leadership in islamic perspective essay

• Emerging Leaders

The concepts of leader and leadership in Islam

Zafar bangash, rabi' al-awwal 13, 1421 2000-06-16, occasional paper.

by Zafar Bangash

In reviewing the vast body of S eerah literature (life-history of the noble messenger of Allah, upon whom be peace) produced by Muslims, Dr Kalim Siddiqui (1931-1996) made the perceptive observation that almost all of it was in a chronological order and was descriptive rather than analytical. Little or no attempt appears to have been made to derive lessons from the Seerah , especially studying it from the power perspective, to re-order Muslim societies [1]. Such scant attention to the fundamental aspects of the Seerah is quite astonishing since Allah describes the Prophet's character in the noble Qur'an as " uswatun hasana " (‘the most beautiful pattern of conduct,' 33:21), who "was sent to bring humanity out of darkness into light" (Al-Qur'an 65:11). Allah also commands obedience to the Prophet (Al-Qur'an 4:59; 8:20; 64:12), the last and final messenger of Allah (Al-Qur'an 33:40) sent to all humanity (Al-Qur'an 7:158). Without a proper understanding of the Seerah , Muslims can neither follow his example fully nor obey him in the manner as commanded by Allah.

This lack of power perspective in the Seerah literature is probably one of the greatest failings of Muslim scholars and intellectuals. Rather magnanimously, Dr Siddiqui suggests that the reason might be found in the "politically dominant position of Islam, indeed the geographically expanding dominion and power of Islam" in early Islamic history which "persuaded the early compilers of the Seerah to concentrate on issues of the personal qualities of the Prophet, upon whom be peace." This, according to the late scholar, led them to follow "the simple historical method of compiling a chronological record of events with great accuracy. There was no attempt to link early events with later events, or to discover patterns in the Seerah as guides to the underlying methods used by the Prophet, upon whom be peace" [2].

The conditions that prevailed at the time of the early compilers no longer exist today. Far from Islam being politically dominant or geographically expanding, Muslims have lost political power, and the frontiers of Islam are shrinking. More critically, they are dominated today by the globalised power of kufr . This is not unlike the state of jahiliyya (primitive savagery) and darkness that the noble messenger of Allah, upon whom be peace, confronted and finally subdued in Arabia during his lifetime. Thus, a study of the Seerah from the power perspective can help Muslims understand the nature of oppression and darkness that surrounds them today and help them to overcome it.

The essence of the Seerah is the exercise of power and authority to achieve the divine purpose, and this is linked to leadership. Allah says twice in the noble Qur'an: "He it is who has sent the Prophet with guidance and the Deen of Truth so that it may become dominant over all other systems, however much the mushrikeen may be averse to it" (Al-Qur'an 9:33, 61:09). To make Islam dominant again, Muslims will have to acquire power by repeating the method of the noble messenger of Allah; i.e. following his Sunnah (life-example) and Seerah . Even when he was without power in Makkah, the Prophet was the leader of the small group of Muslims, over whom he exercised authority. After the hijra (migration) from Makkah to Madinah, he established the Islamic state and became its ruler. The Prophet thus combined in his person the authority of the messenger, head of state, and commander of the army. The Seerah , therefore, offers an important lesson in leadership, an essential pre-requisite for transforming any society into an Islamic state. This process of transformation is the quintessential model for all Muslims as they struggle to transform their societies.

With the end of the Prophet's mission on earth, Prophetic history as well as Prophetic leadership also came to an end (33:40). Muslims must now choose their leader according to the guidelines provided in the Qur'an and as exemplified by the Seerah . We, therefore, need to ask what the requirements for leadership in Islam are; who qualifies to be leader; how and by whom he is chosen; and what his duties and responsibilities are.

Divine and Popular legitimacy

In his paper on the Seerah , Mohammed al-Asi has identified three key concepts for leadership: legitimacy, authority and power [3]. The Islamic concept of legitimacy needs further elucidation because it differs fundamentally from other systems. In Islam, there are two types of legitimacies: divine and popular. While most other systems consider popular legitimacy (that is, the will of the majority) as the only determining criterion, Islam requires divine legitimacy (that is, legitimacy acceptable to Allah) as an essential pre-requisite. Divine legitimacy is acquired when the leader obeys Allah and the Prophet; only then is he entitled to people's obedience (Al-Qur'an 4:59). Divine legitimacy thus forms the basis for popular legitimacy. Leadership in Islam must have both divine as well as popular legitimacy; without the first, it cannot have validity; without the second, it remains unfulfilled.

As divine legitimacy is bestowed by Allah subhanahu wa ta‘ala Himself, it follows that all Prophets had divine legitimacy; but not all of them, however, acquired popular legitimacy. The Qur'an tells us that only a few Prophets became rulers: Yusuf, Daud, Sulaiman and Muhammad, upon them all be peace. Other Prophets delivered their message but the people to whom it was addressed refused to accept it.

Popular legitimacy does not automatically follow from divine legitimacy. It invariably requires a period of struggle but in order for it to be valid, it must be underpinned by divine legitimacy. It also needs emphasizing that the divine message is not implemented in a vacuum; it requires an audience, that is a society, for its actualisation. When it is not enforced or enforcible, the mission remains incomplete. In this sense, the mission of the Prophet Muhammad, upon whom be peace, was the most successful because he achieved control over a territory where the laws of Islam were fully implemented. The converse is equally true: if the Prophetic message is not fully implemented in society, it remains incomplete. Similarly, popular legitimacy without divine legitimacy is unacceptable and is considered a rebellion against the commands of Allah.

We must now turn to the requirements for leadership in Islam in a more general sense, and the qualities a person must possess to become a leader as well as the tasks he must perform.

The Qur'an highlights an important aspect of Islam's concept of leadership. After successfully completing a number of tests, Prophet Ibrahim is given the glad tidings that he has been appointed Imam (leader) of all the people. "What about my progeny?" asks Ibrahim. "My covenant does not include the dhalimeen (oppressors)", comes the divine reply (Al-Qur'an 2:124). An important point emerges from this dialogue: an oppressor is not fit to be leader of the Muslims, regardless of what other qualities he may possess. Implicit in this ayat are two other points about leadership: to be legitimate, it must have divine sanction and, Islam rejects the concept of hereditary leadership; each person must qualify for it on merit.

Man in the generic sense is Allah's khalifah (vicegerent or representative) on earth (Al-Qur'an 2:30; 6:166; 38:26). This immediately imposes certain constraints on him; he is not free to act as he chooses nor must he submit to the wishes of any group, be it a majority or an influential minority; he must act only to implement Allah's laws on earth. There is thus a fundamental difference between the Islamic concept of leadership and that of other systems where aspirants to high office often say and do what the people want irrespective of their merit.

The Prophetic hadith that even if three Muslims are on a journey, they must choose one as leader, emphasizes the importance of leadership. Whenever the Prophet left Madinah, he would appoint someone as leader in his absence [4].

Leader or ruler?

It may be appropiate to clarify the difference between a leader and a ruler at this stage. While the two are often used interchangeably, they are not the same. A leader has certain inherent qualities quite independent of any office he may hold. These include both qualities of personal character ( taqwa ) and the ability to motivate others towards the realisation of specific goals or objectives. Inherent in this is also the assumption that his leadership is accepted by the people; he has not imposed himself by physical force or other coercive means. Similarly, his authority is not dependent on any office he may hold. The ruler's authority, on the other hand, is linked directly to his office; without it, he may be powerless and, therefore, quite ineffective. Examples of this kind abound everywhere in the world today. Thus, a monarch, president or a prime minister may not necessarily be suited for the job but each derives his authority from the office he holds.

In nature, there is a hierarchy based on power. The dictum ‘might is right' applies in the jungle, but human beings also frequently resort to it. Islam, on the other hand, regulates power differentiation so that it does not lead to injustice in society. This is crucial because the holder of office exercises power and authority over others which can easily lead to abuse.

The role of a leader

Allah sent a chain of Prophets with revelations to transform humanity from a state of jahiliyya to one of islam (submission to His will). Allah says in the noble Qur'an: "I have not created the Jinn and Ins (human beings) except to worship Me" (Al-Qur'an 51:56). Human beings must, therefore, live according to the laws of Allah. This can best be done in the framework of the Islamic state, the natural habitat of Muslims. If the Islamic state does not exist, it becomes the duty of Muslims to strive to establish one. Since every Muslim is part of the Islamic movement, it is the duty of the leader to guide it to establish the Islamic state.

Let us elaborate this point through a metaphor. Suppose we consider the Islamic movement to be a diamond in its raw form; the leader in our metaphor is the master craftsman whose task is to shape this raw material into the best end-product -- the Islamic state and an Islamic society. While the diamond-cutter cannot improve the quality of the original material, the leader of the Islamic movement faces no such constraints. The Islamic movement has the potential to improve; the leader can bring out the best in it by constant exhortations, education and training. The role of the leader is not only to demonstrate his own qualities but also to bring out the best in those whom he leads. His job is to transform society by leading the Islamic movement to fulfil its divinely-ordained mission. This is best demonstrated by how the noble Messenger of Allah tranformed the society in Arabia. Steeped in jahiliyya , the people were brought into the light of Islam (Al-Qur'an 65:11); they were inspired and motivated by the Prophet to reject the established order and struggle to establish the Islamic state. Once the state came into existence, the companions were prepared to defend it with their wealth and with their lives (Al-Qur'an 61:11).

Personal qualities of a leader

We have already seen from the Qur'anic ayah above (Al-Qur'an 2:124) what disqualifies a person from becoming a leader. We must now examine the qualities a person must possess in order to qualify for leadership in Islam. Some of these are enumerated in the ayah in which Allah addresses the Prophet:

"It was by the mercy of Allah that you (O Prophet) were lenient with them, for if you had been stern and hard-hearted, they would have dispersed from around you. So forgive them and seek mercy for them and consult with them in the conduct of affairs. And when you have resolved [on an issue], then put your trust in Allah. Lo! Allah loves those who put their trust in Him" (Al-Qur'an 3:159).

A number of points are highlighted: a leader must be kind, compassionate, and forgiving towards those whom he leads. If he is harsh with them, they will abandon him. He must also consult them but once a decision has been made, Allah then commands that no weakness be shown and the policy be pursued with singlemindedness of purpose, determination and courage.

A good example of this occurred prior to the battle of Uhud. When leaders of the Ansar realized that the decision to go out of the city to fight was contrary to the wishes of the Prophet, they wanted to reverse it. The Prophet, upon whom be peace, however, felt that once it was decided, they must abide by it. He also reminded them that they must obey the Prophet, only then will Allah grant them victory [5]. This episode emphasizes the importance of the leader being resolute and the people being obedient to him. Qualities of mercy and forgiveness by the leader are stressed in other ayaat of the Qur'an (9:128; 15:88).

Imam Ali, the fourth khalifah , in discussing the qualities of a leader said:

"O People! You know that it is not fitting that one who is greedy and parsimonious should attain rule and authority over the honour, lives and incomes of the Muslims, and the laws and ordinances enforced among them, and also leadership of them. Furthermore, he should not be ignorant and unaware of the law, lest in his ignorance he misleads the people. He must not be unjust and harsh, causing people to cease all traffic and dealings with him because of his oppressiveness. Nor must he fear states, so that he seeks the friendship of some and treats others with enmity. He must refrain from accepting bribes when he sits in judgement, so that the rights of men are trampled underfoot and the claimant does not receive his due. He must not leave the Sunnah of the Prophet and the law in abeyance, so that the community falls into misguidance and peril." [6]

Based on the foregoing, we can identify the following qualities for leadership:

• Knowledge and Hikmah (wisdom, insight);
• ‘Adl (Justice) and Rahmah (compassion);
• Courage and bravery;
• Shura (mutual consultation);
• Decisiveness and being resolute;
• Spirit of self-sacrifice;
• Sabr (Patience).

We will discuss these in more detail a little later but first let us consider how a leader emerges in a Muslim society.

Emergence of a leader

A person is thrust into a position of leadership both by circumstances as well as by his ability to motivate and lead others towards the realization of a particular goal. When a group of people accept this vision, it creates a movement for change. The leader, however, must first articulate the vision and demonstrate the ability to turn it into action by aligning performance with vision to create a climate of success for the realization of the stated goal. Islam is radically different from other systems in that it discourages the practice of seeking leadership; if a person desires it for power and glory rather than serving the people by implementing the divine laws, he is not fit to occupy it. In a well-known hadith , the noble messenger of Allah has said that he who seeks leadership is not fit to assume it [7]. On another occasion, he advised his companion, Abdur Rahman as-Samurra not to seek a leadership position, for if he did, he would receive no help from Allah which is only given to those who do not hanker for positions [8]. If seeking leadership is discouraged, it may be asked: what is the mechanism whereby a person is identified/chosen for leadership? The answer lies in the tasks a person performs that propel him into leadership position.

These may be enumerated as follows:

• Articulate the goal or vision clearly and demonstrate his personal conviction for it;
• Inspire a group of people to follow it;
• Evaluate the prevailing situation accurately and devise appropriate strategies for dealing with it, including surmounting problems, difficulties, etc.
• Initiate, guide, direct and control change towards the desired goal;
• Ensure continuous cooperation of the movement;
• Continually expand the movement to strengthen it;
• Inspire members of the movement to such a degree that they are prepared to fight and even die for the cause;
• Provide satisfaction so that the members feel their mission has a noble purpose.

Let us return to examine the personal attributes required for leadership as exemplified by the noble Messenger of Allah, upon whom be peace.

1. Knowledge and Hikmah

In numerous ayaat of the noble Qur'an, Allah says that the Prophet, upon whom be peace, was given both knowledge and hikmah (wisdom) (Al-Qur'an 2:129; 62:05); the two are not the same. Almost anyone can acquire knowledge through study and hard work but hikmah comes only through an inner enlightenment and by seeking sincere guidance from Allah. hikmah is the ability to apply knowledge to a particular situation to bring about the most desirable outcome. The noble messenger was given both knowledge and hikmah because Allah had appointed him for a great purpose in life. hikmah is also essential for a Muslim leader because he is responsible for the well-being of the Ummah (Muslim community). He has to deal and negotiate with hostile powers as well as make decisions that directly affect the community.

There are many instances from the Prophet's Seerah where his hikmah achieved results that his followers were unable to see immediately. The most striking example is illustrated by the Treaty of Hudaibiyya in the sixth year of the hijrah . Some 1400 Muslims led by the Prophet were prohibited by the Quraish from entering Makkah to perform Umrah. The conditions stipulated in the treaty appeared on the face of it to be detrimental to the Muslims and even such close companions as Umar ibn al-Khattab were unable to understand their true import at the time, yet it was the Prophet's great hikmah that brought about the treaty whose benefits soon manifested themselves [9].

Islam lays great stress on taqwa (humility; being conscious of Allah's presence and fearing Him at all times) not only for the leader but for every believer. It is the only criterion by which people are judged in Islam (Al-Qur'an 49:13). For a leader, it is even more important because the power and authority he acquires can easily make him arrogant. While taqwa is much more than being humble, it is among the many meanings of the term. Humility is especially important for a leader since he is entrusted with the affairs of the community. Not seeking a leadership position is part of taqwa . We see from the Seerah of the Prophet, upon whom be peace, that his personal honesty and integrity had already earned him the title of al-Amin (the trustworthy one) in Makkah even before being commissioned as Prophet. Similar modesty and humility were apparent in the conduct of the Khulafa ar-Rashidoon (the four rightly-guided successors).

In his first speech as khalifah of the Muslims, Abu Bakr Siddiq proved himself an ideal of modesty and humility. There was total absence of the kind of arrogance one finds in modern-day rulers when they assume power. They proclaim their own virtues and the great feats they will perform. Abu Bakr Siddiq's attitude was totally different. He said:

"I have been appointed as ruler over you although I am not the best among you. I have never sought this position nor has there ever been a desire in my heart to have this in preference to anyone else... If I do right, you must help and obey me; if I go astray, set me aright... Obey me so long as I obey Allah and His Messenger. If I disobey them, then you have no obligation to follow me" [10].

There was a group of people who felt that Imam Ali should have been the khalifah instead of Abu Bakr Siddiq. In an attempt to exploit this, Abu Sufyan went to Imam Ali offering to bring out 10,000 armed men in his support if he so desired. Imam Ali's reply is instructive:

"What you have said reflects your open enmity to Islam and the Muslims. I do not want any help from you. All Muslims are brothers to each other; only the munafiqun cut each other. We consider Abu Bakr to be fit for this position otherwise we would not have let him assume it" [11].

Because of his taqwa , Imam Ali refused to encourage anyone or anything that would appear to promote his personal interests or act in any way that might lead to fitna (sedition) in society.

3: ‘Adl and Rahmah

'Adl (justice) and Rahmah (compassion) are two other essential characteristics a leader must possess. Justice without compassion leads to tyranny, while compassion without justice creates anarchy. A leader needs to maintain a careful balance keeping the overall good of society in mind (Al-Qur'an 5:08; 4:135; 7:29). In Madinah, the Prophet ordered the hand of a thief to be cut. Some Sahaba (companions) thought the punishment would not be carried out because the person was a distant relative of the Prophet. When he heard this, the Prophet, upon whom be peace, assured them that if his daughter Fatimah had been guilty, even she would not have been spared. He then reminded them that earlier communities had been destroyed because they had one law for the poor, and another for the rich [12]. The same concern for the poor and the oppressed was the reason for his participation in the "Hulf al-Fudool" , a pact he entered into in Makkah before his Prophethood. A trader from Yemen was cheated out of his fair due by a powerful Makkan merchant. The Yemeni proclaimed his plea in the Ka‘ba. A group of notables, among them al-Amin, vowed to restore his right and thereafter that of anyone else who was wronged [13]. Justice, therefore, is a fundamental precept of Islam; even more so for a leader because it is part of his responsibility to maintain balance in society. Injustice invariably leads to turmoil and conflict. At the same time, justice must be tempered with compassion. An Islamic leader must combine the two in his personality.

4. Courage and Bravery

Those who lead are expected to set an example by showing courage and taking calculated risks. Courage and bravery, important for everybody, are essential attributes for a leader. People must see their leader as someone who is not afraid to face danger. Only by doing so can a leader inspire others to perform great feats. In the battle of Badr, for instance, the Prophet was clearly taking a great risk. That this was inspired by Allah is true but the odds were such that it appeared to be a complete mismatch. The Quraish of Makkah not only had far greater numerical superiority (three to one) they were also heavily armed. An ordinary leader would have demurred from such confrontation. The Prophet's exemplary courage and bravery not only inspired his followers but also changed the course of history. Badr highlighted the Prophet's courage, as well as the commitment of Muslims. The expedition to Tabuk (9AH) was fraught with just as great a risk. There, 30,000 Muslims marched across the desert in scorching heat to confront a Roman army of 100,000. It was the example of such courage and bravery that established a pattern for future generations to emulate. Throughout the Prophet's life, Muslims faced much larger armies but charged with iman (faith-commitment) as well as following the personal example of bravery, courage and wisdom of the Prophet, they emerged victorious. Similarly, it was the Prophet's courage and bravery in the battle of Hunayn (8AH) that saved Muslims from a near-defeat and routed the enemy. We saw similar courage demonstrated by the late Imam Khomeini when Iraq invaded the fledging Islamic state of Iran in September 1980; and by the people of Afghanistan when the Soviets invaded in December 1979. In recent days, the Hizbullah in Lebanon and the Chechens in Ichkeria have demonstrated similar courage against great odds.

Shura (mutual consultation) is a Qur'anic command (3:159; 42:38); the Prophet himself regularly consulted his companions on all important matters. It is even more important in the case of Muslim leaders. The most outstanding example of the Prophet's Shura occurred on the eve of the Battle of Uhud (3AH). While he was of the opinion that the city should be defended from within, the majority wanted to go out and fight. The Prophet accepted this; he did not impose his own opinion. There is an important lesson here: the followers' trust and confidence is gained if their opinion is respected. That the majority opinion ultimately turned out to be wrong was not used to point accusing fingers. The Prophet used the opportunity instead to instill discipline and to impress upon them the importance of following instructions of the leader whose abandonment had led to the Muslims' defeat despite their initial success in battle. People can be inspired to make sacrifices only if they feel that their opinion is respected and that the leader does not merely dictate to them. In the Battle of Ahzab (5AH), the suggestion of the companions to dig a trench as a defence mechanism worked well for the Muslims.

6. Decisiveness and Resolution

A leader must be decisive and resolute. He must demonstrate such qualities at all times because a decision delayed may be an opportunity lost. The Prophet himself showed great decisiveness at many critical moments in life. Despite suffering a setback in the Battle of Uhud, he decided to go after the Quraish the following day instead of waiting for them to re-launch their offensive. It was this brilliant thinking and decisiveness on the part of the Prophet that forced the Quraish to abandon their plans to return and attack again.

Similar decisiveness was demonstrated when dealing with the Jewish tribes in Madinah -- the Banu Qaiynuqa‘, Banu Nadhir and Banu Quraidha -- after their treachery was exposed. The Banu Qaiynuqa‘ were expelled from Madinah following the Battle of Badr because of their scandalous behaviour towards a Muslim woman in public. This led to fighting between the Jews and Muslims and despite the Prophet's appeal to them, the Banu Qaiynuqa‘ refused to abide by the terms of the treaty binding them, the Covenant of Madinah [14]. They were thus expelled from Madinah. The Banu Nadhir were the next to violate the terms of the treaty during the Battle of Uhud, so they too were expelled. But despite witnessing such expulsions resulting from their coreligionists' treachery, the Banu Quraidha still broke their treaty obligations by conspiring with the Quraish to undermine Muslims during the Battle of Ahzab (5AH). After the battle was over, essentially as a result of the confederates fleeing following a siege that lasted more than a month, all the male members of the Banu Quraidha were executed while their women and children were taken captive. Thus was the Jewish menace in Madinah eliminated. Only a leader with firmness and conviction could implement such a policy.

The Prophet, upon whom be peace, advised Abu Dharr, a very close companion but weak in physique, not to seek leadership position because it is not for the weak. Those who are given such responsibility must live up to its obligations. If they fail, they violate a great trust and are answerable for it on the day of Judgement. It is clear from the Prophet's Sunnah that decisiveness and firmness are important considerations for leadership; those who are weak are not fit for it.

This may appear to contradict the requirement for Shura . How can a leader carry out his programme if he has to listen to conflicting advice and yet be decisive and firm? From the Islamic point of view, a leader is required to seek the advice of his followers but is not obliged to act upon it if his own judgement, based on Islamic values, indicates otherwise. The people, however, are obliged to obey him at all times, except when he orders something prohibited in Islam. There is no obedience in munkar (forbidden). ( hadith : Obedience in Islam is only for ma‘roof (good and upright conduct) and not for munkar [15]. Even in salat , if the Imam makes a mistake, someone from the congregation must correct him, but if the Imam continues, then the congregation must follow him.

7. Eloquence

A leader must be eloquent and articulate. This is required to communicate the purpose of the mission clearly and to inspire people to follow it. The Qur'an itself is the most eloquent document; it appeals both to the mind and the heart. The Prophet, upon whom be peace, articulated the message of Islam in a way that was immediately accepted by a small group of people in Makkah. Even the Quraish acknowledged that his message had merit but they opposed it because they viewed it as undermining their personal interests. When Utbah ibn Rabi‘ah went to the Prophet with offers of money, beautiful women or a position in the Makkan hierarchy, in an attempt to dissuade him from his mission, the noble Messenger gave him a patient hearing. When Utbah had finished, the Prophet recited Surah Ha Mim Sajda ( Surah 41), instead of responding to his suggestions which clearly imputed ulterior motives to the Prophet. The recitation of the Surah had such an effect on Utbah that he returned to his fellow chiefs in utter humiliation, telling them to leave the Prophet alone [16]. Equally worthy of note is the Prophet's rejection of any leadership role within the Makkan hierarchy because it had no divine legitimacy. In rejecting it, the Prophet clearly saw that he and his companions would suffer persecution, but this was preferable to working within the jahili system.

8. Spirit of sacrifice

Simplicity and self-sacrifice are other qualities that Islam enjoins, especially for a leader because his behaviour has a direct bearing on the conduct of others. If the leader is seen to be making personal sacrifices, then the followers will make even greater sacrifices. The leader will soon lose all support if he asks others to do so but himself holds back. Similarly, he must have no personal or class interests. The Prophet, for instance, never did anything to benefit himself or his family. In fact, throughout his life, he made great personal sacrifices. Often he and his family went without food for days on end. Once when his beloved daughter Fatima asked for a servant to help with household work, he told her that he was sent to secure the akhira , not to seek the comforts of this world. On another occasion, when Umar ibn al-Khattab saw marks on his blessed body because the Prophet had been lying on a coarse mat on the floor, he asked why the Prophet denied himself even the small comforts of life when the rulers of Persia and Rome enjoyed great luxury. The Prophet's reply has been a guiding light for sincere Muslims throughout their lives: such comforts are for people who wish to cling to this dunya (worldly life).

Not only did the Prophet personally participate in many battles but in some of the most crucial ones, members of his own family -- his uncle Hamza, and cousins Ali and Ja‘far -- were in the forefront. Hamza was martyred in the battle of Uhud (3AH) while Ja‘far was martyred in the battle of Mu'ta (8AH). In the battle of Badr, when the Quraish refused to fight members of the Ansar, the Prophet sent Hamza, Ali and Ubaydah ibn al-Harith to confront them.

There is another area in which the Islamic order is fundamentally different from the predominant secular western system today. An Islamic leader and those in positions of authority make sacrifices so that the downtrodden would have more. In the west, the elites live in luxury while exhorting the people to make sacrifices, telling them that once the rich get richer the benefits of prosperity will trickle-down to the poor. In other words, the poor must wait for the rich to get even richer before the poor will get any relief. In real life, even this is not true; in many rich societies, the poor are becoming poorer. In the US, for instance, which has the largest economy in the world, there are more than 35 million poor people; 20 million children are without medical care [17]. In fact, the poor in the US are poorer than the poor in some of the poorest countries of the world. Islam condemns any system which allows such disparities; it wants people at the top to make sacrifices so that those at the bottom can have more. Ostentatious living is specifically discouraged; Islam enjoins its adherents to "Eat and drink [of what Allah has provided you] but do not be extravagant" (Al-Qur'an 7:31). Similarly, it rejects gross inequalities in society which lead to conflict and ultimately violence.

We also find the same kind of simplicity practised by the Khulafa ar-Rashidoon . Abu Bakr Siddiq took a small portion from the Bait al-Mal for his family's upkeep because he had to give up his own business when he became the khalifah . On his deathbed, he instructed his family to return to the Bait al-Mal whatever was left of his possessions. It was this example which prompted Umar ibn al-Khattab to say that he had left a very difficult legacy for his successors to follow. During Umar's Khilafah , the Sahaba wanted to increase his stipend from the Bait al-Mal but he flatly refused despite the Islamic domain having extended far and wide and having acquired great riches. Similarly, Imam Ali led a very simple life. A beduin once found him shivering in a worn out sheet because he could not afford to buy a better cloth to cover himself in. Such examples of self-sacrifice abound in the early history of Islam. These leaders never ordered anything that they did not practise themselves. They were always conscious of the Qur'anic command:

"O you who are divinely committed! Why do you say that which you do not practise yourself. The worst of you in the sight of Allah is he who says that which he does not practise" (Al-Qur'an 61:02-3).

It was only when Muslim rulers, especially during the period of mulukiyyah , abandoned these principles that they became separated from the people and eventually lost all trust leading to the defeat of Muslims and the loss of power.

Sabr (patience) is another quality essential for a leader. Impatience will simply drive his followers away. In the face of immense persecution in Makkah, the Prophet not only showed great patience himself but he also counselled his followers to do likewise. Similarly, when the Muslims were besieged in Sha‘b abi Talib, it was their sabr that saw them through. We see from the lives of such Prophets as Ayub, Yaqub and Yusuf, that they endured their trials and tribulations with great patience. Yet one needs to make a distinction between the trials one is put through directly by Allah and those that one faces at the hands of other human beings. For instance, Prophet Ayub's trial was not caused by human beings; in the case of the Prophets Yaqub, Yusuf, and the Prophet Muhammad, upon them all be peace, it was the people who tormented them. It was most critical in the case of the noble Messenger, because he not only had to endure such suffering himself but also counselled sabr to his companions who were being persecuted. An outstanding example of the Prophet's sabr was demonstrated following his suffering at the hands of the people of Ta'if in the tenth year of his mission in Makkah. When the chiefs of Ta'if set the hooligans of the town upon him, instead of seeking revenge, the Prophet prayed for their guidance.

Tasks a leader must perform

1. articulation of the vision.

Clear articulation of the vision as well as firm conviction of the leader are the primary requirements for any movement to bring about change. Those who are invited to join must know the ultimate objective. When the messenger of Allah started to deliver the message of Islam, it was clear and concise: worship of the One and only God who has no partners, and Muhammad, upon whom be peace, is the messenger of Allah; there was no ambiguity about it. It was a direct challenge to the existing order based on tribal affiliations, exploitation and an arrogant belief in self-importance. The Prophet challenged the very foundations of this system by calling for a new order based on tawheed (Oneness of God) and Muslim Brotherhood. The vision was articulated in such a way that tribal and family affiliations were not only loosened but also broken. Those who were supposed to carry on the old tradition because they would be its principal beneficiaries, became its greatest opponents. This became evident in Makkah where members of many leading families joined the new faith braving the wrath of their kindred. Rejection of the existing order was an important part of the vision. The Prophet also made clear through his own example that there could be no cooperation with the existing jahili system. Thus, the goal was articulated in such a way that its recipients understood it clearly and were prepared to face any challenge to defend it, including separation from their families.

2. Inspire/Motivate People

Together with a clear articulation of the vision, the leader must inspire and motivate people. Translating vision into action is an important task. The leader must turn people's indifference into interest, pessimism into optimism and motivate them to action for the realization of the goal. The noble messenger of Allah was able to motivate people who not only accepted the message but were also prepared to sacrifice their lives for it. This level of commitment was not inspired by any enticements to worldly gains; their only reward, they were told, was in the Hereafter. The Qur'an narrates the stories of many Prophets who delivered the message but their people did not accept it. When Prophet Lut urged his people to abandon their abominable ways, there was nothing wrong either with the message or with his articulation of it; yet his people rejected it. Thus, acceptance of the message is an important part of the mission. If it is not accepted, the mission remains unfulfilled.

3. Proper understanding of the existing order

In order to motivate people, a correct analysis of the prevailing system is necessary. It is only when people understand that the existing system is exploitative and unjust that they will be motivated to work to change it. A leader must outline an effective strategy for dealing with the prevailing order, especially in surmounting problems and difficulties that will be encountered when it is challenged. He must also indicate what he plans to replace it with. In Makkah, the Prophet rejected the unjust prevailing order; he called people to the worship of One God, to abandon killings, especially of their daughters, and to be truthful and honest in their dealings with each other. He also called for an end to oppression of the weak. The chiefs of Makkah understood the significance of such a message; it was a direct challenge to their socio-economic and political order. That is why they opposed the Prophet so vehemently. Despite great oppression and persecution, the Prophet did not directly respond to such provocations; he also urged his companions to endure their hardships with sabr . When the oppression intensified, he allowed a group of them to migrate to Abyssinia. What is remarkable about the Makkan period is that so few Muslims abandoned their faith despite such great hardships even when the Prophet had no power to prevent them from doing so. A few Muslims, who had migrated to Abyssinia, however, converted to Christianity and stayed there.

4. Initiate, guide and control change

A successful leader is able to initiate, guide and control change in order to achieve the stated objectives. Many movements, even those struggling for a genuine cause, are often subverted from within by agents provocateurs , or when they are forced to move too quickly because they arouse expectations which cannot be fulfilled. It is the responsibility of the leader to keep the expectations of the people within realistic limits. Prophet Musa's mission was temporarily sabotaged by Samirri in his absence even though he had left his brother, Haroon, another Prophet, in charge of the flock (Al-Qur'an 2:92-93). In the contemporary age, the Algerian Islamic movement, penetrated by agents of the military junta, has been virtually destroyed by subversive acts. The Shah's principal backer, the US, was unable to destroy the Islamic movement led by Imam Khomeini although western agents such as Bani Sadr, Sadeq Qutbzadeh and elements of the Mujahideen-e Khalq Organisation had penetrated it. The difference in the two cases must be found both in the quality of leadership as well as the depth of commitment of their followers. Imam Khomeini's was a towering personality; others paled before him. There was also much depth in the movement he led; infiltrators were unable to subvert it from within.

During the Prophet's life in Madinah, there were munafiqun (hypocrites) in the ranks of the Muslims who made every effort to subvert Islam from within but the Prophet's great hikmah overcame all their attempts. It is, therfore, important for the leader to guide and control change as well as overcome the obstacles to change to ensure the desired result. Often the difference between success and failure is predicated on the pace and direction of change. In fact, a leader himself is judged on the basis of whether he is able to bring about change that is in consonance with the vision he has articulated. A good leader is able to see an opportunity and take advantage of it to advance the cause. Great leaders often create opportunities by challenging the status quo.

5. Sustaining movement over the long-term

Sustainability of the movement is one of the most difficult tasks a leader faces. Initially, people may participate because their enthusiasm is aroused and they have not encountered any problems or difficulties. While this was not the case with the Muslims in Makkah for they faced numerous difficulties from the beginning which progressively got worse, yet their attachment to the faith remained strong. There were some who had to conceal their faith but the majority bore their tribulations with great patience. One of the essential qualities of a leader is that he is able to secure continuous cooperation of the group. The Prophet achieved this both in Makkah and in Madinah. In Makkah the people were persecuted, yet their loyalty was retained. In Madinah, the hosts ( Ansar ) were motivated to make great sacrifices by accommodating and looking after the newcomers ( Muhajiroun ) as well as offering protection to the Prophet. An additional challenge was to prevent any misunderstandings arising between them as a result of the sudden influx of such a large number of people in Madinah. There were trouble-makers trying to create dissension in the ranks of the Muslims. The Quraish of Makkah regularly sent emissaries to the notables of Madinah urging them to get rid of the Muslims. There were those, like Abdullah ibn Ubayy‘, who viewed the arrival of the Muslims as undermining their own leadership ambitions. The same was true of the Jews who viewed the Muslims as undermining their monopoly on religious matters. Group solidarity was, therefore, extremely important for Muslims in the face of these challenges but it was based on iman rather than on blood ties or tribal and ethnic identity. Similarly, mobilising resources to sustain the movement is another important task a leader must perform.

6. Motivation to fight

Any group that is not prepared to fight and, if need be, to die for its principles will not be able to survive for long. The validity or legitimacy of the message alone is not sufficient as we have seen from the life-struggle of so many Prophets. Others, such as the Prophets Zakariya and Yahya, were killed by the people. The Prophet Muhammad, upon whom be peace, was able to motivate his followers to such an extent that they were willing to make any sacrifice. In fact, it is one of the remarkable aspects of the early history of Islam, that Muslims always faced an enemy many times larger but they seldom lost a battle. The Muslims made up in motivation and dedication what they lacked in weapons and material resources. It was the inspiration provided by the noble Messenger of Allah that enabled the Muslims to achieve such feats.

7. Satisfaction

All activity is undertaken because it provides some degree of satisfaction. The higher the level of satisfaction, the greater the willingness of the people to identify with the mission and the greater their readiness to make sacrifices for it. Satisfaction is, therefore, an important consideration in the motivation of a group. Most leaders in the world today appeal to such notions as nationalism, race, or material benefits etc. The US, which claims to lead the west, offers its people the heady brew of "American interests." Thus, other people's interests and lives become dispensible to satiate America's greed. Worldly temptations often act as a strong motivational force. Islam does not resort to such temptations. In fact, at no stage did the Prophet offer to his followers any worldly rewards except if it advanced the cause of Islam. For instance, the Qur'an allows zakat funds to be used to free slaves or to win people's hearts (Al-Qur'an 9:60). The Prophet always told his companions that their reward would be in the Hereafter. This was most clearly demonstrated when the delegations from Yathrib came to meet him in Makkah on the eve of the hijra . Upon inquiry about what they would get in return for providing him protection and accepting his leadership, the Prophet's responded that their reward was in the akhira . So impressed were the Yathribi delegations that they proclaimed this to be entirely to their satisfaction. In Islam, the satisfaction is spiritual and moral rather than material.

Finally, we need to consider the question of succession. How do Muslims choose a successor to the leader when he dies or is incapacitated? While there were differences of opinion among Muslims in early Islamic history, such issues are no longer relevant today. A successor is chosen by a Shura of elders called the ahl al-hal wal ‘aqd (those who loosen and bind). This concept evolved during the period of the Khulafa ar-Rashidoon as a mechanism to choose the leader of the Muslims. The ahl al-hal wal ‘aqd are the leading personalities of society who are knowledgeable and have a proven track record of sincerity and sacrifice. They have no personal or class interests. The person who is appointed leader also does not covet such a position but is seen as most suitable for the job. Islam rejects such western concepts as democracy and party politics in which public opinion is manipulated and interest groups exert pressure to gain advantage. In the Islamic system, the willing consent of the people is obtained only after the ahl al-hal wal ‘aqd have nominated a leader. There is no such concept as the will of the majority since man is not free to make laws for himself. Everyone, the ruler and the ruled, must follow the laws of Islam. The job of the leader is to implement these laws in society because he is the most suitable for the job. Attempts by some Muslims to equate the Islamic concept of Shura with democracy springs from a lack of understanding and self-confidence. The two have little or nothing in common.

In Islam, leadership is an amanah (a trust) and the job of the leader is to discharge this responsibility to the best of his abilities. Failure to do so will render him liable before Allah on the Day of Judgement. In the Islamic system, a person does not seek leadership, it is entrusted to him because it is a grave responsibility. The candidate must be a good communicator, able to motivate and mobilise people and inspire them to rise above petty preoccupations for the sake of a higher and more noble purpose: the establishment and defence of the Islamic State. This he must demonstrate through personal sacrifice, courage and ability to keep the group focused on the goal.

The most important task of a leader, however, is to implement the laws of Allah on earth. This is the ultimate mission of man as Allah's khalifah (vicegerent) on earth which can only be achieved in the framework of the Islamic state. The Prophet's Seerah offers the best and most comprehensive guide and model to achieve this.

• Kalim Siddiqui: Political Dimensions of the Seerah , Institute of Contemporary Islamic Thought, London and Toronto, 1998.
• Mohammed al-Asi, ‘The Prophet and Power', in Mohammed al-Asi and Zafar Bangash: The Seerah: A Power Perspective , Institute of Contemporary Islamic Thought, London and Toronto, 2000.
• Husein Haykal: The life of Muhammad ; English translation by Ismail Raji al-Faruqi; Kuala Lumpur, 1993; p.219; p.447.
• Ibid. pp. 256-259.
• Nahjul Balagha , p.50, quoted in Imam Khomeini: Islam and Revolution: Writings and Declarations of Imam Khomeini ; edited and annotated by Hamid Algar, Mizan Press, Berkeley, CA, US. 1981. p.67.
• Bukhari: Kitab al-Ahkam , chapter 7; Muslim: Kitab al-Amarah , Chapter 3.
• Ibn Taimiyya and Abu Ala Maudoodi, cited in Kanz al-Ammal , Vol.6. No.69.
• For details see Zafar Bangash: "Power in the framework of the Seerah " pp. 51-55, in Mohammed al-Asi and Zafar Bangash: The Seerah: A Power Perspective , ICIT, London, 2000; Tafhim ul-Qur'an: Vol 5; commentary on Surah Fath Lahore, 1974; pp.39-40
• Tabari: Tarikh al-Umam wal Mulook , Vol. 2, p.45; Ibn Hisham: Seeratun Nabawiyya , Vol 4, p.311; Matba‘t Mustafa al-Babi, Egypt, 1936 CE; [Maudoodi. p.92-
• Kanz al-Ummal , Vol. 50, No. 2374; Tabari: Vol 2, p.449 -
• Hadith cited in Nisai: Mishkat al-Masabih , p.559 -
• Shibli Naumani: Seeratun Nabi , Lahore, nd, p.184; Safiur Rahman Mubarakpuri: Ar-Rahiq al-Makhtoom ; Lahore, 1999, pp.89-90.
• Haykal, op. cit. , pp.244-246
• Muslim: Kitab al-Amarah , chapter 8; Abu Daud: Kitab al-Jihad , chapter 9; Maudoodi: p.71
• Maudoodi: Tafhim al-Qur'an , Vol. 4, Lahore, 1974. pp.434-436
• Valdas Anelauskas: Discovering America as It Is , Clarity Press, Atlanta, GA, US, 1999; pp.61-66)

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Home > Books > Digital Leadership - A New Leadership Style for the 21st Century

Islamic Leadership: Comparisons and Qualities

Submitted: 03 June 2019 Reviewed: 15 October 2019 Published: 21 January 2020

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.90151

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This chapter explores the concept and principles Islamic leadership which generate qualities. These qualities differentiate the Islamic leadership with other leadership concepts. The fundamental sources of Islamic leadership and guidance for the Muslim leaders are Al-Qur’an and Hadith. The sub-topics related to the Islamic leadership elaborate all attributes (traits, skills, power, authority) needed by the leaders. This content analysis method is based on a review of literature and other secondary data. The information in this chapter expectedly will give understanding on the importance of the Islamic leadership concept and can be useful or as a reference for further studies.

• traits and skills
• power and authority
• Islamic model of leadership
• leadership styles
• Qalb leaderships

Author Information

Ahmad rafiki *.

• Faculty of Economics and Business, Universitas Medan Area, Medan, Indonesia

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Leadership is a subject that had been discussed by many groups of people particularly academician, practitioners and government officers/public servants. They were exploring the styles or approaches of leadership that can be adopted in various fields. However, finding the suitable one is not an easy task but must go through practical experiences of some cases and places.

The common practices of leadership introduced by the Western scholars which are applied in most of the countries including in many Muslim countries. Somehow, the Muslim neglect the leadership theories based on the Islamic perspective which were implemented earlier by the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and the four main leaders called khalifa ar-rasydin who governed the countries/territories for 50 years (611–661). All people were protected, served, guided, represented and inspired by their leaders during that period. These are the best concepts and examples of Islamic leadership derived from Al-Qur’an and Hadith that must be followed particularly by all Muslim worldwide.

Ironically, several options of Western leadership’s concepts are debatable and still not proven which one is the best and sustainable leadership’s construct. Some countries were adopted certain leadership’s approach because they were forced to follow or they were still trying to find the suitable one. It starts with Great Man Theory (1840s), Trait Theory (1930’s–1940’s), Behavioural Theories (1940’s–1950’s) which has related theories of The Managerial Grid Model/Leadership Grid and Role Theory, Contingency Theories (1960’s), Transactional leadership Theories (1970’s) which has related theories of Leader-member Exchange (LMX), Transformational Leadership Theories (1970s) which has related theories of Burns Transformational Leadership Theory, Bass Transformational Leadership Theory, and Kouzes and Posner’s Leadership Participation Inventory. Studies were conducted ongoingly to examine the practicality and effectiveness of the mentioned leadership concepts in various countries.

This chapter conducts a qualitative method using content analysis based on a review of literature from academic research journals, websites, social media platforms, electronic databases (secondary data), and other relevant sources. This chapter expectedly can elaborate and compare comprehensively the comparisons and qualities of Islamic leadership and other leaderships’ concepts.

2. Literature review

2.1 previous studies in the area of leadership styles.

There are studies that discussed on the impact of leadership styles’ in the organization and society. Below is a summary of those studies ( Table 1 ):

A summary of studies on leadership styles.

Some previous studies compared transactional and transformational leadership styles. The transactional leadership style is based on the leader’s legitimate authority that is concerned with goals and outcomes, tasks, rewards and punishments. Such leadership is said to be more appropriate to stable environments and businesses. Transformational leaders, on the other hand, seek to motivate and gain the commitment of followers. This is achieved by sharing a vision, raising expectations and creating a feeling of trust so that followers will perform to a level exceeding their own expectations of what they had considered possible [ 9 ]. Below is a summary of those studies ( Table 2 ):

A summary of studies on transactional and transformational leadership styles.

Furthermore, there are also some studies that compared between transactional and laissez-faire leadership styles. A study by [ 17 ] investigated on the transactional and the laissez-faire leadership styles and their impact on employees’ motivation within the banking sector in Pakistan (n = 278). The descriptive and correlational studies’ results have affirmed that the transactional leadership style has a positive, strong and significant association with commitment, but the motivational level was low and insignificant in the laissez-faire leadership style.

2.2 Islamic leadership

Islam is a religion that governs all matters including leadership. Leadership is an important subject that had been used to disseminate the Islamic teaching or da’wah and as the most significant instrument for the realization of an ideal society which is based on justice and compassion [ 18 ]. Both elements are interrelated and as main reference in leadership. Leaders must enforce and promote justice continuously as it is been instructed in verse of Al-Qur’an:

“Indeed Allah commands you to deliver the trusts to their [rightful] owners, and, when you judge between people, to judge with fairness. Excellent indeed is what Allah advises you. Indeed Allah is all-hearing, all-seeing.” (An-Nisa’ 4:58)

The basis of leadership consists of religion, moral and human sources. All the three components are based on spirit of fear to God (Allah SWT) [ 19 ]. The history of Islamic leaders give inspirations to all leaders on how they successfully lead in multiple groups of people and many territories. Leadership is about offering oneself and one’s spirit [ 20 ], thus in Islam, the spirituality becomes a crucial factor in addition of psychological, technical-rational and professional factors.

There is a study by [ 21 ] on Islamic leadership which conducted in the Republic of Yemen using the concept of taqwa which operationalized to two distinct components: a spirituality with three dimensions of iman (belief), ibadah (rituals) and tawbah (repentance), and a responsibility with six dimensions of emotional control, sadaqah , forgiveness, integrity, patience and justice. With a mediating influence of the trust variable, the results show that a leaders’ level of taqwa influences his/her effectiveness, where one dimension of spirituality which is belief, and three dimensions of responsibility; sadaqah , integrity and emotional control, were found to predicate business leadership effectiveness, whereas trust was found to positively influence leadership effectiveness. Moreover, trust was found to fully mediate the relationship between iman and leadership effectiveness; on the other hand, trust was found to partially mediate the relationship between responsibility and leadership effectiveness. Moreover, [ 22 ] mentioned that the quality of Islamic leadership can positively influence the attitudes of followers and bring higher levels of satisfaction, motivation, performance, positive energy and organizational loyalty, while [ 23 ] asserted that the quality of Islamic leadership serves as an important human resource that offers value for organizational performance.

Numerous articles discussed by on Islamic leadership [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 ]. Some studies have also focused on Islamic leadership from a religious point of view [ 27 , 33 , 34 ].

2.2.1 Basic competencies of leadership

2.2.1.1 explaining on leadership.

Leaders is a man to be followed and obeyed and he must refer to Al-Qur’an and Hadith as guidance before making any decisions. Moreover, Islamic stated the characteristics to become a leader, among others must be abundantly with knowledge and bodily prowess, with that can lead successfully. Below are the instructions from the verses of Al-Qur’an:

“O you who believe! Obey Allah, and obey the Messanger and those charged with authority among you. If you differ in anything among yourselves, refer it to Allah and the Messenger, if you have believed in Allah and the Last Day. That is best, and most suitable for final determination.” (An-Nisaa’ 4:59)

Their Prophet said to them: “Allah hath appointed Talut as king over you.” They said: “How can he exercise authority over us when we are better fitted than he to exercise authority, and he is not even gifted, with wealth in abundance?” He said: “Allah hath Chosen him above you, and hath gifted him abundantly with knowledge and bodily prowess: Allah Granteth His authority to whom He pleaseth. Allah careth for all, and He knoweth all things.” (al-Baqarah 2: 247)

2.2.1.2 Identification of leaders’ requirements

In selecting the leaders, the people must do it carefully and seriously because the leaders have to protect the religion and not play with it. The leaders in Islam are encourage to learn and understand the concept of Islamic teachings, thus they keep the interests of Islam as a priority. This is had been stated in verses of Al-Qur’an below:

“O ye who believe! take not for friends and protectors those who take your religion for a mockery or sport, - whether among those who received the Scripture before you, or among those who reject Faith; but fear ye Allah, if ye have faith (indeed).” (al-Maaidah 5: 57)

“But the faithful, men and women, are comrades of one another: they bid what is right and forbid what is wrong and maintain the prayer, give the zakāt, and obey Allah and His Messanger. It is they to whom Allah will soon grant His mercy. Indeed Allah is all-mighty, all-wise.” (At-Taubah 9:71)

2.2.1.3 The leader’s duties and responsibilities

The leaders in Islam must deliver the mandate or amanah to whom suppose receiving it and enforce the law with justice. Both outcome of amanah and justice are the most difficult duties of the leaders and with that, the people can be governed proportionately and professionally. This is had been highlighted in the verses of Al-Qur’an below:

“Indeed Allah commands you to deliver the trusts to their [rightful] owners, and, when you judge between people, to judge with fairness. Excellent indeed is what Allah advises you. Indeed Allah is all-hearing, all-seeing.” (An-Nisaa’ 4: 58)

2.3 Leadership, power, and authority in Islam

A leader has power and authority. Both attributes are useful to influence the followers or people. A good leaders who can manage the power accordingly and authority appropriately. [ 35 ] mentioned that power is a contingent, multifaceted resource which involves the ability to influence or control others, while authority can be characterized as the right to wield power or to influence people.

The ultimate power is possessed by Allah Almighty, while the power of the leaders is for temporary moments which will end after certain period. The power in Islam is useful in bringing prosperity for the ummah (society) and protecting people from harmness. As an example shown by the second caliphs of Islam; Umar bin Khattab, although he has dominant power in some continents but he always to take care each individual and ensure that he/she receives an adequate food or decent place to live. The power makes Umar bin Khattab more down to earth and humble person. The more power he has, the more lower he put himself in front of others or adherents. Everyone knows how strong he is, how tough he is and how sturdy he is but he will use those superiorities only for the enemy of Islam and not for his people. He never abuse his power for individual or family matters. All of these contributions of Umar bin Khattab acknowledged by the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) particularly on how he used his power according to the Islamic teachings which then the Prophet (PBUH) told His companion that “If there is an upcoming Prophet after me, He will be Umar bin Khattab.”

Moreover, the authority of the Prophet (PBUH) and four caliphs comprises many aspects, not only as a leader who in charge of government administration but include religion, education, financial, sciences, agricultural, water, and economy affairs. Their authority is legitimated and monitored by Allah SWT and the adherents, means that they are responsible in this world and the here after. Authority is related to amanah which is an important element in Islamic leadership concept. One of the caliphs, Abu Bakar As-Siddiq also called al-Amin , means that a person who always hold an amanah . Although he only leads the Muslim for 2 years (632–634) but he left a legacy of proceeding the mandates of disseminating Islamic teachings in sad and bad situations after the death of the Prophet (PBUH). He is a companion and adviser to the Prophet (PBUH) who spent his life in distress and pleasure moments. He received and kept the authority accordingly till he was handed over to Umar bin Khattab. This is a good reference for Muslims leaders in their approaches, decisions and actions or called as referent authority.

As it is mentioned by [ 36 ], the Prophet (PBUH) was an extraordinary human being - spiritual leader, judge, political reformer, governor, orator and arbiter. The hadith obviously captures the struggles, triumphs, wit and humanity of the man - and his charisma shines through the texts. Muslims consider the Prophet (PBUH) to be the perfect example of a human being, and the greatest of all leaders, as proved by the genuine zeal and astonishment with which adherents around the world excerpt His words and examples [ 18 ]. Below is a chart of the history of great leaders in Islam ( Figure 1 ).

The history of great leaders in Islam (author’s figure).

2.4 Leadership traits and skills

Numerous researches of leadership emphasize on specific attributes [ 37 , 38 , 39 ]. Those attributes can be used to distinguish the effective and ineffective leaders [ 18 ]. Therefore, some researchers focus on social and historical relations [ 40 , 41 ] and based on a relational and perceptual phenomenon [ 42 , 43 , 44 ] as the important contexts in leadership concept.

Ref. [ 45 ] revealed the importance of traits and qualities of leaders in Islamic thoughts. He elaborated based on the past history in the Islamic state that the Muslim leaders possess distinctive attributes as shows below:

Source: [ 18 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 ].

Meanwhile, in the commercial context, [ 54 ] provided two categories of traits and qualities that a leader must have moral discipline. However, these attributes associated with moral, must be accompanied by the attributes related to the avoidance. Below is a figure positioned the attributes ( Figure 2 ).

The moral encouragement and avoidance for the leaders (author’s figure).

Moreover, [ 54 ] added some attributes related to traits for a leader in achieving an effective conduct of doing business as follows ( Figure 3 ).

The leaders’ traits for effective conduct of doing business (author’s figure).

Most of the above qualities and traits used to help the leaders in attaining their objectives. The qualities of the leaders in Islamic thoughts meant for nurturing healthy organizations and resulted the followers become united and faithful. The identified qualities seem to be crucial leadership traits, although not all leaders show these qualities simultaneously. In fact, the history of successive Muslim states had been adopted essential qualities of mercy, kindness, and justice.

All the leaders’ qualities in Islam dedicated to serve the adherent or followers, and this is an ibadah to gain pleasure (ridha) from Allah SWT. It is true that the leaders reflect the quality of their people. One possible trigger that can create qualities among the leaders is by possession the knowledge. A qualified leader through education may have decent quality to lead the followers. They can learn the situation and handle many problems calmly especially when they always see all matters are under their responsibility that one day will be asked by the God (Allah SWT) in the here after.

2.5 Islamic model of leadership

This model introduced by [ 18 , 55 ] that explains two primary types of leaders. The model has four elements: personalism, idealism, great expectation and culture. Personalism is related to the tendency of person in communicating with others in a friendly and warm manner. This is importantly needed to have a high value on personal relationships, reputation in the community and societal norms. Meanwhile, idealism is defined as an aspiration to attain and an infatuation with the highest possible state of existence or perfection. In idealism, absolute perfection is sought and considered to be a virtue. The interplay of personalism and idealism produces great expectations within society. Moreover, in a culture that is characterized by deeply held and widely shared beliefs and values the great expectation generates an environment conducive for positive and clear vision, involvement and cohesiveness, receptiveness and tolerance. In a weak culture where beliefs and value are not widely and deeply shared, great expectations are more likely to translate into apathy, indifference, frustration and fragmentation. Below is a figure of Islamic model of leadership ( Figure 4 ).

Islamic model of leadership [ 55 ].

2.6 Qalb leadership

This Qalb leadership approach is more on the purposes of the leaders which derived from the heart. Heart is Arabic term is Qalb. The leaders in Islam must begin with a good intention (niyyah) from their heart to fulfill the responsibilities from the God (Allah SWT) and the men that appointed the leader. If the leaders lead their followers based on brain or other factors/fundamentals, it bring burden for them where they try to satisfy all expectations and requests. However, when the leaders lead with their heart, they will plan and decide based on their limitation and shortcomings. It is not easy to accomplish the mandate (amanah) which given through the trust. [ 56 ] asserted that the leadership in Islam centers on trust and amanah . It represents a psychological contract between leaders and their followers that they will try their best to guide, protect, and treat their followers justly. It revolves on doing good deeds for the sake of Allah SWT, the Muslim community and humankind.

Ref. [ 56 ] added that the leadership in Islam must oriented on Al-Imamah Taklif Wa La Tashrif , means that leadership is a responsibility an not an honor, thus no leaders will not abuse their power. The leaders also should undertake or endure in whatever tasks and functions which bound with the basic principle of fulfilling the trust/ amanah bestowed upon mankind as vicegerent. Allah SWT says:

We did indeed offer the Trust to the Heavens and the Earth and the Mountains; but they refused to undertake it, being afraid thereof: but man undertook it;—he was indeed unjust and foolish. (Al-Ahzab 33: 72)

Meanwhile, Al-Qur’ān has described the criteria of a good leader. Allah SWT said:

“And We made them leaders guiding by Our command. And We inspired to them the doing of good deeds, establishment of prayer, and giving of zakah; and they were worshippers of Us”. (Al-Anbiya’ 21: 73)

“When they entered upon David and he was alarmed by them? They said, “Fear not. [We are] two adversaries, one of whom has wronged the other, so judge between us with truth and do not exceed [it] and guide us to the sound path”. (Sad 38: 22)

“And We made from among them leaders guiding by Our command when they were patient and [when] they were certain of Our signs”. (As-Sajdah 32: 24)

“The only statement of the [true] believers when they are called to Allah and His Messenger to judge between them is that they say, “We hear and we obey.“ And those are the successful”. (An-Nur 24: 51)

“And let the People of the Gospel judge by what Allah has revealed therein. And whoever does not judge by what Allah has revealed - then it is those who are the defiantly disobedient”. (Al-Maidah 5: 47)

The responsibility of the leaders must follow the main principles or the usul al-din of Islam and not against it. This is been reminded many times by the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) about disobedience and its grave punishment. One of these hadiths, as narrated by Imam Muslim r.a.:

He who refused obedience on a leader, disavowed the Jama‘ah (the mainstream Muslims), and then died, died on Jahiliyyah. And he who fought blindly under a banner, getting angry for a prejudicial group, inviting to blind solidarity, or helped a prejudicial group and was killed then, his death was a Jahiliyyah death (n.d. Hadith no. 4892. Vol. 6. p. 20)

Thus, identifying desirable, stable, and effective behaviors of leaders are important in Islam. In today’s modern era, the understanding of leadership in Islam has always be confused with the misbehaviours of Muslim leaders’ themselves. Most importantly, the behaviors of leadership in Islam should also be consistent with the positive behaviors of organizational leaders that have been found on multiple observations conducted in organizations across the globe [ 57 ].

According to [ 53 ], Qalb leadership traits as relatively stable and coherent integrations of personal characteristics that are based on the correct functions of Qalb that cover the right understanding of being and actions. These characteristics are reflected by the conditions of heart which consist the components of god awareness, motives, intelligence, and understandings of being and actions, and values [ 57 ]. The Qalb leadership traits embedded in the framework of Imam Ghazali’s ‘On Disciplining the Soul’, a specific chapter in his book ‘Revival of Islamic Sciences’, soul is a concept that stands on the four basic virtues. This provides the basis of important universal leader traits or wisdom, justice, courage, and temperance which provide the foundations of other effective leadership traits. Examples of the behaviors and practices of the leaders are wise decision making (wisdom), clear in direction (wisdom), articulating the right thoughts (wisdom and courage), supporting equality (justice) and establishing positive work environment (temperance and wisdom).

3. Conclusion

With the comprehensive explanations of Islamic leadership concept, the leaders can be an idol, a reference or a role model that give good impression to all the followers/adherents. They are holding the amanah based on the given trust, thus do not abuse their power. They realized that the power is given temporarily to bring maslahah to the society (not only Muslim population) and will hand it over to someone else at anytime.

There are studies explored the comparison of the three leadership styles; transformational, transactional and laissez-faire in various countries. Some of these styles have relationship to the effectiveness of leadership in organization and some are not. Meanwhile, the Islamic leadership approach give a positive impact to the leaders, followers and the organization. It is revealed that the Islamic leadership concept is superior than other leadership concept that consist of the current and future purposes. The current purpose refers to the interests in this world, while the future purpose associated with the here after. Moreover, the Islamic leadership emphasized on establishing trust and delivering amanah which then made the people/adherents can support the leaders to create conductive and sustainable environment.

Ref. [ 56 ] added that the leadership in Islam must oriented on Al-Imamah Taklif Wa La Tashrif . It tells that the leaders are carrying responsibilities and not an honor. Leaders should serve the people and not expecting to be treated. As the leaders, there are tasks to be completed in certain situation and time. The success of completing the tasks depends on the relationship of the leaders with men and their God (Allah SWT). Men or people will help the leaders if they are sincerely guide and lead them to the betterment. While God (Allah SWT) will always guide the leaders in their leadership based on their good intention (niyyah) and obedience to the Islamic law or shariah .

Islam also concern on the power and authority of the leaders. Both attributes must be used accordingly which give as much benefits to the society (ummah). The principles of Islam are strictly highlighted the use of power and authority which been shown by the Prophet (PBUH) and four caliphs (khulafa ar-rasyidin). Meanwhile, numerous researches of leadership emphasize on specific attributes [ 37 , 38 , 39 , 58 , 59 ]. Those attributes can be used to distinguish the effective and ineffective leaders [ 18 ]. [ 45 ] asserted the importance of traits and qualities of leaders in Islamic thoughts. He mentioned based on the past history in the Islamic state that the Muslim leaders possess distinctive attributes There are authors highlighted the traits and skills of Islamic leaders such as [ 18 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 60 , 61 ].

Moreover [ 55 ] introduced the two primary types of leaders in his model of Islamic leadership. The model has four elements: personalism, idealism, great expectation and culture, which can be adapted by particularly the Muslim leaders. Meanwhile, the basic thought of heartful leadership approach which drawn by the Imam Al-Ghazali, back 900 years ago, suggested the leaders to behave based on Justice, Wisdom, Courage, and Temperance. With these elaborations of this Islamic leadership concept, the Muslim leaders must be guided and adopted all attributes, principles and models to attain the goals in this world and the here after.

There are many aspects related to Islamic leadership need to be explored especially on the leaders’ traits and behaviors. Meanwhile, the challenges of the leaders in this 4.0 industry era will make them more careful in planning and organizing the team and its resources. Islam should has a comprehensive guidance on capitalizing or more involvement in this era, thus every Muslim shouldn’t worry about the shariah compliance on it. Muslim leaders will be asked to balance up and accommodate certain barriers to have a smooth transformation. This elaboration on qualities and comparisons of Islamic leadership can be used as a reference for all the readers.

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Leadership in Islam Based on Primary Sources

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This chapter offers a detailed discussion of the concept of leadership as constructed in the Quran and the example of the Prophet Muhammad. The chapter highlights the importance of traits, virtues, and mutual obligations such as moral courage, sincerity, forbearance, effective communication, eloquence, trust, responsibility, and kindness. These virtues help to generate good leadership that demonstrates leading through action and interactions, and not just preaching. Above these virtues is moral courage. Leading by example and the ability to behave ethically even under pressure requires moral courage. Muslim scholars consider the virtue of moral courage part of ummahat al-fada’il (cardinal virtues). The other virtues are wisdom, temperance, and justice.

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An honorific salutation expressed for every companion of the Prophet.

An honorific salutation expressed every time the Prophet’s name is mentioned.

The Arabic noun for leadership.

An alternate translation by M. A. S Abdel Halim is “…Make us good examples to those who are aware of You.’

‘The term khalifa is normally translated as ‘vicegerent’ or ‘deputy’. While this is one meaning of the term, its basic meaning is ‘successor’ – the Qur’an often talks about generations and individuals who are successors to each other, cf. 6:165, 7:129, etc. – or a ‘trustee’ to whom a responsibility is temporarily given, cf. Moses and Aaron, 7:142.’ M. A. S Abdel Haleem ( 2005 ), The Qur’an: A new translation . Oxford.

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Faris, N., Abdalla, M. (2018). Leadership in Islam Based on Primary Sources. In: Leadership in Islam. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66441-5_2

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Educational Leadership: An Islamic Perspective Essay

Introduction.

Article “Educational leadership: an Islamic perspective” by Saeeda Shah (2006) raised important questions about the educational practices associated with Western values ignoring the increase of the multicultural dimensions of educational institutions. The author underlined the existing gap in knowledge about the diversified approaches towards educational leadership, stating that this problem will further gain momentum to keep up with the quick pace of the UK’s societal structures. Despite the fact that the article focused on exploring the Islamic perspective on educational leadership within the context of Great Britain, it can be applied to many other societies that promote ethnocentric educational practices.

As societies expand to include more cultures, religions, and races, the already existing approaches towards education and educational leadership have to adapt to the changes and become inclusive of the diverse communities and practices. Shah (2006) focused on the example of Muslims (at the time of the research there were 1.8 million Muslims in the United Kingdom) because they tend to emphasize their religious identity, which may cause some difficulties with regards to curriculum development, improvement of examination systems, as well as other aspects of educational leadership.

Furthermore, the sphere of education according to the Muslim tradition is tightly intertwined with the study and understanding of a religious text, which implies interplay between academic concepts and religious doctrines. Therefore, the ethnocentric nature of Western societies is greatly challenged by the Islamic view on educational leadership.

On the other hand, the role of education in Islamic tradition implies sharing knowledge with others and extending the role of teachers and educational leaders far beyond the framework of learning institutions. Despite many differences, the role of educational leaders in both Islamic and Western societies implies “the servant leadership for no personal gain” (Shah, 2006, p. 374).

When discussing the diversification of Western educational leadership approaches, it is important to remember that one of the key Islamic ideas is the emphasis on the principles of justice, equality, inclusion, education for all, and diversity – concepts that can enrich the ethnocentric views and bring new values that may gain central significance. The interaction between leaders and their followers in the Islamic religion is a dialogue, a mutual sharing of opinions and arguments before starting the process of decision-making. Similar to this, the proponents of Western ideas and values should engage in a dialogue with the supporters of Muslim ideologies and discuss how the educational leaders can facilitate an inclusive and multi-faceted learning process, which will benefit everyone.

While there are still tensions between the contradicting ideological positions, there should still be some extensive work done concerning the increase of understanding and the facilitation of dialogue. Because the world has far passed the “one-nation country scenario” (Shah, 2006, p. 379), it is crucial for key educational stakeholders to decide how the learning process can be improved in order to include diverse members of the society and make sure that their values and beliefs are respected and protected.

Planning for leading learning improvements in the context of the Islamic perspective can be achieved by enhancing the knowledge and understanding, by teaching students about the different multicultural values and explaining that ethnocentrism is no longer an option in the modern world. Overall, the article shed some light on how educational leadership can enhance the learning process and include a diverse population. The example of the Islamic perspective has shown that ‘foreign’ ideologies can enrich the educational process and offer a fresh perspective on learning.

Shah, S. (2006). Educational leadership: an Islamic perspective. British Educational Research Journal, 32 (3), 363-385.

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As Islamic Economics and Islamic Banking concepts are established practically, now we find the reality to bring Islamic Management as a distinct concept. In this article an attempt has been taken to define Islamic Management, to identify its special features and principles, philosophy and to prove the distinctness of its entity. It is a fact that traditional authors ignore the great contributions of Islam towards management. But it is Islam, where managerial appeals were coming from the very beginning of civilization through the messengers of Allah (SWT) and it culminated in the last prophet Muhammad (SAW). Due to lack of research and deviation from the golden history of Islam the Muslims are dominated day by day by secular and materialistic managerial concepts. Unfortunately many conventional managerial concepts remain unsuitable to the organizations of Muslim society. So this study will shed light on different issues on Management from an Islamic Perspective which is an emerging discipline termed as Islamic Management.

Zafarullah Khan

Mohammed Mahbboob Hussain Aazaad

Journal of Islamic Business and Management JIB

With cultural diffusion happening all across the globe, multiple fields of study are highly intertwined, thereby increasing our understanding about holistic walks of life. This research paper is aimed towards understanding what Islamic norms state regarding organizational behavior and psychology. Numerous studies suggest that religion plays a significant role in what people value, believe, and endorse as well as how they live, interact, and behave in the society. The paper takes into account eight major variables from the field of organizational behavior

Handbook of Ethics of Islamic Economics and Finance, ed. Zamir Iqbal, Kazem Sadr, and Abbas Mirakhor (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2019).

Junaid Qadir

Islam, one of the major religions of the world with around 2 billion adherents, provides a comprehensive code of ethics to its followers. Islamic law Sharìah) is based on God's revelations to Muhammad (peace be upon him), the final messenger of God sent for the guidance of humanity on how to live the good life. This guidance has reached us in the form of the Holy Qur'ān, which Muslims believe is the literal unaltered word of God, and through the Sunnah, which refers to the way of the Prophet Muhammad, who is explicitly lauded in the Qur'ān as the best role model for those who seek to please God [Qur'ān 33:21] and whose life is sometimes referred as the "living Qur'ān." Sunnah, which is the perfect embodiment by Qur'ānic morality and the guide towards the correct understanding of the Qur'ān, has reached us through traditions (Ḥadīths) that have reported the sayings, actions, and tacit approvals accorded by the Prophet (peace be upon him). Islamic scholars agree that an appropriate understanding of Qur'ānic ethics can only be obtained in the light of the Sunnah by combining Qur'ān and the Ḥadīth. In this book chapter, we seek to explore the Ḥadīth literature to highlight overarching themes in Islamic ethics. In particular, we focus on the Islamic concept of excellence (Iḥsān) and describe the various manifestations of this virtue of Iḥsān by highlighting the seven salient characteristics of the people of Iḥsān. We also discuss how the adoption of Iḥsān can add to the modern ethical discourse and facilitate human development, wellbeing, and happiness at the level of individuals and community while also helping in earning God's favor and good pleasure.

N Yaghoubian

Khondakar G Mowla

There will be no peace in this World without Caliphate/Khilafah which was destroyed 100 years ago and illegal Arab client states were created

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