models of critical reflection in education

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4 Models of reflection – core concepts for reflective thinking

The theories behind reflective thinking and reflective practice are complex. Most are beyond the scope of this course, and there are many different models. However, an awareness of the similarities and differences between some of these should help you to become familiar with the core concepts, allow you to explore deeper level reflective questions, and provide a way to better structure your learning.

Boud’s triangular representation (Figure 2) can be viewed as perhaps the simplest model. This cyclic model represents the core notion that reflection leads to further learning. Although it captures the essentials (that experience and reflection lead to learning), the model does not guide us as to what reflection might consist of, or how the learning might translate back into experience. Aligning key reflective questions to this model would help (Figure 3).

This figure contains three boxes, with arrows linking each box. In the boxes are the words ‘Experience’, ‘Learning’ and ‘Reflection’.

This figure contains three triangles, with arrows linking each one. In the top triangle is the text ‘Experience - what? (Description of events)’. In the bottom-left triangle is the text ‘Learning - now what? (What has been learned? What is the impact of the learning?’. In the bottom-right triangle is the text ‘Reflection - so what? (Unpicking the events)’.

Gibbs’ reflective cycle (Figure 4) breaks this down into further stages. Gibbs’ model acknowledges that your personal feelings influence the situation and how you have begun to reflect on it. It builds on Boud’s model by breaking down reflection into evaluation of the events and analysis and there is a clear link between the learning that has happened from the experience and future practice. However, despite the further break down, it can be argued that this model could still result in fairly superficial reflection as it doesn’t refer to critical thinking or analysis. It doesn’t take into consideration assumptions that you may hold about the experience, the need to look objectively at different perspectives, and there doesn’t seem to be an explicit suggestion that the learning will result in a change of assumptions, perspectives or practice. You could legitimately respond to the question ‘what would you do or decide next time?’ by answering that you would do the same, but does that constitute deep level reflection?

This figure shows a number of boxes containing text, with arrows linking the boxes. From the top left (and going clockwise) the boxes display the following text: ‘Experience. What happened?’; ‘Feeling. What were you feeling?’; ‘Evaluation. What was good or bad about the situation?’; ‘Analysis. To make sense of the situation’; ‘Conclusion. What else could you have done?’; ‘Action plan. What would you do next time?’.

Atkins and Murphy (1993) address many of these criticisms with their own cyclical model (Figure 5). Their model can be seen to support a deeper level of reflection, which is not to say that the other models are not useful, but that it is important to remain alert to the need to avoid superficial responses, by explicitly identifying challenges and assumptions, imagining and exploring alternatives, and evaluating the relevance and impact, as well as identifying learning that has occurred as a result of the process.

This figure shows a number of boxes containing text, with arrows linking the boxes. From the top (and going clockwise) the boxes display the following text: ‘Awareness. Of discomfort, or action/experience’; ‘Describe the situation. Include saliant feelings, thoughts, events or features’; ‘Analyse feeling and knowledge. Identify and challenge assumptions - imagine and explore alternatives’; ‘Evaluate the relevance of knowledge. Does it help to explain/resolve the problem? How was your use of knowledge?’; ‘Identify any learning. Which has occurred?’

You will explore how these models can be applied to professional practice in Session 7.

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For many educators unfamiliar with designing critical reflection activities and assignments, reflection is something that happens after an experience and that reflection is only appropriate for certain types of situations. In reality, critical reflection is a fundamental process of learning and meaning making. When getting started it's important to keep the following in mind: 

• Critical reflection can be designed to generate a variety of learning outcomes.  These include knowledge, skills, as well as attitudes, values, dispositions and behaviors. 
• Everything is reflection worthy. As a result, it's important to guide learners to attend dimensions of experiences that are of interest. 
• Guidance matters. When designing critical reflection activities and assignments, the guidance provided, whether via written prompts, oral or graphic facilitation, should assist learners to articulate and document their learning coherently and cohesively. 

In light of this, it's useful to remember, what have been termed the " 4 C's of Critical Reflection. " [Eyler and Giles]

4 C's of Critical Reflection

Provide learning opportunities to reflect before, during, and after the experience. The most common error that designers make is to limit reflection until after the experience. Improvements in CR capacity improve with time, practice and scaffolding. When integrating only within a course but across a program of study in order to build capacity for metacognition and critical consciousness building. Remember anything is reflection worthy. It is helpful to use a pre-mid-post structure, relative to the unit of time [session, week, semester, etc.], that focuses learner attention on changes in their assumptions and reasoning processes and on progress toward meeting objectives.

Experience, including service and community-based experiences, bring theories, concepts and statistics to life in palpable, contextualized and unscripted ways. Effective designers of CR, make sure to draw clear connections between the experiences and the frame/lens through that should be applied to the experience. Designers can use a variety of means to communicate the connection between academic content, as well as, other categories of learning [ professional, civic, personal, etc.] and "the experience" [e.g. syllabus, assignment instructions, lecture, etc.]

CHALLENGING

Critical Reflection requires stretching learners outside of their comfort zone to explore more difficult or challenging questions. It requires that the facilitator balance challenging learners while creating a supportive, safe space for learners to express doubt, frustration, and inspiration.

CONTEXTUALIZED

The mode of reflection/reflection mechanism should reflect the setting, be scaffolded appropriate to the learner.

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Study Skills

Reflective practice toolkit, introduction.

• What is reflective practice?
• Everyday reflection
• Models of reflection
• Barriers to reflection
• Free writing
• Reflective writing exercise
• Bibliography

If you are not used to being reflective it can be hard to know where to start the process. Luckily there are many models which you can use to guide your reflection. Below are brief outlines of four of the most popular models arranged from easy to more advanced (tip: you can select any of the images to make them larger and easier to read).

You will notice many common themes in these models and any others that you come across. Each model takes a slightly different approach but they all cover similar stages. The main difference is the number of steps included and how in-depth their creators have chosen to be. Different people will be drawn to different models depending on their own preferences.

• Reflection 

The cycle shows that we will start with an experience, either something we have been through before or something completely new to us. This experience can be positive or negative and may be related to our work or something else. Once something has been experienced we will start to reflect on what happened. This will allow us to think through the experience, examine our feelings about what happened and decide on the next steps. This leads to the final element of the cycle - taking an action. What we do as a result of an experience will be different depending on the individual. This action will result in another experience and the cycle will continue. 

Jasper, M. (2013). Beginning Reflective Practice. Andover: Cengage Learning.

Driscoll's What Model

By asking ourselves these three simple questions we can begin to analyse and learn from our experiences. Firstly we should describe what the situation or experience was to set it in context. This gives us a clear idea of what we are dealing with. We should then reflect on the experience by asking 'so what?' - what did we learn as a result of the experience? The final stage asks us to think about the action we will take as a result of this reflection. Will we change a behavior, try something new or carry on as we are? It is important to remember that there may be no changes as the result of reflection and that we feel that we are doing everything as we should. This is equally valid as an outcome and you should not worry if you can't think of something to change. 

Borton, T. (1970) Reach, Touch and Teach. London: Hutchinson.

Driscoll, J. (ed.) (2007) Practicing Clinical Supervision: A Reflective Approach for Healthcare Professionals. Edinburgh: Elsevier.

Kolb's Experiential Learning Cycle

• Concrete experience
• Reflective observation
• Abstract conceptualization
• Active experimentation 

The model argues that we start with an experience - either a repeat of something that has happened before or something completely new to us. The next stage involves us reflecting on the experience and noting anything about it which we haven't come across before. We then start to develop new ideas as a result, for example when something unexpected has happened we try to work out why this might be. The final stage involves us applying our new ideas to different situations. This demonstrates learning as a direct result of our experiences and reflections. This model is similar to one used by small children when learning basic concepts such as hot and cold. They may touch something hot, be burned and be more cautious about touching something which could potentially hurt them in the future. 

Kolb, D. (1984) Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

Gibb's Reflective Cycle

• Description
• Action plan

As with other models, Gibb's begins with an outline of the experience being reflected on. It then encourages us to focus on our feelings about the experience, both during it an after. The next step involves evaluating the experience - what was good or bad about it from our point of view? We can then use this evaluation to analyse the situation and try to make sense of it. This analysis will result in a conclusion about what other actions (if any) we could have taken to reach a different outcome. The final stage involves building an action plan of steps which we can take the next time we find ourselves in a similar situation. 

Gibbs, G. (1998) Learning by Doing: A Guide to Teaching and Learning Methods. Oxford: Further Education Unit, Oxford Polytechic .

Think about ... Which model?

Think about the models outlined above. Do any of them appeal to you or have you found another model which works for you? Do you find models in general helpful or are they too restrictive?

Pros and Cons of Reflective Practice Models

A word of caution about models of reflective practice (or any other model). Although they can be a great way to start thinking about reflection, remember that all models have their downsides. A summary of the pros and cons can be found below:

• Offer a structure to be followed
• Provide a useful starting point for those unsure where to begin
• Allow you to assess all levels of a situation
• You will know when the process is complete
• Imply that steps must be followed in a defined way
• In the real world you may not start 'at the beginning'
• Models may not apply in every situation
• Reflective practice is a continuous process 

These are just some of the reflective models that are available. You may find one that works for you or you may decide that none of them really suit. These models provide a useful guide or place to start but reflection is a very personal process and everyone will work towards it in a different way. Take some time to try different approaches until you find the one that works for you. You may find that as time goes on and you develop as a reflective practitioner that you try different methods which suit your current circumstances. The important part is that it works - if it doesn't then you may need to move on and try something else.

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Critical Reflection

Critical reflection is a “meaning-making process” that helps us set goals, use what we’ve learned in the past to inform future action and consider the real-life implications of our thinking. It is the link between thinking and doing, and at its best, it can be transformative (Dewey, 1916/1944; Schön, 1983; Rodgers, 2002). Without reflection, experience alone might cause us to “reinforce stereotypes…, offer simplistic solutions to complex problems and generalize inaccurately based on limited data” (Ash & Clayton, 2009, p.26). Engaging in critical reflection, however, helps us articulate questions, confront bias, examine causality, contrast theory with practice and identify systemic issues all of which helps foster critical evaluation and knowledge transfer (Ash & Clayton, 2009, p. 27).  While critical reflection may come more easily for some students than others, it is a skill that can be learned through practice and feedback (Dewey, 1933, Rodgers, 2002).  

Guidelines for Integrating Reflections into Your Course

Incorporating the following characteristics into the design of your reflective activities can help make the reflective process as effective as possible.  

Create Curiosity.  When students learn new concepts or subject matter, they often experience a sense of uncertainty and disequilibrium until they can make sense of the new information. Critical reflection is necessary to assimilate the new information and resolve the state of disequilibrium. It takes time to do well; sparking students’ curiosity can motivate them to engage in the reflective process(Dewey, 1933; Rodgers, 2002). Providing appropriate question prompts, activities, problems and tasks can help spark the necessary curiosity. See CTE's online resource: Reflection Framework and Prompts .

Make it Continual.  Build in “periodic, structured opportunities to reflect and integrate learning” (Kuh, O’Donnell & Reed, 2013). Because critical reflection is a defined way of thinking, students have to have numerous opportunities throughout the course and the program to practice and receive feedback.

Connect It.  Activities to promote reflection can range from writing/rewriting exercises, problem solving activities, discussions, role playing/simulations, and group work to name a few. To be effective, though, be sure to explicitly connect the reflective activities to course/program learning outcomes, specific assignments, course concepts or experiences .  For an example of role playing/simulations, please see CTE's resource, an interview (YouTube) with Dr. Veronica Kitchen about Using Simulations in the Classroom .

Give it Context.  Design reflective activities to support integration of learning across courses and to engage students with “big questions” related to community/public issues that matter beyond the classroom. Ideally, reflective activities should ask students to consider messy, ill-defined problems that do not have a ‘right’ answer (Moon, 1999).  This helps move them towards higher order thinking and higher levels of reflection. 

Consider your Class Size.  Assessing and providing feedback to reflections require time and resources. For smaller classes, it might be manageable to assess individual reflections through journals, logs, and blogs. For larger classes, consider facilitating whole class discussions and opportunities for peer feedback. Dividing a large class into smaller groups for discussions and small group brainstorming sessions can provide the practice and feedback students need without all the feedback having to come from you, the instructor. Having students share reflections through ePortfolios is yet another way for students to receive feedback from peers. See CTE's online resource about ePortfolios .

Model the Reflective Process.  During class discussions, model the reflective process by asking the kinds of questions that members of your discipline ask. Explicitly point out how you support a claim with evidence. As you go through the process, explain how you are modeling the critical reflection process. Providing students with a rubric may help them practice the process themselves.  

Breakdown the Assignment.  When you provide students with details for a particular assignment, lead a discussion asking them as a group to outline a process for tackling the assignment. Have each student then create a personal plan for addressing the areas which might cause them more difficulty.  Ask students to hand in different pieces of the assignment throughout the term, providing feedback to the various components. Over time, less guidance and feedback will be required to help students with the reflective thinking process. 

Encourage Multiple Perspectives.  Being exposed to different perspectives (through discussions with classmates, or through resources such readings, websites, case studies, simulations that represent different points of view), and being able to participate in a dialogue with others (peers, instructors) about matters of importance is critical to the reflective thinking process. Having students work on collaborative projects can facilitate this; they learn to listen to others and consider different approaches to solving problems.

Provide a Safe Environment  where students can explore and articulate emotional responses. Students might not mind sharing their knowledge and understanding about content with their classmates but may be less inclined to share emotional responses with others. In these cases, consider splitting up the task so that the descriptive, non-personal component is done in class and the articulation of learning part is handed in individually to a TA or instructor.    

Assess It.  Making reflections part of a course grade encourages students to engage in the reflective process, helps them track their growth and development over time, and signals to them that critical reflection is a worthwhile and valued activity. Provide students with ‘frequent, timely and constructive feedback’ to the reflective activities.

Provide Clear Marking Criteria and Exemplars.  Clearly state the criteria for success and show students an example of a good reflection. Explain why the example is a good one (e.g., show how the reflection provides concrete examples to support the observations, and ties the observations back to the course content/learning outcome). Provide students with opportunities to self-assess or provide peer-feedback using the rubric that you will use to assess their reflections. 

Assignment and Rubric Examples:

See the links below for examples of critical reflection assignments that have been shared with CTE. Some of the instructors have also included their assessment rubrics along with the assignment instructions. 

• Reflecting on Professional Skill Development
• Becoming Reflexive Practitioners
• ePortfolio: Inspired Insights, Magnificent Failures, and Unanticipated Connections
• AAC&U Integrative Learning VALUE rubric
• Higher Levels of Reflection Rubric

Choose Prompts that Suit Your Goals    

Use language that suits your course and discipline.  The term ‘reflection’ has come to mean different things to different people (Rodgers, 2002). Use a term that makes sense to your discipline. Science students might roll their eyes if asked to reflect on personal development in a chemistry course. Is there a term that your discipline uses instead of the term reflection (design notes, lab notes, documentation of bugs)? 

Choose the type of reflection that suits your goals.  Reflective activities can be of two types: one type helps students focus on their growth and development, and on their personal learning process and another type fosters students’ capacity to think deeply about content and concepts. Be sure to choose reflective prompts that align with your course goals.  

• Process Reflection.  This type of reflection promptsstudents to think about their progress and the strategies they are using while they are working on a project or assignment (e.g., where are you with your project? What challenges are you having? What are you planning to do about those challenges? What problems did you encounter in completing the assignment? How did you troubleshoot them? What still needs work?) This can be done individually or, in large classes, consider using small group discussions.
• Inward-Looking Reflection.  When reflecting inward, students focus on their personal strengths, gaps, resources, standards, values, response to challenges, strategies, etc. 
• Outward-Looking Reflection.  By observing others, students can build their awareness of alternative perspectives and ways of doing things. When contrasts are noted, students can give examples to support their observations.
• Forward-Looking Reflection.  At the beginning of a course, project, or assignment, prompt students to think about which components look familiar and which look more challenging and difficult, and why. Towards the end of the course, hand these lists back to the students and have them discuss whether they have met their goals. As a class, have the students list which of the goals they believe they achieved, and which they did not. Alternatively, have students write a letter to the students who take the course next, giving advice and encouragement.
• Backward-Looking Reflection . At the end of a project, work term or volunteer experience a backward-looking reflection is a good way for students to take stock of their experience.

Examples of Reflection Models and Reflection Questions:

• Sample Reflection Questions
• Eight Reflection Models
• Reflections to Foster Deep Thinking & Connection Making

If you would like support applying these tips to your own teaching, CTE staff members are here to help.  View the  CTE Support  page to find the most relevant staff member to contact. 

• AAC&U Integrative Learning VALUE rubrics retrieved from  https://www.aacu.org/value-rubrics
• Habits of Mind: The Questions Intelligent Thinkers Ask that Help Them Solve Problems and Make Decisions retrieved from  https://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/stw/edutopia-stw-assessment-high-sch-humanities-habits-of-mind.pdf
• Sample reflection questions retrieved from  https://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/stw/edutopia-stw-replicatingPBL-21stCAcad-reflection-questions.pdf
• Teaching Metacognitive Skills CTE tipsheet retrieved from  https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/teaching-tips/metacognitive
• Ash, S.L., & Clayton, P. H. (2009). Generating, deepening, and documenting learning: The power of critical reflection in applied learning. Journal of Applied Learning in Higher Education, 1(1), 25-48.
• Boss, S. (2009). High tech reflection strategies make learning stick retrieved from  http://www.edutopia.org/student-reflection-blogs-journals-technology
• Dewey, J. (1916/1944). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: The Free Press.
• Kalman, C.S., Sobhanzadeh, M., Thompson, R., Ibrahim, A., Wang, X. (2015). Combination of interventions can change students’ epistemological beliefs.  Physical Review Special Topics Physics Education Research,  11(2):020136-. doi:10.1103/PhysRevSTPER.11.020136
• Kuh, G. D., O’Donnell, K., & Reed, S. (2013). Ensuring quality and taking high-impact practices to scale.  Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities .
• Moon, J. (1999). Reflection in learning and professional development. Abingdon, Oxon: RoutledgeFalmer.
• Rodgers, C. (2002). Defining reflection: Another look at John Dewey and reflective thinking.  The Teachers College Record ,  104 (4), 842-866.
• Schön, D. A. (1983).  The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action  (Vol. 5126). Basic books.

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Conceptualizing the complexity of reflective practice in education

Misrah mohamed.

1 Centre for Enhancement of Learning and Teaching, University of West London, London, United Kingdom

Radzuwan Ab Rashid

2 Faculty of Languages and Communication, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia

Marwan Harb Alqaryouti

3 Department of English Language, Literature and Translation, Zarqa University, Zarqa, Jordan

In higher education, reflective practice has become a dynamic, participatory, and cyclical process that contributes to educators’ professional development and personal growth. While it is now a prominent part of educators, many still find it challenging to apply the concept for it carries diverse meaning for different people in different contexts. This article attempts to (re)conceptualize the complexity of reflective practice in an educational context. Scholars in this field have taken different approaches to reflective practice, but all these approaches consist of four main components in common: (i) reflecting; (ii) planning for future action; (iii) acting; and (iv) evaluating the outcomes. We extend the existing literature by proposing a model which integrates these four components with three key aspects of reflection: problem-solving, action orientation, and criticality. The novelty of this model lies within its alignment of the three key aspects with different levels of criticality in a comprehensive framework with detailed descriptors provided. The model and its descriptors are useful in guiding individuals who directly or indirectly involve in critical reflection, especially educators, in appraising their levels of criticality and consequently engage in a meaningful reflection.

Introduction

In the field of education, reflective practice has been recognized as an important aspect in continuing professional development. Through reflective practice, we can identify the factors, the consequences of and the assumptions that underlie our actions. In higher education, reflective practice has become a dynamic, participatory, and cyclical process ( Ai et al., 2017 ) that contributes to educators’ professional development and personal growth ( McAlpine et al., 2004 ; De Geest et al., 2011 ; Davies, 2012 ; Marshall, 2019 ). It enables professional judgment ( Day, 1999 ) and fosters professional competence through planning, implementing and improving performance by rethinking about strengths, weaknesses and specific learning needs ( Huda and Teh, 2018 ; Cirocki and Widodo, 2019 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ; Seyed Abolghasem et al., 2020 ; Huynh, 2022 ). Without routinely engaging in reflective practice, it is unlikely that educators will comprehend the effects of their motivations, expectations and experiences upon their practice ( Lubbe and Botha, 2020 ). Thus, reflective practice becomes an important tool that helps educators to explore and articulate lived experiences, current experience, and newly created knowledge ( Osterman and Kottkamp, 2004 ). Educators are continually recommended to apply reflective practice in getting a better understanding of what they know and do as they develop their knowledge of practice ( Loughran, 2002 ; Lubbe and Botha, 2020 ). In fact, reflective practice is now a prominent part of training for trainee teachers (e.g., Shek et al., 2021 ; Childs and Hillier, 2022 ; Ruffinelli et al., 2022 ) because it can help future teachers review their own practices and develop relevant skills where necessary.

Despite the wide acceptance of the concept of reflective practice, the notion of ‘reflection’ in itself is still broad. Our review of literature reveals that reflection is a term that carries diverse meaning. For some, “it simply means thinking about something” or “just thinking” (e.g., Loughran, 2002 , p. 33), whereas for others, it is a well-defined practice with very specific purpose, meaning and action (e.g., Dewey, 1933 ; Schön, 1983 ; Grimmett and Erickson, 1988 ; Richardson, 1990 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Spalding et al., 2002 ; Paterson and Chapman, 2013 ). We found many interesting interpretations made along this continuum, but we believe the most appealing that rings true for most people is that reflection is useful and informing in the development and understanding of teaching and learning (e.g., Seitova, 2019 ; McGarr, 2021 ; Huynh, 2022 ). This, however, is not enough to signify the characteristics of reflection. Consequently, many teachers find it hard to understand the concept and engage in reflective practice for their professional development ( Bennett-Levy and Lee, 2014 ; Burt and Morgan, 2014 ; Haarhoff et al., 2015 ; Marshall, 2019 ; Huynh, 2022 ; Knassmüller, 2022 ; Kovacs and Corrie, 2022 ). For example, some teachers from higher arts education have considered reflective practice as antithetical to practical learning ( Guillaumier, 2016 ; Georgii-Hemming et al., 2020 ) as they often frame explicit reflection as assessed reflective writing, which is “disconnected from the embodied and non-verbal dimensions of making and reflecting on art” ( Treacy & Gaunt, 2021 , p. 488). The lack of understanding of the concept has created disengagement in reflection and reflective practice ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ; Huynh, 2022 ; Knassmüller, 2022 ) which resulted in poor insight and performance in practice ( Davies, 2012 ). To overcome this, educators should foster their understanding of the reflective practice, so they not only can reap its benefits for their own learning, but also facilitate and maximize reflective skills within their students.

In this paper, we aim to provide an overview of the concepts of effective reflective practice and present the value of reflective practice that can help teachers to professionally develop. First, we situate our conceptual understanding of reflective practice by discussing key issues surrounding reflection and reflective practice. Second, we present the key aspects of effective reflective practice. Finally, based on our discussion of key aspects of effective reflective practice, we introduce a revised model of reflective practice that may serve as a guide for educators to professionally develop. Although the model is but one approach, we believe it holds promise for others grappling as we are with efforts to encourage reflective practices among educators who find reflection in and on their practices a complex concept.

Key issues in reflective practice

The concepts of “reflection,” “reflective thought,” and “reflective thinking” have been discussed since 1904, when John Dewey claimed that an individual with good ethical values would treat professional actions as experimental and reflect upon their actions and consequences. Dewey defined reflection as the “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” ( Dewey, 1904 , p. 10). His basic notion is that reflection is an active, deliberative cognitive process involving a sequence of interconnected ideas that include the underlying beliefs and knowledge of an individual.

Following Dewey’s original work and its subsequent interpretation, four key thought-provoking issues are worthy of discussion: reflective thinking versus reflective action; time of reflection; reflection and problem solving; and critical reflection. The first concern is whether reflection is a process limited to thinking about action or also bound up in action ( Grant and Zeichner, 1984 ; Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). There seems to be broad agreement that reflection is a form of thought process ( Ross, 1989 ; McNamara, 1990 ; Sparks-Langer et al., 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ) even though some do not lead to action. However, Dewey’s first mention of “reflective action” suggests he was concerned with the implementation of solutions after thinking through problems. Therefore, reflective practice, in our view, is bound up with the constant, careful consideration of practice in the light of knowledge and beliefs. The complete cycle of reflection should then lead to clear, modified action and this needs to be distinguished from routine action derived from impulse, tradition, or authority ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ).

The time frames within which reflection takes place, needs to be addressed—relatively immediate and short term, or rather more extended and systematic. Schön (1983) holds that professionals should learn to frame and reframe the problems they often face and after trying out various interpretations, modify their actions as a result. He proposes “reflection-in-action,” which requires conscious thinking and modification, simultaneously reflecting and doing almost immediately. Similar to this concept is “technical reflection,” involving thinking about competencies or skills and their effectiveness and occurs almost immediately after an implementation and can then lead to changes in subsequent action ( Cruickshank, 1985 ; Killen, 1989 ). While the notion of immediacy in reflective practice seems appropriate, some argue that the process should involve conscious detachment from an activity after a distinct period of contemplation ( Boud et al., 1985 ; Buchmann, 1990 ). This is because reflection demands contemplating rational and moral practices in order to make reasoned judgments about better ways to act. Reflective practice often involves looking back at actions from a distance, after they have taken place ( Schön, 1983 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Smith and Lovat, 1991 ). While immediate and extended “versions” of reflections are both recognized, we suppose no one is better than another. However, we believe that being able to think consciously about what is happening and respond instantaneously makes for a higher level of reflective competence.

The third issue identified from our literature review is whether reflection by its very nature is problem orientated ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ). Reflection is widely agreed to be a thought process concerned with finding solutions to real problems ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). However, it is unclear whether solving problems is an inherent characteristic of reflection. For example, Schön’s (1983) reflection-in-action involves thought processing simultaneously with a group event taking place, and reflection-on-action refers to a debriefing process after an event. Both aims to develop insights into what took place—the aims, the difficulties during the event or experience and better ways to act. While focusing on reacting to practical events, these practices do not often intend to find solutions to specific practical problems. Instead, reflective practitioners are invited to think about a new set of actions from if not wider, at least different perspectives.

The fourth issue in the literature revolves around “critical reflection.” Very often critical reflection is concerned with how individuals consciously consider their actions from within wider historical, cultural and political beliefs when framing practical problems for which to seek solutions ( Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). It is a measure of a person’s acceptance of a particular ideology, its assumptions and epistemology, when critical reflection is developed within reflective practice ( McNamara, 1990 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). It implies the individual locates any analysis of personal action within her/his wider socio-historical and political-cultural contexts ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Smith and Lovat, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). While this makes sense, critical reflection in the literature appears to loosely refer to an individual’s constructive self-criticism of their actions to improve in future ( Calderhead, 1989 ), not a consideration of personal actions with both moral and ethical criteria ( Senge, 1990 ; Adler, 1991 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ). Thus, we see a need to define critical reflection in line with the key characteristics of reflective practice.

Effective reflective practice

Reflecting on the issues discussed above, we conclude that for reflective practice to be effective, it requires three key aspects: problem-solving, critical reflection and action-orientation. However, these aspects of reflective practice have different levels of complexity and meaning.

Problem-solving

A problem is unlikely to be acted upon if it is not viewed as a problem. Thus, it is crucial to problematize things during reflection, to see concerns that require improvement. This is not a simple process as people’s ability to perceive things as problems is related to their previous experiences. For example, a senior teacher with years of teaching experience and a rapport with the students s/he teaches will be immediately aware of students experiencing difficulties with current teaching strategies. However, a junior teacher whose experience is restricted to a three-month placement and who has met students only a few times will be less aware. The differences in experience also influence the way people interpret problems. For example, the senior teacher may believe his/her teaching strategy is at fault if half the students cannot complete the given tasks. A junior teacher with only 2 weeks teaching experience may deduce that the students were not interested in the topic, and that is why they cannot complete the tasks given. This example illustrates the range of ways a problem can be perceived and the advantages of developing the ability to frame and reframe a problem ( Schön, 1983 ). Problems can also be perceived differently depending on one’s moral and cultural beliefs, and social, ethical and/or political values ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ; Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). This could be extended to other factors such as institutional, educational and political system ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ).

Framing and reframing a problem through reflection can influence the practice of subsequent actions ( Loughran, 2002 ; Arms Almengor, 2018 ; Treacy and Gaunt, 2021 ). In the example above, the junior teacher attributes the problem to the students’ attitude, which gives her/him little to no incentive to address the situation. This is an ineffective reflective practice because it has little impact on the problem. Thus, we believe it is crucial for individuals to not only recognize problems but to examine their practices ( Loughran, 2002 ; Arms Almengor, 2018 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ) through a different lens to their existing perspectives so solutions can be developed and acted upon. This requires critical reflection.

Critical reflection

We believe it is the critical aspect of reflection that makes reflective practice effective and more complex, formulated by various scholars as different stages of reflection. Zeichner and Liston (1987) proposed three stages of reflection similar to those described by Van Manen (1977) . They suggested the first stage was “technical reflection” on how far the means to achieve certain end goals were effective, without criticism or modification. In the second stage, “practical reflection,” both the means and the ends are examined, with the assumptions compared to the actual outcomes. This level of reflection recognizes that meanings are embedded in and negotiated through language, hence are not absolute. The final stage, “critical reflection,” combined with the previous two, considers both the moral and ethical criteria of the judgments about professional activity ( Senge, 1990 ; Adler, 1991 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ).

While the three stages above capture the complexity of reflection, individuals will only reach an effective level of reflection when they are able to be self-critical in their judgments and reasoning and can expand their thinking based on new evidence. This aligns with Ross’ (1989) five stages of reflection (see Table 1 ). In her five stages of reflection, individuals do not arrive at the level of critical reflection until they get to stages 4 and 5, which require them to contextualize their knowledge and integrate the new evidence before making any judgments or modification ( Van Gyn, 1996 ).

Five stages of reflections ( Ross, 1989 ).

Action-orientation

We believe it is important that any reflections should be acted upon. Looking at the types and stages of reflection discussed earlier, there is a clear indication that reflective practice is a cyclical process ( Kolb, 1984 ; Richards and Lockhart, 2005 ; Taggart and Wilson, 2005 ; Clarke, 2008 ; Pollard et al., 2014 ; Babaei and Abednia, 2016 ; Ratminingsih et al., 2018 ; Oo and Habók, 2020 ). Richards and Lockhart (2005) suggest this cyclical process comprises planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. This is further developed by Hulsman et al. (2009) who believe that the cyclical process not only involves action and observation, but also analysis, presentation and feedback. In the education field, reflective practice is also considered cyclical ( Clarke, 2008 ; Pollard et al., 2014 ; Kennedy-Clark et al., 2018 ) because educators plan, observe, evaluate, and revise their teaching practice continuously ( Pollard et al., 2014 ). This process can be done through a constant systematic self-evaluation cycle ( Ratminingsih et al., 2018 ) which involves a written analysis or an open discussion with colleagues.

From the descriptions above, it seems that cyclical reflective practice entails identifying a problem, exploring its root cause, modifying action plans based on reasoning and evidence, executing and evaluating the new action and its results. Within this cyclical process, we consider action as a deliberate change is the key to effective reflective practice, especially in the field of education. Reflection that is action-oriented is an ongoing process which refers to how educators prepare and teach and the methods they employ. Educators move from one teaching stage to the next while gaining the knowledge through experience of the importance/relevance of the chosen methods in the classroom situation ( Oo and Habók, 2020 ).

While reflection is an invisible cognitive process, it is not altogether intuitive ( Plessner et al., 2011 ). Individuals, especially those lacking experience, may lack adequate intuition ( Greenhalgh, 2002 ). To achieve a certain level of reflection, they need guidance and this can be done with others either in groups ( Gibbs, 1988 ; Grant et al., 2017 ) or through one-on-one feedback ( Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). The others, who can be peers or mentors, can help provide different perspectives in exploring alternative interpretations and behaviors. Having said this, reflecting with others may not always feasible as it often requires investment of time and energy from others ( Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). Therefore, teachers must learn how to scaffold their own underlying values, attitudes, thoughts, and emotions, and critically challenge and evaluate assumptions of everyday practice on their own. With this in mind, we have created a cyclical process of reflective practice which may help in individual reflections. It captures the three key aspects of reflective practice discussed above. This model may help teachers having a range of experience enhance their competence through different focus and levels of reflection (see Figure 1 ).

Cyclical reflective practice model capturing problem-solving, action-oriented critical reflection.

The model illustrates the cyclical process with three stages: reflection, modification and action. At the reflection stage, a problem and the root of the problem is explored so it can be framed as it is/was and then reframed to identify a possible solution. This is followed by a modification for change based on the reasoning and evidence explored during the reflection stage. Finally, the action stage involves executing action (an event), followed by the reflection stage to begin another cycle and continue the process.

As presented earlier, it is crucial for individuals to be able to frame and reframe problems through a different lens to their existing perspectives so solutions can be developed and acted upon. Thus, the model above expands Tsangaridou and O’Sullivan’s (1994) framework by adding together the element of problematizing. The current revised framework highlights the four focuses of reflection; technical addresses the management or procedural aspects of teaching practice; situational addresses the context of teaching; sensitizing involves reflecting upon the social, moral, ethical or political concerns of teaching; and problematizing concerns the framing and reframing of the problem identified within the teaching context. Considering the different levels of critical reflection, we extend the four focuses of reflection to three different levels of critical reflection: descriptive involves reflection of the four focuses without reasoning or criticism; descriptive with rationale involves reflection of the four focuses with reasoning; and descriptive with rationale and evaluation involves reflection of the four focuses with both reasoning and criticism (see Table 2 ). Each of these levels requires different degrees of critical analysis and competence to extract information from actions and experiences. Overall, level three best captures effective critical reflection for each focus.

A framework of reflection.

This revised model that we proposed encompasses different levels of critical reflection and is action-oriented. There is also a clear link to problem-solving which requires framing and reframing problems to accurately identify them, which may influence the value and effectiveness of the actions that follow ( Loughran, 2002 ). Thus, this model may help people, especially those with lack experience to recognize the different aspects of reflection so they can make better assessments of and modifications to their procedures ( Ross, 1989 ; Van Gyn, 1996 ).

The meaning of reflection and reflective practice is not clear cut. However, we believe a reflective educator should cultivate a set of responses to how their teaching operates in practice. As Dewey (1933) suggested, educators must find time to reflect on their activity, knowledge, and experience so that they can develop and more effectively serve their community, nurturing each student’s learning. However, this does not always happen. Some educators do not reflect on their own practice because they find the concept of reflective practice difficult to put into practice for their professional development ( Jay and Johnson, 2002 ; Bennett-Levy and Lee, 2014 ; Burt and Morgan, 2014 ; Haarhoff et al., 2015 ; Marshall, 2019 ; Huynh, 2022 ).

Our review of the literature indicates that reflective practice is a complex process and some scholars argue that it should involve active thinking that is more bound up with action ( Grant and Zeichner, 1984 ; Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). Thus, the complete cycle of reflective practice needs to be distinguished from routine action which may stem from impulse, tradition, or authority ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). In addition, some also argue that reflective practice involves the conscious detachment from an activity followed by deliberation ( Boud et al., 1985 ; Buchmann, 1990 ), and therefore reflective practice should not occur immediately after action. Although this is acceptable, we believe that instant reflection and modification for future action can be a good indicator of an individual’s level of reflective competence.

Reflective practice is an active process that requires individuals to make the tacit explicit. Thus, it is crucial to acknowledge that reflection is, by its very nature, problem-centered ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). Only with this in mind can individuals frame and reframe their actions or experiences to discover specific solutions. Reflective practice is also complex, requiring critical appraisal and consideration of various aspects of thought processes. Individuals must play close attention to what they do, evaluate what works and what does not work on a personal, practical and professional level ( Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). However, some would consider critical reflection as no more than constructive self-criticism of one’s actions with a view to improve ( Calderhead, 1989 ). Consequently, scholars have taken different approaches to reflective practice in teaching areas that include critical thinking (e.g., Ross, 1989 ; Tsangaridou and O’Sullivan, 1994 ; Loughran, 2002 ). These approaches had four components in common: reflecting (observing actions, reviewing, recollecting), planning for future action (thinking and considering), acting (practice, experience, and learning), and evaluating (interpreting and assessing outcomes). We propose a model that embraces these four sub-areas and three key aspects of reflection: problem-solving, action orientation and critical reflection. We align these key aspects with level of criticality in a framework with detailed descriptors. It is hoped that these elements, combined together, demonstrate the complexities of reflection in a better, clearer way so that those struggling to adopt reflective practice will now be able to do so without much difficulty.

Author contributions

MM contributed to conception and written the first draft of the manuscript. RR contributed in the discussion of the topic. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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• Schools & departments

Gibbs' Reflective Cycle

One of the most famous cyclical models of reflection leading you through six stages exploring an experience: description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion and action plan.

Gibbs' Reflective Cycle was developed by Graham Gibbs in 1988 to give structure to learning from experiences.  It offers a framework for examining experiences, and given its cyclic nature lends itself particularly well to repeated experiences, allowing you to learn and plan from things that either went well or didn’t go well. It covers 6 stages:

• Description of the experience
• Feelings and thoughts about the experience
• Evaluation of the experience, both good and bad
• Analysis to make sense of the situation
• Conclusion about what you learned and what you could have done differently
• Action plan for how you would deal with similar situations in the future, or general changes you might find appropriate.

Below is further information on:

• The model – each stage is given a fuller description, guiding questions to ask yourself and an example of how this might look in a reflection
• Different depths of reflection – an example of reflecting more briefly using this model

This is just one model of reflection. Test it out and see how it works for you. If you find that only a few of the questions are helpful for you, focus on those. However, by thinking about each stage you are more likely to engage critically with your learning experience.

This model is a good way to work through an experience. This can be either a stand-alone experience or a situation you go through frequently, for example meetings with a team you have to collaborate with. Gibbs originally advocated its use in repeated situations, but the stages and principles apply equally well for single experiences too. If done with a stand-alone experience, the action plan may become more general and look at how you can apply your conclusions in the future.

For each of the stages of the model a number of helpful questions are outlined below. You don’t have to answer all of them but they can guide you about what sort of things make sense to include in that stage. You might have other prompts that work better for you.

Description

Here you have a chance to describe the situation in detail. The main points to include here concern what happened. Your feelings and conclusions will come later.

Helpful questions:

• What happened?
• When and where did it happen?
• Who was present?
• What did you and the other people do?
• What was the outcome of the situation?
• Why were you there?
• What did you want to happen?

Example of 'Description'

Here you can explore any feelings or thoughts that you had during the experience and how they may have impacted the experience.

• What were you feeling during the situation?
• What were you feeling before and after the situation?
• What do you think other people were feeling about the situation?
• What do you think other people feel about the situation now?
• What were you thinking during the situation?
• What do you think about the situation now?

Example of 'Feelings'

Here you have a chance to evaluate what worked and what didn’t work in the situation. Try to be as objective and honest as possible. To get the most out of your reflection focus on both the positive and the negative aspects of the situation, even if it was primarily one or the other.

• What was good and bad about the experience?
• What went well?
• What didn’t go so well?
• What did you and other people contribute to the situation (positively or negatively)?

Example of 'Evaluation'

The analysis step is where you have a chance to make sense of what happened. Up until now you have focused on details around what happened in the situation. Now you have a chance to extract meaning from it. You want to target the different aspects that went well or poorly and ask yourself why. If you are looking to include academic literature, this is the natural place to include it.

• Why did things go well?
• Why didn’t it go well?
• What sense can I make of the situation?
• What knowledge – my own or others (for example academic literature) can help me understand the situation?

Example of 'Analysis'

Conclusions.

In this section you can make conclusions about what happened. This is where you summarise your learning and highlight what changes to your actions could improve the outcome in the future. It should be a natural response to the previous sections.

• What did I learn from this situation?
• How could this have been a more positive situation for everyone involved?
• What skills do I need to develop for me to handle a situation like this better?
• What else could I have done?

Example of a 'Conclusion'

Action plan.

At this step you plan for what you would do differently in a similar or related situation in the future. It can also be extremely helpful to think about how you will help yourself to act differently – such that you don’t only plan what you will do differently, but also how you will make sure it happens. Sometimes just the realisation is enough, but other times reminders might be helpful.

• If I had to do the same thing again, what would I do differently?
• How will I develop the required skills I need?
• How can I make sure that I can act differently next time?

Example of 'Action Plan'

Different depths of reflection.

Depending on the context you are doing the reflection in, you might want use different levels of details. Here is the same scenario, which was used in the example above, however it is presented much more briefly.

Adapted from

Gibbs G (1988). Learning by Doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Further Education Unit. Oxford Polytechnic: Oxford.

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Jason Anderson, Reflection, ELT Journal , Volume 74, Issue 4, October 2020, Pages 480–483, https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccaa039

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Although discussion of reflective thought in education dates back at least to Dewey (e.g. Dewey 1933 ), it is only since the 1980s that the term ‘reflection’ has become prominent in discussion of practitioner, including teacher, development. Within English language teacher education, reflection is often promoted as an important feature of effective practice (e.g. British Council 2015 ). Yet, while ‘reflection’ is frequently invoked, use of the term often lacks conceptual clarity ( van Beveren et al., 2018 ), and we still understand relatively little about the role of reflection in (language) teacher development ( Mann and Walsh 2017 ).

Defining reflection is difficult. In one sense, reflection is simply ‘thought’ ( van Manen 1991 ), but definitions in the teacher education literature (e.g. Zeichner 1981 ; van Manen 1991 ; Mann and Walsh 2017 ; Fendler 2003 ) tend to be more specific, involving a number of elements that often suggest a formative outcome. Such definitions can be synthesized as follows: reflection is conscious, experientially informed thought, at times involving aspects of evaluation, criticality, 1 and problem-solving, and leading to insight, increased awareness, and/or new understanding. As such, reflection can be contrasted with ‘impulsive’ or ‘routine’ decision-making that reinforces and embeds current perceptions or practices ( Dewey 1933 : 17).

Two traditions can be identified in the literature on teacher reflection: a Deweyan one (Dewey ibid.) that draws on a relatively scientific approach to encourage us to engage in ‘active, persistent, and careful consideration’ of our beliefs and knowledge (Dewey ibid.: 9), and a Schönian one ( Schön 1983 , 1987 ), involving more intuitive (albeit conscious) reflection that rejects academic knowledge as ‘technical rationality’, and encourages us to draw on our experiential knowledge as the primary source of learning ( Anderson 2019 ). As Fendler (2003 : 19) notes, ‘the meaning of professional reflection is riddled with tensions between Schön’s notion of practitioner-based intuition, on the one hand, and Dewey’s notion of rational and scientific thinking, on the other’. However, despite differences between these traditions, both see experientially informed uncertainty or doubt leading to perplexity or puzzlement as the initial stages of reflection. Within the Deweyan tradition, this may involve us observing a phenomenon (e.g. a perceived problem in the classroom), developing a hypothesis (e.g. regarding the possible cause of the problem), and then testing this hypothesis (e.g. trying out a potential solution to the problem), anticipating the stages of Action Research. Within the Schönian tradition, reflection happens primarily through ‘reflection-in-action’, in which an unfamiliar phenomenon causes our current understanding of something to ‘surface’ (i.e. to come into our conscious awareness) and undergo critical evaluation and potential restructuring as a result, all during what Schön called the ‘action-present’ ( Schön 1983 : 62–63). He also occasionally discussed ‘reflection on action’, occurring after the action-present (e.g. Schön 1987 : 26), although it was not central to his theory of practitioner learning ( Anderson 2019 ). Despite this, the two terms are often given equal weight by writers on teacher reflection, and interpreted as reflection during and after the lesson event, respectively (e.g. Mann and Walsh 2017 ). ‘Reflection for action’—seen as ‘the desired outcome’ of Schön’s two types of reflection—has also been proposed ( Killion and Todnem 1991 : 15).

Interest in reflective models of teacher education developed gradually through the 1980s, entering language teacher education soon after. For example, Wallace (1991) proposed a ‘reflective model’ based on Schön’s, and contrasted it with a ‘craft model’ within which trainees learn by imitating the techniques of experts (ibid.: 6), and an ‘applied science model’ within which trainees are expected to implement the findings of scientific research (ibid.: 9). In his reflective model, both ‘received knowledge’ and experience inform a continuing cycle of practice and reflection that leads to professional competence (ibid.: 15). Since the 1990s, the term ‘reflective practice’—borrowed from Schön—has become common in teacher education programmes to refer to a relatively systematic use of reflection for professional development (e.g. Farrell 2015 ). It is sometimes seen to be at one end of a continuum of teacher development/research, with Action Research, as a more formalized framework, at the other end, and, for example, Exploratory Practice in the middle (e.g. Allwright 2001 ). Some of the most frequently used tools of reflective practice today, both pre-service and in-service, include post-lesson discussions with mentors or critical friends, video self-observation, longitudinal journal or blog writing, and participation in face-to-face or online discussion groups (see Farrell 2016 for discussion of a range of reflective tools).

Despite being widely promoted, the impact of reflection on teacher effectiveness has sometimes been questioned. Akbari (2007 : 192), for example, notes ‘there is no evidence to show improved teacher or student performance resulting from reflective techniques’. It has, though, been demonstrated both directly (e.g. Giovanelli 2003 ) and through more extensive reviews of research. For example, Stronge (2007) finds reflection to be an important part of the cognition of effective teachers, and Farrell’s (2016) review of reflection in TESOL reports a generally positive impact of reflection on language teacher cognition and practice, including greater understanding of self and awareness of own beliefs. There is very little research on ‘interactive reflection’ (i.e. reflection that occurs while teaching) in TESOL, although Anderson’s (2019) study draws on Schön’s notion of ‘reflection-in-action’ to explore real-time teacher reflection.

Finally, a number of frameworks for developing practitioner reflection have been proposed since the 1980s. Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning cycle, involving four stages from problem finding , to question asking , answer seeking and then active experimentation (ibid.: 33), has been influential in a number of fields, including teacher education. In language teacher education, Akbari, Behzadpoor, and Dadvand (2010) propose five elements to practitioner reflection: practical (our use of tools to help us reflect), cognitive (reflecting on our professional development), affective (reflecting on our learners and their progress), meta-cognitive (reflecting on our beliefs, personality, and identity), and critical (consideration of wider sociopolitical issues). Farrell’s (2015) framework suggests that we can develop through reflecting on our philosophy of practice, the principles that guide our teaching, the theories we draw on to put these principles into practice, what actually happens in our practice , and finally, going beyond practice to reflect critically on moral issues impacting our work and identities. Anderson (2019) proposes several tools for teachers to develop their interactive reflection literacy , particularly concerning how they respond to specific affordances during the lesson. Hayden, Rundell, and Smyntek-Gworek (2013) use the acronym SOAR to facilitate trainee reflection on teaching practice in written form, beginning with a subjective retelling of lesson events, then considering progress towards lesson objectives , and analysis of the lesson itself, leading to deeper reflection on what they have learnt as a result.

1. ‘Criticality’ in the sources mentioned includes reflexivity (self-questioning), critical thinking and the wider sociopolitical concerns of critical pedagogy (see Banegas and Villacañas de Castro 2016 ).

Akbari ,  R . 2007 . ‘Reflections on reflection: a critical appraisal of reflective practices in L2 teacher education’ . System 35 : 192 – 207 .

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Allwright ,  D . 2001 . ‘Three major processes of teacher development and the appropriate design criteria for developing and using them’ in B.   Johnston and S.   Irujo (eds.). Research and Practice in Language Teacher Education: Voices from the Field . Minneapolis, MN : Centre for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition .

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Anderson ,  J . 2019 . ‘In search of reflection-in-action: an exploratory study of the interactive reflection of four experienced teachers’ . Teaching and Teacher Education 86 : 1 – 17 .

Banegas ,  D. L. and L. S.   Villacañas de Castro . 2016 . ‘Key concepts in ELT: criticality’ . ELT Journal 70 / 4 : 455 – 57 .

British Council . 2015 . Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Framework for Teachers . London : British Council . Available at https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/sites/teacheng/files/CPD%20framework%20for%20teachers_WEB.PDF (accessed 10 May 2020 ).

Dewey ,  J . 1933 . How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process (Second edition) . Lexington, MA : D.C. Heath .

Farrell ,  T. S. C . 2015 . Promoting Teacher Reflection in Second Language Education: A Framework for TESOL Professionals . New York : Routledge .

Farrell ,  T. S. C . 2016 . ‘The practices of encouraging TESOL teachers to engage in reflective practice: an appraisal of recent research contributions’ . Language Teaching Research 20 / 2 : 223 – 47 .

Fendler ,  L . 2003 . ‘Teacher reflection in a hall of mirrors: historical influences and political reverberations’ . Educational Researcher 32 / 3 : 16 – 25 .

Giovanelli ,  M . 2003 . ‘Relationship between reflective disposition toward teaching and effective teaching’ . Journal of Educational Research 96 / 5 : 293 – 308 .

Hayden ,  H. E. , T. D.   Rundell , and S.   Smyntek-Gworek . 2013 . ‘Adaptive expertise: a view from the top and the ascent’ . Teaching Education 24 / 4 : 395 – 414 .

Killion ,  J. P. and G. R.   Todnem . 1991 . ‘A process for personal theory building’ . Educational Leadership 48 / 6 : 14 – 16 .

Kolb ,  D. A . 1984 . Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development . Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice Hall .

Mann ,  S. and S.   Walsh . 2017 . Reflective Practice in English Language Teaching: Research-based Principles and Practices . New York : Routledge .

Schön ,  D . 1983 . The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action . New York : Basic Books .

Schön ,  D . 1987 . Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Towards a New Design for Teaching and Learning in the Professions . San Francisco, CA : Jossey-Bass .

Stronge ,  J. H . 2007 . Qualities of effective teachers (Second edition). Alexandria, VA : Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development .

van Beveren ,  L. , G.   Roets , A.   Buysse , and K.   Rutten . 2018 . ‘We all reflect, but why? A systematic review of the purposes of reflection in higher education in social and behavioural sciences’ . Educational Research Review 24 : 1 – 9 .

van Manen ,  M . 1991 . The Tact of Teaching: The Meaning of Pedagogical Thoughtfulness . New York : State University of New York Press .

Wallace ,  M. J . 1991 . Training Foreign Language Teachers . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .

Zeichner ,  K . 1981 . ‘Reflective teaching and field-based experience in teacher education’ . Interchange 12 / 4 : 1 – 22 .

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Reflection Models

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DEAL: Describe, Examine, and Articulate Learning

Ash & Clayton (2009) define critical reflection as “evidence based examination of the sources of and gaps in knowledge and practice with the intent to improve on both (p. 28).” The three steps of the DEAL model are Describe , Examine , and Articulate Learning . The DEAL model works well for experiential, civic, or service learning related activities.

Step 1: Describe

Task: Objectively describe an experience

Potential prompts: What did you do? Why did you do it? When did this experience take place? Where did it take place? Who else was there? Who wasn’t there? What was communicated by you or others? What else happened that might be important?

Step 2: Examine

Task: Examine the experience by category of learning goal, such as personal growth, academic enhancement, or civic engagement

Potential prompts: Personal growth: What assumptions did you make? What personal strengths emerged as you participated? What personal weaknesses emerged as you participated? What effect did you, including your strengths and weaknesses, have on the service provided? What effect did you, including your strengths and weaknesses, have on others? What do you need to change and how will you do that?

Academic enhancement: What academic (disciplinary, intellectual, professional) skills and knowledge did you use or should you have used? In what ways were your understanding of the material, skills, or experience the same or different than those of others? What are the possible reasons for the differences or similarities? Did you approach the experience from a specific discipline perspective and if so how and how did it impact the experience? What knowledge assumptions did you make? What knowledge or skill strengths emerged as you participated? What knowledge or skill weaknesses emerged/developed as you participated? What impact did your knowledge and skills, including strengths and weaknesses, have on the service provided? What effect did your knowledge and skills, including strengths and weaknesses, have on others? What differences between your textbook and your community experience were noted?

Civic engagement: How can you or others in the community use what you learned about the course material and are there any challenges associated with doing so? How did this experience differ from your initial expectations? What was the civic goal you were trying to accomplish and did you achieve your goal? How did your skills contribute to the diversity of the people with whom you worked and how did you harness those differences for maximal effectiveness? Did your assumptions about members of the community make your experience more or less successful when accomplishing your objectives? How did your personal values regarding civic engagement play a role in helping you to accomplish your goal? How did this experience increase your sense of responsibility for acting on behalf of others? How did this experience inspire you to continue a commitment to serving others? What steps have you taken or do you plan to take to implement this plan of continued commitment?

Step 3: Articulate learning

Task: Using responses in steps 1 and 2, verbalize what learning has occurred, linking it back to the original learning objective

Potential prompts: What did you learn? (“I learned that…”) Why does it matter? (“This learning matters because…”) What should be done in light of it? (“In light of this learning…”)

• Express an important learning, not just a statement of fact
• Provide a clear and correct explanation of the concept(s) in question so that someone not in the experience could understand it.
• Explain your enhanced understanding of the concept(s), as a result of reflection on the experience
• Be expressed in general terms, not just in the context of the experience (so that the learning can be applied more broadly to other experiences)
• Connect the learning to specific activities that gave rise to it, making clear what happened in the context of that experience so that someone who wasn’t there could understand it.
• Consider how the learning has value, both in terms of this situation and in broader terms, such as other organizations, communities, activities, issues, professional goals, courses, etc.
• Set specific and assessable goals; consider the benefits and challenges involved in fulfilling them
• Tie back clearly to the original learning statement.

Ash, S. L., & Clayton, P. H. (2009). Generating, deepening, and documenting learning: The power of critical reflection for applied learning.  Journal of Applied Learning in Higher Education , 1(1), 25-48. Ash, S.L. & Clayton, P.H. (2004). The Articulated Learning: An Approach to Guided Reflection and Assessment. Innovative Higher Education, 29(2). pp. 137-154. Ash, S.L., Clayton, P.H., & Atkinson, M. (2005). Integrating Reflection and Assessment to Capture and improve Student Learning. Michigan Journal for Community Service-Learning, ll(2). pp. 49-59. Ash, S.L., Clayton, & Moses. (2009). Learning through Critical Reflection: A Tutorial for Service-Learning Students. Raleigh, NC. Clayton, P.H. & Ash, S.L. (2004). Shifts in perspective: Capitalizing on the counter-normative nature of service- learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service-Learning, 1 l(1). pp. 59-70. Clayton, P.H. & Ash, S.L. (2005). Reflection as a key component in faculty development. On the Horizon, 13(3). Clayton, P.H., Ash, S.L., Bullard, L.G., Bullock, B.P., Day, M.G., Moore, A.C., O'Steen, W.L., Stallings, S.P., & Usry, R.H. (2005). Adapting a core service-learning model for wide-ranging implementation: An institutional case study. Creative College Teaching. Vol2, Spring. pp. 10-26.

What? So what? Now what? Model

A well-known reflection model developed by Rolfe et al (2001) is based upon three simple questions: What? So what? Now what?

Step 1: What?

Task: Describe in detail the experience

Potential prompts:  What happened? What did you observe? What was your role? What issue is being addressed or population is being served? What were your initial expectations? What was good/bad about the experience? What did you learn from the experience? What part of your experience was most challenging? What part did you find surprising? What did you already know about the topic you explored at the site/event/project? Who did you work with?

Step 2: So What?

Task: Describe why this experience was significant

Potential prompts: What critical questions does this information cause you to ask? What about the event stuck out to you/made an impact on you? What emotions does it evoke? How does it make you feel? What broader issues arise from the situation at hand? What conclusions can you draw from the experience? What did you learn about others and yourself? How were you different when you finished this experience? How were you different/similar to other people involved? How did being different help/hinder? What values, opinions, decisions have been made or changed through this experience? What new skill did you learn? How did this experience clarify, expand, or create an interest? What about this experience surprised you? What impacts the way you view the situation/experience? What did you learn about the project/topic/people/community? What are some of the pressing needs/issues related to this project/topic/people/community? How does this project address those needs? How did the experience relate to your coursework? How has your understanding of the project/topic/people/community changed as a result of your participation in this project?

Step 3: Now What?

Task: Describe next steps

Potential prompts:  How will you apply what you learned from your experience? What would you like to learn more about, related to this project or issue? What follow-up is needed to address any challenges or difficulties? What information can you share with your peers or the community? If you could do the project again, what would you do differently? Have your career options been expanded by your service experience? How can you continue your involvement with this group or social issue? How will your efforts on this project contribute to social change? How will your efforts on this project contribute to your career? How can society better address the problem from the project? Where do you go from here? What is the next step in the process?

Rolfe, G., Freshwater, D., Jasper, M. (2001) Critical reflection in nursing and the helping professions: a user’s guide. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Kolb's Theory

Kolb's theory works on two levels. First, it works on a four-stage cycle of learning. Second, it works to address four separate learning styles. This combination creates a focus on the student’s internal cognitive processes because he believes that learning involves the acquisition of abstract concepts applied flexibly in a variety of situations. Kolb’s theory addresses 4 learning styles:

According to Kolb, effective learning occurs when a person undergoes a concrete experience followed by observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then utilized to test future hypotheses, resulting in new experiences. Because this can be simplified to (1) experience, (2) reflect, (3) reframe, and (4) reform, it leads to a model similar to “What? So what? What now?” therefore similar prompts can be utilized for this model.

Kolb, David A. Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1984

Kolb, D. A. (2014). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. FT press.

Gibbs’ Model of Reflection

The Gibbs’ (1988) reflection model can is particularly useful for helping students learn from situations that they experience regularly, particularly those that do not go as anticipated. Although this model can be easy for beginners because it has six steps to work through, it has been criticized for a lack of critical thinking and analysis or an attempt for the student to view the experience from different perspectives.

Step 1: Description: what happened?

Potential prompts: What, where and when did this happen? What did you do? In what order did things occur? What were you responsible for? What was the result?

Step 2: Feelings: what were you thinking?

Potential prompts: What was your initial reaction, and what does this tell you? Did your feelings change? What were you thinking? What did you feel during / after the situation? What do you think about it now? What do you think other people feel about the situation now?

Step 3: Evaluation: What was good or bad about the experience?

Potential prompts: What went well? What were the challenges? Who/what was unhelpful? Why? What did you and others do to contribute to the situation (positively or negatively)? What needs improvement?

Step 4: Analysis: what sense can you make of the situation?

Potential prompts: What similarities or differences are there between this experience and other experiences? What choices did you make and what effect did they have? What did you do well? What did others do well? What went wrong or did not turn out how it should have done? In what way did you or others contribute to this?

Step 5: Conclusion: what else could you have done?

Potential prompts: What factors that affected the outcome? What might have been some alternative actions or approaches? What might you have done differently? Could negative events be avoided? Could positive events be made more effective?

Step 6: Action plan: what will you do next time?

Potential prompts:

• If a similar situation/experience arose again, what would you do?
• What will you do if you encounter this kind of situation again?
• What will you do in the future to increase the likelihood of similar positive outcomes and minimize the likelihood of similar negative outcomes?
• What do you need to learn?

Gibbs, G. (1988) Learning by doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Oxford Further Education Unit, Oxford.

The 5R framework The 5R framework was developed by Bain et al and allows for critical reflection on an experiencing by focusing on the five core stages to make sense of a learning experience. The 5 stages are:

• Reporting of the context of the experience
• Responding to the experience (observations, feelings, thoughts, etc.)
• Relating the experience to knowledge and skills you already have
• Reasoning about the significant factors/theory to explain the experience
• Reconstructing your practice by planning future actions for a similar experience

Sometimes ‘reporting’ and ‘responding’ are presented as one interlinked level. A number of helpful questions as well as key components are outlined below for each of the stages. You don’t have to answer all of them, but they can guide you to what sort of things make sense to include in that stage. You might have others questions that work better for you.

Step 1: Reporting

Task: Providing description of the key elements of the experience/problem

Potential prompts: What happened? What are the key aspects of the experience/situation? Who was involved? What did you do?

Step 2: Responding

Task: Provide your personal response to the situation/experience

Potential prompts: How did what happened make you feel? What did you think? What made you think/feel this way?

Step 3: Relating

Task: Provide your understanding of the situation/experience as it relates to your own knowledge, skills, attitudes, and previous experiences

Potential prompts: What skills/knowledge do you bring to this experience? Have you experienced similar situations/experiences before? How was it the same or different?

Step 4: Reasoning

Task: Explore and explain significant factors within the situation/experience and how they are important to understanding what happened

Potential prompts: What is the most important aspect of this situation/experience? Why? How do different perspectives affect the way you understand the situation? How would someone who is knowledgeable and experienced with this type of situation/experience respond to it? Are there theories that can assist in making sense of the situation/experience?

Step 5: Reconstructing

Task: Reframe or reconstruct future experiences/situations by drawing deeper understanding and summary of the learning that occurred

Potential prompts: What would you do differently in the future if faced with a similar situation/experience? Are there other options for facing this situation/experience in the future? Are these ideas supported by theory/fact? What would happen if…? What changes can be made to benefit others?

Bain, J.D., Ballantyne, R., Mills, C. & Lester, N.C. (2002). Reflecting on practice: Student teachers' perspectives, Post Pressed: Flaxton, Qld

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CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS article

Conceptualizing the complexity of reflective practice in education.

• 1 Centre for Enhancement of Learning and Teaching, University of West London, London, United Kingdom
• 2 Faculty of Languages and Communication, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia
• 3 Department of English Language, Literature and Translation, Zarqa University, Zarqa, Jordan

In higher education, reflective practice has become a dynamic, participatory, and cyclical process that contributes to educators’ professional development and personal growth. While it is now a prominent part of educators, many still find it challenging to apply the concept for it carries diverse meaning for different people in different contexts. This article attempts to (re)conceptualize the complexity of reflective practice in an educational context. Scholars in this field have taken different approaches to reflective practice, but all these approaches consist of four main components in common: (i) reflecting; (ii) planning for future action; (iii) acting; and (iv) evaluating the outcomes. We extend the existing literature by proposing a model which integrates these four components with three key aspects of reflection: problem-solving, action orientation, and criticality. The novelty of this model lies within its alignment of the three key aspects with different levels of criticality in a comprehensive framework with detailed descriptors provided. The model and its descriptors are useful in guiding individuals who directly or indirectly involve in critical reflection, especially educators, in appraising their levels of criticality and consequently engage in a meaningful reflection.

Introduction

In the field of education, reflective practice has been recognized as an important aspect in continuing professional development. Through reflective practice, we can identify the factors, the consequences of and the assumptions that underlie our actions. In higher education, reflective practice has become a dynamic, participatory, and cyclical process ( Ai et al., 2017 ) that contributes to educators’ professional development and personal growth ( McAlpine et al., 2004 ; De Geest et al., 2011 ; Davies, 2012 ; Marshall, 2019 ). It enables professional judgment ( Day, 1999 ) and fosters professional competence through planning, implementing and improving performance by rethinking about strengths, weaknesses and specific learning needs ( Huda and Teh, 2018 ; Cirocki and Widodo, 2019 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ; Seyed Abolghasem et al., 2020 ; Huynh, 2022 ). Without routinely engaging in reflective practice, it is unlikely that educators will comprehend the effects of their motivations, expectations and experiences upon their practice ( Lubbe and Botha, 2020 ). Thus, reflective practice becomes an important tool that helps educators to explore and articulate lived experiences, current experience, and newly created knowledge ( Osterman and Kottkamp, 2004 ). Educators are continually recommended to apply reflective practice in getting a better understanding of what they know and do as they develop their knowledge of practice ( Loughran, 2002 ; Lubbe and Botha, 2020 ). In fact, reflective practice is now a prominent part of training for trainee teachers (e.g., Shek et al., 2021 ; Childs and Hillier, 2022 ; Ruffinelli et al., 2022 ) because it can help future teachers review their own practices and develop relevant skills where necessary.

Despite the wide acceptance of the concept of reflective practice, the notion of ‘reflection’ in itself is still broad. Our review of literature reveals that reflection is a term that carries diverse meaning. For some, “it simply means thinking about something” or “just thinking” (e.g., Loughran, 2002 , p. 33), whereas for others, it is a well-defined practice with very specific purpose, meaning and action (e.g., Dewey, 1933 ; Schön, 1983 ; Grimmett and Erickson, 1988 ; Richardson, 1990 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Spalding et al., 2002 ; Paterson and Chapman, 2013 ). We found many interesting interpretations made along this continuum, but we believe the most appealing that rings true for most people is that reflection is useful and informing in the development and understanding of teaching and learning (e.g., Seitova, 2019 ; McGarr, 2021 ; Huynh, 2022 ). This, however, is not enough to signify the characteristics of reflection. Consequently, many teachers find it hard to understand the concept and engage in reflective practice for their professional development ( Bennett-Levy and Lee, 2014 ; Burt and Morgan, 2014 ; Haarhoff et al., 2015 ; Marshall, 2019 ; Huynh, 2022 ; Knassmüller, 2022 ; Kovacs and Corrie, 2022 ). For example, some teachers from higher arts education have considered reflective practice as antithetical to practical learning ( Guillaumier, 2016 ; Georgii-Hemming et al., 2020 ) as they often frame explicit reflection as assessed reflective writing, which is “disconnected from the embodied and non-verbal dimensions of making and reflecting on art” ( Treacy & Gaunt, 2021 , p. 488). The lack of understanding of the concept has created disengagement in reflection and reflective practice ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ; Huynh, 2022 ; Knassmüller, 2022 ) which resulted in poor insight and performance in practice ( Davies, 2012 ). To overcome this, educators should foster their understanding of the reflective practice, so they not only can reap its benefits for their own learning, but also facilitate and maximize reflective skills within their students.

In this paper, we aim to provide an overview of the concepts of effective reflective practice and present the value of reflective practice that can help teachers to professionally develop. First, we situate our conceptual understanding of reflective practice by discussing key issues surrounding reflection and reflective practice. Second, we present the key aspects of effective reflective practice. Finally, based on our discussion of key aspects of effective reflective practice, we introduce a revised model of reflective practice that may serve as a guide for educators to professionally develop. Although the model is but one approach, we believe it holds promise for others grappling as we are with efforts to encourage reflective practices among educators who find reflection in and on their practices a complex concept.

Key issues in reflective practice

The concepts of “reflection,” “reflective thought,” and “reflective thinking” have been discussed since 1904, when John Dewey claimed that an individual with good ethical values would treat professional actions as experimental and reflect upon their actions and consequences. Dewey defined reflection as the “active, persistent, and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” ( Dewey, 1904 , p. 10). His basic notion is that reflection is an active, deliberative cognitive process involving a sequence of interconnected ideas that include the underlying beliefs and knowledge of an individual.

Following Dewey’s original work and its subsequent interpretation, four key thought-provoking issues are worthy of discussion: reflective thinking versus reflective action; time of reflection; reflection and problem solving; and critical reflection. The first concern is whether reflection is a process limited to thinking about action or also bound up in action ( Grant and Zeichner, 1984 ; Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). There seems to be broad agreement that reflection is a form of thought process ( Ross, 1989 ; McNamara, 1990 ; Sparks-Langer et al., 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ) even though some do not lead to action. However, Dewey’s first mention of “reflective action” suggests he was concerned with the implementation of solutions after thinking through problems. Therefore, reflective practice, in our view, is bound up with the constant, careful consideration of practice in the light of knowledge and beliefs. The complete cycle of reflection should then lead to clear, modified action and this needs to be distinguished from routine action derived from impulse, tradition, or authority ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ).

The time frames within which reflection takes place, needs to be addressed—relatively immediate and short term, or rather more extended and systematic. Schön (1983) holds that professionals should learn to frame and reframe the problems they often face and after trying out various interpretations, modify their actions as a result. He proposes “reflection-in-action,” which requires conscious thinking and modification, simultaneously reflecting and doing almost immediately. Similar to this concept is “technical reflection,” involving thinking about competencies or skills and their effectiveness and occurs almost immediately after an implementation and can then lead to changes in subsequent action ( Cruickshank, 1985 ; Killen, 1989 ). While the notion of immediacy in reflective practice seems appropriate, some argue that the process should involve conscious detachment from an activity after a distinct period of contemplation ( Boud et al., 1985 ; Buchmann, 1990 ). This is because reflection demands contemplating rational and moral practices in order to make reasoned judgments about better ways to act. Reflective practice often involves looking back at actions from a distance, after they have taken place ( Schön, 1983 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Smith and Lovat, 1991 ). While immediate and extended “versions” of reflections are both recognized, we suppose no one is better than another. However, we believe that being able to think consciously about what is happening and respond instantaneously makes for a higher level of reflective competence.

The third issue identified from our literature review is whether reflection by its very nature is problem orientated ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ). Reflection is widely agreed to be a thought process concerned with finding solutions to real problems ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). However, it is unclear whether solving problems is an inherent characteristic of reflection. For example, Schön’s (1983) reflection-in-action involves thought processing simultaneously with a group event taking place, and reflection-on-action refers to a debriefing process after an event. Both aims to develop insights into what took place—the aims, the difficulties during the event or experience and better ways to act. While focusing on reacting to practical events, these practices do not often intend to find solutions to specific practical problems. Instead, reflective practitioners are invited to think about a new set of actions from if not wider, at least different perspectives.

The fourth issue in the literature revolves around “critical reflection.” Very often critical reflection is concerned with how individuals consciously consider their actions from within wider historical, cultural and political beliefs when framing practical problems for which to seek solutions ( Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). It is a measure of a person’s acceptance of a particular ideology, its assumptions and epistemology, when critical reflection is developed within reflective practice ( McNamara, 1990 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). It implies the individual locates any analysis of personal action within her/his wider socio-historical and political-cultural contexts ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Smith and Lovat, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). While this makes sense, critical reflection in the literature appears to loosely refer to an individual’s constructive self-criticism of their actions to improve in future ( Calderhead, 1989 ), not a consideration of personal actions with both moral and ethical criteria ( Senge, 1990 ; Adler, 1991 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ). Thus, we see a need to define critical reflection in line with the key characteristics of reflective practice.

Effective reflective practice

Reflecting on the issues discussed above, we conclude that for reflective practice to be effective, it requires three key aspects: problem-solving, critical reflection and action-orientation. However, these aspects of reflective practice have different levels of complexity and meaning.

Problem-solving

A problem is unlikely to be acted upon if it is not viewed as a problem. Thus, it is crucial to problematize things during reflection, to see concerns that require improvement. This is not a simple process as people’s ability to perceive things as problems is related to their previous experiences. For example, a senior teacher with years of teaching experience and a rapport with the students s/he teaches will be immediately aware of students experiencing difficulties with current teaching strategies. However, a junior teacher whose experience is restricted to a three-month placement and who has met students only a few times will be less aware. The differences in experience also influence the way people interpret problems. For example, the senior teacher may believe his/her teaching strategy is at fault if half the students cannot complete the given tasks. A junior teacher with only 2 weeks teaching experience may deduce that the students were not interested in the topic, and that is why they cannot complete the tasks given. This example illustrates the range of ways a problem can be perceived and the advantages of developing the ability to frame and reframe a problem ( Schön, 1983 ). Problems can also be perceived differently depending on one’s moral and cultural beliefs, and social, ethical and/or political values ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ; Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). This could be extended to other factors such as institutional, educational and political system ( Aliakbari and Adibpour, 2018 ).

Framing and reframing a problem through reflection can influence the practice of subsequent actions ( Loughran, 2002 ; Arms Almengor, 2018 ; Treacy and Gaunt, 2021 ). In the example above, the junior teacher attributes the problem to the students’ attitude, which gives her/him little to no incentive to address the situation. This is an ineffective reflective practice because it has little impact on the problem. Thus, we believe it is crucial for individuals to not only recognize problems but to examine their practices ( Loughran, 2002 ; Arms Almengor, 2018 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ) through a different lens to their existing perspectives so solutions can be developed and acted upon. This requires critical reflection.

Critical reflection

We believe it is the critical aspect of reflection that makes reflective practice effective and more complex, formulated by various scholars as different stages of reflection. Zeichner and Liston (1987) proposed three stages of reflection similar to those described by Van Manen (1977) . They suggested the first stage was “technical reflection” on how far the means to achieve certain end goals were effective, without criticism or modification. In the second stage, “practical reflection,” both the means and the ends are examined, with the assumptions compared to the actual outcomes. This level of reflection recognizes that meanings are embedded in and negotiated through language, hence are not absolute. The final stage, “critical reflection,” combined with the previous two, considers both the moral and ethical criteria of the judgments about professional activity ( Senge, 1990 ; Adler, 1991 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ).

While the three stages above capture the complexity of reflection, individuals will only reach an effective level of reflection when they are able to be self-critical in their judgments and reasoning and can expand their thinking based on new evidence. This aligns with Ross’ (1989) five stages of reflection (see Table 1 ). In her five stages of reflection, individuals do not arrive at the level of critical reflection until they get to stages 4 and 5, which require them to contextualize their knowledge and integrate the new evidence before making any judgments or modification ( Van Gyn, 1996 ).

Table 1 . Five stages of reflections ( Ross, 1989 ).

Action-orientation

We believe it is important that any reflections should be acted upon. Looking at the types and stages of reflection discussed earlier, there is a clear indication that reflective practice is a cyclical process ( Kolb, 1984 ; Richards and Lockhart, 2005 ; Taggart and Wilson, 2005 ; Clarke, 2008 ; Pollard et al., 2014 ; Babaei and Abednia, 2016 ; Ratminingsih et al., 2018 ; Oo and Habók, 2020 ). Richards and Lockhart (2005) suggest this cyclical process comprises planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. This is further developed by Hulsman et al. (2009) who believe that the cyclical process not only involves action and observation, but also analysis, presentation and feedback. In the education field, reflective practice is also considered cyclical ( Clarke, 2008 ; Pollard et al., 2014 ; Kennedy-Clark et al., 2018 ) because educators plan, observe, evaluate, and revise their teaching practice continuously ( Pollard et al., 2014 ). This process can be done through a constant systematic self-evaluation cycle ( Ratminingsih et al., 2018 ) which involves a written analysis or an open discussion with colleagues.

From the descriptions above, it seems that cyclical reflective practice entails identifying a problem, exploring its root cause, modifying action plans based on reasoning and evidence, executing and evaluating the new action and its results. Within this cyclical process, we consider action as a deliberate change is the key to effective reflective practice, especially in the field of education. Reflection that is action-oriented is an ongoing process which refers to how educators prepare and teach and the methods they employ. Educators move from one teaching stage to the next while gaining the knowledge through experience of the importance/relevance of the chosen methods in the classroom situation ( Oo and Habók, 2020 ).

While reflection is an invisible cognitive process, it is not altogether intuitive ( Plessner et al., 2011 ). Individuals, especially those lacking experience, may lack adequate intuition ( Greenhalgh, 2002 ). To achieve a certain level of reflection, they need guidance and this can be done with others either in groups ( Gibbs, 1988 ; Grant et al., 2017 ) or through one-on-one feedback ( Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). The others, who can be peers or mentors, can help provide different perspectives in exploring alternative interpretations and behaviors. Having said this, reflecting with others may not always feasible as it often requires investment of time and energy from others ( Karnieli-Miller, 2020 ). Therefore, teachers must learn how to scaffold their own underlying values, attitudes, thoughts, and emotions, and critically challenge and evaluate assumptions of everyday practice on their own. With this in mind, we have created a cyclical process of reflective practice which may help in individual reflections. It captures the three key aspects of reflective practice discussed above. This model may help teachers having a range of experience enhance their competence through different focus and levels of reflection (see Figure 1 ).

Figure 1 . Cyclical reflective practice model capturing problem-solving, action-oriented critical reflection.

The model illustrates the cyclical process with three stages: reflection, modification and action. At the reflection stage, a problem and the root of the problem is explored so it can be framed as it is/was and then reframed to identify a possible solution. This is followed by a modification for change based on the reasoning and evidence explored during the reflection stage. Finally, the action stage involves executing action (an event), followed by the reflection stage to begin another cycle and continue the process.

As presented earlier, it is crucial for individuals to be able to frame and reframe problems through a different lens to their existing perspectives so solutions can be developed and acted upon. Thus, the model above expands Tsangaridou and O’Sullivan’s (1994) framework by adding together the element of problematizing. The current revised framework highlights the four focuses of reflection; technical addresses the management or procedural aspects of teaching practice; situational addresses the context of teaching; sensitizing involves reflecting upon the social, moral, ethical or political concerns of teaching; and problematizing concerns the framing and reframing of the problem identified within the teaching context. Considering the different levels of critical reflection, we extend the four focuses of reflection to three different levels of critical reflection: descriptive involves reflection of the four focuses without reasoning or criticism; descriptive with rationale involves reflection of the four focuses with reasoning; and descriptive with rationale and evaluation involves reflection of the four focuses with both reasoning and criticism (see Table 2 ). Each of these levels requires different degrees of critical analysis and competence to extract information from actions and experiences. Overall, level three best captures effective critical reflection for each focus.

Table 2 . A framework of reflection.

This revised model that we proposed encompasses different levels of critical reflection and is action-oriented. There is also a clear link to problem-solving which requires framing and reframing problems to accurately identify them, which may influence the value and effectiveness of the actions that follow ( Loughran, 2002 ). Thus, this model may help people, especially those with lack experience to recognize the different aspects of reflection so they can make better assessments of and modifications to their procedures ( Ross, 1989 ; Van Gyn, 1996 ).

The meaning of reflection and reflective practice is not clear cut. However, we believe a reflective educator should cultivate a set of responses to how their teaching operates in practice. As Dewey (1933) suggested, educators must find time to reflect on their activity, knowledge, and experience so that they can develop and more effectively serve their community, nurturing each student’s learning. However, this does not always happen. Some educators do not reflect on their own practice because they find the concept of reflective practice difficult to put into practice for their professional development ( Jay and Johnson, 2002 ; Bennett-Levy and Lee, 2014 ; Burt and Morgan, 2014 ; Haarhoff et al., 2015 ; Marshall, 2019 ; Huynh, 2022 ).

Our review of the literature indicates that reflective practice is a complex process and some scholars argue that it should involve active thinking that is more bound up with action ( Grant and Zeichner, 1984 ; Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). Thus, the complete cycle of reflective practice needs to be distinguished from routine action which may stem from impulse, tradition, or authority ( Noffke and Brennan, 1988 ; Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ). In addition, some also argue that reflective practice involves the conscious detachment from an activity followed by deliberation ( Boud et al., 1985 ; Buchmann, 1990 ), and therefore reflective practice should not occur immediately after action. Although this is acceptable, we believe that instant reflection and modification for future action can be a good indicator of an individual’s level of reflective competence.

Reflective practice is an active process that requires individuals to make the tacit explicit. Thus, it is crucial to acknowledge that reflection is, by its very nature, problem-centered ( Calderhead, 1989 ; Adler, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Loughran, 2002 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). Only with this in mind can individuals frame and reframe their actions or experiences to discover specific solutions. Reflective practice is also complex, requiring critical appraisal and consideration of various aspects of thought processes. Individuals must play close attention to what they do, evaluate what works and what does not work on a personal, practical and professional level ( Gore and Zeichner, 1991 ; Hatton and Smith, 1995 ; Choy and Oo, 2012 ). However, some would consider critical reflection as no more than constructive self-criticism of one’s actions with a view to improve ( Calderhead, 1989 ). Consequently, scholars have taken different approaches to reflective practice in teaching areas that include critical thinking (e.g., Ross, 1989 ; Tsangaridou and O’Sullivan, 1994 ; Loughran, 2002 ). These approaches had four components in common: reflecting (observing actions, reviewing, recollecting), planning for future action (thinking and considering), acting (practice, experience, and learning), and evaluating (interpreting and assessing outcomes). We propose a model that embraces these four sub-areas and three key aspects of reflection: problem-solving, action orientation and critical reflection. We align these key aspects with level of criticality in a framework with detailed descriptors. It is hoped that these elements, combined together, demonstrate the complexities of reflection in a better, clearer way so that those struggling to adopt reflective practice will now be able to do so without much difficulty.

Author contributions

MM contributed to conception and written the first draft of the manuscript. RR contributed in the discussion of the topic. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

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Keywords: criticality, reflection, revised model, reflective practice, problematizing

Citation: Mohamed M, Rashid RA and Alqaryouti MH (2022) Conceptualizing the complexity of reflective practice in education. Front. Psychol . 13:1008234. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1008234

Received: 31 July 2022; Accepted: 28 September 2022; Published: 19 October 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Mohamed, Rashid and Alqaryouti. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Misrah Mohamed, [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Global Applications of Culturally Competent Health Care: Guidelines for Practice pp 97–112 Cite as

Critical Reflection

• Larry Purnell Ph.D., R.N., FAAN 4 , 5 , 6  
• First Online: 03 July 2018

2695 Accesses

Critical reflection, sometimes referred to as cultural self-awareness, is a purposeful, vital, careful evaluation of one’s own values, beliefs, and cultural heritage in order to have an awareness of how these qualities can influence patient care. However, critical reflection goes beyond solely awareness by examining and critiquing the assumptions of one’s values and beliefs. It includes an examination of one’s own cultural values that have the potential to be in conflict with the values of others and, as a result, hinder therapeutic relationships and effective patient care outcomes. A number of models related to critical thinking are reviewed and include Dewey’s model of reflective learning, Habermas’s model of critical reflection, Kolb’s model of experiential learning, and feminist theory. In addition, recommendations for clinical practice, administration, education and training, and research are addressed. Tools to help practitioners assess their views and values related to bias are included as appendices.

Guideline : Nurses shall engage in critical reflection of their own values, beliefs, and cultural heritage in order to have an awareness of how these qualities and issues can impact culturally congruent care . Douglas et al. ( 2014 : 110)

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Appendix 1: Promoting Cultural and Linguistic Competency

1.1 self-assessment checklist for personnel providing primary healthcare services.

Please select A, B, or C for each item listed below.

A = Things I do frequently, or statement applies to me to a great degree

B = Things I do occasionally, or statement applies to me to a moderate degree

C = Things I do rarely or never, or statement applies to me to minimal degree or not at all

1.1.1 Physical Environment, Materials, and Resources

_____ 1. I display pictures, posters, artworks, and other decors that reflect the cultures and ethnic backgrounds of clients served by my program or agency.

_____ 2. I ensure that magazines, brochures, and other printed materials in reception areas are of interest to and reflect the different cultures and languages of individuals and families served by my program or agency.

_____ 3. When using videos, films, or other media resources for health education, treatment, or other interventions, I ensure that they reflect the culture and ethnic backgrounds of individuals and families served by my program or agency.

_____ 4. I ensure that printed information disseminated by my agency or program takes into consideration accuracy and without bias.

1.1.2 Communication Styles

_____ 5. When interacting with individuals and families who have limited English proficiency, I always keep in mind that:

* Limitations in English proficiency are in no way a reflection of their level of intellectual functioning.

* Their limited ability to speak the language of the dominant culture has no bearing on their ability to communicate effectively in their language of origin.

* They may neither be literate in their language of origin nor in English.

______ 6. I use bilingual/bicultural or multilingual/multicultural staff and/or personnel and volunteers who are skilled or certified in the provision of medical interpretation services during treatment, interventions, meetings, or other events for individuals and families who need or prefer this level of assistance.

______ 7. For individuals and families who speak languages or dialects other than English, I attempt to learn and use key words so that I am better able to communicate with them during assessment, treatment, or other interventions.

______ 8. I attempt to determine any familial colloquialisms used by individuals or families that may impact on assessment, treatment, health promotion and education, or other interventions.

______ 9. For those who request or need this service, I ensure that all notices and communiqués to individuals and families are written in their language of origin.

_____ 10. I understand that it may be necessary to use alternatives to written communications for some individuals and families, as word of mouth may be a preferred method of receiving information.

_____ 11. I understand the principles and practices of linguistic competency and:

* Apply them within my program or agency

* Advocate for them within my program or agency

_____ 12. I understand the implications of health literacy within the context of my roles and responsibilities.

_____ 13. I use alternative formats and varied approaches to communicate and share information with individuals and/or their family members who experience disability.

1.1.3 Values and Attitudes

_____ 14. I avoid imposing values that may conflict or be inconsistent with those of cultures or ethnic groups other than my own.

_____ 15. I screen books, movies, and other media resources for negative cultural, ethnic, or racial stereotypes before sharing them with individuals and families served by my program or agency.

_____ 16. I intervene in an appropriate manner when I observe other staff or clients within my program or agency engaging in behaviors that show cultural insensitivity, racial biases, and prejudice.

_____ 17. I recognize and accept that individuals from culturally diverse backgrounds may desire varying degrees of acculturation into the dominant culture.

_____ 18. I understand and accept that family is defined differently by different cultures (e.g., extended family members, fictive kin, godparents).

_____ 19. I accept and respect that male-female roles may vary significantly among different cultures (e.g., who makes major decisions for the family).

_____ 20. I understand that age and life cycle factors must be considered in interactions with individuals and families (e.g., high value placed on the decision of elders, the role of eldest male or female in families, or roles and expectation of children within the family).

_____ 21. Even though my professional or moral viewpoints may differ, I accept individuals and families as the ultimate decision-makers for services and supports impacting their lives.

_____ 22. I recognize that the meaning or value of medical treatment and health education may vary greatly among cultures.

_____ 23. I accept that religion and other beliefs may influence how individuals and families respond to illnesses, disease, and death.

_____ 24. I understand that the perception of health, wellness, and preventive health services has different meanings to different cultural groups.

_____ 25. I recognize and understand that beliefs and concepts of emotional well-being vary significantly from culture to culture.

_____ 26. I understand that beliefs about mental illness and emotional disability are culturally based. I accept that responses to these conditions and related treatments/interventions are heavily influenced by culture.

_____ 27. I recognize and accept that folk and religious beliefs may influence an individual’s or family’s reaction and approach to a child born with a disability or later diagnosed with a disability, genetic disorder, or special healthcare needs.

_____ 28. I understand that grief and bereavement are influenced by culture.

_____ 29. I accept and respect that customs and beliefs about food, its value, preparation, and use are different from culture to culture.

_____ 30. I seek information from individuals, families, or other key community informants that will assist in service adaptation to respond to the needs and preferences of culturally and ethnically diverse groups served by my program or agency.

_____ 31. Before visiting or providing services in the home setting, I seek information on acceptable behaviors, courtesies, customs, and expectations that are unique to the culturally diverse groups served by my program or agency.

_____ 32. I keep abreast of the major health and mental health concerns and issues for ethnically and racially diverse client populations residing in the geographic locale served by my program or agency.

_____ 33. I am aware of specific health and mental health disparities and their prevalence within the communities served by my program or agency.

_____ 34. I am aware of the socioeconomic and environmental risk factors that contribute to health and mental health disparities or other major health problems of culturally and linguistically diverse populations served by my program or agency.

_____ 35. I am well versed in the most current and proven practices, treatments, and interventions for the delivery of health and mental healthcare to specific racial, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic groups within the geographic locale served by my agency or program.

_____ 36. I avail myself to professional development and training to enhance my knowledge and skills in the provision of services and supports to culturally and linguistically diverse groups.

_____ 37. I advocate for the review of my program’s or agency’s mission statement, goals, policies, and procedures to ensure that they incorporate principles and practices that promote cultural and linguistic competence.

Reprinted with Permission: Tawara D. Goode • National Center for Cultural Competence • Georgetown University Center for Child & Human Development • University Center for Excellence in Developmental Disabilities, Education, Research & Service • Adapted Promoting Cultural Competence and Cultural Diversity for Personnel Providing Services and Supports to Children with Special Health Care Needs and their Families • June 1989 (Revised 2009).

SCORING: This checklist is intended to heighten the awareness and sensitivity of personnel to the importance of cultural and linguistic cultural competence in health, mental health, and human service settings. It provides concrete examples of the kinds of beliefs, attitudes, values, and practices which foster cultural and linguistic competence at the individual or practitioner level. There is no answer key with correct responses. However, if you frequently responded “C,” you may not necessarily demonstrate beliefs, attitudes, values, and practices that promote cultural and linguistic competence within health and mental healthcare delivery programs.

Appendix 2: Promoting Cultural and Linguistic Competency

1.1 self-assessment checklist for personnel providing services and supports in early intervention and early childhood settings.

Directions : Please select A, B, or C for each item listed below.

______ 1. I display pictures, posters, and other materials that reflect the cultures and ethnic backgrounds of children and families served in my early childhood program or setting.

______ 2. I select props for the dramatic play/housekeeping area that are culturally diverse (e.g., dolls, clothing, cooking utensils, household articles, furniture).

______ 3. I ensure that the book/literacy area has pictures and storybooks that reflect the different cultures of children and families served in my early childhood program or setting.

______ 4. I ensure that tabletop toys and other play accessories (that depict people) are representative of the various cultural and ethnic groups both within my community and the society in general.

______ 5. I read a variety of books exposing children in my early childhood program or setting to various life experiences of cultures and ethnic groups other than their own.

______ 6. When such books are not available, I provide opportunities for children and their families to create their own books and include them among the resources and materials in my early childhood program or setting.

______ 7. I adapt the above referenced approaches when providing services, supports, and other interventions in the home setting.

______ 8. I encourage and provide opportunities for children and their families to share experiences through storytelling, puppets, marionettes, or other props to support the “oral tradition” common among many cultures.

______ 9. I plan trips and community outings to places where children and their families can learn about their own cultural or ethnic history as well as the history of others.

_____ 10. I select videos, films, or other media resources reflective of diverse cultures to share with children and families served in my early childhood program or setting.

_____ 11. I play a variety of music and introduce musical instruments from many cultures.

_____ 12. I ensure that meals provided include foods that are unique to the cultural and ethnic backgrounds of children and families served in my early childhood program or setting.

_____ 13. I provide opportunities for children to cook or sample a variety of foods typically served by different cultural and ethnic groups other than their own.

_____ 14. If my early childhood program or setting consists entirely of children and families from the same cultural or ethnic group, I feel it is important to plan an environment and implement activities that reflect the cultural diversity within the society at large.

_____ 15. I am cognizant of and ensure that curricula I use include traditional holidays celebrated by the majority culture, as well as those holidays that are unique to the culturally diverse children and families served in my early childhood program or setting.

_____ 16. For children who speak languages or dialects other than English, I attempt to learn and use key words in their language so that I am better able to communicate with them.

_____ 17. I attempt to determine any familial colloquialisms used by children and families that will assist and/or enhance the delivery of services and supports.

_____ 18. I use visual aids, gestures, and physical prompts in my interactions with children who have limited English proficiency.

_____ 19. When interacting with parents and other family members who have limited English proficiency, I always keep in mind that:

____ (a) Limitation in English proficiency is in no way a reflection of their level of intellectual functioning.

____ (b) Their limited ability to speak the language of the dominant culture has no bearing on their ability to communicate effectively in their language of origin.

____ (c) They may neither be literate in their language of original English.

_____ 20. I ensure that all notices and communiqués to parents are written in their language of origin.

_____ 21. I understand that it may be necessary to use alternatives to written communications for some families, as word of mouth may be a preferred method of receiving information.

_____ 22. I understand the principles and practices of linguistic competency and:

(a) Apply them within my early childhood program or setting

(b) Advocate for them within my program or agency

_____ 23. I use bilingual or multilingual staff and/or trained/certified foreign language interpreters for meetings, conferences, or other events for parents and family members who may require this level of assistance.

_____ 24. I encourage and invite parents and family members to volunteer and assist with activities regardless of their ability to speak English.

_____ 25. I use alternative formats and varied approaches to communicate with children and/or their family members who experience disability.

_____ 26. I arrange accommodations for parents and family members who may require communication assistance to ensure their full participation in all aspects of the early childhood program (e.g., hearing impaired, physical disability, visually impaired, not literate or low literacy, etc.).

_____ 27. I accept and recognize that there are often differences between language used in early childhood/early intervention settings, or at “school,” and in the home setting.

_____ 28. I avoid imposing values that may conflict or be inconsistent with those of cultures or ethnic groups other than my own.

_____ 29. I discourage children from using racial and ethnic slurs by helping them understand that certain words can hurt others.

_____ 30. I screen books, movies, and other media resources for negative cultural, ethnic, racial, or religious stereotypes before sharing them with children and their families served in my early childhood program or setting.

_____ 31. I provide activities to help children learn about and accept the differences and similarities in all people as an ongoing component of program curricula.

_____ 32. I intervene in an appropriate manner when I observe other staff or parents within my program or agency engaging in behaviors that show cultural insensitivity, bias, or prejudice.

_____ 33. I recognize and accept that individuals from culturally diverse backgrounds may desire varying degrees of acculturation into the dominant culture.

_____ 34. I understand and accept that family is defined differently by different cultures (e.g., extended family members, fictive kin, godparents).

_____ 35. I accept and respect that male-female roles in families may vary significantly among different cultures (e.g., who makes major decisions for the family, play and social interactions expected of male and female children).

_____ 36. I understand that age and life cycle factors must be considered in interactions with families (e.g., high value placed on the decisions or child-rearing practices of elders or the role of the eldest female in the family).

_____ 37. Even though my professional or moral viewpoints may differ, I accept the family/parents as the ultimate decision-makers for services and supports for their children.

_____ 38. I accept that religion, spirituality, and other beliefs may influence how families respond to illness, disease, and death.

_____ 39. I recognize and understand that beliefs and concepts of mental health or emotional well-being, particularly for infants and young children, vary significantly from culture to culture.

_____ 40. I recognize and accept that familial folklore, religious, or spiritual beliefs may influence a family’s reaction and approach to a child born with a disability or later diagnosed with a disability or special healthcare needs.

_____ 41. I understand that beliefs about mental illness and emotional disability are culturally based. I accept that responses to these conditions and related treatments/interventions are heavily influenced by culture.

_____ 42. I understand that the healthcare practices of families served in my early childhood program or setting may be rooted in cultural traditions.

_____ 43. I recognize that the meaning or value of early childhood education or early intervention may vary greatly among cultures.

_____ 44. I understand that traditional approaches to disciplining children are influenced by culture.

_____ 45. I understand that families from different cultures will have different expectations of their children for acquiring toileting, dressing, feeding, and other self-help skills.

_____ 46. I accept and respect that customs and beliefs about food, its value, preparation, and use are different from culture to culture.

_____ 47. Before visiting or providing services in the home setting, I seek information on acceptable behaviors, courtesies, customs, and expectations that are unique to families of specific cultural groups served in my early childhood program or setting.

_____ 48. I advocate for the review of my program’s or agency’s mission statement, goals, policies, and procedures to ensure that they incorporate principles and practices that promote cultural diversity, cultural competence, and linguistic competence.

_____ 49. I seek information from family members or other key community informants that will assist me to respond effectively to the needs and preferences of culturally and linguistically diverse children and families served in my early childhood program or setting.

Reprinted with Permission: Tawara D. Goode • National Center for Cultural Competence • Georgetown University Center for Child & Human Development • University Center for Excellence in Developmental Disabilities, Education, Research & Service • Adapted Promoting Cultural Competence and Cultural Diversity for Personnel Providing Services and Supports to Children with Special Health Care Needs and their Families • June 1989 (Revised 2009).

SCORING: This checklist is intended to heighten the awareness and sensitivity of personnel to the importance of cultural diversity, cultural competence, and linguistic competence in early childhood settings. It provides concrete examples of the kinds of practices that foster such an environment. There is no answer key with correct responses. However, if you frequently responded “C,” you may not necessarily demonstrate practices that promote a culturally diverse and culturally competent learning environment for children and families within your classroom, program, or agency.

Appendix 3: Personal Self-Assessment of Antibias Behavior

Directions : Using the rating scale of NEVER to ALWAYS, assess yourself for each item by placing an “X” on the appropriate place along each continuum. When you have completed the checklist, review your responses to identify areas in need of improvement. Create specific goals to address the areas in which you would like to improve.

I educate myself about the culture and experiences of other racial, religious, ethnic and socioeconomic groups by reading and attending classes, workshops, cultural events, etc.

Never ________________________ Always

I spend time reflecting on my own upbringing and childhood to better understand my own biases and the ways I may have internalized the prejudicial messages I received.

I look at my own attitudes and behaviors as an adult to determine the ways they may be contributing to or combating prejudice in society.

I evaluate my use of language to avoid terms or phrases that may be degrading or hurtful to other groups.

I avoid stereotyping and generalizing other people based on their group identity.

Never __________________________ Always

I value cultural differences and avoid statements such as “I never think of you as______________,” which discredits differences.

Never _________________________ Always

I am comfortable discussing issues of racism, anti-Semitism and other forms of prejudice with others.

I am open to other people’s feedback about ways in which my behavior may be culturally insensitive or offensive to others.

I give equal attention to other people regardless of race, religion, gender, socioeconomic class or other difference.

I am comfortable giving constructive feedback to someone of another race, gender, age or physical ability.

The value of diversity is reflected in my work, which includes a wide range of racial, religious, ethnic and socioeconomic groups, even when these groups are not personally represented in my community.

I work intentionally to develop inclusive practices, such as considering how the time, location and cost of scheduled meetings and programs might inadvertently exclude certain groups.

I work to increase my awareness of biased content in television programs, newspapers and advertising.

I take time to notice the environment of my home, office, house of worship and children’s school, to ensure that visual media represent diverse groups, and I advocate for the addition of such materials if they are lacking.

When other people use biased language and behavior, I feel comfortable speaking up, asking them to refrain and stating my reasons.

I contribute to my organization’s achievement of its diversity goals through programming and by advocating for hiring practices that contribute to a diverse workforce.

I demonstrate my commitment to social justice in my personal life by engaging in activities to achieve equity.

This activity was adapted from “Commitment to Combat Racism” by Dr. Beverly Tatum & Andrea Ayvazian in White Awareness: Handbook for Anti-Racism Training by Judy H. Katz. ©1978 by the University of Oklahoma Press, Norman. Reprinted by permission of the publisher. All rights reserved.

Permission was also granted from the Anti-Defamation League, Education Division, A WORLD OF DIFFERENCE ® Institute © 2007 Anti-Defamation League: www.adl.org/education ; email: [email protected].

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Purnell, L. (2018). Critical Reflection. In: Douglas, M., Pacquiao, D., Purnell, L. (eds) Global Applications of Culturally Competent Health Care: Guidelines for Practice. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69332-3_10

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69332-3_10

Published : 03 July 2018

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