responses are quite compelling. One girl taught herself German so she could talk to her grandfather. One boy did a research project on Nelson Mandela because the teacher had mentioned him in class. Another boy, a both on the autism spectrum, fixed his family’s computer. The list goes on. This is fourth grade. I think students are highly motivated to learn, when we step aside and encourage them.

The whole point of homework is to give the students a chance to use the material that they have been presented with in class. If they never have the opportunity to use that information, and discover that it is actually useful, it will be in one ear and out the other. As a science teacher, it is critical that the students are challenged to use the material they have been presented with, which gives them the opportunity to actually think about it rather than regurgitate “facts”. Well designed homework forces the student to think conceptually, as opposed to regurgitation, which is never a pretty sight

Wonderful discussion. and yes, homework helps in learning and building skills in students.

not true it just causes kids to stress

Homework can be both beneficial and unuseful, if you will. There are students who are gifted in all subjects in school and ones with disabilities. Why should the students who are gifted get the lucky break, whereas the people who have disabilities suffer? The people who were born with this “gift” go through school with ease whereas people with disabilities struggle with the work given to them. I speak from experience because I am one of those students: the ones with disabilities. Homework doesn’t benefit “us”, it only tears us down and put us in an abyss of confusion and stress and hopelessness because we can’t learn as fast as others. Or we can’t handle the amount of work given whereas the gifted students go through it with ease. It just brings us down and makes us feel lost; because no mater what, it feels like we are destined to fail. It feels like we weren’t “cut out” for success.

homework does help

here is the thing though, if a child is shoved in the face with a whole ton of homework that isn’t really even considered homework it is assignments, it’s not helpful. the teacher should make homework more of a fun learning experience rather than something that is dreaded

This article was wonderful, I am going to ask my teachers about extra, or at all giving homework.

I agree. Especially when you have homework before an exam. Which is distasteful as you’ll need that time to study. It doesn’t make any sense, nor does us doing homework really matters as It’s just facts thrown at us.

Homework is too severe and is just too much for students, schools need to decrease the amount of homework. When teachers assign homework they forget that the students have other classes that give them the same amount of homework each day. Students need to work on social skills and life skills.

I disagree.

Beyond achievement, proponents of homework argue that it can have many other beneficial effects. They claim it can help students develop good study habits so they are ready to grow as their cognitive capacities mature. It can help students recognize that learning can occur at home as well as at school. Homework can foster independent learning and responsible character traits. And it can give parents an opportunity to see what’s going on at school and let them express positive attitudes toward achievement.

Homework is helpful because homework helps us by teaching us how to learn a specific topic.

As a student myself, I can say that I have almost never gotten the full 9 hours of recommended sleep time, because of homework. (Now I’m writing an essay on it in the middle of the night D=)

I am a 10 year old kid doing a report about “Is homework good or bad” for homework before i was going to do homework is bad but the sources from this site changed my mind!

Homeowkr is god for stusenrs

I agree with hunter because homework can be so stressful especially with this whole covid thing no one has time for homework and every one just wants to get back to there normal lives it is especially stressful when you go on a 2 week vaca 3 weeks into the new school year and and then less then a week after you come back from the vaca you are out for over a month because of covid and you have no way to get the assignment done and turned in

As great as homework is said to be in the is article, I feel like the viewpoint of the students was left out. Every where I go on the internet researching about this topic it almost always has interviews from teachers, professors, and the like. However isn’t that a little biased? Of course teachers are going to be for homework, they’re not the ones that have to stay up past midnight completing the homework from not just one class, but all of them. I just feel like this site is one-sided and you should include what the students of today think of spending four hours every night completing 6-8 classes worth of work.

Are we talking about homework or practice? Those are two very different things and can result in different outcomes.

Homework is a graded assignment. I do not know of research showing the benefits of graded assignments going home.

Practice; however, can be extremely beneficial, especially if there is some sort of feedback (not a grade but feedback). That feedback can come from the teacher, another student or even an automated grading program.

As a former band director, I assigned daily practice. I never once thought it would be appropriate for me to require the students to turn in a recording of their practice for me to grade. Instead, I had in-class assignments/assessments that were graded and directly related to the practice assigned.

I would really like to read articles on “homework” that truly distinguish between the two.

oof i feel bad good luck!

thank you guys for the artical because I have to finish an assingment. yes i did cite it but just thanks

thx for the article guys.

Homework is good

I think homework is helpful AND harmful. Sometimes u can’t get sleep bc of homework but it helps u practice for school too so idk.

I agree with this Article. And does anyone know when this was published. I would like to know.

It was published FEb 19, 2019.

Studies have shown that homework improved student achievement in terms of improved grades, test results, and the likelihood to attend college.

i think homework can help kids but at the same time not help kids

This article is so out of touch with majority of homes it would be laughable if it wasn’t so incredibly sad.

There is no value to homework all it does is add stress to already stressed homes. Parents or adults magically having the time or energy to shepherd kids through homework is dome sort of 1950’s fantasy.

What lala land do these teachers live in?

Homework gives noting to the kid

Homework is Bad

homework is bad.

why do kids even have homework?

Comments are closed.

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Homework: How to Effectively Build the Learning Bridge

How has the global health crisis impacted the place that homework has in student learning and the school-home connection? Homework holds its place as a school tradition, expected by students and their parents as part of the experience of growing and learning. While there is ongoing debate about homework’s effectiveness, it is traditionally seen as a tool that strengthens academics by providing learning practice at home. John Hattie’s meta-analysis of relevant research on educational practices found that the overall effects of homework on learning are positive, and that the positive effect is highest for junior high and high school students but generally neutral for elementary students. In addition, there is variability depending on the type of homework as well as student demographics (Hattie, 2008).

Schools implementing the Responsive Classroom approach, whether in person or virtually, use homework to effectively build a learning bridge between home and school. When homework is used as a tool to build social, emotional, and academic learning beyond the school day, it takes on a different look and purpose than just more work to do at home. The goal of Responsive Classroom schools is to design homework that meets the basic needs of significance and belonging for every student by strengthening relationships, differentiating what success looks like for each child, and supporting students’ social, emotional, and academic learning.

Focus on Relationships

Homework that impedes relationships— either teacher-to-student, teacher-toparent, or student-to-parent—can potentially damage the home-school partnership. When educators examine the amount, type, and expectations of homework, they often start with the impact of homework on academic achievement. But when schools look beyond academic achievement and also include relationships, they will often rethink the look and purpose of homework.

Effectively building this school-to-home connection starts by replacing homework that impedes relationships with homework that will enhance them. Examples for building these connections include ways for students to share about family traditions, cultural practices, and/or family adventures. Lauren Komanitsky, a special education teacher at Christa McAuliffe Middle School in Jackson, New Jersey, observes:

I’ve seen tremendous enthusiasm for homework and projects that involve family members and their family history. [Students] love to learn about ancestors, interesting facts and stories, and simply getting a deeper understanding of their background. It inspires pride in them and that’s important for their identity. Students also love to do surveys and interviews of their family members. I think anything designed to create good, meaningful conversation between students and their families is time well spent. Lauren Komanitsky (personal communication, February 7, 2021)

Schools that use homework to strengthen home-school relationships embed opportunities for students to develop belonging and significance. As students share the home connections with their classmates and teachers, the classroom community will develop a larger sense of belonging because students see connections among common experiences.

Build Success for Every Student

Classrooms are diverse communities. While teachers intentionally differentiate learning during the school day, providing homework that meets the individual and cultural needs of each student requires additional attention.

One strategy for success for every student is to provide choice. Komanitsky has seen this strategy work when she has had students reflect on what they need and then select homework to meet that need:

Having kids select specific problems from a group, select what part of an overall project they are choosing to focus on, etc. . . . helps with creating a sense of autonomy. When we can give kids a choice in their learning based on their own self-reflection, they learn what it feels like to be in control of the process and this leads to more success. Lauren Komanitsky (personal communication, February 7, 2021)

When homework is designed for success for each student, the bridge between home and school supports a higher level of success and engagement.

Include Practice of Social and Emotional Learning Skills

The first guiding principle of the Responsive Classroom approach states, “Teaching social and emotional skills is as important as teaching academic content.” Social and emotional learning (SEL) is embedded in academic learning throughout the school day. Teachers can create a bridge between home and school by suggesting opportunities for students to practice SEL skills at home and in their community. For example, parents can have their children practice speaking with confidence by having them “make a request, place an order, or thank customer service workers” (Wilson, 2014, p. 67).

In addition, homework may involve students having conversations with family members about their learning histories—the successes, struggles, and strategies t hey encountered when they were students at different levels. When family members share their learning histories, students discover the application of the SEL and academic competencies of perseverance, cooperation, and responsibility. As Komanitsky points out:

When we share how we overcame struggles in certain academic subjects, it encourages perseverance and resilience in our students. Having parents and kids discuss their personal strengths and weaknesses and how they compensate when necessary is also a really good conversation. Lauren Komanitsky (personal communication, February 7, 2021)

Homework that focuses on SEL competencies provides for the transfer of these vital skills to a variety of real-life situations, both at home and in the community.

When schools approach homework as an extension of the learning day and see it as a way to strengthen relationships—between teachers and parents, students and parents, and students and teachers—homework becomes a valuable part of the school experience for every child. Students’ needs for belonging and significance are met and strengthened when homework provides for individual success. And when educators view homework as a tool to strengthen academic, social, and emotional learning, it becomes a valuable piece of the learning puzzle for every student.

• Hattie, J. (2008). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge.
• Wilson, M. B. (2014). The language of learning: Teaching students core thinking, listening, and speaking skills. Center for Responsive Schools, Inc

Education resources › Blog › 6 self-regulation skills homework helps students develop

6 self-regulation skills homework helps students develop

• Metacognition

Written by the InnerDrive team | Edited by Bradley Busch

Homework has become a staple part of school systems. It gives students the chance to consolidate what they have learned in class by practising it independently. But as well as improving learning, research also suggests that homework can help students develop one of life’s most important skills: self-regulation.

Self-regulation is students’ ability to monitor and manage their behaviours, thoughts, and emotions as they try to progress toward their goals. It is key for developing  independent learners  who take charge of their own learning.

So, what makes homework so good for developing self-regulation skills?

1. Time management and planning

If students want to complete their homework in time to meet the deadline their teacher set, they need to plan ahead, make sure their plan is feasible, and then stick to it. This allows them to consistently practise and hone their time management skills.

Research has shown  that students often struggle with this and can  underestimate how long it will take  to complete a task (this is known as the “Planning Fallacy”). Therefore, having the opportunity to allocate their time accordingly gives them a more accurate base for guessing how to do so again in the future.

2. Persisting with difficult tasks

Homework tasks can be challenging. Students need the persistence to complete them independently.

A key to students developing persistence is to believe that they can accomplish the task to fuel their motivation. Fortunately,  research has shown  that homework activities can help develop self-belief in students of all ages. Some students may need  assistance  with getting started on their homework independently, but when they are on a roll, they could see some improvements in their self-belief and ability to persist through difficult tasks – making future homework easier to get through.

3. Reducing distractions

Avoiding getting distracted is key to get any task done – especially homework. The  growing use of phones  among students makes this skill even more essential.

Research suggests  that reducing distractions during homework is related to overall achievement and shows that high-achieving students are more prone to have this skill than their low-achieving peers.

So, what can students do to stay on task while completing homework? Some easy strategies include:

• Putting their phone away  in another room
• Choosing a quiet space to work, away from the TV
• Turning off their music

4. Organising their environment

A  focused environment  is essential for students to concentrate on their homework, but it’s not just about getting rid of distractions. It’s also about surrounding themselves with only the tools that they will need or that will help them and making sure that their environment allows them to complete their homework efficiently.

Again, this gives students the opportunity to practise organising their working environment, which is an important self-regulatory skill that can help them complete tasks more productively.

5. Overcoming unwanted emotions

Self-control of emotions is another self-regulatory skill that helps students to manage their behaviour. It can be a little bit more difficult for students to manage their emotions as  research has concluded  that the prefrontal cortex, the part of the brain largely responsible for this, does not fully develop until age 25.

Doing homework allows students to practise overcoming their frustrations in the face of challenges. A key to this is to  develop their mindset , to believe that with effort, curiosity and a good outlook on setbacks, they can achieve the task at hand.

6. Reflecting on what they have learned

Finally, homework can help students develop self-reflection, which is a  metacognitive skill  as well as a self-regulation skill.

Essentially, this means that students are aware of which learning strategies are working for them and what they can do to elevate their learning. For example, they can  ask themselves reflective questions  throughout the homework task to monitor their progress and see how they can improve their thinking processes.

For example,  research has shown  that reflecting on learning during homework helped increase the academic achievement of 9–10-year-olds after only 5 weeks of training.

Final thoughts

Self-regulation skills are necessary for students in both their educational and personal lives. Homework is a low-cost and effective way to develop these skills for students across all age groups.

This is not to say that other extra-curricular activities such as sport, dance, music or drama can’t also help nurture these skills. However, evidence suggests that homework is certainly one vehicle for students to practice and enhance their self-regulatory behaviours.

About the editor

Bradley Busch

Bradley Busch is a Chartered Psychologist and a leading expert on illuminating Cognitive Science in education. As Director at InnerDrive, his work focuses on translating complex psychological research into accessible, practical strategies. Over the past 13 years, he has delivered thousands of workshops for educators and students, helping improve how they think, learn and perform. Bradley is also a prolific writer: he co-authored four books including Teaching & Learning Illuminated and The Science of Learning , as well as regularly featuring in publications such as The Guardian and The Telegraph.

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How to Use Homework to Support Student Success

Covid has brought many changes in education. what does it mean for homework.

Posted January 12, 2022 | Reviewed by Ekua Hagan

• Generally, homework should include about 10 minutes per night per grade level.
• The value of homework is debated, with questions about the right amount and potential for inequity.
• Families should view homework as a communication tool, strive to be good helpers, and monitor balance.

School assignments that a student is expected to do outside of the regular school day—that’s homework. The general guideline is 10 minutes of nightly homework per grade level beginning after kindergarten. This amounts to just a few minutes for younger elementary students to up to 2 hours for high school students.

The guidance seems straightforward enough, so why is homework such a controversial topic? School disruptions, including extended periods of remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic, have magnified the controversies yet also have provided an opportunity to rethink the purpose and value of homework.

Debates about the value of homework center around two primary issues: amount and inequity.

First, the amount of assigned homework may be much more than the recommended guidelines. Families report their children are stressed out over the time spent doing homework. Too much homework can challenge well-being given the restricted time available for sleep, exercise, and social connection. In a 2015 study , for example, parents reported their early elementary children received almost three times the recommended guidelines. In high school, researchers found an average of three hours of homework per night for students living in economically privileged communities.

Second, homework can perpetuate inequities. Students attending school in less economically privileged communities may receive little to no homework, or have difficulty completing it due to limited access to needed technology. This can translate into fewer opportunities to learn and may contribute to gaps in achievement.

There isn’t a ton of research on the effects of homework, and available studies certainly do not provide a simple answer. For example, a 2006 synthesis of studies suggested a positive influence between homework completion and academic achievement for middle and high school students. Supporters also point out that homework offers additional opportunities to engage in learning and that it can foster independent learning habits such as planning and a sense of responsibility. A more recent study involving 13-year-old students in Spain found higher test scores for those who were regularly assigned homework in math and science, with an optimal time around one hour—which is roughly aligned with recommendations. However, the researchers noted that ability to independently do the work, student effort, and prior achievement were more important contributors than time spent.

Opponents of homework maintain that the academic benefit does not outweigh the toll on well-being. Researchers have observed student stress, physical health problems, and lack of life balance, especially when the time spent goes over the recommended guidelines. In a survey of adolescents , over half reported the amount and type of homework they received to be a primary source of stress in their lives. In addition, vast differences exist in access and availability of supports, such as internet connection, adult assistance, or even a place to call home, as 1.5 million children experience homelessness in the United States.

The COVID-19 pandemic has re-energized discussion about homework practices, with the goal to advance recommendations about how, when, and with whom it can be best used. Here’s a summary of key strategies:

Strategies for Educators

Make sure the tasks are meaningful and matched. First, the motto “ quality over quantity ” can guide decisions about homework. Homework is not busy-work, and instead should get students excited about learning. Emphasize activities that facilitate choice and interest to extend learning, like choose your own reading adventure or math games. Second, each student should be able to complete homework independently with success. Think about Goldilocks: To be effective, assignments should be just right for each learner. One example of how do this efficiently is through online learning platforms that can efficiently adjust to skill level and can be completed in a reasonable amount of time.

Ensure access to resources for task completion. One step toward equity is to ensure access to necessary resources such as time, space, and materials. Teach students about preparing for homework success, allocating classroom time to model and practice good study habits such as setting up their physical environment, time management , and chunking tasks. Engage in conversations with students and families to problem-solve challenges When needed, connect students with homework supports available through after-school clubs, other community supports, or even within a dedicated block during the school day.

Be open to revisiting homework policies and practices. The days of penalizing students for not completing homework should be long gone. Homework is a tool for practicing content and learning self- management . With that in mind, provide opportunities for students to communicate needs, and respond by revising assignments or allowing them to turn in on alternative dates. Engage in adult professional learning about high-quality homework , from value (Should I assign this task?) to evaluation (How should this be graded? Did that homework assignment result in expected outcomes?). Monitor how things are going by looking at completion rates and by asking students for their feedback. Be willing to adapt the homework schedule or expectations based on what is learned.

Strategies for Families

Understand how to be a good helper. When designed appropriately, students should be able to complete homework with independence. Limit homework wars by working to be a good helper. Hovering, micromanaging, or doing homework for them may be easiest in the moment but does not help build their independence. Be a good helper by asking guiding questions, providing hints, or checking for understanding. Focus your assistance on setting up structures for homework success, like space and time.

Use homework as a tool for communication. Use homework as a vehicle to foster family-school communication. Families can use homework as an opportunity to open conversations about specific assignments or classes, peer relationships, or even sleep quality that may be impacting student success. For younger students, using a daily or weekly home-school notebook or planner can be one way to share information. For older students, help them practice communicating their needs and provide support as needed.

Make sure to balance wellness. Like adults, children need a healthy work-life balance. Positive social connection and engagement in pleasurable activities are important core principles to foster well-being . Monitor the load of homework and other structured activities to make sure there is time in the daily routine for play. Play can mean different things to different children: getting outside, reading for pleasure, and yes, even gaming. Just try to ensure that activities include a mix of health-focused activities such as physical movement or mindfulness downtime.

Sandra M. Chafouleas, Ph.D., is a Distinguished Professor in the Neag School of Education at the University of Connecticut.

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The Case for (Quality) Homework

Janine Bempechat

Any parent who has battled with a child over homework night after night has to wonder: Do those math worksheets and book reports really make a difference to a student’s long-term success? Or is homework just a headache—another distraction from family time and downtime, already diminished by the likes of music and dance lessons, sports practices, and part-time jobs?

Allison, a mother of two middle-school girls from an affluent Boston suburb, describes a frenetic afterschool scenario: “My girls do gymnastics a few days a week, so homework happens for my 6th grader after gymnastics, at 6:30 p.m. She doesn’t get to bed until 9. My 8th grader does her homework immediately after school, up until gymnastics. She eats dinner at 9:15 and then goes to bed, unless there is more homework to do, in which case she’ll get to bed around 10.” The girls miss out on sleep, and weeknight family dinners are tough to swing.

Parental concerns about their children’s homework loads are nothing new. Debates over the merits of homework—tasks that teachers ask students to complete during non-instructional time—have ebbed and flowed since the late 19th century, and today its value is again being scrutinized and weighed against possible negative impacts on family life and children’s well-being.

Are American students overburdened with homework? In some middle-class and affluent communities, where pressure on students to achieve can be fierce, yes. But in families of limited means, it’s often another story. Many low-income parents value homework as an important connection to the school and the curriculum—even as their children report receiving little homework. Overall, high-school students relate that they spend less than one hour per day on homework, on average, and only 42 percent say they do it five days per week. In one recent survey by the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), a minimal 13 percent of 17-year-olds said they had devoted more than two hours to homework the previous evening (see Figure 1).

Recent years have seen an increase in the amount of homework assigned to students in grades K–2, and critics point to research findings that, at the elementary-school level, homework does not appear to enhance children’s learning. Why, then, should we burden young children and their families with homework if there is no academic benefit to doing it? Indeed, perhaps it would be best, as some propose, to eliminate homework altogether, particularly in these early grades.

On the contrary, developmentally appropriate homework plays a critical role in the formation of positive learning beliefs and behaviors, including a belief in one’s academic ability, a deliberative and effortful approach to mastery, and higher expectations and aspirations for one’s future. It can prepare children to confront ever-more-complex tasks, develop resilience in the face of difficulty, and learn to embrace rather than shy away from challenge. In short, homework is a key vehicle through which we can help shape children into mature learners.

The Homework-Achievement Connection

A narrow focus on whether or not homework boosts grades and test scores in the short run thus ignores a broader purpose in education, the development of lifelong, confident learners. Still, the question looms: does homework enhance academic success? As the educational psychologist Lyn Corno wrote more than two decades ago, “homework is a complicated thing.” Most research on the homework-achievement connection is correlational, which precludes a definitive judgment on its academic benefits. Researchers rely on correlational research in this area of study given the difficulties of randomly assigning students to homework/no-homework conditions. While correlation does not imply causality, extensive research has established that at the middle- and high-school levels, homework completion is strongly and positively associated with high achievement. Very few studies have reported a negative correlation.

As noted above, findings on the homework-achievement connection at the elementary level are mixed. A small number of experimental studies have demonstrated that elementary-school students who receive homework achieve at higher levels than those who do not. These findings suggest a causal relationship, but they are limited in scope. Within the body of correlational research, some studies report a positive homework-achievement connection, some a negative relationship, and yet others show no relationship at all. Why the mixed findings? Researchers point to a number of possible factors, such as developmental issues related to how young children learn, different goals that teachers have for younger as compared to older students, and how researchers define homework.

Certainly, young children are still developing skills that enable them to focus on the material at hand and study efficiently. Teachers’ goals for their students are also quite different in elementary school as compared to secondary school. While teachers at both levels note the value of homework for reinforcing classroom content, those in the earlier grades are more likely to assign homework mainly to foster skills such as responsibility, perseverance, and the ability to manage distractions.

Most research examines homework generally. Might a focus on homework in a specific subject shed more light on the homework-achievement connection? A recent meta-analysis did just this by examining the relationship between math/science homework and achievement. Contrary to previous findings, researchers reported a stronger relationship between homework and achievement in the elementary grades than in middle school. As the study authors note, one explanation for this finding could be that in elementary school, teachers tend to assign more homework in math than in other subjects, while at the same time assigning shorter math tasks more frequently. In addition, the authors point out that parents tend to be more involved in younger children’s math homework and more skilled in elementary-level than middle-school math.

In sum, the relationship between homework and academic achievement in the elementary-school years is not yet established, but eliminating homework at this level would do children and their families a huge disservice: we know that children’s learning beliefs have a powerful impact on their academic outcomes, and that through homework, parents and teachers can have a profound influence on the development of positive beliefs.

How Much Is Appropriate?

Harris M. Cooper of Duke University, the leading researcher on homework, has examined decades of study on what we know about the relationship between homework and scholastic achievement. He has proposed the “10-minute rule,” suggesting that daily homework be limited to 10 minutes per grade level. Thus, a 1st grader would do 10 minutes each day and a 4th grader, 40 minutes. The National Parent Teacher Association and the National Education Association both endorse this guideline, but it is not clear whether the recommended allotments include time for reading, which most teachers want children to do daily.

For middle-school students, Cooper and colleagues report that 90 minutes per day of homework is optimal for enhancing academic achievement, and for high schoolers, the ideal range is 90 minutes to two and a half hours per day. Beyond this threshold, more homework does not contribute to learning. For students enrolled in demanding Advanced Placement or honors courses, however, homework is likely to require significantly more time, leading to concerns over students’ health and well-being.

Notwithstanding media reports of parents revolting against the practice of homework, the vast majority of parents say they are highly satisfied with their children’s homework loads. The National Household Education Surveys Program recently found that between 70 and 83 percent of parents believed that the amount of homework their children had was “about right,” a result that held true regardless of social class, race/ethnicity, community size, level of education, and whether English was spoken at home.

Learning Beliefs Are Consequential

As noted above, developmentally appropriate homework can help children cultivate positive beliefs about learning. Decades of research have established that these beliefs predict the types of tasks students choose to pursue, their persistence in the face of challenge, and their academic achievement. Broadly, learning beliefs fall under the banner of achievement motivation, which is a constellation of cognitive, behavioral, and affective factors, including: the way a person perceives his or her abilities, goal-setting skills, expectation of success, the value the individual places on learning, and self-regulating behavior such as time-management skills. Positive or adaptive beliefs about learning serve as emotional and psychological protective factors for children, especially when they encounter difficulties or failure.

Motivation researcher Carol Dweck of Stanford University posits that children with a “growth mindset”—those who believe that ability is malleable—approach learning very differently than those with a “fixed mindset”—kids who believe ability cannot change. Those with a growth mindset view effort as the key to mastery. They see mistakes as helpful, persist even in the face of failure, prefer challenging over easy tasks, and do better in school than their peers who have a fixed mindset. In contrast, children with a fixed mindset view effort and mistakes as implicit condemnations of their abilities. Such children succumb easily to learned helplessness in the face of difficulty, and they gravitate toward tasks they know they can handle rather than more challenging ones.

Of course, learning beliefs do not develop in a vacuum. Studies have demonstrated that parents and teachers play a significant role in the development of positive beliefs and behaviors, and that homework is a key tool they can use to foster motivation and academic achievement.

Parents’ Beliefs and Actions Matter

It is well established that parental involvement in their children’s education promotes achievement motivation and success in school. Parents are their children’s first teachers, and their achievement-related beliefs have a profound influence on children’s developing perceptions of their own abilities, as well as their views on the value of learning and education.

Parents affect their children’s learning through the messages they send about education, whether by expressing interest in school activities and experiences, attending school events, helping with homework when they can, or exposing children to intellectually enriching experiences. Most parents view such engagement as part and parcel of their role. They also believe that doing homework fosters responsibility and organizational skills, and that doing well on homework tasks contributes to learning, even if children experience frustration from time to time.

Many parents provide support by establishing homework routines, eliminating distractions, communicating expectations, helping children manage their time, providing reassuring messages, and encouraging kids to be aware of the conditions under which they do their best work. These supports help foster the development of self-regulation, which is critical to school success.

Self-regulation involves a number of skills, such as the ability to monitor one’s performance and adjust strategies as a result of feedback; to evaluate one’s interests and realistically perceive one’s aptitude; and to work on a task autonomously. It also means learning how to structure one’s environment so that it’s conducive to learning, by, for example, minimizing distractions. As children move into higher grades, these skills and strategies help them organize, plan, and learn independently. This is precisely where parents make a demonstrable difference in students’ attitudes and approaches to homework.

Especially in the early grades, homework gives parents the opportunity to cultivate beliefs and behaviors that foster efficient study skills and academic resilience. Indeed, across age groups, there is a strong and positive relationship between homework completion and a variety of self-regulatory processes. However, the quality of parental help matters. Sometimes, well-intentioned parents can unwittingly undermine the development of children’s positive learning beliefs and their achievement. Parents who maintain a positive outlook on homework and allow their children room to learn and struggle on their own, stepping in judiciously with informational feedback and hints, do their children a much better service than those who seek to control the learning process.

A recent study of 5th and 6th graders’ perceptions of their parents’ involvement with homework distinguished between supportive and intrusive help. The former included the belief that parents encouraged the children to try to find the right answer on their own before providing them with assistance, and when the child struggled, attempted to understand the source of the confusion. In contrast, the latter included the perception that parents provided unsolicited help, interfered when the children did their homework, and told them how to complete their assignments. Supportive help predicted higher achievement, while intrusive help was associated with lower achievement.

Parents’ attitudes and emotions during homework time can support the development of positive attitudes and approaches in their children, which in turn are predictive of higher achievement. Children are more likely to focus on self-improvement during homework time and do better in school when their parents are oriented toward mastery. In contrast, if parents focus on how well children are doing relative to peers, kids tend to adopt learning goals that allow them to avoid challenge.

Homework and Social Class

Social class is another important element in the homework dynamic. What is the homework experience like for families with limited time and resources? And what of affluent families, where resources are plenty but the pressures to succeed are great?

Etta Kralovec and John Buell, authors of The End of Homework, maintain that homework “punishes the poor,” because lower-income parents may not be as well educated as their affluent counterparts and thus not as well equipped to help with homework. Poorer families also have fewer financial resources to devote to home computers, tutoring, and academic enrichment. The stresses of poverty—and work schedules—may impinge, and immigrant parents may face language barriers and an unfamiliarity with the school system and teachers’ expectations.

Yet research shows that low-income parents who are unable to assist with homework are far from passive in their children’s learning, and they do help foster scholastic performance. In fact, parental help with homework is not a necessary component for school success.

Brown University’s Jin Li queried low-income Chinese American 9th graders’ perceptions of their parents’ engagement with their education. Students said their immigrant parents rarely engaged in activities that are known to foster academic achievement, such as monitoring homework, checking it for accuracy, or attending school meetings or events. Instead, parents of higher achievers built three social networks to support their children’s learning. They designated “anchor” helpers both inside and outside the family who provided assistance; identified peer models for their children to emulate; and enlisted the assistance of extended kin to guide their children’s educational socialization. In a related vein, a recent analysis of survey data showed that Asian and Latino 5th graders, relative to native-born peers, were more likely to turn to siblings than parents for homework help.

Further, research demonstrates that low-income parents, recognizing that they lack the time to be in the classroom or participate in school governance, view homework as a critical connection to their children’s experiences in school. One study found that mothers enjoyed the routine and predictability of homework and used it as a way to demonstrate to children how to plan their time. Mothers organized homework as a family activity, with siblings doing homework together and older children reading to younger ones. In this way, homework was perceived as a collective practice wherein siblings could model effective habits and learn from one another.

In another recent study, researchers examined mathematics achievement in low-income 8th-grade Asian and Latino students. Help with homework was an advantage their mothers could not provide. They could, however, furnish structure (for example, by setting aside quiet time for homework completion), and it was this structure that most predicted high achievement. As the authors note, “It is . . . important to help [low-income] parents realize that they can still help their children get good grades in mathematics and succeed in school even if they do not know how to provide direct assistance with their child’s mathematics homework.”

The homework narrative at the other end of the socioeconomic continuum is altogether different. Media reports abound with examples of students, mostly in high school, carrying three or more hours of homework per night, a burden that can impair learning, motivation, and well-being. In affluent communities, students often experience intense pressure to cultivate a high-achieving profile that will be attractive to elite colleges. Heavy homework loads have been linked to unhealthy symptoms such as heightened stress, anxiety, physical complaints, and sleep disturbances. Like Allison’s 6th grader mentioned earlier, many students can only tackle their homework after they do extracurricular activities, which are also seen as essential for the college résumé. Not surprisingly, many students in these communities are not deeply engaged in learning; rather, they speak of “doing school,” as Stanford researcher Denise Pope has described, going through the motions necessary to excel, and undermining their physical and mental health in the process.

Fortunately, some national intervention initiatives, such as Challenge Success (co-founded by Pope), are heightening awareness of these problems. Interventions aimed at restoring balance in students’ lives (in part, by reducing homework demands) have resulted in students reporting an increased sense of well-being, decreased stress and anxiety, and perceptions of greater support from teachers, with no decrease in achievement outcomes.

What is good for this small segment of students, however, is not necessarily good for the majority. As Jessica Lahey wrote in Motherlode, a New York Times parenting blog, “homework is a red herring” in the national conversation on education. “Some otherwise privileged children may have too much, but the real issue lies in places where there is too little. . . . We shouldn’t forget that.”

My colleagues and I analyzed interviews conducted with lower-income 9th graders (African American, Mexican American, and European American) from two Northern California high schools that at the time were among the lowest-achieving schools in the state. We found that these students consistently described receiving minimal homework—perhaps one or two worksheets or textbook pages, the occasional project, and 30 minutes of reading per night. Math was the only class in which they reported having homework each night. These students noted few consequences for not completing their homework.

Indeed, greatly reducing or eliminating homework would likely increase, not diminish, the achievement gap. As Harris M. Cooper has commented, those choosing to opt their children out of homework are operating from a place of advantage. Children in higher-income families benefit from many privileges, including exposure to a larger range of language at home that may align with the language of school, access to learning and cultural experiences, and many other forms of enrichment, such as tutoring and academic summer camps, all of which may be cost-prohibitive for lower-income families. But for the 21 percent of the school-age population who live in poverty—nearly 11 million students ages 5–17—homework is one tool that can help narrow the achievement gap.

Community and School Support

Often, community organizations and afterschool programs can step up to provide structure and services that students’ need to succeed at homework. For example, Boys and Girls and 4-H clubs offer volunteer tutors as well as access to computer technology that students may not have at home. Many schools provide homework clubs or integrate homework into the afterschool program.

Home-school partnerships have succeeded in engaging parents with homework and significantly improving their children’s academic achievement. For example, Joyce Epstein of Johns Hopkins University has developed the TIPS model (Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork), which embraces homework as an integral part of family time. TIPS is a teacher-designed interactive program in which children and a parent or family member each have a specific role in the homework scenario. For example, children might show the parent how to do a mathematics task on fractions, explaining their reasoning along the way and reviewing their thinking aloud if they are unsure.

Evaluations show that elementary and middle-school students in classrooms that have adopted TIPS complete more of their homework than do students in other classrooms. Both students and parent participants show more positive beliefs about learning mathematics, and TIPS students show significant gains in writing skills and report-card science grades, as well as higher mathematics scores on standardized tests.

Another study found that asking teachers to send text messages to parents about their children’s missing homework resulted in increased parental monitoring of homework, consequences for missed assignments, and greater participation in parent-child conferences. Teachers reported fewer missed assignments and greater student effort in coursework, and math grades and GPA significantly improved.

Homework Quality Matters

Teachers favor homework for a number of reasons. They believe it fosters a sense of responsibility and promotes academic achievement. They note that homework provides valuable review and practice for students while giving teachers feedback on areas where students may need more support. Finally, teachers value homework as a way to keep parents connected to the school and their children’s educational experiences.

While students, to say the least, may not always relish the idea of doing homework, by high school most come to believe there is a positive relationship between doing homework and doing well in school. Both higher and lower achievers lament “busywork” that doesn’t promote learning. They crave high-quality, challenging assignments—and it is this kind of homework that has been associated with higher achievement.

What constitutes high-quality homework? Assignments that are developmentally appropriate and meaningful and that promote self-efficacy and self-regulation. Meaningful homework is authentic, allowing students to engage in solving problems with real-world relevance. More specifically, homework tasks should make efficient use of student time and have a clear purpose connected to what they are learning. An artistic rendition of a period in history that would take hours to complete can become instead a diary entry in the voice of an individual from that era. By allowing a measure of choice and autonomy in homework, teachers foster in their students a sense of ownership, which bolsters their investment in the work.

High-quality homework also fosters students’ perceptions of their own competence by 1) focusing them on tasks they can accomplish without help; 2) differentiating tasks so as to allow struggling students to experience success; 3) providing suggested time frames rather than a fixed period of time in which a task should be completed; 4) delivering clearly and carefully explained directions; and 5) carefully modeling methods for attacking lengthy or complex tasks. Students whose teachers have trained them to adopt strategies such as goal setting, self-monitoring, and planning develop a number of personal assets—improved time management, increased self-efficacy, greater effort and interest, a desire for mastery, and a decrease in helplessness.

Excellence with Equity

Currently, the United States has the second-highest disparity between time spent on homework by students of low socioeconomic status and time spent by their more-affluent peers out of the 34 OECD-member nations participating in the 2012 Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) (see Figure 2). Noting that PISA studies have consistently found that spending more time on math homework strongly correlates with higher academic achievement, the report’s authors suggest that the homework disparity may reflect lower teacher expectations for low-income students. If so, this is truly unfortunate. In and of itself, low socioeconomic status is not an impediment to academic achievement when appropriate parental, school, and community supports are deployed. As research makes clear, low-income parents support their children’s learning in varied ways, not all of which involve direct assistance with schoolwork. Teachers can orient students and parents toward beliefs that foster positive attitudes toward learning. Indeed, where homework is concerned, a commitment to excellence with equity is both worthwhile and attainable.

In affluent communities, parents, teachers, and school districts might consider reexamining the meaning of academic excellence and placing more emphasis on leading a balanced and well-rounded life. The homework debate in the United States has been dominated by concerns over the health and well-being of such advantaged students. As legitimate as these worries are, it’s important to avoid generalizing these children’s experiences to those with fewer family resources. Reducing or eliminating homework, though it may be desirable in some advantaged communities, would deprive poorer children of a crucial and empowering learning experience. It would also eradicate a fertile opportunity to help close the achievement gap.

Janine Bempechat is clinical professor of human development at the Boston University Wheelock College of Education and Human Development.

An unabridged version of this article is available here .

For more, please see “ The Top 20 Education Next Articles of 2023 .”

This article appeared in the Winter 2019 issue of Education Next . Suggested citation format:

Bempechat, J. (2019). The Case for (Quality) Homework: Why it improves learning, and how parents can help . Education Next, 19 (1), 36-43.

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Designing Effective Homework

Best practices for creating homework that raises student achievement

Homework. It can be challenging…and not just for students. For teachers, designing homework can be a daunting task with lots of unanswered questions: How much should I assign? What type of content should I cover? Why aren’t students doing the work I assign? Homework can be a powerful opportunity to reinforce the Shifts in your instruction and promote standards-aligned learning, but how do we avoid the pitfalls that make key learning opportunities sources of stress and antipathy?

The nonprofit Instruction Partners recently set out to answer some of these questions, looking at what research says about what works when it comes to homework. You can view their original presentation here , but I’ve summarized some of the key findings you can put to use with your students immediately.

Does homework help?

Consistent homework completion has been shown to increase student achievement rates—but frequency matters. Students who are given homework regularly show greater gains than those who only receive homework sporadically. Researchers hypothesize that this is due to improved study skills and routines practiced through homework that allow students to perform better academically.

Average gains on unit tests for students who completed homework were six percentile points in grades 4–6, 12 percentile points in grades 7–9, and an impressive 24 percentile points in grades 10–12; so yes, homework (done well) does work. [i]

What should homework cover?

While there is little research about exactly what types of homework content lead to the biggest achievement gains, there are some general rules of thumb about how homework should change gradually over time.

In grades 1–5, homework should:

• Reinforce and allow students to practice skills learned in the classroom
• Help students develop good study habits and routines
• Foster positive feelings about school

In grades 6–12, homework should:

• Prepare students for engagement and discussion during the next lesson
• Allow students to apply their skills in new and more challenging ways

The most often-heard criticism of homework assignments is that they simply take too long. So how much homework should you assign in order to see results for students? Not surprisingly, it varies by grade. Assign 10-20 minutes of homework per night total, starting in first grade, and then add 10 minutes for each additional grade. [ii] Doing more can result in student stress, frustration, and disengagement, particularly in the early grades.

Why are some students not doing the homework?

There are any number of reasons why students may not complete homework, from lack of motivation to lack of content knowledge, but one issue to watch out for as a teacher is the impact of economic disparities on the ability to complete homework.

Multiple studies [iii] have shown that low-income students complete homework less often than students who come from wealthier families. This can lead to increased achievement gaps between students. Students from low-income families may face additional challenges when it comes to completing homework such as lack of access to the internet, lack of access to outside tutors or assistance, and additional jobs or family responsibilities.

While you can’t erase these challenges for your students, you can design homework that takes those issues into account by creating homework that can be done offline, independently, and in a reasonable timeframe. With those design principles in mind, you increase the opportunity for all your students to complete and benefit from the homework you assign.

The Big Picture

Perhaps most importantly, students benefit from receiving feedback from you, their teacher, on their assignments. Praise or rewards simply for homework completion have little effect on student achievement, but feedback that helps them improve or reinforces strong performance does. Consider keeping this mini-table handy as you design homework:

The act of assigning homework doesn’t automatically raise student achievement, so be a critical consumer of the homework products that come as part of your curriculum. If they assign too much (or too little!) work or reflect some of these common pitfalls, take action to make assignments that better serve your students.

[i] Cooper, H. (2007). The battle over homework (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

[ii] Cooper, H. (1989a). Homework .White Plains, NY: Longman.

[iii] Horrigan, T. (2015). The numbers behind the broadband ‘homework gap’ http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/04/20/the-numbers-behind-the-broadband-homework-gap/ and Miami Dade Public Schools. (2009). Literature Review: Homework. http://drs.dadeschools.net/LiteratureReviews/Homework.pdf

• ELA / Literacy
• Elementary School
• High School
• Mathematics
• Middle School

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About the Author: Claire Rivero is the Digital Strategy Manager for Student Achievement Partners. Claire leads the organization’s communications and digital promotion work across various channels including email, Facebook, Twitter, and Pinterest, always seeking new ways to reach educators. She also manages Achieve the Core’s blog, Aligned. Prior to joining Student Achievement Partners, Claire worked in the Communications department for the American Red Cross and as a literacy instructor in a London pilot program. Claire holds bachelor’s degrees in English and Public Policy from Duke University and a master’s degree in Social Policy (with a concentration on Education Policy) from the London School of Economics and Political Science.

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What’s the Right Amount of Homework?

Decades of research show that homework has some benefits, especially for students in middle and high school—but there are risks to assigning too much.

Many teachers and parents believe that homework helps students build study skills and review concepts learned in class. Others see homework as disruptive and unnecessary, leading to burnout and turning kids off to school. Decades of research show that the issue is more nuanced and complex than most people think: Homework is beneficial, but only to a degree. Students in high school gain the most, while younger kids benefit much less.

The National PTA and the National Education Association support the “ 10-minute homework guideline ”—a nightly 10 minutes of homework per grade level. But many teachers and parents are quick to point out that what matters is the quality of the homework assigned and how well it meets students’ needs, not the amount of time spent on it.

The guideline doesn’t account for students who may need to spend more—or less—time on assignments. In class, teachers can make adjustments to support struggling students, but at home, an assignment that takes one student 30 minutes to complete may take another twice as much time—often for reasons beyond their control. And homework can widen the achievement gap, putting students from low-income households and students with learning disabilities at a disadvantage.

However, the 10-minute guideline is useful in setting a limit: When kids spend too much time on homework, there are real consequences to consider.

Small Benefits for Elementary Students

As young children begin school, the focus should be on cultivating a love of learning, and assigning too much homework can undermine that goal. And young students often don’t have the study skills to benefit fully from homework, so it may be a poor use of time (Cooper, 1989 ; Cooper et al., 2006 ; Marzano & Pickering, 2007 ). A more effective activity may be nightly reading, especially if parents are involved. The benefits of reading are clear: If students aren’t proficient readers by the end of third grade, they’re less likely to succeed academically and graduate from high school (Fiester, 2013 ).

For second-grade teacher Jacqueline Fiorentino, the minor benefits of homework did not outweigh the potential drawback of turning young children against school at an early age, so she experimented with dropping mandatory homework. “Something surprising happened: They started doing more work at home,” Fiorentino writes . “This inspiring group of 8-year-olds used their newfound free time to explore subjects and topics of interest to them.” She encouraged her students to read at home and offered optional homework to extend classroom lessons and help them review material.

Moderate Benefits for Middle School Students

As students mature and develop the study skills necessary to delve deeply into a topic—and to retain what they learn—they also benefit more from homework. Nightly assignments can help prepare them for scholarly work, and research shows that homework can have moderate benefits for middle school students (Cooper et al., 2006 ). Recent research also shows that online math homework, which can be designed to adapt to students’ levels of understanding, can significantly boost test scores (Roschelle et al., 2016 ).

There are risks to assigning too much, however: A 2015 study found that when middle school students were assigned more than 90 to 100 minutes of daily homework, their math and science test scores began to decline (Fernández-Alonso, Suárez-Álvarez, & Muñiz, 2015 ). Crossing that upper limit can drain student motivation and focus. The researchers recommend that “homework should present a certain level of challenge or difficulty, without being so challenging that it discourages effort.” Teachers should avoid low-effort, repetitive assignments, and assign homework “with the aim of instilling work habits and promoting autonomous, self-directed learning.”

In other words, it’s the quality of homework that matters, not the quantity. Brian Sztabnik, a veteran middle and high school English teacher, suggests that teachers take a step back and ask themselves these five questions :

• How long will it take to complete?
• Have all learners been considered?
• Will an assignment encourage future success?
• Will an assignment place material in a context the classroom cannot?
• Does an assignment offer support when a teacher is not there?

More Benefits for High School Students, but Risks as Well

By the time they reach high school, students should be well on their way to becoming independent learners, so homework does provide a boost to learning at this age, as long as it isn’t overwhelming (Cooper et al., 2006 ; Marzano & Pickering, 2007 ). When students spend too much time on homework—more than two hours each night—it takes up valuable time to rest and spend time with family and friends. A 2013 study found that high school students can experience serious mental and physical health problems, from higher stress levels to sleep deprivation, when assigned too much homework (Galloway, Conner, & Pope, 2013 ).

Homework in high school should always relate to the lesson and be doable without any assistance, and feedback should be clear and explicit.

Teachers should also keep in mind that not all students have equal opportunities to finish their homework at home, so incomplete homework may not be a true reflection of their learning—it may be more a result of issues they face outside of school. They may be hindered by issues such as lack of a quiet space at home, resources such as a computer or broadband connectivity, or parental support (OECD, 2014 ). In such cases, giving low homework scores may be unfair.

Since the quantities of time discussed here are totals, teachers in middle and high school should be aware of how much homework other teachers are assigning. It may seem reasonable to assign 30 minutes of daily homework, but across six subjects, that’s three hours—far above a reasonable amount even for a high school senior. Psychologist Maurice Elias sees this as a common mistake: Individual teachers create homework policies that in aggregate can overwhelm students. He suggests that teachers work together to develop a school-wide homework policy and make it a key topic of back-to-school night and the first parent-teacher conferences of the school year.

Parents Play a Key Role

Homework can be a powerful tool to help parents become more involved in their child’s learning (Walker et al., 2004 ). It can provide insights into a child’s strengths and interests, and can also encourage conversations about a child’s life at school. If a parent has positive attitudes toward homework, their children are more likely to share those same values, promoting academic success.

But it’s also possible for parents to be overbearing, putting too much emphasis on test scores or grades, which can be disruptive for children (Madjar, Shklar, & Moshe, 2015 ). Parents should avoid being overly intrusive or controlling—students report feeling less motivated to learn when they don’t have enough space and autonomy to do their homework (Orkin, May, & Wolf, 2017 ; Patall, Cooper, & Robinson, 2008 ; Silinskas & Kikas, 2017 ). So while homework can encourage parents to be more involved with their kids, it’s important to not make it a source of conflict.

• Homeschool Program

How Homework Can Help Build Self-Esteem and Confidence

Self-esteem and homework, is there a connection? This is the second area of the homework topic that no one seems to be talking about. The second redeeming benefit of 15 minutes a day of homework is teaching a sense of self-esteem. Kids need to feel like they belong, can contribute, and are needed. They also need to feel confident, have a sense of achievement, respect of self and others.

Self-esteem, confidence, friendship, problem-solving are all part of every human’s basic needs. When kids complete their homework, they feel good about themselves. Their self-esteem goes up a notch. When they produce a complete assignment, they feel worthwhile. When this happens over and over again, you have kids that are filled with self-esteem.

William Glasser, noted psychiatrist believes that humans have two basic needs:

• Meaningful involvement or connections with someone else
• Meaningful contribution so we feel worthwhile to ourselves and each other (producing and contributing)

According to Abraham Maslow, psychiatrist and psychology professor, when we meet our basic human needs, we learn more effectively and learning becomes easier.

Maslow is best known for his ‘ Hierarchy of Basic Human Needs ‘.

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Effects of a homework implementation method (MITCA) on self-regulation of learning

• Open access
• Published: 16 February 2024

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• Tania Vieites   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4440-0201 3   na1 ,
• Eleftheria Gonida 2   na1 ,
• Fátima Díaz-Freire   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5065-0819 1   na1 ,
• Susana Rodríguez   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4548-0602 1   na1 &
• Antonio Valle   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8160-9181 1   na1  

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The MITCA method (Homework Implementation Method) was developed with the purpose of turning homework into an educational resource capable of improving students' self-regulated learning and school engagement. In this paper, following current theoretical frameworks, we evaluate the effect of the MITCA method on students' self-regulated learning. In general, MITCA includes the assignment of diverse, concrete and valued by the students tasks which are completed on a weekly basis. We analyze the differences in self-regulation strategies in a sample of 533 fifth (n = 270) and sixth graders (n = 262) with an age range of 10–12 years old (47.5% boys and 52.5% girls), who were about equally distributed to an experimental and a control group. Trained teachers used MITCA to prescribe homework in the experimental group for twelve weeks. The students of the experimental group reported significantly higher time management and environmental management. However, there were no significant differences observed in other aspects of self-regulation, and the experimental group did not perceive a deficit in these areas. Our results indicate the effectiveness of MITCA on students’ self-regulation of learning and discussed in light of current theories and evidence in the field.

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Introduction

Homework, defined as teacher-prescribed tasks to be completed by students after school hours (Cooper et al., 2012 ), is in the spotlight of actors involved in the learning and teaching processes. Especially in the field of education and psychology, homework is a topic of interest not only due to its interaction with students' academic performance (Cooper, 1989 ; Cooper et al., 2006 ; Corno & Xu, 2004 ; Fan et al., 2017 ; Zimmerman & Kitsantas, 2005 ), but also due to its contribution in developing study habits and promoting self-regulatory skills (Cooper, 1989 ; Corno, 1996 ; Corno & Xu, 2004 ; Epstein, 1983 ; Martínez-Vicente et al., 2020 ; Suárez et al., 2019 ; Warton, 2001 ).

Recognizing that the successful completion of homework necessitates students' commitment and the potential utilization of self-regulatory skills, homework can be perceived as an educational tool that may contribute to the cultivation of self-regulation. For example, homework requires context regulation skills such as distributing and organizing time, seeking and asking for help, as well as motivational and emotional regulation skills like identifying and sustaining task value, developing perceived competence, and regulating homework-associated emotions. Time management during homework completion is one of the factors best associated with academic engagement and performance (Núñez et al., 2015 ; Xu, 2010 , 2011 ). Thus, the potential benefits of homework are not only quantitative (e.g., knowledge and skills acquired), but also qualitative (Dettmers et al., 2010 ), and the student is the primary agent and director of the homework completion process. This is the main premise according to which the Homework Implementation Method (MITCA) (Valle and Rodríguez, 2020 ) was designed.

In general, the MITCA ( Método de Implementación de Tareas para Casa ; Homework Implementation Method) method (Valle and Rodríguez, 2020 ) demands the tasks assigned as homework to be perceived by the student as interesting, valuable and/or useful as well as having a concrete purpose.

The present study aims to examine the effectiveness of the implementation of MITCA method in 24 different classrooms of 5th and 6th graders. Specifically, the study aims to investigate the contribution of MITCA on students’ self-regulated learning, planning and time management. For this purpose, teachers were trained on how to implement MITCA in their classrooms and an intervention study with an experimental and control group and pre-post design was carried out.

Homework and self-regulation of learning

Homework is usually assigned for a specific purpose. Many teachers assign homework because they believe that homework improves academic performance (Cooper, 1989 ), increases students' motivation and ability to self-regulate their learning processes (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001 ; Rosário et al., 2009 ; Warton, 2001 ), and contributes to a positive school-family relationship (Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2001 ; Hill & Taylor, 2004 ; Trautwein et al., 2009 ). However, the attitude towards homework, and even school engagement itself may be negatively affected and students may fail to perceive the intention and long-term benefits of doing homework; ultimately, students may complete their homework only to gain some reward or to avoid punishment (Cooper & Nye, 1994 ; Coutts, 2004 ). Likewise, homework can cause anxiety in the student and even anger or boredom (Liu et al., 2017 , 2019 ; Xu, 2016 ) when, for example, an excessive amount of homework is set or the perceived difficulty is high.

In recent years, the practice of assigning a large volume of homework to students in Spain has been widely criticized. This practice is common, whereby homework is assigned as tasks to be completed outside of school, including assignments that are not completed in class and exercises that are typically due within a day or two.

Acknowledging how interesting, valuable and/or useful this kind homework is in the classroom, is a key factor to engagement at home. Further, and although the research is still open, previous work has highlighted the central role of time management in completing homework assignments and in explaining academic performance (e.g., Núñez et al., 2015 ; Xu et al., 2014 ; Xu, 2022b ) opening the discussion on the relevance of self-regulation skills in homework completion. Time management is recognized as a significant aspect of academic self-regulation, as emphasized by various researchers (Corno, 2004 ; Pintrich, 2004 ; Zimmerman, 2008 ). Pintrich ( 2004 ) has categorized self-regulation into four phases (forethought, monitoring, control, and reflection), with each phase comprising four areas for self-regulation (cognition, motivation, behavior, and context). Within this framework, time management is conceptualized as a crucial aspect of behavior for self-regulation, involving planning, monitoring, and regulating the use of time, such as creating study schedules and allocating time for different learning activities. Xu et al. ( 2014 ) conducted a study using multilevel models to examine homework time management, and their findings revealed that at the student level, time management was positively correlated with monitoring motivation, arranging the study environment, peer and learning-oriented reasons for doing homework, and family homework help.

Previous reviews (e.g., meta-analyses, such as Cooper, 1989 ; Cooper et al., 2006 ; Cooper & Valentine, 2001 ; Walberg, 1991 ) provided evidence for a positive relationship between homework time and achievement, while other studies found a weak or even negative relationship (e.g., De Jong, et al., 2000 ; Tam, 2009 ; Tam, 2009 ; Trautwein, 2007 ; Trautwein et al., 2002 , 2009 ; Walberg, 1991 ). Students who manage time well are more likely to get better grades (Claessens et al., 2007 ; Kitsantas et al., 2008 ; Macan et al., 1990 ; Panadero and Tapia, 2014 ). In the study by Valle et al. ( 2017 ), it was found that indeed spending more hours on homework could be evidence of both high dedication and commitment but also that students have difficulties doing their homework.

Xu ( 2007 , 2010 ), one of the first authors who studied the relationship between homework time and the use of management strategies while doing homework, suggests that spending more time on homework is not necessarily associated with efficient strategic management at home but may be indicative of the use of maladaptive self-regulatory strategies (see also Rosário et al., 2009 , 2013 ; Trautwein et al., 2009 ).

It is assumed that, beyond the time that each student spends doing homework (Regueiro, 2018 ; Regueiro et al., 2014 ; Rodríguez et al., 2019 ; Rosário et al., 2018 ; Trautwein, 2007 ; Valle et al., 2017 ), and even beyond the amount of homework that is assigned, the relevance of homework would be in the value and quality of the homework and in the effective management of the pupil's time at home (Núñez et al., 2015 , 2019 ; Valle et al., 2015 ). In other words, the key to assessing the quality of homework will be the students' time management at home, together with other variables that fall within the self-regulation of learning; students' abilities to seek and learn information, manage the study environment, and also maladaptive regulatory behavior (self-regulatory deficit).

Beyond the time that each student spends doing homework (Trautwein, 2007 ), and even beyond the amount of homework that is assigned, the relevance of homework would be in the value and quality of the homework and in the effective management of the students's homework time (Núñez et al., 2015 , 2019 ; Valle et al., 2015 ). In other words, the key to assessing the quality of homework will be the students' time management at home.

Different researchers have speculated on the possibilities of homework task assignments in promoting self-regulatory processes and self-beliefs, including goal setting, time management, environmental management, sustained attention and self-efficacy (Pintrich, 2000 ; Trautwein & Köller, 2003 ). A longitudinal study with 5th-grade students indicated that homework promotes self-regulation skills and reading achievement (Xu et al., 2010 ). It has been also found that high-achieving students (compared with low-achieving students) were more likely to arrange their environment, manage time, handle distractions, monitor motivation, and control negative emotions during homework (Yang & Menglu, 2020 ). In their recent study, Corno and Xu ( 2022a , b ) used a person-centered approach to study more variables related to self-regulation such as environment and time management, motivation and emotion regulation, cognitively reappraising information, and handling both conventional and technological distractions. They identified five distinct profiles that could be labeled: High Across All Strategies, Moderate Across All Strategies, Low Across All Strategies, Low Except for Handling Distractions, and Low Handling Distractions. Students who profiled high across all strategies outperformed the other groups on these outcome variables.

It is also worth noting that so far we are not aware of any specific studies that have addressed the relationship between homework prescription and self-regulation of learning directly. Homework prescription refers to the teacher's work when indicating which tasks must be completed at home and under what conditions (time, correction, consequences, etc.). In other words, it is the instructions provided by teachers when indicating and establishing which tasks students must complete outside of school hours.

The Homework Implementation Method (MITCA) (Valle & Rodriguez, 2020 ) assumes that it is students who must complete homework independently by implementing self-regulation skills related to planning, inhibiting distractions, persisting with difficult tasks, organizing their environment, overcoming unwanted emotions, and reflecting on what they have learned (Boekaerts & Corno, 2005 ; Xu, 2008 ). Homework has been considered a classic resource for promoting self-regulation of learning (Rodríguez et al., 2021 ; Trautwein & Köller, 2003 ). Thus, completing homework can improve children's aptitude towards academic work through additional practice and foster their ability to take responsibility for regulating their academic behavior and performance (Corno, 2000 ).

MITCA Method: A homework intervention proposal

Traditional homework is often seen by students as a boring routine and an unattractive activity and their attitudes towards it tend to become more negative as students progress through school (Bryan & Nelson, 1994 ; Chen & Stevenson, 1989 ; Cooper et al., 1998 ; Warton, 2001 ; Xu, 2004 ). This lack of perceived usefulness, together with the traditional low quality of homework, may at times be seen as a powerful tool that can cause significant harm to students and their education (Hong et al., 2004 ). We define traditional homework as the homework assigned to students for the simple purpose of practising or studying the content explained during school hours. In many cases, a large amount of homework is assigned daily that does not activate students' curiosity or increase their motivation, and frequently it is not sufficiently valued by teachers.

Rodríguez et al. ( 2021 ) propose that homework should be approached as an opportunity for active and constructive learning, where students set goals based on the teaching assignment and attempt to plan, monitor, and regulate their cognition, motivation and behavior. This requires students to direct themselves towards these goals while considering the demands and conditions of the working environment at home.

In this context, the MITCA method, which was born to turn homework into an educational resource capable of improving, among other aspects, the self-regulation of learning, proposes that homework should: (a) be understood by students as instrumental, interesting and valuable for their progress, (b) have a clear purpose and be sensitive to the diversity of students, (c) help students to self-evaluate their strengths and weaknesses, and (d) contribute to improving planning and management of time devoted to homework.

Accordingly, the MITCA method we designed for homework prescription is summarized by five conditions: Varied, Specific, Worthwhile, Weekly, and Evaluated.

Varied: Homework should be diverse and include both post-topic (after explaining the contents in the classroom) and pre-topic tasks (before explaining the content in the classroom in order to find out the students' prior knowledge and motivate them to learn) with similar amounts of revision, organization, and production tasks. Based on a significant body of empirical research over the last ten years about the impact of cognitive strategies on encouraging learning and understanding (for example, see Dunlosky et al., 2013 ; Fiorella & Mayer, 2015 ; Novak, 2010 ; Sweller et al., 2011 , among others), the assumption underlying MITCA is that homework should encourage more active, constructive, and interactive involvement than happens routinely.

Specific: Based on the conditions developed for setting learning goals by McCardle et al. ( 2016 ), MITCA reminds teachers to define homework assignments in terms of cognitive operations and content. Significant learning, as outlined by Mayer ( 1988 , 1996 , 2014 ), involves three core cognitive processes: (a) selecting the most important information (e.g., highlighting, summarizing); (b) organizing this information into a coherent mental structure that aligns with the learning material's underlying structure (e.g., categorizing and sequencing ideas); and (c) integrating the newly constructed representation into existing knowledge (e.g., explaining concepts or making persuasive arguments).

Worthwhile: The teacher communicates the usefulness, interest, importance, and/or applicability of homework s/he sets. The task value of homework is a complex construct including the level of enjoyment produced, the extent to which it contributes to meeting individual needs and personal fulfilment, and its usefulness in achieving personal short- and long-term goals (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002 ). There is little doubt that intrinsic interest in tasks predicts deep processing of information and encourages more self-regulated learning (Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ).

Weekly: Doing schoolwork tasks at home means students need to be able to organize their environment, plan and manage their time, concentrate their attention and control their motivation and emotions (Corno, 2004 ; Xu, 2010 ; Xu & Corno, 2003 ). Homework tasks are set weekly and the students establish the timeslots in which to do them.

Evaluated: Homework is marked/corrected weekly, in the classroom or individually, indicating weak areas and strengths (Cunha et al., 2018 ; Elawar & Corno, 1985 ; Núñez et al., 2015 ).

The MITCA method was developed under the conceptual umbrella of self-regulated learning, with the understanding of homework as a learning episode consisting of a preparation phase, a work phase and a final reflection phase. According to the models of self-regulation first developed by Zimmerman and colleagues (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998 ; Winne & Hadwin, 1998 ; Zimmerman, 2000 ), the preparation phase includes those processes that precede actually doing the homework tasks; the work phase includes the processes related to actually doing the tasks; and the reflection phase occurs once the homework tasks are completed, directly influencing subsequent cycles or episodes.

Using these self-regulation models as a framework, the MITCA method aims to optimize the preparation phase of learning, which encompasses all the processes that are undertaken before any learning activity. The key components of the preparation phase include the definition of the task (what are we going to do?), setting objectives (how will we do it?), and planning the activity (when will we do it?). By incorporating these components, the MITCA method provides a comprehensive approach to homework assignments that promotes students' self-regulated learning and school engagement.

The present study

In order to test the effectiveness of the MITCA method on students’ self-regulation skills, an intervention study with the use of a control group that continued to work with the traditional homework was implemented in the two last years of Primary School students. The experimental group included classrooms where MITCA was implemented by a group of trained teachers. More specifically, the incidence of using the MITCA method for 12 school weeks was tested on (i) information seeking and help management skills, (ii) environment management, (iii) time management and (iv) on reducing the impact of self-regulation deficits in the specific age group.

MITCA Method and Theoretical Foundation. The concrete demands of the MITCA method, as derived from the specific task condition, are expected to channel students' efforts towards more strategic learning, as suggested by previous research (McCardle et al., 2016 ).

The promotion of time and study environment management skills, as well as strategic information-help management, could be linked to the perceived usefulness, instrumentality, and benefits of the prescribed tasks, which are central to the valuable task status of the MITCA method. This connection is supported by well-known theoretical developments in the field (Renninger & Hidi, 2002 ; Renninger et al., 2004 ; Hidi & Renninger, 2006 ).

Feedback and Self-Evaluation in MITCA. Assuming prior research integrates feedback that combines criticism and praise for controllable aspects, MITCA's corrected tasks can promote self-evaluation and potentially improve learning. This approach may also boost student motivation, as studies on motivational theories suggest (Deci & Ryan, 2016 ; Fong et al., 2019 ).

Weekly Task Condition and Self-Regulatory Skills. Without discounting the impact of the specific task condition or the situational value effect triggered by the valuable task condition in the MITCA prescription, we acknowledge that the weekly task condition, which explicitly involves the individual setting of specific homework time intervals, can facilitate learning planning, time management, and potentially mitigate self-regulatory deficits. This is supported by previous studies (Liu et al., 2009 ; MacCann et al., 2012 ; McCardle et al., 2016 ; Zimmerman, 2008 ) on the benefits of structured homework assignments for enhancing students' self-regulatory skills.

Comparison with Traditional Homework. In this sense, it is hypothesized that the experimental group, which receives the MITCA method as the homework prescription, will exhibit significant differences compared to the control group, which continues with a traditional homework prescription. Traditional homework can be described as repetitive assignments or exercises that are not completed during school hours, but are instead done at home. This type of homework may also involve reviewing content already covered in class.

Our exploratory hypotheses were set as follows: (1) students in the experimental group were expected to improve their information-seeking and help management skills since they perform a variety of tasks and know the cognitive operation required to perform them during the intervention (Dunlosky et al., 2013 ; Fiorella and Mayer, 2015 ; Novak, 2010 ; Sweller et al., 2011 ). (2) Students in the experimental group, compared to those in the control group, were expected to better manage their environment and time because the MITCA method establishes a weekly assignment that forces students to set goals and estimate the time to complete tasks (Liu et al., 2009 ; MacCann et al., 2012 ; McCardle et al., 2016 ; Zimmerman, 2008 ). (3) The MITCA intervention was expected to decrease, or at least not to increase, the self-regulation deficits of the experimental group given that with MITCA the value of the tasks is explained and the teachers provide informative and motivating feedback (Deci & Ryan, 2016 ; Fong et al., 2019 ).

Sample and procedure

The sample consisted of 43 teachers from 5 and 6th grades (23 from 5th and 20 from 6th grade) and 964 students aged between 10 and 12 years attending 5th and 6th grade (469 boys and 495 girls). These participants were selected from 20 primary education schools located in the Autonomous Community of Galicia. The participants were then divided into two groups: a control and a experimental group.

The division was dependent on the teachers' willingness and availability to engage in the study after a call for participation to the study. Those who volunteered to undergo training as per the MITCA method parameters formed the experimental group. In contrast, those who opted to adhere to conventional teaching methodologies constituted the control group. Given the impossibility of working with the entire population of teachers and schools, convenience sample was used. The sample was selected through different routes; through contacts with different schools and teachers in Galicia, through the official social networks of the Regional Ministry of Education and through the network of the research group. Initially, information about the study and MITCA was sent to interested teachers who were invited either to implement the method or to participate in the control group.

The control group of teachers was asked to continue assigning the traditional homework without incorporating any changes to their usual practice during the twelve weeks of the method implementation. The experimental group of teachers was asked to modify the way they used to assign homework to their students following the MITCA principles.

To elaborate, the selection procedure for the control group teachers at every school was influenced by their availability during the time of data acquisition, concerning both teaching staff and students. Conversely, the selection of teachers for the experimental group was predominantly determined by their readiness to participate in the study.

Control condition

A group of teachers with their respective pupils who assign and perform homework based on their personal knowledge, beliefs and experience without prior training. The control group consisted of 19 teachers (11 teaching 5th graders and 8 teaching 6th graders) and 431 students (263 from 5th graders and 168 from 6th graders).

Experimental condition

A group of teachers with their respective pupils who assign and perform homework following the characteristics of the MITCA method, with previous training in this method and weekly follow-ups by the researchers. Their training included a series of twelve-week workshops to familiarize and train them with the principles of the MITCA Method. To ensure consistent progress, we implemented weekly online monitoring to track task completion and corrections. Additionally, we organized a training seminar to gather feedback from those who used the MITCA method.

As explained in the introduction, the MITCA method has been designed based on previous studies (Cooper et al., 2006 ; Cunha et al., 2018 ; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002 ; McCardle et al., 2016 ; Xu, 2010 ) setting out five principles to guide its implementation (Varied, Specific, Worthwhile, Weekly, and Evaluated tasks). The experimental group consisted of 24 teachers (12 teaching 5th graders and 12 teaching 6th graders) and a total of 533 students (271 5th graders and 262 6th graders).

Demographic measures, such as gender, grade, classroom, and school, along with measures of self-regulation skills, are collected both before and after the intervention (pre-test and post-test).

Pilot study

Firstly, during the 2018/19 academic year, a pilot study was conducted with 284 students to initially test the effectiveness of MITCA and to include possible necessary implementation modifications. The results were compared with a total of 432 control students. No changes were made to the theoretical principles of the method after the pilot study. However, modifications were required in the teacher training program and support during the twelve-week implementation of MITCA. The implementation lasted twelve weeks due to the academic year being divided into three terms in Spain, with each term serving as a single assessment period. This sequencing allowed for uninterrupted application of the method, without being affected by school holidays.

The method was applied to compulsory school subjects because they are taught more hours of classes per week. These subjects included Spanish language, Galician language, and mathematics, all of which are core school subjects in the Galician curriculum. Teachers could choose one or two subjects to implement the method, and the implementation was carried out in the same way with no differences between the subjects. Understanding homework performance as a learning episode, the MITCA method introduces the tasks’ characteristics that are prescribed, the frequency of assignment and the type of correction.

Following the pilot study, in which homework correction was urged to be done every Monday, in the final study, teachers were given more flexibility to choose the day of correction as long as it was done after one week. The training sessions and follow-up support from the teachers were more rigorous and continuous, with greater support from the research group.

MITCA implementation

The implementation process began in the 2019/20 academic year, with initial training seminars for the teachers of the experimental group so that all the necessary guidelines and principles of the homework assignment following the MITCA Method to be explained and taught (Valle & Rodríguez, 2020 ).

It is worth mentioning that in the middle of the intervention (six weeks after starting the implementation of the method) a “reinforcement” day was organized for the teachers of the experimental group. The main objectives of this meeting were, on the one hand, to know the teachers' perspective on the suitability of the MITCA Method in their teaching practice. In other words, to explore how the method was articulated in their habits, routines and particular characteristics. And, on the other hand, to resolve any implementation doubts and concerns on behalf of the teachers.

In order to monitor the development of the assignment of the tasks and provide feedback to the teachers during the twelve weeks of implementation, individualized online monitoring was carried out separately for each teacher. Teachers had been asked to send (i) a report card with the homework they had designed, indicating the type of task (revision, organization, and production tasks) and its value (usefulness, interest, importance, and/or applicability of homework), and (ii) the homework correction document from the previous week, specifying the type of feedback they had provided to their students. The implementation of the homework assignment was supervised by contacting teachers weekly to learn about the intervention development and resolve any potential problems or doubts during MITCA implementation.

In addition, a weekly online monitoring checked the completion of the tasks and their correction.

In addition, all dependent variables related to self-regulation of learning were measured in all class groups before (pre-test) and after the intervention (post-test).

The data referring to the variables under study were collected during school hours by research collaborators. Informed consent was obtained from the school management team and the students' families. That is, the pre-test questionnaire was provided to the students before implementing the MITCA method in the classrooms of the experimental group and the control group, and the same questionnaire was provided to the students of the control group and the experimental group after the twelve weeks of MITCA intervention. The choice of classrooms for the control group in each school was made according to the availability of both teachers and students at the time of data collection. The variables relating to homework were obtained in the 2020–2021 academic year.

Two levels were assigned to the independent variable (homework assignment) in this study: homework assignment using the MITCA method (Experimental Group, EG), and homework assignment in traditional format (Control Group, CG). The dependent variables (self-regulation strategies) were (1) information-seeking and help management skills, (2) time management, (3) environment management, and (4) deficits in self-regulation.

To evaluate self-regulation strategies, we used Cleary's Self-regulation Strategy Inventory (2006), which allowed us to differentiate initially between students' strategies to seek and manage information, manage time, and study environment, and also to measure specific deficits in self-regulation. The measure utilized a five-point Likert scale ranging from one (almost never) to five (almost always).

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was conducted with varimax rotation. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was 0.861/0.865 with a Bartlett's test of 2065/2465 ( p  < 0.001) for the pre-test and post-test, respectively. The factor structure for the sample of this study replicated the original dimensions (a) Information seeking and help management skills , six items (example items: “I ask my teacher about the topics that will be on upcoming tests”, “I try to see how my notes from class relate to things I already know”, and “I try to identify the format of upcoming science tests”; ( α  = 0.70 / α  = 0.74)and (b) Deficit in self-regulation , five items (example items: “I lose notes or important study materials”, “I give up or quit when I do not understand something, and “I forget to take home things I need to study”; ( α  = 0.69 / α  = 0.73). Cleary ( 2006 ) identifies the variables environment management and time management as a single variable but the factor analysis on the dataset of the present study suggested two separate scales for time management and environmental management. Thus, we were able to discern between items measuring students' arrangement of physical environment and organization of study materials, (c) Environment management , three items (example items: “I try to study in a quiet place”, “I try to study in a place that has no distractions—e.g. noise, people talking”; and “I make sure that no one disturbs me when I study”; α  = 0.76 / α  = 0.81) and (d) Time management , five items (example items: “I make a timetable to help me organize my study time”, “I think about the best way to study before I start studying”, and “I use folders or binders to organize my science study materials”; α  = 0.66 / α  = 0.68).

Data analysis

In addition to the descriptive analyses of the variables, factorial and reliability analyses, correlations, mean differences ( t -test) for independent samples (CG vs. MITCA) and paired samples were performed on the data. In all cases, self-regulation strategies for learning were examined as the dependent variables ( information and help management, environment management, time management and self-regulation deficit ). Data analysis was performed using SPSS software version 24.0.

Pearson correlation indicated significant correlations between the pre-test and post-test measures for information-seeking and help management skills ( r  = 0.53), environmental management ( r  = 0.47), time management ( r  = 0.54), and self-regulation deficits ( r  = 0.46). Similarly, significant positive correlations were found between information and help management and environmental management ( r  = 0.47 / r  = 0.35) and time management ( r  = 0.54 / r  = 0.37) for both pre-and post-measures, respectively. Test–retest reliability is moderate and significant (p < 0.001) (information-seeking and help management skills ICC = 0.70, environmental management ICC = 0.64, time management ICC = 0.70 and self-regulation deficit ICC = 0.63).

Table 1 reports the descriptives for the self-regulation variables in the pre- and post-measures.

As Table  2 shows, different self-regulation strategies have been significantly correlated to each other in both study phases with self-regulation deficits being negatively correlated to all other strategies.

In order to test the incidence of the MITCA method on students’ self-regulation strategies, first t-test for independent samples was applied on the data of the experimental and control group twice, one on the pre-test data and one on the post-test. As for the pre-test, the two groups were found not to significantly differ in behavioral and time management ( t  = -0.646; p  = 0.518), environment management ( t  = -1.594; p  = 0.111) and self-regulatory deficits ( t  = -1.165; p  = 0.244) except for information seeking and help management skills (t = -2.104, p < 0.05, d  =  0.14 ) which was higher for the control group. Following the hypotheses of the study, significant differences between the two groups in the post-test were found in behavioral and time management ( t  = 2.245, p  < 0.05, d  =  0.15 ), environment management ( t  = 3.243, p  < 0.01, d  =  0.22 ) and self-regulatory deficit ( t  = -2.557, p  < 0.05, d  =  0.17 ) in favor of the experimental group (see Fig.  1 ). The hypothesised difference in information seeking and help management skills between the two groups was not confirmed. As already referred above, an initial significant difference in favour of the control group had been found in information seeking and help management skills, (t = 2.104, p < 0.05, d  =  0.14 ).

Post differences in self-regulation of learning

Next, as can be observed in Fig.  2 , the means for the control group are lower for the measures of information-seeking and help management skills ( t  = 2.05, p  < 0.05), environmental management ( t  = 3.522, p  < 0.001) and behavioral and time management ( t  = 2.235, p  < 0.05) after twelve weeks. Conversely, they are higher for the measure of self-regulatory deficit ( t  = -2,478, p  < 0.05) after twelve weeks.

Pre-post control group differences in self-regulation of learning

Although, as can be seen in Fig.  3 , the means are higher for information seeking and time management, and are lower for self-reglation defictis for the experimental group, in which the MITCA method was implemented, significant differences have only been found for environmental management ( t  = -2.77, p  < 0.001).

Pre-post MITCA group differences in self-regulation of learning

Assuming the potential incedence of an appropriate homework assignment on students' self-regulation processes and skills (Pintrich, 2000 ; Trautwein & Köller, 2003 ), the present study was designed to evaluate the effectiveness of the MITCA method (Valle and Rodríguez, 2020 ). Overall, the results of the study are in line with previous literature regarding the usefulness of homework as a tool for improving self-regulated learning (Jansen et al., 2019 ; Theobald, 2021 ). Given previous research that self-regulation, when developed in school years, does not only predict academic performance, but it is also associated with the quality of personal relationships, well-being, behavioral disorders and mental health (Pandey et al., 2018 ; Robson et al., 2020 ; Rodríguez et al., 2022 ), then the significance of quality homework is extended to other fields, as well.

Specifically, the results of the study support the first hypothesis. As expected, students in the experimental group improved their information seeking and help management skills since they performed a variety of tasks and learned the cognitive operation required to perform them during the intervention (Dunlosky et al., 2013 ; Fiorella and Mayer, 2015 ; Novak, 2010 ; Sweller et al., 2011 ), indicating that after 12 weeks of implementing MITCA, students in the experimental group improved their strategies to organize their study environment and complete homework under better conditions.

Participants reported that they succeeded in not being disturbed during the study (e.g., they sought a quiet place, free of noise and distractions) to a greater extent than students in the control group. Moreover, EG students, compared to CG students, reported higher skills to manage their homework time, and reduced deficits in self-regulation which are usually observed in traditional homework settings. In addition to increasing the amount of homework that would eventually be completed and possibly improving the quality of homework completion (Xu, 2022a ), this provision for active environmental control would optimize the self-management effort involved in studying (Dent & Koenka, 2016 ; Gebauer et al., 2019 ) and would be conducive to learning by increasing the chances of concentration during homework (Lens et al., 2008 ; Pintrich, 2000 ).

Planning control of the environment, trying to avoid possible distractions and promoting an optimal working climate, could be linked to valuing the usefulness, instrumentality and benefits of the tasks that are prescribed. MITCA includes a specific step for acknowledging the value, usefulness, and instrumentality of homework (Worthwhile Tasks-STEP 3 of the MITCA method). Assigning some recognition or instrumental value to the homework tasks would enhance students’ motivation to cope with task requirements (Chi, 2009 , Chi & Wylie, 2014 ; Eccles et al., 1998 ; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002 ; Fredricks et al., 2004 ) and, in general, their cognitive and emotional engagement with these tasks (Katz & Assor, 2006 ; Miller & Brickman, 2004 ).

The intention to maintain strategic management of study information reported by MITCA students after the twelve weeks could be associated with this initial situational interest in homework which is also attributed to the varied tasks prerequisite of the method ( Varied Tasks - STEP 1 of the MITCA method). This strategic commitment to study and learning would be further supported by the specific tasks condition of the method ( Specific Tasks - STEP 2 of the MITCA method). Defining the homework tasks in terms of cognitive operation channels students' attention to the learning process, the strategies to adopt and the relevant parts of the study material (McCardle et al., 2016 ).

Moreover, MITCA students reported better organization of their study time: they make schedules, plan the best way to study before starting, and finish study tasks before doing other things. This finding confirms the second hypothesis, according to which students in the experimental group were expected to better manage their environment and time because the MITCA method establishes a weekly assignment that supports students in setting goals and estimating the time to complete tasks (Liu et al., 2009 ; MacCann et al., 2012 ; McCardle et al., 2016 ; Zimmerman, 2008 ).

There is ample empirical evidence suggesting that prioritizing tasks, organizing time, and planning work in general decrease stress and increase perceived control and emotional well-being (Aeon et al., 2021 ; Häfner & Stock, 2010 ). On the contrary, poor time management (i.e., unsuccessful time allocation to the tasks, studying massively before exams or missing deadlines, etc.) has been found to be an important source of stress in the academic environment and is associated with poor performance (Longman & Atkinson, 2004 ).

Without ruling out the incidence on time management of the specific tasks or the situational value that is triggered, the improvement in the planning and distribution of time that differentiates the control from the experimental group could be also linked to the weekly assignment advocated by the MITCA method ( Weekly Tasks - STEP 4 of the MITCA method). The weekly task assignment that explicitly includes the individual setting of specific time slots for homework facilitates goal setting, time keeping and time allocation. All these aspects have been considered critical to both individual academic performance and well-being by previous research (Liu et al., 2009 ; MacCann et al., 2012 ).

Based on the theoretical framework of self-regulated learning underlying MITCA (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998 ; Winne & Hadwin, 1998 ; Zimmerman, 2000 ), the weekly assignment would increase the number and/or type of strategies to be implemented as a function of the tasks, the opportunities to monitor progress and observe potential difficulties; as well as the possibilities for task revision (McCardle et al., 2016 ; Zimmerman, 2008 ). Meanwhile, the type of correction proposed should favor self-assessment and therefore, potentially to the improvement of both current learning and future learning episodes. It should also be noted that feedback that includes both criticism and praise aimed at aspects that can be controlled, such as effort or dedication, -motivating feedback- and that complements the Evaluated Tasks condition ( Evaluated Tasks - STEP 5 of the MITCA method), would enhance the benefits of this reflective phase and contribute to students' motivational engagement (Deci & Ryan, 2016 ; Fong et al., 2019 ).

In the same line, the MITCA method may help students dampen the tendency to show self-regulatory deficits which were observed in the control group over the twelve weeks. Indeed, in the post-test measure, the control group reported significantly more shirking their academic obligations, losing notes or materials needed to study, waiting until the last minute to do homework or giving up, to a greater extent than in the pre-test measure. This tendency was not observed among the students who participated in MITCA as the reports for the self-regualtory deficits remained at the same level. This finding confirms our third hypothesis, according to which the MITCA intervention was expected to decrease, or at least not to increase, the self-regulation deficits of the experimental group given that the value of the tasks is explained with MITCA and the teachers provide informative and motivating feedback (Deci & Ryan, 2016 ; Fong et al., 2019 ).

This finding may suggest that the weekly homework condition, together with the individual correction (informative feedback), could be promoting metacognition around learning. Thus, the students may become more knowledgeable about their strengths and weaknesses in dealing with the tasks and are more aware of their skills through motivating and informative feedback.

Additionally, the presented results of this study make a significant contribution to the current literature on self-regulated learning by demonstrating the effectiveness of the MITCA method. The findings show that implementing the MITCA method, which involves assigning concrete and valued homework tasks, can improve time and environmental management in fifth and sixth-grade students. This is particularly important because these two aspects of self-regulation are crucial for academic success Claessens et al., 2007 ; Eilam & Aharon, 2003 ; Wolters & Brady, 2021 ). Moreover, as the MITCA method requires training teachers to prescribe homework in accordance with the framework of self-regulated learning, it can serve as a valuable tool for improving students' self-regulated learning. Overall, these contributions provide valuable insights into effective methods for promoting self-regulated learning in students, which are significant for the self-regulation literature.

In summary, although more data are required, the Homework Implementation Method (MITCA) could be seen as a promising alternative for quality homework. It establishes three characteristics for the tasks to be prescribed (Varied, Specific and Worthwhile Tasks), the frequency of assignment (Weekly) and the type of correction (Evaluated). Diversifying the tasks prescribed in the classroom and highlighting their usefulness and benefits would predispose the learners to commit themselves to homework. This commitment may be expressed by managing home environment (e.g., trying to avoid possible distractions), seeking and managing learning information, and in general, limiting procrastination or giving up homework in the face of difficulty (Katz & Assor, 2006 ; Miller & Brickman, 2004 ). Further, an explicit description of the homework content and the cognitive operations required for homework could also be helpful for information management (McCardle et al., 2016 ). In addition to limiting self-regulatory deficits, the weekly assignment of homework, where the student establishes the time slots for its completion at home, would contribute to the awareness of the use of time and its organization. Finally, individual correction incorporating informative and motivational feedback could dampen the tendency to shirk obligations, procrastinate, or abandon homework in the face of difficulties by promoting the controllability of the learning process by the person. Moreover, taken into account that MITCA was implemented during COVID-19, a challenging period that posed high demands for self-regulation skills on behalf of the students during the school closure, MITCA students were better equipped than control students to respond to the self-regulation challenges during this period of time.

Conclusion and study limitations

Homework may have multiple benefits for students, both academic and non-academic, in the short and long term, including comprehension and mastery, the acquisition of study habits and the development of self-discipline (Cooper, et al., 2006 ; Núñez et al., 2021 ; Patall et al., 2008 ; Walker et al., 2004 ). However, depending on its qualitative characteristics, homework may also be associated with significant disadvantages for students such as loss of interest in schoolwork, lack of time for leisure activities or an increase in the gap between high and low achievers. For this reason, there is a growing need to assign ‘quality’ homework, i.e. homework that promotes the positive outcomes of homework and reduces the negative ones.

The Homework Implementation Method (MITCA) aims to improve the quality of homework assignments in order to increase student engagement in their homework and improve self-regulation of learning. In turn, MITCA may improve academic performance, increase the perceived usefulness of homework and have a positive impact on comprehension and learning. Overall, the present study suggests that, if educators prescribe homework following MITCA's premises and guidelines, students will be better supported to improve their self-regulatory skills, especially those related to environmental management.

MITCA is not a traditional homework assignment, but a theory- and evidence-based tool specifically designed to promote self-regulatory strategies in student work that responds to the needs for quality homework (Tristán et al., 2021 ). A novel perspective is offered for homework design through which the use of self-regulatory strategies is stimulated even from elementary school. The student, and ultimately the individual, will be able to integrate these self-regulatory skills from an early age, and these skills and strategies may be transversal beyond academics.

Previous studies such as Núñez et al. ( 2015 ) already suggested the need to rethink educational practices in the classroom to promote and maintain both student self-regulation and school engagement throughout the different educational stages. Improving the homework process is a step towards this direction.

The present study is not without limitations. First, it is an intervention study that has collected only post-test data without a follow-up study. It should be emphasized that the study took place after the lockdown of schools due to COVID-19. Despite the goodwill of teachers to continue implementing MITCA, conducting school-based studies and collecting data from students onsite during the pandemic was a very challenging task. Future studies should adopt a longitudinal design, which for the context of the present study would mean closer collaboration with schools, teachers, principals and parents. MITCA implementation should continue beyond this field intervention study and longitudinal data should be gathered. This would allow us to test the retention of the student benefits to the following educational levels (e.g., secondary school) as well as the potential transfer of the research to society and, in particular, to the educational sphere.

Second, the sample of the study was a convenience sample, not representative of the autonomous community of Galicia. Teachers and schools were selected via an open call invitation. Third, all the variables under examination were assessed using student self-reports. Other types of data such as observational data and performance indices could further clarify and support the findings of the study.

Fourth, all MITCA conditions must be addressed simultaneously, which means that all conditions should be considered when prescribing homework tasks. However, to further understand the important contribution of each MITCA condition, the research group is planning to separately investigate each condition as well as the two-by-two combination of MITCA variables. Although previous literature has explored the contribution of the MITCA conditions, future work will empirically test the relative effectiveness of each condition. We envision designing and validating at least one condition for various types of tasks and specific assignments, as well as for valuable and corrected tasks. This quasi-experimental design will include multiple experimental groups combining the MITCA conditions in pairs.

Finally, recognizing that the successful completion of homework presupposes students' commitment and the potential utilization of self-regulatory skills, the results of the present study indicate that homework can be perceived as an educational tool that may contribute to the cultivation of self-regulation.

Data availability

Databases could be made available for research purposes if necessary.

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This study was performed thanks to financing from research project EDU2013-44062-P (MINECO) and EDU2017-82984-P (MEIC), FPI program (PRE2018-084938) from the Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities and Xunta de Galicia (Consellería de Cultura, Educación y Universidad) under a predoctoral fellowship [ED481A 2021/351].

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Tania Vieites, Eleftheria Gonida, Fátima Díaz-Freire, Susana Rodríguez and Antonio Valle These authors contributed equally to this work.

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Vieites, T., Gonida, E., Díaz-Freire, F. et al. Effects of a homework implementation method (MITCA) on self-regulation of learning. Metacognition Learning (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-024-09376-z

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Homework and Developing Responsibility

As children enter the fourth grade, the purpose of homework changes to some extent. In grades one to three, students are learning to read; thereafter, they are reading to learn. In fourth grade both schoolwork and homework become more challenging. Learning tasks require more organization and more sus­tained attention and effort.

Because of this change, homework becomes a more integral part of children’s learning and is reflected more in their academic record. This shift comes at a good time, since at about the fourth grade; chil­dren are ready for and want more autonomy and responsibility and less parental hovering and interference.

Homework for older children has a number of purposes. It provides an op­portunity for review and reinforcement of skills that have been mastered and encourages practicing skills that are not. Homework also is an opportunity for children to learn self-discipline and organizational skills and to take responsi­bility for their own learning.

Many of the same suggestions for approaching homework that were recom­mended for younger children apply to older children as well. Homework is best done when the child has had a chance to unwind from school or after-school activities, is rested, and is not hungry. You and your child should agree upon a regular schedule for when homework will be done, and the length of time that should be devoted to it. This schedule should provide predictability and structure but should be sufficiently flexible to respond to special situa­tions. Some children do best if their homework time is divided into several short sessions instead of a single long one.

Usually parents can be helpful by assisting their child in getting settled and started. You can look together at each day’s homework assignment and decide what parts might require help from you, a sibling, or a classmate. The most dif­ficult parts should be done first. Reviewing for tests and rote memorization tasks also should be done early and then repeated at the end of the homework session or first thing the next morning. As is the case for younger children, homework should be done in a location with few distractions (no television, radio, telephone, video games, comics, toys, or conversation), and where all the necessary supplies and reference materials are available.

Here are some specific suggestions on how to approach homework of dif­ferent types:

Reading Assignments

• Divide chapters into small units or use the author’s headings as a guide.
• Find the topic sentence or the main idea for each paragraph and under­line it or write it down.
• Write a section-by-section outline of the reading assignment, copying or paraphrasing the main points; leave some room to write in notes from class discussions.

Writing (Composition)

• Begin by recognizing that the first draft will not be the last, and that rewriting will produce better work.
• Make a list of as many ideas as possible without worrying about whether they are good or correct.
• Organize these “brainstorm” ideas into clusters that seem reasonable, and then arrange the clusters into a logical sequence.
• Write down thoughts as to why these clusters were made and why the order makes sense.
• Use this work as an outline and write a first draft; at this stage, do not worry about spelling or punctuation.
• Meaning:  Does it make sense and meet the purpose of the assignment?
• Paragraph formation:  Does each paragraph have a topic sentence and are the other sentences logically related?
• Sentence formation:  Does each sentence express a complete thought? Are capitalization and punctuation correct?
• Word:  Was the best word chosen? Is it spelled correctly?
• Neatness:  Is the paper easy to read? Does it follow the format and style the teacher expects?
• Work toward mastering the basic facts and operations (addition, sub­traction, multiplication, and division) until they become automatic. Do this work in small doses, and limit the number of facts to three to five each session. Use writing, flash cards, and oral quizzes.
• Be sure the basic concepts of computation are well understood. Do com­putation homework slowly and check the results, since if the facts are un­derstood, most errors come from being careless.
• Use money examples when learning decimals.
• For fractions, use visual or concrete aids rather than oral explanations.

Studying for Tests

• Gather together homework assignments, class notes, outlines, quizzes, and handouts, and arrange them chronologically (by date).
• Four days before the test, read the information through in a general way.
• Three days before the test, look at major titles of sections in notes and books.
• Two days before the test, review the titles of sections and read the infor­mation and organize it into related clusters.
• The night before the test, repeat the process of the night before and re­cite as much as you can from memory.

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Does Homework Help or Hinder Learning?

• does homework help or hinder learning?

*Updated 2021

The debate on whether or not homework is beneficial is a fair deal older than one might expect. inaugurated in 1900 by a ladies’ home journal article which called homework a “ national crime ,” the nation’s favor for homework has ebbed and waned more than a century. below, we’ll look at three arguments why homework is essential component of education and three arguments students would be better off without it., homework helps.

Homework benefits teachers

The average American high-school classroom has an estimated 24 students . While teachers are trained to assess student learning on the spot, large class sizes can prevent teachers from checking each student’s progress in every session. When homework is treated as a  formative assessment , an assignment given only as a starting point from which to deliver feedback, homework provides a crucial opportunity for teachers to fill in any gaps in their in-class assessments of student performance and identify where improvement is needed.

Homework helps students gain skills outside the scope of academic learning

Beyond reinforcing lessons gleaned in the classroom, homework is often the first task that encourages young people to develop self-discipline, an indispensable skill for further learning and for life. Homework helps students learn to meet deadlines, to work independently and create their own study methods, and yes, how to approach assignments they might not be particularly interested in.

Homework boosts learning

A Duke University review of 25 years’ worth of studies on homework found a positive statistical correlation between homework and higher achievement, especially at the secondary-school level. An Oxford University study similarly demonstrated the connection between time spent on homework and results achieved. Just as one excels at an instrument or a sport through practice, so too is academic excellence achieved through practice. Veteran teachers defend homework as a vital part of skill improvement and student buy-in. Even students acknowledge the necessary role homework plays in their education, and many students report feeling more engaged in class after completing homework assignments.

Homework hinders

Learning can be accomplished without homework

Finland routinely ranks at the top of the OECD’s Program for International Student Assessment, yet Finland’s students do the least  homework of all OECD countries. Finland’s system encourages students to play as much as they work; they are not subject to rankings, grades, or standardized tests as is common practice in other countries. With its  holistic  approach to learning, Finland proves that insisting students focus solely on academics during school and after is not necessarily a recipe for academic success.

Homework does not benefit all students equally

Not all home environments are conducive to at-home learning. Level of education, time, and energy vary among parents, and parents at the lower end of the socio-economic spectrum tend to have the least amount of each resource. Wealthier kids are more likely to benefit from homework simply because they have the necessary resources to complete it: adult assistance, home computers and internet access. However, students whose home situations may preclude them from completing homework (for example, older siblings who care for younger siblings or children who need to hold an after-school job) inevitably fall further behind . As such, homework can exacerbate achievement gaps between rich and poor students, rendering homework not only counterproductive, but a barrier to equality.

Homework is an unfair burden to parents

A Brown University study supported what most parents have probably already observed in their homes – that homework is a flashpoint for family  stress , affecting children and parents equally. Parents have a number of valid reasons to dread homework as much as their kids do – it forces their children to keep sitting after a long, mostly sedentary school-day; it cuts into family bonding time and diminishes opportunities for kids to take on other household duties. This is to say nothing of the pressure of guiding a child on homework that a parent may or may not understand. If homework is not welcome  by parents or students, it can potentially damage the overall academic experience as well as a student’s  home life  as well.

The Bottom Line:  With  teacher-led  zero-homework movements making their way across America, it’s clear that the homework versus no-homework pendulum is in full swing. What’s your stance? Is homework necessary for reinforcing and building academic skills, or does it put needless strain on parents and students alike?

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Would it change the nature of professional sports for good or for bad?

The bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki: plain evil or a necessary evil?

In August 1945, two Japanese cities became synonymous with nuclear destruction and the human aptitude for it.

Is There Life After Death?

Do people live on only in memory and spirit or is there some kind of afterlife?

Is Monogamy Natural?

Are humans able to live their whole life with a single partner?

Cats or Dogs: Who Makes a Better Companion?

Are you a cat person or a dog person? Not sure? Here are some points to help you decide.

the education debate