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Wetlands in Ethiopia: Lessons From 20 years of Research, Policy and Practice

• Wetlands in the Developing World
• Open access
• Published: 10 February 2021
• Volume 41 , article number  20 , ( 2021 )

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• Alan Dixon   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9898-0806 1 ,
• Adrian Wood 2 &
• Afework Hailu 3  

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Throughout sub-Saharan Africa wetlands provide ecosystem services that are critical to the development needs of many people. Local wetland use, however, is often at odds with broader national policy goals in which narratives of conservation and protection dominate, hence a recurring challenge is how to reconcile these tensions through the development of policies and field practice that deliver sustainable development. In this paper we examine the extent to which this challenge has been achieved in Ethiopia, charting the changes in wetlands policy and discourse over the last twenty years while reviewing the contribution of the multidisciplinary Ethiopian Wetlands Research Programme (EWRP) (1997–2000). Our analysis suggests that despite EWRP having a significant legacy in developing national interest in wetlands among research, government and non-governmental organisations, its more holistic social-ecological interpretation of wetland management remains neglected within a policy arena dominated by specific sectoral interests and little recognition of the needs of local people. In exploring the impacts at the local level, recent investigations with communities in Ilu Aba Bora Zone highlight adjustments in wetland use that famers attribute to environmental, economic and social change, but which also evidence the adaptive nature of wetland-based livelihoods.

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Wetlands and Sustainable Development

Over the last 40 years the narrative of ‘wetlands under threat’ has dominated the global discourse on wetlands, driving subsequent wetland policy, planning and management, which has for the most part remained focused on delivering conservation outcomes (Maltby 1986 ; Dugan 1990 ; Farrier and Tucker 2000 ; Barker 2009 ). There is of course a rationale for this; Davidson ( 2014 ) suggests that between 54–57 % of the world’s wetlands have been lost since 1900, and this has commonly been attributed to the rapid increase in agricultural drainage, irrigation schemes, dam construction and conversion for residential or industrial use that go hand in hand with economic growth-centred interpretations of ‘development’ (Maltby 1986 ; Adams 1992 ; Hughes 1996 ; Schuyt 2005 ; Mafabi 2005 ; Wood et al. 2013 ). Despite the notable successes of the Ramsar Secretariat and large international NGOs in mitigating and reducing wetland loss though global awareness-raising campaigns and legislative action, these pressures arguably remain more acute throughout the developing world in areas where people’s livelihoods and very survival depend on wetland use.

Nowhere is this more evident than in Africa, where wetlands constitute approximately 16 per cent of the continent’s total area and have long been recognised as playing a critical role in supporting the livelihoods of people in marginal areas through their provision of a range of ecosystem services (Trapnell and Clothier 1937 ; Turner 1986 ; Hollis 1990 ; Scoones 1991 ; Adams 1993 ; Woodhouse et al. 2000 ; MA 2005 ; Wood et al. 2013 ). In northern Nigeria, for example, seasonally flooded depressions known as ‘fadamas’ have supported the livelihoods of hundreds of thousands of smallholder farmers for generations (Tarhule and Woo 1997 ; Dan-Azumi 2010 ; Tanko 2013 ), while similarly across central and southern Africa ‘dambos’ continue to support water provision, fishing, grazing, seasonal agriculture and wild plant collection (Whitlow 1983 ; Bell et al. 1987 ; Roberts 1988 ; Wood and Thawe 2013 ). However, despite a plethora of academic work drawing attention to this, and evidence that local-level wetland use throughout Africa has often occurred in a sustainable manner in the past, the significance of smaller wetlands has remained under-recognised in the Eurocentric global wetlands discourse for many years. While serious consideration of the links between livelihoods and wetlands began to emerge during the 1980s and 1990s in terms of ‘traditional’ non-destructive uses (Marchand and Udo 1989 ; Davis 1994 ; Roggeri 1998 , Gawler 2002 ), it was the 2000s before a more explicit focus on wetlands and poverty reduction took place (Silvius et al. 2000 ; Wetlands International 2005 ; Mundy 2009 ; McCartney et al. 2010 ; Wood et al. 2013 ) due in many respects to the influence of the Millennium Development Goals and thereafter the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) (MA 2005 ).

In emphasising the inter-relationships between ecosystem services and development outcomes, and especially the trade-offs that often occur between these, the MA has been particularly influential in reframing wetlands as social-ecological systems. This has shifted ideas about wetland management beyond simplistic neo-Malthusian interpretations of people-environment relationships and inevitable environmental destruction, to systemic approaches that emphasise the dynamic and adaptive inter-relationships between ecological and social systems at different scales. In recent years social-ecological theory has presented various approaches (see Berkes et al. 2003 ; Ostrom 2009 ; Binder et al. 2013 ; Virapongse et al. 2016 ; Colding and Barthel 2019 ) for analysing environment-society interactions which draw upon widespread empirical evidence of the importance of human agency; people continuously adapt, organize and negotiate their relationship with resources and the environment, and have an inherent interest in sustaining the social, economic and environmental benefits from this relationship. Sustainable social-ecological systems are characteristically resilient and able to buffer and absorb shocks and pressures whilst continuing to function, whereas less resilient systems are more sensitive to external pressures, vulnerable to environmental degradation and ultimately unsustainable (Adger 2000 ; Folke et al. 2002 ; Berkes et al. 2003 ). A critical prerequisite to resilience is adaptive capacity, which in ecological systems is linked to biodiversity and the heterogeneity of landscapes, while in social systems it is enhanced through knowledge diversity, social networks and institutions (Berkes et al. 2003 ). In translating this into policy and practice, much attention has focussed on ‘adaptive co-management’ as a transdisciplinary approach that seeks to work with resource users, particularly at the community level, to identify and enhance institutional structures, knowledge sharing networks and appropriate monitoring systems in order to build adaptive capacity (Olsson et al. 2004 ; Armitage et al. 2009 ).

Within this context the key challenge for Africa’s critically important smaller wetlands becomes arguably less about how to conserve and protect them from people, and more about how to ensure their ecosystem services and livelihood benefits can be sustained for the future in the face of numerous shocks and pressures. Rapid population growth, socio-economic change, and the prevalence of government policies that uncouple economic growth and poverty reduction from environmental concerns present such challenges to which local wetland users must adapt. Indeed, with wetlands in Africa already becoming a ‘new agricultural frontier’ (Dixon and Wood 2003 ; Maconachie et al. 2009 ) wetland use has itself emerged as an adaptive strategy to land shortages, land degradation and a decline in the quality and quantity of rain-fed harvests in upland farmland. Moreover, as the impacts of climate change become more acute, the ecosystem services derived from small wetlands are likely to constitute an ever-increasing component of people’s livelihoods (Wood et al. 2013 ; Langan et al. 2018 ; Pettinotti et al. 2018 ). In this paper we reflect on the extent to which these challenges have been addressed in Ethiopia, where wetlands are ubiquitous landforms and where, like the rest of Africa, many local communities depend on them for food and livelihood security. In particular, we explore the legacy of the Ethiopian Wetlands Research Programme (EWRP) (1997–2000) as the first initiative to place a more nuanced, people-focussed view of wetlands on the national agenda, and discuss its influence on wetland discourse, policy and practice in Ethiopia over the last twenty years. We return to field practice in the final part of the paper, drawing on recent field investigations undertaken with some communities with whom EWRP worked. Here we consider how wetland use and management has changed at the local level and how users have responded to wider social-ecological and economic change linked to Ethiopia’s development. We conclude by identifying lessons for practice and policy from our exploration at different levels over the last 20 years.

Wetlands in Ethiopia

The abundance and distribution of wetlands throughout Ethiopia remains unclear not least because of inconsistencies in the ways they are identified or delineated. Recent work (Abebe and Geheb 2003 ; Bezabih and Mosissa 2017 ; EWNHS 2018 ) tends to either draw on reports by wildlife conservation organisations (Hillman 1993 ; Abunje 2003 ) or those of government departments which have focussed on Ethiopia’s large lake-wetland complexes or river valleys, hence identification of what constitutes a wetland often reflects the agenda of those undertaking the survey. As noted elsewhere, this is often to the neglect of smaller but no less important wetlands (Wood et al. 2013 ). Nonetheless, estimates suggest wetlands cover 1–2 % of the country’s total land area, and typically occur as highland riverine swamps across the central plateau, Rift Valley lakes, and lowland floodplains such as those found in the Baro-Akobo system (Abunje 2003 ; Wood et al. 2016 ; EWNHS 2018 ). Despite Ethiopia not ratifying the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, many wetlands are internationally recognised for their biodiversity; Bird Life International ( 2002 ) suggest that 31 out of 68 designated Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in Ethiopia also fulfil the criteria for Ramsar designation. The Berga wetland near Addis Ababa, for example, is an internationally recognised protected habitat for the critically endangered White-winged Flufftail (Ash and Atkins 2009 ).

Ethiopia’s wetlands have long been used by local populations to derive livelihood benefits. Fishing is an important livelihood strategy in the Rift Valley lakes and Lake Tana, while in riverine floodplains and small headwater swamps, agricultural drainage and cultivation, as well as livestock grazing, are widely practised (McCann 1995 ; Tesfaye and Wolff 2014 ). The agricultural use of wetlands, known as ‘ bone’ in some areas, typically involves drainage or at the very least the utilisation of residual moisture during dry periods of the year to cultivate crops that coincide with the food-insecure period caused by the end of the upland maize supply. Wetlands have also traditionally provided grazing resources for cattle, medicinal plants, craft-making and construction material, and water for domestic consumption. Evidence suggests that the agricultural conversion of wetlands expanded significantly throughout the 20th century as an adaptation to declining upland yields and population pressure, but also as a direct and indirect result of the application of government policies on forced resettlement, upland coffee expansion, the commercialisation of agriculture and food security targets in some parts of the country (Dixon 2003a ). Consequently, from the 1990s onwards concerns were raised about the rate of agricultural development, its potential impact on wetlands and livelihoods in the long-term, and the capacity of local wetland management systems to adapt to these changes.

The Ethiopian Wetlands Research Programme (EWRP)

These concerns provided the rationale for EWRP, a three-year multidisciplinary EU-funded project developed in 1997 to investigate the dynamics of wetland use in Ethiopia’s western highlands. The programme involved collaboration between universities, NGOs, government institutions and local wetland stakeholders, with implementation initially targeting three wereda s (districts) in Ilu Aba Bora (formerly Illubabor) Zone. While EWRP’s overall (and arguably ambitious) goal was to ‘ …achieve the sustainable management of wetlands throughout the area ’ (Wood and Dixon 2000 , p4), the programme first sought to understand in detail the environmental and socio-economic processes and impacts of wetland utilisation, before seeking to develop and test sustainable wetland management practices in the field, building on local knowledge. Towards the end of the programme, activities centred on disseminating the findings both vertically in terms of informing wetland policy stakeholders within Ethiopia, and laterally through facilitating a range of farmer-to-farmer extension initiatives. Much has been written elsewhere about EWRP’s findings (see for example, Wood and Dixon 2000 ; Dixon 2003a , Dixon and Wood 2003 ) but it is perhaps useful here to revisit the key themes and issues emerging in order to reappraise their wider significance and influence since the programme’s completion in 2000.

Estimates in 1998 suggested that wetlands comprised 1.4 % of Ilu Aba Bora Zone’s total land area (227 km 2 out of 16,636 km 2 ) and approximately 21 % of this (48 km 2 ) was under cultivation by around 15,300 farmers with maize accounting for 92 % of the wetland crop. This area was less than originally expected, and according to farmers represented a decline from 27 % in 1990 (Wood and Dixon 2000 ). Prior to this, however, the pattern emerging was one of a steady increase in wetland agricultural use since the 1950s, with various peaks and troughs occurring in response to inward migration, prevailing food security conditions, and market opportunities. For poorer farmers, wetlands were regarded as safety nets during times of need, while for the more speculative asset-rich farmer, they provided opportunities for income diversification (Mulugeta 2004 ). Moreover, each wereda (and indeed each community studied) was found to respond differently; wetland drainage and cultivation was a function of each social-ecological context in which the distribution and availability of other livelihood assets played an important role. An increase in the number of cattle, for example, meant that wetland cultivation ceased in some areas in order to provide grazing resources. Similarly, where farmers experienced a shortage of wetland sedge for roofing, wetland cultivation declined (Dixon 2003a ).

This is indicative of what was perhaps one of the most critical aspects of EWRPs research findings; that wetland users possessed detailed, dynamic and adaptive local knowledge of wetlands in terms of environmental change and the impacts of their own interventions on the environment. Through a process of in-field experimentation, wetland users had developed a range of practices and strategies adapted to their specific environment, and which utilised soil and vegetation indicators of sustainability (Dixon 2003a ). Consequently, evidence for the Malthusian hypothesis of environmental collapse that initiated EWRP’s activities in the first place, failed to materialise. Rather, the research revealed that while environmental degradation characterised by declining water table elevation, ecological change and soil compaction does occur as a result of drainage and cultivation, this can be short-term and reversible. Moreover, farmers understand this process and adopt spatial and temporal rotational management strategies in their wetlands to balance environmental security with livelihood benefits. Critically, these strategies were found to be facilitated and supported by the presence of local institutions at the community level, which developed a set of commonly agreed rules of engagement for wetlands (Dixon and Wood 2007 ), much akin to many other sustainable common property resource systems (Ostrom 1990 ; Agrawal 2001 ; Pretty and Ward 2001 ). Wetlands represent a challenging environment for farmers, and only with coordination, reciprocity, and a shared vision of sustainability, can the benefits be maintained in the long-term.

Once this detailed picture of wetlands emerged, and following the identification of wetlands where ‘good practice’ was observed, EWRP began a programme of extension and dissemination of its findings and the local management lessons farmers had developed. This was delivered via workshops and short training courses for farmers and wetland stakeholders at the wereda and zonal government levels, a national workshop, radio broadcasts, farmer-to-farmer extension events, and the development of Oromiffa, Amharic and English extension booklets and briefing papers. In most cases, the ‘take home’ lessons from the programme included the following:

Wetlands can make an important contribution to livelihoods, food security and poverty reduction without undermining the natural resource base that supports these contributions. This is facilitated by wetland management strategies and practices that balance different uses;

Local people possess detailed environmental knowledge of the wetlands they use, and this shapes their interactions with them. While its dynamic and adaptive nature promotes sustainable development, some farmers lack the assets that enable them to apply their knowledge;

Working with local institutional arrangements is critical for delivering sustainable outcomes (or through actions that build capacity for institutional arrangements);

Not all wetlands and their users are the same; socio-economic differentiation (and social-ecological uniqueness) influences the dynamics of wetland use in different places;

Wetland policy-makers (conservation, water resources and agricultural development) need to consider these contexts; planners need to talk to wetland users and interventions should be participatory and sensitive to the local socio-ecological setting.

Some twenty years on these may come across as rather trite statements, particularly in the context of the aforementioned contemporary debates surrounding the importance of adaptive co-management, social-ecological resilience and adaptation, common pool resource management, and the ways in which the Ramsar Secretariat and NGOs have subsequently celebrated the role of local people in wetland management (IWMI 2014 ; Oviedo and Kenza Ali 2018 ; Ramsar 2018 ). At the time, however, EWRP’s work was embraced as the first systematic, sustained and multi-disciplinary investigation of wetlands in Ethiopia, not least by IUCN’s Wetlands and Water Resources Programme which sought to capitalise on EWRP’s momentum by co-ordinating an international conference on wetlands of Ethiopia, the publication of which (Abebe and Geheb 2003 ) became a seminal reference work for subsequent wetland studies. Moreover, in a country dominated by a focus on achieving food security through agricultural development, the significance of EWRP’s work lay in the suggestion that a win-win outcome for food security and the environment could be achieved (at least as long as EWRP’s recommendations were considered). It also raised some important issues and challenges for national level policy-makers in terms of how to reconcile competing sectoral interests in wetlands towards this potentially achievable win-win goal.

EWRP’s Institutional Legacy?

A number of institutional developments followed the completion of EWRP in 2000, the most important of which was the establishment by its national project coordinator of Ethiopia’s first wetlands-focussed NGO, the Ethio-Wetlands and Natural Resources Association (EWNRA) with the goal of ‘ ensuring sustainable wetland and ecosystem functions, services and attributes for the wellbeing of local communities and wider socioeconomic and environmental objectives ’ (EWNRA 2011 , p 19). Originally envisaged as a means of continuing the dissemination and extension of EWRP’s important messages within the country, EWNRA subsequently developed an extensive portfolio of community-focused participatory projects concerned with empowering communities in addressing environmental and development challenges. To date, EWNRA has worked on over 50 projects involving more than 500,000 beneficiaries and including stakeholders from conservation, development, agriculture and health sectors, as well as local and international NGOs and government departments. It now manages an annual budget of just under $3 m.

EWNRA has been informed and supported by another legacy of EWRP; Wetland Action (WA), a not-for-profit organisation was created by EWRP researchers in 2000 as a knowledge-sharing platform for the dissemination of EWRPs ideas and to facilitate collaborative action research among wetland practitioners, NGOs and academics in Africa and beyond. Post-EWRP, WA maintained close links with Ethiopia and used its growing network to connect EWNRA to international organisations, thereby building further institutional capacity. WA also continued to collaborate with EWNRA on various research projects that addressed questions surrounding community-based wetland management that emerged from the original research (Dixon 2005 ; Dixon and Wood 2007 ).

Since 2000, EWNRA’s wetland-related projects and activities have made specific contributions to the thinking about wetlands in Ethiopia. In its early years EWNRA continued to work closely with communities and local government in Ilu Aba Bora, Western Wellega and Jimma zones, most notably in the former where it addressed the wetland management challenges raised by the Ministry of Agriculture’s ‘Wetland Task Force’. Between 1999 and 2003, this policy sought to increase food production from wetlands in line with national food security targets by pressurising communities to double-crop their wetlands. When one community contested this on the grounds that it would degrade their wetland, EWNRA acted as an independent expert and negotiator in the argument, which the community eventually won. Meanwhile, EWNRA’s Wichi project (PHE 2012 ) developed EWRP’s work by focusing on the important social-ecological linkages between wetlands and their catchments, offsetting the potentially negative impacts of wetland agricultural intensification by embedding and institutionalising improvements to upland-based farming and livelihoods. At the time, this ‘Functional Landscape Approach’ (FLA) was positioned as a progressive shift in wetland management thinking within Ethiopia in terms of demonstrating the interdependence of conservation and development, upland and wetland, social and environmental processes, and the need for policy and practice to consider these. The Wichi project itself facilitated food and water security for over 2700 households in the area, while also building local wetland management institutional capacity among 148 community members and training government development workers (PHE 2012 ). EWNRA staff reported a high demand for similar training from local farmers and government workers in neighbouring areas.

EWNRA further established its position as the leading national NGO engaging in wetland practice and policy through its work around Lake Tana in Amhara region that promoted sustainable wetland use through catchment environmental and development interventions, and in Kefa zone, land use planning of two wetlands and their catchments was undertaken for the regional government with support from FAO. Beyond its field operations, EWNRA has also developed a strong advocacy presence within Ethiopia. It continues to develop and disseminate wetland extension material to NGOs and government, and has shared its experiences through national events such as the annual World Wetlands Day. Five regional and national workshops held between 2001 and 2014 (EWNRA 2005 , 2008 , 2009 , 2014 ) have showcased the contribution of wetlands to food security and both economic and social development, while acknowledging the importance of sustaining the environmental processes that underpin these benefits. These have explored the role of wetlands in addressing climate change (EWNRA 2009 ), reviewed the linkage between wetlands and watershed management (EWNRA 2014 ). Within these meetings there have been repeated calls to develop a national wetland policy, and EWNRA has lobbied vociferously for Ethiopia’s accession to the Ramsar Convention, supporting the country’s delegations at Ramsar COPs since the 2002 COP 8 in Spain. One might expect EWNRA, therefore, to have had a significant impact on the evolution of wetland management practice and policy in Ethiopia during the last 20 years, not least since its implementation and advocacy activities have aligned with a gradual shift in the global wetlands discourse away from ‘fortress conservation’ (Brockington 2002 ) to greater acknowledgement of the role of local people in sustainable wetland management, a focus on catchment-wetland linkages, ecosystem service restoration and of course the need for cross-sectoral engagement.

Evolving Wetlands Policy

Before turning to wetlands policy it is important to consider the wider context of social, economic, political and environmental change in Ethiopia. Indeed, the example above of the ‘wetlands task force’ illustrates well the ways in which wetland use and management has occurred at a multi-sectoral policy interface populated by a range of stakeholders with concerns ranging from agricultural productivity and food security, to health and water resource planning. This is itself nested within a national context of population growth, globalisation and environmental change. While a discussion of wider development trends in Ethiopia is beyond the scope of this paper, it is clear that Ethiopia has been one of Africa’s economic development success stories during the last twenty years, experiencing rapid acceleration in GNI (annual growth rates averaging 9.9 % between 2007 and 2018) significant and sustained levels of FDI and ODA, and a reduction in extreme poverty from 51 % in 2000 to 27 % in 2019. This has been despite a 70 % increase in population over the same period (World Bank 2020 ). The last twenty years have also witnessed significant investments in water and energy security typified by a series of controversial large dam projects (Abbink 2012 ), as well as transformation across the agricultural sector (Bachewe et al. 2017 ). However, whilst these macroeconomic indicators are impressive, they nonetheless mask regional differences and the continued multidimensional challenges of poverty across the country. Economic development has gone hand in hand with further agricultural expansion, land degradation and deforestation (Keenan et al. 2015 ; Getahun et al. 2013 ; Betru et al. 2019 ; Young et al. 2020 ), and concerns are growing about how these will exacerbate the impacts of climate change on the poorest and more vulnerable sections of society. Government policy, therefore, has the unenviable task of meeting economic growth and development targets, while also reducing environmental degradation, and as we now discuss, these polarised tensions continue to frame Ethiopia’s approach to wetlands.

Despite increasing interest in wetlands there has to date been no national specific co-ordinated policy on wetlands in Ethiopia. Instead, wetlands have occupied a cross-sectoral position in the policies of numerous government agencies which have often been contradictory (Amsalu and Addisu 2014 ). For example, the only mention of wetlands in the Ministry of Water Resources’ (later the Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Energy) Ethiopian Water Sector Strategy in 2002 related to the need to, “ Reclaim existing wetlands, and prevent the formation of the new ones… ” with a goal to “ carry out appropriate drainage works on all wetlands .” (MoWR 2001 , p4). This is despite an overarching commitment to water resources conservation and watershed management. Similarly, the Ministry of Finance and Economic Development’s ‘Rural Development Policy and Strategies’ (MoFED 2003 ) considered irrigation, water conservation, river diversion and dams as important means of developing food security. Meanwhile, although the agricultural use of wetlands has a long history, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development avoids any explicit mention of wetlands in its ‘Agricultural Sector Policy and Investment Framework 2010–2020’ where again irrigation, soil and water conservation, and watershed management are emphasised (MoARD 2010a ). Of particular note is the way this ministry’s Sustainable Land Management Programme, focused in the degraded areas, especially in the northern highlands, has taken a watershed management approach, but to date has paid little attention to the downslope impacts of improved water infiltration which have led to small / micro wetlands being regenerated and becoming locally important for vegetable production (Schmidt and Tadesse 2019 ). Clearly while the benefits that wetlands provide underpin development strategies, the connections between wetlands and these benefits are never explicitly recognised in policy. This is acutely evident in the way rice production has been heavily promoted over the last two decades, especially in the wetland areas of Gambella Region and Fogera in the Lake Tana Basin where there has been little recognition of upstream-downstream linkages (MoARD 2010b ; Alemu et al. 2018 ). This continued official lack of recognition of the dependency of agriculture and development on wetlands arguably creates a dangerous policy gap, rendering wetlands open to abuse particularly at decentralised levels of government.

Among those stakeholders concerned with environmental protection and conservation wetlands have received more attention. The Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) established in 1995 developed the work of the National Conservation Strategy of Ethiopia and enshrined in policy the need to rehabilitate and protect wetlands in the interest of conserving water resources, and where necessary undertake environmental impact assessment of any development (EPA 1997 ). More recently, the Climate Resilient Green Economy policy launched in 2012 (FDRE 2011 ) positions wetland management (in its broadest sense) as critical in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. In 2017, EPA’s policies and remit were subsumed into the newly created Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission (EFCCC), yet to date the commission has focused more on forest management, particularly carbon payments through REDD+. Notably in its most recent ‘State and Outlook of the Environment’ report it concedes that wetlands, “ …tend to be lightly mentioned in the environment and water related polices and strategies. There are no worth mentioning initiatives to protect wetlands. ” (EFCCC 2017 , p97).

With respect to a national wetland policy, this has long been discussed in Ethiopia since Abebe and Geheb ( 2003 ). This was followed up in 2008 in EWNRA’s national wetland workshop where a concluding resolution suggested “ Creating a National Commitment for Wetland Policy and Strategy in Ethiopia ” (EWNRA 2008 ). While a draft national law was also discussed at EWNRA’s 2009 workshop on ‘Wetlands and Climate Change’ (EWNRA 2009 ), the momentum on wetland policy development declined until the build up to the Ramsar COP in Dubai in 2018 where the NGO Wetlands International and the Norwegian government committed to supporting Ethiopia’s Ramsar accession and development of a national wetland policy. Since the COP, and as a result of technical assistance from Wetlands International, both through advisers in the EFCC Commission and the establishment of a country office and field projects, a draft wetland policy has been developed and progress made towards an application to join Ramsar. In both these processes EWNRA has also played a major consultative role. The draft proclamation for Wetland Protection and Sustainable Management focuses on maintaining the ecological character of Ethiopia’s wetlands and establishing protected wetlands. Throughout there is reference to sustainable development as being the goal for wetland management, but this is only defined in terms of a ‘ continued ability to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations ’. Some attention is given to present use, including agriculture, and the need for understanding traditional knowledge of wetland management as well as catchment linkages to ensure the sustainability of wetland use. However, there remains no explicit recognition of the livelihood or food security needs of wetland farmers, and here once again there is arguably a disconnect with different institutional priorities and the different situations in the field (although the draft is currently undergoing further review).

With regards joining the Ramsar Convention, there has been a long history of concern by Ethiopian authorities about the restrictions this could impose on the country. As a result, a technical study exploring the impact of Ramsar Convention ratification in Ethiopia was commissioned after the Ramsar COP in 2018 and has been reviewed by stakeholders both at a one-day meeting in July 2019 and through follow up consultations (Damtie and Arsano 2018 ). The aim was to advise the government and those concerned with Ethiopia’s Ramsar accession about the potential restrictions on further development of water resources and on the development of wetlands for agricultural production. The former relates to energy developments such as those recently made on the Omo and Blue Nile rivers, while the latter likely refers to lakeside farming in the Rift Valley and Lakes Tana and Turkana. The study concluded that the benefits of joining the Convention exceed the restrictions / costs, and stressed that the Ramsar Convention no longer focused only on conservation but now recognises sustainable development. The only immediate conflict was noted to be with the 2001 Ethiopian Water Sector Strategy (MoWR 2001 ).

In finalising the wetland policy there are also the different interests of the ten regional states in this federal country to be considered. In some regions, wetlands are important for seasonal food security (Feyissa et al. 2019 ), for commercial crop production (Takele 2010 ) and for irrigation and livestock grazing in the Rift Valley and the river valleys (Bondestam 1974 ). These will require specific recognition to address concerns of the communities and the regional states. This is possible, as the federal system allows regions to interpret the federal proclamations as they make their own laws and so address local needs, but will require sufficient flexibility in the over-arching federal law, something yet to be explored with respect to wetland policy. Beyond any regional fine-tuning of policy, there are also practicalities to be considered. In the first instance major challenges will exist for wetland policy implementation to be coordinated with other agencies, especially those responsible for agriculture and water. At the wereda level, the EFCC is poorly resourced compared to other ministries, especially MoARD which has three development agents living and working with communities in each kebele. At field level, such as the EWRP sites, there is a need to ensure that no conflicting advice is provided and that the dangers of top-down extension are avoided, recognising the rights of the farmers to use wetlands in their own adaptive way, alongside the need to balance ecosystem services to ensure sustainability (Wood and van Halsema 2008 ).

Notwithstanding these continuing challenges, the progress toward legal initiatives shows that despite a long absence of policy dialogue on wetlands, the voices of those in EWNRA and in government agencies like EPA and EFCCC are becoming more mainstream. However, even despite the promises of the draft wetland proclamation, policy in Ethiopia remains somewhat polarised and arguably continues to fall short of the desperately needed shift towards a more systemic and inter-sectoral recognition of the social-ecological value of wetlands to environment and society. With the notable exception of Uganda, few countries in sub-Saharan Africa have made significant progress in this regard, yet with such a rich legacy of research and practice across different agroecological environments, there is huge potential for Ethiopia to emerge as a regional leader in integrated wetlands policy and management.

The Local Perspective

We now turn to the question of what, if anything, has been the impact of these broader policy changes and debates on local wetland users and researchers. Certainly, one discernible legacy of EWRP and EWNRA’s work over the last 20 years has been the proliferation of studies within Ethiopia that have explored issues of wetland degradation, sustainability, and livelihoods, and in some cases these have drawn heavily on EWRP’s research approach (albeit in different geographical contexts) (Mulatu et al. 2013; Haji 2019 ; Yilma 2019 ). In mirroring the trends in policy discussed above, these have gone some way in highlighting the spatial and temporal experiences of people and wetland management from different parts of the country post-2000, yet most studies have similarly positioned continuing wetland use in almost identical narratives of environmental degradation and the need for conservation, and in doing so fail to critically evaluate their in-situ experiences in the context of EWRPs key findings and recommendations as highlighted earlier (Gebreselassie et al. 2014 ; Amsalu and Addisu 2014 ; Tulu and Desta 2015 ; Jigar et al. 2016 ; Moges et al. 2018 ; Giweta and Worku 2018 ; Tafa 2018 ; Wondie 2018 ; Haji 2019 ). Few evidence any significant engagement or consultation with wetland-users themselves.

There are exceptions, however, and some have explored in a more sensitive manner the social-ecological dynamics of wetland use. For instance, Mulatu et al. ( 2015 ) in their study of the socio-economic impacts of wetland cultivation among communities in South-Bench, report a continued high dependency of local people on wetlands for agriculture (driven by upland food shortages) yet an overall decline in livelihood benefits due to the associated loss of natural vegetation. Here, ambiguous land tenure issues are identified as a barrier to sustainable use. In the Cheffa wetland in the Awash Basin, Bekele ( 2011 ) similarly attributes emerging conflicts between wetland users to a wetland institutional vacuum at the local and government level; again, population pressure and a growing dependency on wetland resources among the wider population is further exacerbating these tensions. In community-based work in Dale wereda , SNNPR, Babu and Teferi ( 2015 ) meanwhile highlight the emergence of a classic ‘tragedy of the commons’ scenario characterised by overgrazing in wetlands along the Gidabo River system, as well as drainage and the encroachment of settlement. Here, and as noted by Babu ( 2015 ) in Bule Hora Wereda in Oromia Region, population pressure has also been linked to catchment deforestation, and the planting of both eucalyptus and khat (Catha edulis) in wetlands. Notwithstanding some methodological issues, it is difficult to avoid drawing the conclusion from these and the many other small-scale empirical studies that ‘things are getting worse’ for wetlands and wetland-users in their different situations throughout Ethiopia, and there is scant evidence of any innovative practice and adaptive management among wetland users that EWRP research identified and EWNRA disseminated. While this no doubt reflects the agenda and positionality of these studies (and, if anything, the enduring and permeating presence of the polarising conservation-development arguments) it is still arguably indicative of a lack of progress in studies to integrate a more social-ecological analysis of wetlands and contribute this to the national agenda.

In attempting to investigate further the situation for farmers, in 2017 we visited three wetland communities in Metu wereda , Ilu Aba Bora Zone. Two of these – Tulube Mendido and Bake Chora Kemisse - were study sites with whom EWRP had collaborated some 20 years earlier during their programme of participatory research and capacity-building activities, whilst the third – Wichi – was the site of EWNRA’s catchment management activities between 2005 and 2008. The aim here was to identify what changes had occurred in wetland management and people’s livelihoods since the end of these projects, and in particular to ascertain any influence the projects had achieved. At each site the format for discussion was a group meeting of between 6 and 10 farmers in which a timeline was used as a participatory focusing exercise. Whilst these discussions were by no means comprehensive, they do provide a snapshot of some trends and issues that have emerged.

Tulube Wetland

Tulube wetland (8°19’55.75"N 35°33’15.30"E) is a small headwater wetland of approximately 6 hectares that is typical of those throughout the western highlands in terms of its Cyperus latifolius climax vegetation (known locally as cheffe ) and a seasonal flooding regime (Dixon 2003a ). Agricultural cultivation of this wetland reportedly dates back to the later years of the Haile Selassie era (1960–1974), although it was abandoned around 1983 in response to declining crop productivity but also a shortage of oxen for draught power. During EWRP’s work in 1998 the wetland was classed as ‘regenerating’, with human activity in the wetland limited to the collection of cheffe , medicinal plants and water. Post-2000, however, the most significant change in wetland use has been the start of wetland cultivation once again in 2003–2004 following the intervention of the government’s ‘wetland task force’. Monocropping of maize, which was common before 1983, has also been superseded by the double cropping of tef (Eragrostis tef), sugar cane, potato, pepper, tomato, cabbage and onion, alongside maize. While farmers were positive about this ‘enforcement’, they also acknowledged a trade-off with the reduced supply of cheffe , so that now upland vetiver grass provides thatching materials. The traditional ‘ Abba Laga ’ wetland management institution which previously co-ordinated wetland use, was also noted to have declined with government development agents replacing them as the de facto decision-maker. Moreover, farmers report an overall decline in the yield from wetland cultivation compared to the Haile Selassie era:

“We used to use the produce from wetlands for three months of the year; now this has declined to one or a half a month… we are replacing it with nothing – we are food insecure for the other months” .

In offering an explanation for this observed decline, farmers cite soil degradation linked to more prolonged cultivation, declining fertility, catchment deforestation, and the persistence of erratic rainfall, especially during the last decade. The increase in eucalyptus planting in the catchment was also linked to downslope water shortages, yet interestingly, farmers link their own native tree-planting actions in the catchment as having a positive, if short-term, impact on rainfall and the availability of moisture and, critically, this is something they attribute to their past experiences with EWRP and EWNRA:

“… we learned not to do harmful things in the catchment, and in the wetland we became more aware of degradation. We learned that we can restore the wetland and catchment through certain practices. That is what we have to do now” .

While this indicates that farmer understand well the causes of wetland degradation and possess the knowledge of how to address this, when it comes to food security alone from wetlands there was unanimous agreement that crop-raiding by wild animals constitutes the biggest threat:

“The biggest problem is wild animals. With land degradation we can control this through soil and water management … we are doing that… but we are not able to control or reduce the impacts of the wild animal population. This has increased over time. Even the animals are taking products from our homes. This is the worst problem”.

As discussed elsewhere (see Quirin and Dixon 2012 ) the issue of crop raiding in wetland agriculture is inextricably linked to the demise of Abba Laga . This has been attributed to poor support from external government institutions, but also a concurrent move towards individual rather than collective action characterised by different farmers growing different crops and using their wetland plots in different ways.

Bake Chora Wetland

Bake Chora Kemisse (8°12’41.37"N 35°36’7.48"E) is similarly a small headwater wetland (3 hectares) which, according to farmers in 1998, had been drained and cultivated repeatedly since the period of Menelik II (1889–1913). In 1998 maize and tef were grown, while small areas at the head of the wetland were reserved for cheffe for use as thatch (Dixon 2003a ). Whilst presented as an example of sustainable management by Wood et al. (2000) farmers at the time did report a slight decline in crop yields over time, and during our 2017 discussions suggested this had continued until cultivation of the whole wetland ceased in 2007. However, rather than declining soil fertility being responsible for this abandonment:

“We stopped ploughing because we were hampered by different wild animals… boye [pig], tota [vervet monkey], zinjero [baboon] and jart [porcupine] … The animals damage the crops and the population is increasing over time”.

While farmers here attributed the wild animal problem primarily to the government’s prohibition of culling, they also recognise that it has been exacerbated through their own actions in driving forward unprecedented levels of afforestation in the catchment - both eucalyptus and native ‘coffee forest’, with the latter estimated to having doubled in area since 1997. As farmers have benefited economically from the sale of eucalyptus, coffee and more recently khat , the cash from this has seemingly replaced the need for the labour-intensive wetland agriculture. Another sign of market influences in 2017 was the use of the wetland for cattle fattening for the nearby urban market in Metu, while cheffe production for local use continued. Unlike Tulube, and for reasons not entirely clear, Bake Chora escaped the attention of the 2003 Wetlands Task Force. Since wetland agriculture has been abandoned at Bake Chora it was also difficult to pinpoint any legacies of the EWRP work, although it is possible that this abandonment may have in part been influenced by their (arguably erroneous) interpretation of what was discussed some years earlier:

“We learned that ploughing in the wetland is not advisable… and that it can affect the climate”

It is worth noting here that Bake Chora was the subject of a short evaluation study in 2002 (see Dixon 2003b ) during which farmers recalled the adaptations made during a time when they continued to be reliant on wetland agriculture:

“We learned through training how to drain and cultivate the wetland – how to make the ditches the right depth. Before they [EWRP] came the water was low but after we were able to manage the water in the drains better.” “Before 5 years the soil in that area down there was like stone. When we learnt that we should keep the cattle out and remove the plant waste the soil has gone smooth and we can manage the water in it better. Keeping the cattle out of the wetland has also increased the fertility of the soil. We have also kept the area of cheffe at the top of the wetland.”

However, the cattle are now back in the wetland for fattening and the cultivation has stopped in part due to changing returns to farmers for their labour on different activities. Urban growth in the neighbouring town of Metu has also fuelled the demand for khat , coffee, beef and timber, and hence this has led to a re-evaluation of the use of this wetland by farmers.

Wichi Wetland

Wichi wetland (8°18’5.32"N 35°31’46.36"E) was the target area of EWNRA’s Wichi Integrated Watershed Programme (2005–2008) which sought to reduce wetland degradation through enhancing upland productivity with livelihood diversification measures and building institutional capacity within the community to support this (PHE 2012 ; Dixon et al. 2013 ). Despite farmers elaborating upon the successes of this project during our field discussions, they acknowledged that some benefits had not been sustained post-project. This was attributed to several inter-related issues emerging from a shift in annual rainfall patterns that has affected upland production. This, along with population pressure, subsequently led to an increase in wetland cultivation and grazing among the wider community in this vicinity, i.e. those who were not included in EWNRA’s project. Linked to this is the observation that the wetland institutional arrangements, the Abba Laga , were no longer enforcing the rules of wetland use established during the project:

“We had governing rules for Abba Laga about what you should and shouldn’t do in wetlands, so there was very little ploughing… but after the project there was no co-ordination. Because of climate change cattle are now grazing in the wetlands and people from other kebeles are ploughing… We are conserving but others are not doing the same. No one is supporting the rules.”

Again, this echoes the experiences outlined in Dixon and Wood ( 2007 ) where many failing Abba Laga arrangements were attributed by farmers to a lack of support from external organisations such as the wereda administration that, somewhat paradoxically, were seen as key in legitimising the authority of traditional associations. Overall though, the picture of wetland management emerging from Wichi is one of an inability of the project participants to adapt to the changes taking place, alongside a reliance on external assistance.

Issues Emerging From the Field

Together, these snapshots of more recent wetland management experiences in Ilu Aba Bora Zone illustrate well how socio-economic, institutional and environmental change continue to shape the wetland management experiences for farmers and the status of wetlands themselves. This mirrors recent experience elsewhere in Ethiopia and Africa more broadly in terms of the impacts of climate change, land degradation, population pressure, socio-economic change, market penetration and a lack of coherent wetland policies and institutional arrangements (Sakane et al. 2012 ; Leauthaud et al. 2013 ; Rodenburg et al. 2014 ; Ayeni et al. 2019 ; Munishi and Jewitt  2019 ). These were all seen by farmers in these three sites as interrelated challenges with which they had to contend. While these pressures were common to all, however, our findings also draw attention to the unique social-ecological differences between these communities in terms of their responses to these pressures. As noted earlier, the sustainable use of wetlands rests on users’ capacity to continually adapt to these, which requires the availability of livelihood assets, the knowledge gained through experience, social networks, co-ordination between users, and a supporting socio-political environment (Ostrom 1990 ; Agrawal 2001 ; Berkes et al. 2003 ), so to what extent were these evident?

First, in relation to livelihood assets, farmers acknowledged how their past project experiences have enhanced their assets in different ways as evidenced, for example, through their knowledge of destructive and restorative practices and the inter-connectedness of people and environment, wetland and catchment. Yet despite this, the direct contribution of wetlands to livelihoods in each of the sites has declined in recent years. While on one hand this could point to an inability to adapt to changes such as the demands of the wetlands task force, the growing wild pest problem or the encroachment of people from other areas, on the other it could be argued that farmers have adapted to their changing social-ecological setting by developing livelihood opportunities beyond wetlands, e.g. through eucalyptus, coffee and khat . This has reduced the immediate agricultural pressure on wetlands, allowed opportunities for regeneration, and enhanced non-agricultural ecosystem services, but it has also encouraged their use for cattle fattening. This supports evidence from elsewhere (e.g. Jogo and Hassan 2010 ) that points to farmers making rational spatial trade-offs in wetland ecosystem services as an adaptive strategy to shocks and pressures. It further raises an issue of whether for many in the region the function of wetlands is to provide a steppingstone to other livelihood activities rather than a long-term career.

Secondly, in relation to knowledge, social networks and coordination that are also important pre-requisites to adaptive capacity, again there is little doubt that farmers have acquired new knowledge about their wetlands and continue to learn from their experiences, and this has been aided by the networking provided by their participation in EWNRA and EWRP projects as well as the local institutions associated with wetland use. Critically, even though the influence of these institutions has declined (a trend normally associated with unsustainable resource use (Ostrom 1990 ; Agrawal 2001 ; Pretty and Ward 2001 )) farmers have adapted to this by shifting the focus of their livelihoods, as discussed above. Finally, it seems clear that the lack of a supporting socio-political environment in terms of local government recognition of wetlands and a sensitivity to the diversity of locally-adapted wetland management practices, knowledge and institutional arrangements, is an overarching issue for farmers that arguably threatens to undermine the sustainability of these social-ecological systems. Indeed, evident from our discussions with farmers was their sense of frustration that they knew how wetlands work and what the challenges were, that their EWRP and EWNRA experience had been invaluable in this regard, but that their voices were not being heard to command technical support from government development agents.

Conclusions

There is widespread evidence from our review that wetlands of all sizes continue to play a vital role in supporting the livelihoods of people throughout Ethiopia as they have done for generations. Through their provision of ecosystem services wetlands provide a basic safety net of food and water security for many of the poorest people, while for others they offer an opportunity to develop and diversify livelihood and income-generating opportunities. It is perhaps encouraging that 20 years after EWRP and EWNRA’s original research and advocacy activities there is greater recognition of this importance across the country, as reflected in the growing number of local university research projects and the gradual evolution of government policy – in the environmental sector at least. However, despite EWNRA playing a significant role in promoting wetlands as multifunctional resources with multisectoral connections, hegemonic narratives and structures that present wetlands as being threatened by local people and inappropriate management have arguably frustrated the NGO’s attempts to deliver truly transformational policy and practice. That is not to deny that wetlands are threatened by over-exploitation; indeed, we have seen that accelerated environmental and socio-economic change has and will render wetlands more vulnerable to degradation. Rather, our concern is that these narratives have continued to overlook the complex social-ecological dynamics of wetland environments and ignored the ways in which local people in many instances have been solely responsible for sustaining the range of wetland ecosystem services that are so universally lauded by managers and policymakers. At best this evidences a failure of EWRP and EWNRA to successfully communicate this message more widely during the past two decades; at worst it possibly represents a failure and rejection by some of decentralised policy and management, as well as the notion that local people have the potential to manage wetlands sustainably and should be supported in doing so if the promise of sustainable development is to be realised.

Yet, our most recent discussions with farmers in Ilu Aba Bora reaffirm how wetland use and management cannot be viewed in isolation from environmental and socio-economic processes in their catchments and beyond, and that the ‘performance’ of wetland utilisation inevitably changes over time as a livelihood adaptation to changing circumstances. While current use does not reflect EWRPs findings and recommendations from 20 years ago, there is little doubt that farmers retain the social and institutional memory of wetland use during that time, which itself is critical for adaptive capacity, resilience and sustainability in social-ecological systems (Berkes et al. 2003 ). Despite the gradual evolution of wetland policy and practice discussed above that has become more people-focussed, however, there has been little if any recognition among policymakers of enhanced community-level adaptive capacity as a pre-requisite to sustainable wetland management, or indeed much consideration of wetlands as social-ecological systems. Going forward, therefore, we would argue that this is key, and that in addition to developing guidelines for locally adapted wetland management, equal attention should be given to developing a cross-sectoral wetland policy environment that integrates flexibility, systems thinking, and the policy and institutional space that supports and enhances local-level adaptive co-management of wetlands and NGOs that support this. As we write, it is encouraging that the draft of Ethiopia’s first Wetlands Protection and Sustainable Management Proclamation has begun to integrate some of these ideas in a manner that will shape policy and practice for the next 20 years.

Data Availability

Not applicable.

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Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the field assistance provided by Zelalem Adugna, EWNRA Project Co-ordinator, and the farmers of Bake Chora, Tulube and Wichi who participated in this work. We also thank two anonymous reviewers for their supportive and insightful feedback on an earlier draft of this paper.

This research was funded by the University of Worcester’s Research and Project Leave Scheme.

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Alan Dixon designed the research, collected field data and led the writing of the manuscript. Adrian Wood assisted field data collection and contributed to the writing of the manuscript. Afework Hailu contributed data and contributed to the writing of the manuscript.

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Dixon, A., Wood, A. & Hailu, A. Wetlands in Ethiopia: Lessons From 20 years of Research, Policy and Practice. Wetlands 41 , 20 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-021-01420-x

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Balcombe, Collins K. "An evaluation of vegetation and wildlife communities in mitigation and natural wetlands of West Virginia." Morgantown, W. Va. : [West Virginia University Libraries], 2003. http://etd.wvu.edu/templates/showETD.cfm?recnum=2857.

Clouston, Elizabeth M. "Linking the ecological and economic values of wetlands a case study of the wetlands of Moreton Bay /." Connect to this title online, 2002. http://www4.gu.edu.au:8080/adt-root/public/adt-QGU20030828.140330/.

Sherrill, Ursula Rose. "The restoration of wetland functions at the Rio Bosque Wetlands Park in El Paso, Texas, USA." To access this resource online via ProQuest Dissertations and Theses @ UTEP, 2007. http://0-proquest.umi.com.lib.utep.edu/login?COPT=REJTPTU0YmImSU5UPTAmVkVSPTI=&clientId=2515.

Holt, Courtney R. Folkerts Debbie R. "A floristic study of Weaver Creek Wetland, Santa Rosa County, Florida." Auburn, Ala, 2008. http://repo.lib.auburn.edu/EtdRoot/2008/SPRING/Biological_Sciences/Thesis/Holt_Courtney_38.pdf.

Southall, Emily Jane. "The ecology of poor fen & willow carr on Goss Moor NNR, Cornwall." Thesis, University of Plymouth, 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/10026.1/2017.

Alsfeld, Amy J. "The effects of amendments and landscape position on the biotic community of constructed depressional wetlands." Access to citation, abstract and download form provided by ProQuest Information and Learning Company; downloadable PDF file, 118 p, 2007. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdlink?did=1251902791&Fmt=7&clientId=79356&RQT=309&VName=PQD.

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Regan, Matthew. "Plant community response to wetland enhancement techniques in coastal wetlands of the upper St. Lawrence River." Thesis, State University of New York Col. of Environmental Science & Forestry, 2017. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10254553.

Stabilized water levels of the upper St. Lawrence River have reduced plant diversity and allowed competitively dominant taxa such as Typha x glauca and Typha angustifolia to displace productive sedge meadow habitat. This research studied the effects of two wetland enhancement techniques using habitat heterogeneity and manipulating hydrology. Dredge spoils from pothole excavations in Typha marshes were reconfigured to create habitat mounds. These habitat mounds created from an exposed seed bank had less Typha spp. and were more diverse than the surrounding remnant Typha marshes. Sedge meadow vegetation did not successfully colonize these habitat mounds. Water levels at two wetlands were raised above the water levels of the upper St. Lawrence River. Raising water levels increased floating leaf aquatic vegetation but did not decrease Typha spp. Alternative enhancement methods may be necessary to control Typha spp. while restoring sedge meadows.

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Donaldson, Lynda. "Conservation and ecology of wetland birds in Africa." Thesis, University of Exeter, 2017. http://hdl.handle.net/10871/31812.

Bailey, Jennifer Diane. "Vertical Distribution of Wetland Plant Roots and Their Associated Bacteria in Groundwater-fed Wetlands." Wright State University / OhioLINK, 2015. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=wright1452708738.

Magnusson, Gisele Marie. "Economic-ecological relationships in coastal wetland restoration /." View online ; access limited to URI, 2006. http://0-wwwlib.umi.com.helin.uri.edu/dissertations/dlnow/3225321.

Lancaster, Nicole N. M. "Effects of salinity on biogeochemical processes and methylmercury production in freshwater wetland sediments." View electronic thesis, 2008. http://dl.uncw.edu/etd/2008-3//r1/lancastern/nicolelancaster.pdf.

Newbold, Stephen Carlisle. "Targeting conservation activities : cost-effective wetlands restoration in the Central Valley of California /." For electronic version search Digital dissertations database. Restricted to UC campuses. Access is free to UC campus dissertations, 2002. http://uclibs.org/PID/11984.

Allan, Caroline Elizabeth. "Nitrogen fixation in riverine wetland plant communities." Thesis, University of Glasgow, 1996. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.297033.

Lung, Joni M. "Mink and Raccoon Use of Wetlands as Influenced by Wetland and Landscape Characteristics in Central Ohio." Columbus, Ohio : Ohio State University, 2008. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=osu1218600551.

Sullivan, Rodney Thomas. "Haberek wetland creation." Virtual Press, 1992. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/835836.

Rodriguez, Ruth. "Nutrient dynamics in a created desert wetland implications for the Rio Bosque Wetlands Park /." To access this resource online via ProQuest Dissertations and Theses @ UTEP, 2009. http://0-proquest.umi.com.lib.utep.edu/login?COPT=REJTPTU0YmImSU5UPTAmVkVSPTI=&clientId=2515.

Porej, Deni. "Faunal aspects of wetland creation and restoration." Connect to this title online, 2004. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=osu1078327758.

Reeder, Brian Charles. "Primary productivity, sedimentation, and phosphorous cycling in a Lake Erie coastal wetland." Connect to resource, 1990. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view.cgi?acc%5Fnum=osu1244210231.

Amarasinghe, Mala Damayanthi. "Environmental assessment for wetland management in Sri Lanka." Thesis, University of Salford, 1994. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.386393.

Kolozsvary, Mary Beth. "Hydroperiod of Wetlands and Reproduction in Wood Frogs (Rana sylvatica) and Spotted Salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum)." Fogler Library, University of Maine, 2003. http://www.library.umaine.edu/theses/pdf/KolozsvaryMB2003.pdf.

Bailey, David E. "Wetland Vegetation Dynamics and Ecosystem Gas Exchange in Response to Organic Matter Loading Rates." W&M ScholarWorks, 2006. http://www.vims.edu/library/Theses/Bailey06.pdf.

Richardson, J., Phillip R. Scheuerman, and M. Benton. "Biosurvey of a Constructed Wetland Using a Newly Developed Treatment Wetlands Evaluation Index." Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 1996. https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu-works/2912.

Thatcher, Lisa A. "Carbon remineralization and storage in estuarine wetland sediments /." Electronic version (PDF), 2005. http://dl.uncw.edu/etd/2005/thatcherl/lisathatcher.pdf.

Painter, Luke. "Growth rates and the definition of old-growth in forested wetlands of the Puget Sound region." Online pdf file accessible through the World Wide Web, 2007. http://archives.evergreen.edu/masterstheses/Accession86-10MES/Painter_L%20MESThesis%202007.pdf.

McNair, Sheila A. Chow-Fraser Patricia. "The use of primary producers for assessing and monitoring aquatic habitat quality in Great Lakes coastal wetlands." *McMaster only, 2006.

Ma, Jia Ji Wei. "A geospatial methodology for assessing wetland vulnerability under anthropogenic pressures at a watershed scale." Diss., UMK access, 2006.

Onufrak, Aaron John. "The Missing Metric: An Evaluation of Microorganism Importance in Wetland Assessments." Wright State University / OhioLINK, 2018. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=wright1533297164045057.

Mulligan, Julie. "The role of a temperate constructed wetland in nutrient mitigation." Thesis, University of Ottawa (Canada), 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/10393/9055.

Mayes, William. "Limestone extraction and wetland environments : hydrological, hydrochemical and ecological interactions." Thesis, University of Newcastle Upon Tyne, 2003. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.275428.

Botterill, Elizabeth Mary. "A palaeoecological study of Cors Gyfelog and Tre'r Gof : lowland mires in North West Wales." Thesis, Keele University, 1988. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.330177.

Carpenter, Kathryn Elizabeth. "Nutrient, fluvial and groundwater fluxes between a North Norfolk, U.K. saltmarsh and the North Sea." Thesis, University of East Anglia, 1993. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.357211.

Hanford, Jayne Kathryn. "Aquatic Biodiversity and Mosquito Ecology in Urban Wetlands." Thesis, University of Sydney, 2020. https://hdl.handle.net/2123/23225.

Buckallew, Robin Randolph Dickson Kenneth L. "Comparison of bare root vs. potted plants, species selection, and caging types for restoration of a prairie wetland, and quantitative analysis and descriptive survey of plant communities and associations at Lewisville Lake Environmental Learning Area (LLELA), Lewisville, TX." [Denton, Tex.] : University of North Texas, 2007. http://digital.library.unt.edu/permalink/meta-dc-3700.

Herman, Brook Danielle. "Testing the Floristic Quality Assessment Index in natural and created wetlands in Mississippi, USA." Master's thesis, Mississippi State : Mississippi State University, 2005. http://sun.library.msstate.edu/ETD-db/ETD-browse/browse.

Gabor, T. Shane (Thomas Shane). "Nutrient addition experiments in the interlake region of Manitoba : effect of single pulse addition in spring." Thesis, McGill University, 1991. http://digitool.Library.McGill.CA:80/R/?func=dbin-jump-full&object_id=59941.

Pollock, Michael Moritz. "Patterns of plant species richness in emergent and forestry wetlands of southeast Alaska /." Thesis, Connect to this title online; UW restricted, 1995. http://hdl.handle.net/1773/5518.

Schäfer, Martina. "Mosquitoes as a Part of Wetland Biodiversity." Doctoral thesis, Uppsala universitet, Populationsbiologi, 2004. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-4670.

Flaugh, Dianne L. "Determining the potential for wetland construction within a linear park setting." Virtual Press, 1991. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/835835.

Long, Arin Lexine. "Distribution and Drivers of a Widespread, Invasive Wetland Grass, Phragmites australis, in Great Salt Lake Wetlands." DigitalCommons@USU, 2014. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/etd/3869.

Melly, Brigitte Leigh, and Phumelele T. Gama. "Factors influencing wetland distribution and structure, including ecosystem function of ephemeral wetlands, in Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality (NMBM), South Africa." Thesis, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/10948/11721.

Zhao, Qiujie, Phillip R. Scheuerman, J. Forrest, and Guy R. Lanza. "Microbial Activity as Indicator of Wetland Function." Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 1996. https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu-works/2907.

Spencer, Richard A. "Wetland Delineation of Camp Ripley in Minnesota." DigitalCommons@USU, 1997. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/etd/6579.

Bernal, Blanca. "Carbon Pools And Profiles In Wetland Soils: The Effect Of Climate And Wetland Type." Columbus, Ohio : Ohio State University, 2008. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=osu1218226611.

Weiss, Ronald A. "The status and distribution of rails and other marsh birds in natural and restored wetlands in northern Indiana." Virtual Press, 1995. http://liblink.bsu.edu/uhtbin/catkey/1001187.

Lee, Shing-yip. "The ecology of a traditional tidal shrimp pond in Hong Kong, the production and fate of macrodetritus, and implications for management /." [Hong Kong : University of Hong Kong], 1988. http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/hkuto/record.jsp?B12430481.

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Francis Karanja

This research demonstrates the utility of an ecosystem service approach to develop a method to guide NRM decisions in relation to maintaining and restoring natural assets, based on the spatial integration of ecological and economic information, at catchment, district and farm scales. Changes in ecosystem service provision were assessed based on land and water resource management interventions being implemented in New South Wales (NSW) through regional authorities—using the Gwydir catchment (26 660 km2) north-western NSW—as the case study. A method was developed to describe the relationship between wetland inundation and river flow and established the resultant ecosystem goods and services from environmental flow (EF) provision. Water-sharing plans proposed for rivers in NSW, incorporate ‘environmental water allocations’ to redress some of the damage caused by river regulation. This study used simulated data from the hydrological Integrated Quality and Quantity Model (IQQM) over 112 years (1890–2002) to quantify ecosystem services from provision of EF from three scenarios: no development (ND), Murray–Darling Basin Commission (MDBC) ‘cap’ and EF. Four ecosystem services were quantified: (1) waterbird-breeding events—simulations predicted a waterbird breeding event every 2 years under the ND, every 3 years with EF, and every 5 years under the MDBC cap; (2) habitat provision—the long-term mean monthly area of the wetlands under the ND, MDBC cap, and EF scenarios was 11 514 ha, 3003 ha, and 5041 ha, respectively; (3) improved grazing pastures—an extra 2000 ha of wetland is available for grazing as flood waters recede under the EF; and (4) biodiversity benefits—likely re-introduction of eight species of native fish which potentially would occur in the Gwydir catchment. The trade-off of EF provision was diversion of 40 GL from irrigation. Ecosystem services modelling at catchment scale involved quantifying the biophysical consequences for the flow of ecosystem goods and services in the Gwydir catchment of the proposed changes in land and water use, restoration and conservation management by the Border Rivers Gwydir Catchment Management Authority (BRGCMA). Current extent and status of dryland salinity, riparian zone degradation, native vegetation loss, land degradation was determined using GIS. Land-use Options Simulator (LUOS) was used to model impacts of salinity mitigation through native revegetation, which established that dryland salinity outbreak affected 8922 ha in 15 sub-catchments. Salinity mitigation through native revegetation reduced salinity by 20 s/cm and salt load by 0.9% (1387 t). About 2023 km of Gwydir River, extending 8000 ha, 12 000 ha, and 20 000 ha, within 20, 30 and 50-m-riparian buffers was identified as potential riparian restoration areas. Thirty percent (823 294 ha) of the Gwydir catchment was affected by sheet and rill erosion. About 212 233 ha was identified as requiring native revegetation for conservation outcomes. The impacts of these NRM interventions were quantified for 10 ecosystem services, such as, biodiversity, carbon sequestration, salinity mitigation, shade and shelter, on-farm and off-farm soil erosion control benefits. Using native vegetation as surrogate for biodiversity: 9000 ha; 11 000 ha, 16 000 ha, 27 000 ha; and 212 000 ha would be established under salinity; 20, 30 and 50-m-riparian zone buffers; and biodiversity revegetation, respectively. Modelled carbon sequestration ranged between 53 000 t/yr and 1 million t/yr from salinity and biodiversity revegetation, respectively. Trade-offs (i.e. water yield reduction from native revegetation, foregone agricultural production in revegetation areas, decreased agricultural yields due to competition from planted trees) from the 4 NRM interventions were also quantified. Water yield reduction due to native revegetation ranged between 6 GL and 265 GL under salinity and integrated revegetation, respectively. Ecosystem services modelling at district scale used GIS modelling approach to evaluate how the integration of native vegetation in the form of windbreaks in cotton farming in the Gwydir catchment influences the provision of ecosystem services at district. Three windbreak widths—10 m, 20 m and 30 m were generated on all the interior sides of the borders of cotton-growing properties. These potential windbreaks were then used to map and quantify the impact of native revegetation on the flow of ecosystem services and to quantify the trade-offs involved in providing these ecosystem services. Seven ecosystem services, such as natural pest control, spray drift mitigation, shade and shelter, landscape aesthetics, that could be restored from the windbreaks were quantified. The 10 m, 20 m, and 30 m windbreaks covered 9900 ha, 19 239 ha and 27 989 ha, respectively. The highest natural pest control ecosystem service (total area (ha) of complete suppression of Helicoverpa larvae for every hectare of windbreak established) ranged between 0.004 and 1.245. The spray drift mitigation benefit was 26 346 t and 46 414 t under 50% and 90% spray drift mitigation scenarios, respectively. The carbon sequestration modelling predicted 64 494, 125 064, and 181 935 t C/yr would be sequestered in the 10, 20 and 30-m windbreaks, respectively. Shelter from windbreak improved wheat yield production by 27 053–104 622 t. The foregone annual crop production from windbreak establishment area was 16 498–46 270 t of grain. Farm-scale ecosystem services analysis investigated the application of the ecosystem service concept in a spatially explicit bio-economic modelling approach to land use change, modelling the impact on ecosystem services of (1) clearing paddock trees (2) native vegetation with rotational grazing and (3) conserving areas. A total of 10 000 paddock trees were targeted for clearance leading to loss of 16 620 t of carbon, but improved farming efficiency increased wheat yields by up to 2713 t. Conservation and native revegetation with rotational grazing had positive outcomes for biodiversity, natural pest control, shade and shelter and carbon sequestration. Foregone cropping production in conservation and native revegetation areas was 24 ha and 503 ha of cropping land, respectively. Spatially-explicit economic valuation of the above ecosystem goods and services and trade-offs, including opportunity costs associated with water and land resource management interventions in the Gwydir catchment was conducted based on a 7% discount rate and a 30-year time period. The present value of economic cost related to provision of environmental flow (40 GL) was $15 million. The total economic value of four ecosystem services (waterbird-breeding events, habitat provision, improved wetlands grazing and biodiversity benefits (native fish species) totalled $94 million, using NSW households—equivalent to $160/ML/yr, and with a Benefit-Cost Ratio (BCR) of 6.356. Salinity mitigation had BCR of 0.338–3.260 (lower and upper bound). The 20-m-buffer riparian had a higher BCR and would therefore be recommended for adoption in the Gwydir catchment. Rehabilitation of degraded land had BCR ranging between 0.245–5.002. Integrated revegetation (combined revegetation for salinity mitigation, riparian zone restoration and biodiversity) had BCR estimated at 0.200–0.935. The BCRs for integrated revegetation scenario were weighed down by high revegetation establishment ($252/ha/yr) and foregone agricultural yields ($216/ha/yr) costs. Windbreaks establishment costs ranged from $31 million and $87 million for the 10-m and 30-m-windbreaks. Foregone agricultural yields formed a major component of economic costs averaging $220/ha/yr. The 10-m windbreaks were more viable than 20-m and 30-m windbreaks—with a net annual economic value of $1,612/ha/yr, in comparison to $1,021/ha/yr and $825/ha/yr for 20-m and 30-m windbreaks, respectively—and are therefore recommended for adoption in the Gwydir catchment. The total economic benefits largely comprised of contribution by natural pest control, spray drift mitigation and shade and shelter. At the farm level, economic valuation of ecosystem services revealed that the conservation intervention on the case study farm would be economically viable. The NPV of the conservation intervention ranged between $0.92 million–$9 million (BCRs of 3.412–20.351). The native revegetation intervention had negative returns when lower bound economic costs and benefits were considered. The native revegetation with rotational grazing had positive NPV of $20 million when the upper bound was considered, giving a BCR of 3.518. The clearance of paddock trees returned positive NPV, mainly because of the removal of competition by trees had economic benefits of $11.22 million; in comparison to economic costs of $10.54 million. Analysis of the distribution of economic costs and benefits revealed that all the economic costs were private while most of the economic benefits from all the interventions were public—except for grazing benefits in wetlands and in the farm, on-farm soil erosion control benefits, and shade and shelter. This research has developed a spatial framework showing location of NRM issues and quantifying and valuing ecosystem services from interventions in those areas. Potentially, this could improve investment decision making process in the Gwydir catchment. This research provides a useful basis as a decision tool for catchment managers in providing information on how to allocate resources for NRM interventions. Further, it has been demonstrated how strategic native revegetation interventions can contribute to the achievement of the targets set in the Gwydir Catchment Blueprint. Indeed, the approach could be extended to the neighbouring catchment of Border Rivers, which is also concurrently managed by the BRGCMA, as well as to other catchments throughout Australia and beyond.

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Disturbance, Resilience and Restoration of Wetlands

Loading... Editorial 11 May 2023 Editorial: Disturbance, resilience, and restoration of wetlands Chuanyu Gao , Klaus-Holger Knorr , Huai Chen  and  Yixin He 1,046 views 0 citations

Loading... Review 04 October 2022 Mapping the restoration of degraded peatland as a research area: A scientometric review Samuel Obeng Apori ,  2 more  and  Furong Tian 3,335 views 1 citations

Original Research 21 September 2022 The effects of hydrological connectivity blocking on Suaeda salsa development in the Yellow River Delta, China XueHong Wang ,  4 more  and  JunBao Yu 1,357 views 1 citations

Loading... Original Research 21 September 2022 Improvements in water clarity and submersed aquatic vegetation cover after exclusion of invasive common carp from a large freshwater coastal wetland, Delta Marsh, Manitoba Paige D. Kowal ,  5 more  and  Bryan Page 2,515 views 4 citations

Loading... Original Research 20 September 2022 Effects of climate changes on net primary productivity variation in the marsh area of the Sanjiang Plain Fengqin Yan 2,010 views 4 citations

Original Research 15 September 2022 Potential distribution prediction of Deyeuxia angustifolia in the Tumen River Basin and analysis of major impact factors Jin Zong ,  3 more  and  Weihong Zhu 778 views 0 citations

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Original Research 07 September 2022 Hydrogeochemical processes controlling the salinity of surface water and groundwater in an inland saline-alkali wetland in western Jilin, China Geng Cui ,  1 more  and  Shouzheng Tong 1,629 views 1 citations

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Systematic Review 15 August 2022 Vegetated Steel Slag Substrate Constructed Wetlands can Achieve High Efficiency Simultaneous Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal Jingyao Zhang ,  4 more  and  Yongen Min 1,227 views 0 citations

Original Research 12 August 2022 Spatial distribution of soil quality under different vegetation types in the Yellow River Delta wetland Debin Sun ,  13 more  and  Fa Shen 1,845 views 1 citations

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Original Research 17 June 2022 Determination of the Hydrodynamic Characteristics of a Typical Inland Saline-Alkali Wetland in Northeast China Yan Liu ,  3 more  and  Xianguo Lu 951 views 1 citations

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Softer Ground: Reclaiming Wetlands through Design

• Written by Eric Baldwin
• Published on May 06, 2021

Architecture is shaped by its environment and natural forces. Inherently, the discipline focuses on the design of objects over systems, on formal morphology over networks or ecologies. However, no building exists outside its context; every structure is sited among ever-changing climates and cultural conditions. How designers respond and connect to these larger systems can radically change the nature and quality of their work. Often, it is the greatest constraints that produce novel solutions.

Straddling the line between creation and preservation, the following projects looks at wetland architecture and how different sites are being reclaimed through design. As part of the monthly topic on Collective Design , they represent the process and development of architecture that converges different disciplines to improve quality of life. Conceptualized as part of greater buffer zones, runoff areas or watersheds, the projects explore the liminal space between water and earth, the tension between natural systems and architecture. Looking at private and commercial projects alike, they are a broad mix of designs showcasing how projects can balance construction and their local environment.

The Loopvillage / MAaP

The Loop Village Resort Hotel project is located in the bamboo forest valley of Miaoshan Village. The construction area is mainly composed of earth-covered buildings, combined with the slope valley landscape to form a small resort. The vegetation on the original site is divided into two systems, one is the wetland marsh plant community and the other is the bamboo forest community. As part of the construction, the team retained the wetland swamp system.

Usaquén Urban Wetland / Obraestudio

Obraestudio was awarded first prize in the open national design competition for the exterior platform of the Santa Barbara business center. The competition was sponsored by The Colombian Architects Society. The 8,500 sq. meter landscape transformation aims to revitalize common access to an emblematic public space of northeastern Bogotá. The project's design concept is based on the wetlands of the Bogota Savannah, their neighboring rocky areas and their typical abundant plant species.

Swan Lake Bridge House and Viewing Tower / TAO - Trace Architecture Office

Located in Rongcheng, Swan Lake Park is a natural wetland near the Yellow Sea, flat and vast, with reed spreading wildly and water streams meandering. Every October, groups of swans migrate south to this site from Siberia. This magnificent scene, as well as the beautiful landscape of the wetland, attracts large groups of tourists. The local government wishes to build a public facility that provides tourists with services such as viewing and catering.

Chicago Riverwalk / Chicago Department of Transportation + Design Team

The Main Branch of the Chicago River has a long and storied history that in many ways mirrors the development of Chicago itself. Once a meandering marshy stream, the river first became an engineered channel to support the industrial transformation of the city. A series of piers and floating wetland gardens offers an interactive learning environment about the ecology of the river, including opportunities for fishing and identifying native plants.

Suspended Pavilion / TJAD Original Design Studio

The Suspended Pavilion is located on the Bank of Maozhou River in Bao'an District, Shen Zhen. The original site is cut into two landscape zones by a transverse embankment top road, one near the water bank, the other a low-lying green space. The design takes the integration of context as the starting point to create a large landscape system of architectural landscape integration. The newly built steel trestle system is suspended on the wetland, connecting the wetlands on both sides of the embankment top road, forming a continuous wandering path.

Minghu Wetland Park / Turenscape

Through a series of regenerative design techniques, particularly measures to slow down the flow of storm-water, a channelized concrete river and a deteriorated peri-urban site have been transformed into a nationally celebrated wetland park that functions as a major part of the city-wide ecological infrastructure planned to provide multiple ecosystem services, including storm-water management, water cleansing, and recovery of native habitats.

Xixi Wetland Estate / David Chipperfield

Xixi, a national wetland park located on the outskirts of Hangzhou, is a built landscape and an area of nature, which has been shaped by man for over a thousand years. The omnipresent relationship between landscape, architecture, and water is key to the atmosphere in Xixi. This atmosphere has been integrated into a new development of apartment buildings. The apartment buildings are surrounded by a water garden, which, as a reference to the wetland park, is a mostly wild landscape.

Wasit Natural Reserve Visitor Centre / X Architects

Wasit Natural Reserve was originally a waste-water and rubbish dump. The rehabilitation process of the damaged eco-system started in 2005, 40,000m2 of rubbish removed, 35,000 trees been re-planted, healing the land from toxic chemicals and conservation of the Unique salt flats and costal sand dunes. A wetland visitor center is established on site to continue protecting the natural environment, educate people on the richness of the wetland ecosystem and provides information about the birds that frequent the area and other wetlands areas of the emirate. 

Hunter’s Point South Waterfront Park Phase II / SWA/BALSLEY + WEISS/MANFREDI

Hunter’s Point South Waterfront Park Phase II transforms 5.5 acres of an abandoned industrial landscape into a new waterfront park. Phase II of the park begins south of 54th Avenue and wraps around Newtown Creek to complete the full vision of Hunter’s Point South Park initiated with the Phase I park, resulting in nearly 11 acres of a continuous waterfront park. A trail meanders along the causeway, elevated slightly above the river, a stroll of shifting perspectives of the skyline and close-ups of the marsh habitat along the river’s edge and protects nearly 1.5 acres of newly established wetlands.

This article is part of the ArchDaily Topic: Collective Design . Every month we explore a topic in-depth through articles, interviews, news, and projects. Learn more about our monthly topics . As always, at ArchDaily we welcome the contributions of our readers; if you want to submit an article or project, contact us .

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Thesis Topics for Architecture :20 topics related to Sustainable Architecture

Sustainable architecture is the architecture that minimizes the negative environmental impact of buildings. It aims at solving the problems of society and the ecosystem. It uses a selective approach towards energy and the design of the built environment. Most often sustainability is being limited to the efficient water heater or using high-end technologies. It is more than that. It is sometimes about creating awareness among people and communities about how we can coexist in the natural environment. Sustainable architecture is a means to enter the context in a natural way, planning and deciding the materials before the construction that have very few negative effects on the environment. Here are 20 Thesis topics for architecture related to Sustainable Architecture:

1. Urban Park | Thesis Topics for Architecture

To make a city livable and sustainable, urban parks play a key role to provide a healthy lifestyle for the residents of the city. It provides transformative spaces for the congregation and community development . Public parks are very crucial within the cities because they are often the only major greenery source for the area.

2. Neighborhood Development

There is always a challenge to implement sustainable development at a very local level. Thus, urban sprawl, environmental degradation, and traffic congestion have made it necessary to look at problems at the basic level. In cities, there is an extra opportunity to develop a sustainable neighborhood that incorporates energy-efficient buildings, green materials, and social infrastructures.

3. Community Garden Design | Thesis Topics for Architecture

Community gardens are the latest trend for sustainable living in urban areas due to rising health issues in the cities. It helps promote farming as an activity where locals can also get involved in the activities and encourage them to use gardens as recreational spaces. The gardens assist in the sustainable development of urban areas.

4. Waste Recycling Center

Waste recycling centers can be one of the great thesis topics for architecture since waste recycling is always seen as a burden on the city. But it can be converted into an opportunity by incorporating its function and value into the urban fabric . Waste to energy plants or waste recycling centers can be integrated with public functions that engage communities.

5. Restoration of Heritage/Old Building

Building restoration is the process of correctly exposing the state of a historical building, as it was in the past with respecting its heritage value. India has many heritage buildings including forts, temples , buildings which are in deteriorated conditions and need to be restored. Thus, it helps to protect our heritage of the past.

6. Rehabilitation Housing | Thesis Topics for Architecture

Rehabilitation housing is temporary housing made to accommodate people who vacate the colonies that are required to redevelop. Rehabilitation housing also accommodates peoples who get affected by natural calamity and are displaced due to that.

7. Riverfront Development

The development of a riverfront improves the quality of built and unbuilt spaces while maintaining a river-city relationship. It provides an identity to the stretch of the land which can include the addition of cultural and recreational activities. Various public activities and spaces are incorporated to develop the life and ambiance on the riverfront which leads to the environment and economic sustainability.

8. SMART Village | Thesis Topics for Architecture

SMART village is a modern initiative to develop rural villages and provide them with basic amenities, education, health, clean drinking water, sanitation, and environmental sustainability. It aims to strengthen rural communities with new technologies and energy access.

9. Net-Zero Energy Building

A lot of energy goes into the building sector which can be reduced by incorporating energy-efficient techniques and innovations. The Net Zero Energy Building (NZEB) produces as much energy as it consumes over the year, and sometimes more. NZEB can be applied to various typologies such as industrial, commercial, and residential. Due to emerging concerns over climate change, these buildings are a new trend nowadays.

10. Bermed Structure

The bermed structure is a structure that is built above ground or partially below the ground, with earth covering at least one wall. In extreme climatic conditions, a bermed structure protects from both heat and cold. The structure can be any typology be it residence, museum, or exhibition hall. These types of buildings are very energy efficient but extra care is needed to be given to waterproofing.

11. Regenerative Design

Regenerative design is active participation in engaging in the natural environment. It focuses on reducing the environmental impacts of a building on the natural surroundings through conservation and performance. While green building improves energy efficiency, the regenerative building improves the ecosystem as it will support habitats for living organisms.

12. Urban Agriculture Centre

Urban agriculture centers accommodate the space for cultivating, processing, and distribution of food in any urban area. The center helps to improve the quality of life and provides them healthy options to eat. Fresh fruits, vegetables, and meat products through the center improves food safety. The center can also be made a learning hub for people to collaborate and share their knowledge of sustainable food production. It can create awareness and improve the eating habits of people.

13. Revitalizing Abandoned Mill or Industry

Mills and industries are an important aspect of developing an urban area. They invoke the image of industrial development, invention, and success in their times. Thus, by revitalizing the abandoned mill, one can preserve the city’s old fabric.

14. Eco-Tourism Center

Eco-tourism center caters to the need to maintain the ecosystem with least intervention on the life of plants and wildlife. It also provides responsible travel to the people to the natural areas. The center also consists of research laboratories, data analysis and conducts studies to spread awareness among the locals about the ecosystems.

15. The Revival of a Heritage Building

Revival is a process of improvement in the condition and fortunes of the building, without losing its traditional spirit. When we talk about sustainability, Heritage revival is not paid any proper attention. On the other hand, it has a great opportunity to improve our rich culture’s heritage. It can provide positive impacts on the well-being of society as well as economic development.

16.Adaptive Reuse of a Building

Adaptive reuse is a process of retrofitting old structures for new users but retaining their earlier integrity to meet the new needs of the occupants. Thus, the best thing or feel about the building is preserved and developed in a modified way. It gives a new life to the building and removes the need to demolish the structure.

17. Redevelopment of Slum

Redevelopment of the slum is done to improve the urban sprawl created by the slums and no new land is available for the new construction. In current scenarios in many cities, urban slums are a major concern due to unhygienic and unstable living conditions. The redevelopment aims to give priority to health, livelihood, sanitation, and infrastructure without removing people from the site.

18. Vertical Farm | Thesis Topics for Architecture

A vertical farm is a structure/space in a greenhouse or a field where food production takes place on vertically inclined planes. It often includes agriculture that optimizes plant growth, and soilless techniques like aquaponics, hydroponics, etc. The farming systems can be made on buildings, ship containers, or mine shafts.

19. Wetland Restoration

A degraded wetland is restored which has been destroyed earlier on the land it has been at or still is. Restoration practices include re-establishment and rehabilitation. Wetland restoration is important to maintain ecology, wildlife habitat, and they contribute to economic well-being also.

20. Eco-Mosque | Thesis Topics for Architecture

Eco-mosque is an environmentally friendly and zero energy mosque with the perception towards modernity with sustainability. The Mosque is the epicenter of the community and an important learning place to amplify the environmental stewardship responsibilities. The Eco Mosque is a one-of-a-kind structure designed completely on green technology, being sustainable & with the minimum carbon footprint.

Madiha Khanam is an architect and an enthusiast writer. She approaches writing as a creative medium to pen-down her thoughts just like drawing and illustrating. She loves to read and write about architecture, engineering, and psychology. Besides, she loves to watch anime.

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April 1, 2024

This article has been reviewed according to Science X's editorial process and policies . Editors have highlighted the following attributes while ensuring the content's credibility:

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As feds stand down, states choose between wetlands protections or rollbacks

by Alex Brown, Stateline.org

For 200 miles, the Wabash River forms the border between Illinois and Indiana as it meanders south to the Ohio River.

On the Illinois side, lawmakers are scrambling to pass a bill that would protect wetlands from development and pollution, in order to safeguard water quality and limit flooding. But in Indiana, state policymakers hastily passed a law earlier this year to roll back wetlands regulations, at the urging of developers and farm groups who said such rules were overly burdensome.

That means the water that flows into the Wabash River from the west may soon be governed by very different standards than its watershed on the eastern side.

The divide is the result of a U.S. Supreme Court ruling last year that stripped federal protection from millions of acres of wetlands that had been covered under the Clean Water Act—leaving their fate up to the states.

"It creates a checkered landscape in terms of water quality," said Marla Stelk, executive director of the National Association of Wetland Managers, a nonprofit group that represents state and tribal regulators. "Even if your state is doing all the right things, you could be downstream of a state that doesn't have wetlands protections."

In the first full legislative sessions since the ruling came down, lawmakers in some blue states, including Illinois, Colorado, New Mexico and Washington, have been drafting state protections or have increased state funding to replace the loss of federal oversight. Some red states, including Indiana, Missouri, North Carolina and Tennessee, have passed or considered measures to roll back safeguards that are no longer mandated by the feds.

The lobbying from environmental groups on one side and developers and farm groups on the other has sent states moving in opposite directions during the 2024 legislative session.

A 'fallback plan'

The Supreme Court ruling in the Sackett v. Environmental Protection Agency case last year stripped Clean Water Act protections from wetlands that do not share a surface connection with a larger body of water, leaving out many waters that connect through underground channels.

The decision leaves more than half of the nation's 118 million acres of wetlands without federal oversight. In 24 states, no state-level regulations cover those waters, according to the Environmental Law Institute, a nonprofit research group.

"Illinois did not have a fallback plan," said state Sen. Laura Ellman, a Democrat who is sponsoring the bill to protect wetlands under state law. "We're cobbling one together right now. The intent is to restore what we had in place before."

Democratic state Rep. Anna Moeller, the measure's House sponsor, noted that Illinois has lost 90% of its wetlands since the early 1800s.

"Wetlands are important in improving water quality for drinking water because they filter contaminants," she said. "They're good for preventing flooding because they act as a natural sponge. They're good for native species."

Ellman and Moeller said bill supporters are working with state regulators to make some minor technical changes before it advances. Paul Botts, executive director of the Wetlands Initiative, a Chicago-based nonprofit, said environmental advocates and regulatory officials have concerns about funding for the program, which lawmakers hope will be largely covered by fees on permit applicants.

Backers don't yet have a price tag for how much the permitting program would cost, and regulators in other states have found it difficult to cover their funding needs through fees alone.

But "the overall concept of Illinois stepping up where the feds have stepped back does seem to be resonating," Botts said. "There's plenty more sausage-making to come, because Illinois has not even had the bones of such a program. We're really starting from scratch here."

Unlike Illinois, neighboring Indiana did have state wetlands rules prior to the Sackett decision. But lawmakers moved quickly this year to shift some wetlands into classifications that have fewer protections.

"You have a ditch that's backing up water and all of a sudden we're calling this a wetland," said Republican state Sen. Rick Niemeyer, the bill's sponsor. "Our developers were having trouble with the definitions. Agriculture was getting hit with this."

In Indiana, Illinois and many other states, local homebuilders' groups have been among the leading voices to curtail wetlands regulation. Rick Wajda, CEO of the Indiana Builders Association, echoed Niemeyer's assertion that the law will reduce protections only for "low-quality wetlands."

"We look at any regulation to see if there's ways we can bring more houses to the market," he said. "If we allow a property to be used to its fullest intent, then maybe we can get more houses into the market and start to soften the housing shortage."

But many environmental advocates in Indiana say the new law's supporters are understating its effects. They argue that Republicans rushed the measure through the legislative process in just over a month to avoid public scrutiny.

"The more oxygen it got, the more Hoosiers would have spoken out against it," said Democratic state Sen. Shelli Yoder. "If you look across Indiana and see the increases in flooding, the increases in drought, the presence of the worst kind of PFAS [chemicals], it's hard to shrug off and say it's just a mud puddle."

Yoder said developers have told her that building on wetlands is an expensive task, even with no regulations in place, undermining claims that regulatory rollbacks will lead to affordable housing.

Writing new rules

Like Illinois, several other Democratic-led states have passed or considered bills to create wetlands protections or increase funding to state regulatory agencies to compensate for the loss of federal support.

In Colorado, state legislative leaders are expected to introduce a bill in the coming days that would establish state-level protections for the wetlands that lost coverage following the Sackett decision. Supporters say Colorado and other states with arid regions are especially vulnerable, because the Supreme Court ruling also cut protections for "ephemeral" streams that don't flow year-round.

"We really only have one shot to get this right," said Josh Kuhn, water campaign manager with Conservation Colorado, a Denver-based nonprofit. "Once these wetlands are destroyed, they're basically gone forever. If we don't have a strong program, we could see increased costs associated with water treatment, with the impacts of flooding, with the threat of wildfire."

In New Mexico, state regulators already had been working to establish a permitting program that covers wetlands. State leaders say the court ruling increased the urgency to put state oversight in place.

"It got our legislature's attention, hence the reason they were anxious to fund this," said John Rhoderick, director of the Water Protection Division within the state Environment Department. "It's easier to prevent contamination or degradation of your water than it is to have to clean it up after it happens."

In the budget passed by state lawmakers earlier this year, Rhoderick's agency received $7 million to help establish the program. The funding will allow the agency to hire enforcement staff, improve its mapping of state waters and establish a permitting database. Agency officials expect to publish draft rules this fall, with regulations officially in place by 2027. Once fully established, the program will require 35 to 50 dedicated staffers.

"The department has been short-staffed for a number of years," said Doug Meiklejohn, water quality and land restoration advocate with Conservation Voters New Mexico. "This is critical. We're pushing for development of a surface water permitting program, and that's going to involve hiring people with expertise to put together regulations and standards where they're needed."

Lawmakers in Washington state also provided a funding boost for agency regulators. The state's Department of Ecology already has well-established wetlands standards, but it's expecting an influx of permit applications for waters that were once covered by federal agencies. With an extra $2 million, agency leaders say they'll be able to add more staffers to ensure permits are processed on time.

"This will really help," said Lauren Driscoll, manager of the wetlands program with the Washington State Department of Ecology. "We're focused on getting things in place so we don't have any delays."

States step back

Indiana's move to cut wetlands standards followed North Carolina's rollback of state laws soon after the Sackett decision.

"We generally don't regulate more stringently than the federal government," Ray Starling, president of the NC Chamber Legal Institute, the legal strategy arm of the business advocacy group, told Stateline at the time.

While Republican lawmakers overrode the veto of Democratic Gov. Roy Cooper, the governor issued an executive order in February directing state agencies to conserve 1 million acres of natural lands, with an emphasis on wetlands. The order directed state leaders to avoid projects that would harm vulnerable wetlands, while also instructing state agencies to pursue more federal funding for wetlands restoration.

"It's unfortunate that the state legislature tried to lock in the damage done by Sackett, but there are still things that can be done in places where a governor is more interested in environmental protection than polluter profits," said Julian Gonzalez, senior legislative counsel for policy and legislation at Earthjustice, an environmental law group.

Meanwhile, a bill in Tennessee to eliminate state wetlands standards did not advance out of committee, following strong pushback from state regulators and environmental groups. Backers of the bill said environmental officials have made it too costly to farm or develops lands that have wet areas. The proposal was sent to a legislative summer study session.

The measure "has real consequences that would negatively impact Tennessee's natural heritage and our environmental resiliency," Grace Stranch, CEO of the Harpeth Conservancy, told the Tennessee Lookout.

Missouri lawmakers are considering a bill that would narrow state protections. In an analysis of the bill, the state's Department of Natural Resources said the measure's fiscal impact was incalculable, as the lowered standards could threaten the aquifers that provide drinking water to 59% of Missouri residents.

Agriculture groups have supported the bill, the Missouri Independent reported, saying current regulations apply to areas that would be better characterized as ditches.

2024 States Newsroom. Distributed by Tribune Content Agency, LLC.

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UCF’s 2024 Order of Pegasus, Other Distinguished Student Honors 

The Founders’ Day event on April 3 honors 51 Knights — including Order of Pegasus inductees — who exemplify excellence in academics, service and leadership.

By Nicole Dudenhoefer ’17 | April 2, 2024

UCF’s extraordinary students honored on Wednesday for Founders’ Day have unleashed their potential and excelled in colleges and disciplines across the university.

Among the undergraduate and graduate students are groundbreaking national and global scholarship winners, researchers, athletes, teaching assistants, residence assistants and leaders in campus organizations such as Student Government, LEAD Scholars and the President’s Leadership Council.

The honorees include students in the Burnett Honors College, transfer students, and those from first-generation and international backgrounds.

Aside from focusing on academics and campus causes, many of the student honorees volunteered at hospitals, food banks, schools, parks, shelters, clinics, youth clubs and with many community service organizations — at times as organizers and coordinators for support drives and campaigns.

The Student Honors Celebration is Wednesday from 6:30 p.m. to 8 p.m. in the Student Union’s Pegasus Ballroom. The annual event is part of a  Founders’ Day celebration  with separate staff, faculty and student ceremonies at the same place. The campus community is invited to all the celebrations.

Student award categories highlight inductees of the Order of Pegasus, UCF’s highest student honor; graduate awards for outstanding master’s thesis and outstanding dissertation; undergraduate awards for honors undergraduate thesis; and individual college awardees as chosen by the respective college deans. All honorees earned financial awards.

The Order of Pegasus features 31 inductees with exceptional achievements as undergraduate or graduate students. The group includes National Merit Scholars, Burnett Medical Scholars and earners of prestigious honors such as the Astronaut Scholarship, Jack Kent Cooke Scholarship, McKnight Doctoral Fellowship and the Newman Civic Engagement Fellow. Some of the students have worked with national organizations, such as the Department of Defense, Department of Energy and the National Nuclear Security Administration.

They conducted, presented and published research on many subjects, including simulation training, asteroid surface science, cardiovascular health, experimental game design, nanoparticles treatments for illnesses and diseases, mathematics education, quality of life for those with ALS and limb differences, wetland systems, health impacts of pickleball, and bridging the gap between art and STEM-based studies.

Each student aspires to make a difference in the world in their own way with dreams of become educators, doctors, a lawyer, a professional athlete, a hospitality leader, a foreign service officer, a dentist, an accountant, an engineer and an advocate for corrections reform.

Here are the students being honored.

Order of Pegasus Inductees

• Jida Awa ’23 , Rosen College of Hospitality Management
• Leah Basaria, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• PS Berge, College of Arts and Humanities
• Olivia Bitcon, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Jada Cody, College of Health Professions and Sciences
• Nathalia Cordero Rodriguez, College of Medicine, Burnett Honors College
• Akhila Damarla, College of Medicine, Burnett Honors College
• Justin Davis, College of Sciences, College of Medicine, Burnett Honors College
• Yasmine Ghattas, College of Medicine
• Brandon Greenaway, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Taylor Haycock, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Katherine Johnsen, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Alejandro Lopez Zelaya, College of Optics and Photonics, Burnett Honors College
• Calvin MacDonald, College of Health Professions and Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Nisha Phillip-Malahoo ’21MEd , College of Community Innovation and Education
• Sydney Martinez ’23 , College of Health Professions and Sciences
• Rebekah May, College of Nursing, Burnett Honors College
• Aadith Menon, College of Health Professions and Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Charlotte Moore, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Keidra Daniels Navaroli, College of Arts and Humanities
• Mai Ly Nguyen-Luu, College of Medicine, Burnett Honors College
• Ishaan Patel, College of Health Professions and Sciences, College of Medicine, Burnett Honors College
• Lauren Ray, College of Engineering and Computer Science
• Paola Rivera, College of Health Professions and Sciences
• James Rujimora, College of Community Innovation and Education
• Mariana Sorroza Aguilar, College of Engineering and Computer Science, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Samantha Stoltz, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Darya Sulkouskaya, College of Medicine, College of Arts and Humanities, Burnett Honors College
• Isabeau Tyndall, College of Sciences, Burnett Honors College
• Lucas Vieira, College of Medicine, Burnett Honors College
• Gianna Wegman ’23 , College of Business

Graduate Awards

Award for Outstanding Creative Work

• Anne Njeri Kinuthia, College of Arts and Humanities

Award for Outstanding Master’s Thesis

• Tajnuba Hasan ’23MS , College of Engineering and Computer Science
• Jason Pagan ’21 ’23MS , College of Health Professions and Sciences

Award for Outstanding Dissertation 

• Ce Zheng ’23PhD , College of Engineering and Computer Science
• Corey Seavey ’15 ’21MS ’23PhD , College of Medicine

Undergraduate Awards

Founders’ Day College Awards 

• Shreya Pawar, College of Medicine (also a Burnett Honors College Scholar)
• Thomas Robertson, College of Community Innovation and Education
• Rebekah May, College of Nursing (also a Burnett Honors College Scholar)
• Eduin Rodriguez, Rosen College of Hospitality Management
• Emily Padden, College of Undergraduate Studies
• Christine Bui, College of Sciences (also a Burnett Honors College Scholar)
• Catherine Gregorius, Burnett Honors College
• Isabella Moreno, College of Arts and Humanities
• Natalie Longtin, College of Engineering and Computer Science (also a Burnett Honors College Scholar)
• Calvin MacDonald, College of Health Professions and Sciences (also a Burnett Honors College Scholar)
• Isabelle Lebron, College of Optics and Photonics
• Trey Abrahams, College of Business

Award for Honors Undergraduate Thesis

• Raj Patel ’23 , College of Medicine, Burnett Honors College
• Kevin Hanekom ’23 , College of Engineering and Computer Science, Burnett Honors College
• Nefertari Elshiekh ’23 , College of Business Administration, College of Sciences and Burnett Honors College
• Alyssa Bent ’23 , College of Arts and Humanities, Burnett Honors College

More Topics

Pegasus magazine.

Founded to help fuel talent for the nearby space industry , UCF continues to build its reputation as SpaceU. Here's a look at the early days of UCF's space ties and journey to new frontiers.

Human torso wrapped in plastic found at nature reserve in Salford

The remains were discovered in a secluded woodland area and are believed to have been there for 24 to 36 hours before they were found. They have not been identified.

Saturday 6 April 2024 12:15, UK

A murder investigation is under way after a human torso was found wrapped in plastic at a nature reserve.

Officers were called by a member of the public who discovered an "unknown item wrapped in plastic" at Kersal Dale in Salford, Greater Manchester Police (GMP) said.

Pathologists and detectives at the scene have confirmed it contained human remains, which are yet to be identified.

Officers are now thought to be searching for other body parts in the local area.

The torso had been there for 24 to 36 hours before it was found and is that of an adult, it is believed.

There are no identifying marks on the remains and the gender and ethnicity of the person have not been revealed.

A post-mortem is due to be carried out which police hope will help them to identify the victim, but the examination is not expected to reveal a cause of death because the full body has not been found.

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The remains were discovered at about 5.50pm on Thursday in a secluded woodland area.

An extensive police cordon has now been put in place at the largely wooded reserve, which sits north of Manchester city centre and covers around 32 hectares of countryside, according to its website.

Detective Superintendent Lewis Hughes said: "I want to assure the local community that although this is a disturbing and unsettling find, we have a large visible presence in the area to complete inquiries, provide reassurance and to listen to any concerns."

He said the police cordon at the reserve, which is closed to the public, "is likely to remain for some time" while police "work to unravel what exactly has happened".

Keep up with all the latest news from the UK and around the world by following Sky News

Read more from Sky News: Teenager stabbed to death in afternoon attack UK to face hottest day of the year - and 70mph winds

Chief Superintendent Tony Creely, from GMP's Salford division, said: "We do not know the identity of the person, or whether they are male or female.

"We do know though that these remains are human and it would not be possible for them to have survived.

"The priority is establishing who the person is and carrying out a respectful and diligent enquiry on behalf of that person and their family, whoever they may be."

Anyone who may have relevant information is being urged to come forward.

DS Hughes said: "We know that behind this discovery there will be a family who have lost a loved one, and we want to make sure they are supported as quickly as possible."

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