search strategy assignment

A Guide to Evidence Synthesis: 4. Write a Search Strategy

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• 0. Develop a Protocol
• 1. Draft your Research Question
• 2. Select Databases
• 3. Select Grey Literature Sources
• 4. Write a Search Strategy
• 5. Register a Protocol
• 6. Translate Search Strategies
• 7. Citation Management
• 8. Article Screening
• 9. Risk of Bias Assessment
• 10. Data Extraction
• 11. Synthesize, Map, or Describe the Results
• Evidence Synthesis Institute for Librarians
• Open Access Evidence Synthesis Resources

Video: Databases and search strategies (3:40 minutes)

Writing a Search Strategy

It is recommended that you work with a librarian to help you design comprehensive search strategies across a variety of databases. Writing a successful search strategy takes an intimate knowledge of bibliographic databases.  

Using Boolean logic is an important component of writing a search strategy: 

• "AND" narrows the search, e.g.  children AND exercise
• "OR" broadens the search, e.g.  (children OR adolescents) AND (exercise OR diet) 
• "NOT" excludes terms, e.g.  exercise NOT diet 
• "*" at the root of a word finds all forms of that word, e.g.  (child* OR adolescen*) AND (exercise* OR diet*)
• parentheses ensure all terms will be searched together as a set 
• quotations around a phrase searches that exact phrase, e.g.  (child* OR adolescen* OR "young adult*") 

Evidence Synthesis Search Strategy Examples

Agriculture example: .

• Research question:  What are the strategies that farmer organizations use, and what impacts do those strategies have on small-scale producers in Sub Saharan Africa and India? 
• Key concepts from the question combined with AND:  (farmer organizations) AND (Sub-Saharan Africa OR India) 
• Protocol and search strategies for this question in CAB Abstracts, Scopus, EconLit, and grey literature
• Published scoping review for this question

Nutrition Example: 

• Research question:  What are the health benefits and safety of folic acid fortification of wheat and maize flour (i.e. alone or in combination with other micronutrients) on folate status and health outcomes in the overall population, compared to wheat or maize flour without folic acid (or no intervention)? 
• Key concepts from the question combined with AND:  (folic acid) AND (fortification) 
• Protocol on PROSPERO
• Published systematic review for this question with search strategies used in 14 databases

Search Strategy Template and Filters

• Human Studies Filter
• Randomized Controlled Trial Filters
• Other Methodology Search Filters

If you want to exclude animal studies from your search results, you may add a "human studies filter" to the end of your search strategy. This approach works best with databases that use Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) or other controlled vocabulary. You can see an example of how this was used in the MEDLINE(Ovid) search strategy of this published review (lines 13-14).

A simplified explanation of this filter can be seen below:

Add the following lines to the end of your search strategy to filter for randomized controlled trials. These are "validated search filters" meaning they have been tested for sensitivity and specificity, and the results of those tests have been published as a scientific article. The ISSG Search Filters Resource provides validated search filters for many other study design types. 

Highly Sensitive MEDLINE (via PubMed) Filter from Cochrane  

(randomized controlled trial [pt] OR controlled clinical trial [pt] OR randomized [tiab] OR placebo [tiab] OR drug therapy [sh] OR randomly [tiab] OR trial [tiab] OR groups [tiab])

Highly Sensitive MEDLINE (OVID) Filter from Cochrane 

((randomized controlled trial.pt. or controlled clinical trial.pt. or randomized.ab. or placebo.ab. or drug therapy.fs. or randomly.ab. or trial.ab. or groups.ab.) not (exp animals/ not humans.sh.)) ​

CINAHL Filter from Cochrane 

TX allocat* random* OR (MH "Quantitative Studies") OR (MH "Placebos") OR TX placebo* OR TX random* allocat* OR (MH "Random Assignment") OR TX randomi* control* trial* OR TX ( (singl* n1 blind*) OR (singl* n1 mask*) ) OR TX ( (doubl* n1 blind*) OR (doubl* n1 mask*) ) OR TX ( (tripl* n1 blind*) OR (tripl* n1 mask*) ) OR TX ( (trebl* n1 blind*) OR (trebl* n1 mask*) ) OR TX clinic* n1 trial* OR PT Clinical trial OR (MH "Clinical Trials+")

PsycINFO Filter from ProQuest:

SU.EXACT("Treatment Effectiveness Evaluation") OR SU.EXACT.EXPLODE("Treatment Outcomes") OR SU.EXACT("Placebo") OR SU.EXACT("Followup Studies") OR placebo* OR random* OR "comparative stud*" OR  clinical NEAR/3 trial* OR research NEAR/3 design OR evaluat* NEAR/3 stud* OR prospectiv* NEAR/3 stud* OR (singl* OR doubl* OR trebl* OR tripl*) NEAR/3 (blind* OR mask*)

Web Of Science (WoS) Filter from University of Alberta - Not Validated

TS= clinical trial* OR TS=research design OR TS=comparative stud* OR TS=evaluation stud* OR TS=controlled trial* OR TS=follow-up stud* OR TS=prospective stud* OR TS=random* OR TS=placebo* OR TS=(single blind*) OR TS=(double blind*)

Scopus Filter from Children's Mercy Kansas City

TITLE-ABS-KEY((clinic* w/1 trial*) OR (randomi* w/1 control*) OR (randomi* w/2 trial*) OR (random* w/1 assign*) OR (random* w/1 allocat*) OR (control* w/1 clinic*) OR (control* w/1 trial) OR placebo* OR (Quantitat* w/1 Stud*) OR (control* w/1 stud*) OR (randomi* w/1 stud*) OR (singl* w/1 blind*) or (singl* w/1 mask*) OR (doubl* w/1 blind*) OR (doubl* w/1 mask*) OR (tripl* w/1 blind*) OR (tripl* w/1 mask*) OR (trebl* w/1 blind*) OR (trebl* w/1 mask*)) AND NOT (SRCTYPE(b) OR SRCTYPE(k) OR SRCTYPE(p) OR SRCTYPE(r) OR SRCTYPE(d) OR DOCTYPE(ab) OR DOCTYPE(bk) OR DOCTYPE(ch) OR DOCTYPE(bz) OR DOCTYPE(cr) OR DOCTYPE(ed) OR DOCTYPE(er) OR DOCTYPE(le) OR DOCTYPE(no) OR DOCTYPE(pr) OR DOCTYPE(rp) OR DOCTYPE(re) OR DOCTYPE(sh))

Sources and more information:

• Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions
• Cochrane RCT Filters for Different Databases
• American University of Beirut University Libraries Search Filters / Hedges
• Methodology Search Filters by Study Design - Countway Library of Medicine, Harvard University Filters for RCTs, CCTs, Non-randomized/observational designs, and tests of diagnostic accuracy.
• Search Filters - American University of Beirut University Libraries Filters for RCTs, GUIDELINEs, systematic reviews, qualitative studies, etc.

Pre-generated queries in Scopus for the UN Sustainable Development Goals

Pre-written SDG search strategies available in Scopus 

Scopus, a multidisciplinary research database, provides pre-written search strategies to capture articles on topics about each of the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals  (SDGs). These search strategies were updated in 2023 and are no longer available directly on "Advanced Document Search". To use these SDG search strategies:

• Go to the Elsevier 2023 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Mapping page.
• Under Files , click on the SDG 2023 Queries folder.
• Download the .txt file for each pre-written search strategy you are interested in. You will need to know the number of the SDG of interest (e.g., SDG01.txt is for SDG 1: No Poverty). This .txt file will contain the entire search string for the SDG, already written in Scopus syntax .
• In Scopus , click on "Advanced Document Search".
• Copy and paste the pre-written SDG search strategy into the search field.

More about the Sustainable Development Goals: 

" The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,  adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015, provides a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet, now and into the future. At its heart are the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which are an urgent call for action by all countries - developed and developing - in a global partnership. They recognize that ending poverty and other deprivations must go hand-in-hand with strategies that improve health and education, reduce inequality, and spur economic growth – all while tackling climate change and working to preserve our oceans and forests."

Source:  https://sdgs.un.org/goals 

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Library Information Literacy and Research Tutorials

• Tutorial 1: Introduction
• Tutorial 2: Understanding Source Types
• Tutorial 3: Developing a Search Strategy
• Tutorial 4: Searching a Database
• Tutorial 5: Evaluating Information
• Tutorial 6: Citing Sources

Learning Objectives

By the end of Tutorial 3: Developing a Search Strategy, you should know how to:

• Narrow or broaden the focus of your research topic. 
• Find reliable sources for background information.
• Identify the main concepts related to a topic.
• Generate effective search terms.

Estimate tutorial time: 15 minutes

What Is a Search Strategy?

There's a lot of information out there, and college-level assignments might feel daunting! Once you have a research topic, how and where should you search for basic background information? How can you refine your topic, based on what you learn? How and where should you search for more detailed, credible, or academic sources? What can you do to identify existing gaps in your understanding? What can you do if you feel stuck?

You need a plan, or more specifically, a search strategy.  A search strategy is an organized plan for gathering, assessing, and using information . Developing a search strategy will organize your research process and help you plan your next steps. A good research strategy starts with  developing an initial topic  and  conducting background research .

Developing Your Topic

Developing your research topic takes some thought and consideration. Whenever you get to choose your own topic for an assignment, try to pick something that really interests you. You'll also want to make sure that your topic fits the scope of your assignment - that it isn't too broad or too narrow to work. 

Too broad: Topics that are too broad often retrieve 1) too many sources or 2) sources that are too general or "big picture" to be useful. Example: Drug abuse

• Too narrow: Topics that are too narrow often retrieve 1) no sources, 2) only a few sources that are directly about your topic, or 3) sources that only indirectly address some aspect of your topic.  Example: The effect of drug abuse on the athletic performance of 18-year-old hockey players in Argentina

Watch the following short video to learn how to narrow or broaden your topic:

Source: “Picking Your Topic IS Research!” by North Carolina State University Libraries, licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 US License .

Background Research

Your topic doesn't need to be set in stone when you start your initial research. And you don't need to immediately jump into reading dense 30-page scholarly articles related to your topic! It's usually best to spend some time exploring your general area of interest and reviewing some basic information by conducting preliminary  background research or "pre-research."

We recommend starting your background research by writing down some notes on what you already know. It can be extremely helpful at this stage to have some kind of document where you can keep track of what you find.

• Existing Knowledge: What do you already know about your topic?
• Class Readings: Review your class readings and notes - do they include any information on your topic?
• Online Overviews: Begin reading online. Some common web sources like Wikipedia (a type of encyclopedia), online news articles, or the websites of groups or organizations that are interested in your topic are often written for general audiences so they'll include some context, define terms, and link to other useful sources of information on your topic. 
• Factual Reference Works: You can get (more academic or discipline-specific factual information on your topic by using the Libraries'  reference databases , which are online collections of reference works (things like encyclopedias, dictionaries, and handbooks). Search for a specific reference database like CREDO Reference or Oxford Reference on our  Databases A-Z  list, or you can search in the library catalog  for your topic plus a term like "encyclopedia" to see what reference works are available. Entries in reference works should include  bibliographies  (lists of references or works cited) that can serve as excellent starting points for deeper research, since these bibliographies include citations for more detailed academic books and articles on your topic. 

Your Research Question

Use what you learn to identify important concepts or ideas related to your topic, track down other potential sources, and to create a list of search terms for future searches. Learning more about your topic will help you decide on your research question. A research question is the question around which you center your research. What issues related to your topic are researchers currently writing about or discussing? What questions do you have that you want to investigate?

Identify Main Concepts & Search Terms

Another important step in a good research strategy is to identify your topic's central ideas or  main concepts . Try writing down your topic or research question and then identifying 2-4 main concepts.

Example Topic:  The effect of social media use on college students’ sleep. Example Research Question : What measures can college students take to effectively limit social media's negative effects on their sleep?

Once you've identified the main concepts, generate a list of  search terms  (or  keywords  and  key phrases )   under each concept. Consider related terms or synonyms  (e.g., social media and social networks), broader terms (online behavior or internet), and more specific terms (e.g., Instagram, Snapchat, Facebook, X):

In general, you can leave out these kinds of abstract terms along with connector words like "in," "of," or "on." Terms that describe connections between concepts, such as "cause," "effect," "relationship," "impact," "purpose," and "trends" are ambiguous, making them ineffective search terms. The relationships are implied by searching for both concepts together.

Quiz 3: Developing a Search Strategy

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What is a Search Strategy?

How to search an information source, sample search strategy write up.

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At its most basic, a search strategy is a way of keeping track of where (information sources such as databases, library catalogs, websites, etc.) and what (keywords or search terms) you used to look for sources and research on your topic.

When thinking about how to write up the search strategy for an assignment, including your DNP scholarly project, you will want to keep track of every place that you searched and the exact search terms you used for each source.  It is helpful to first think about what constitutes an information sources and then what a search strategy is.

An information source is basically where you search for information.  Here are some common examples:

• Journal databases - these are journal and citation indexes that use controlled vocabulary and produce clear repeatable results, examples include MEDLINE, CINAHL, and APA PsycInfo
• Multi-database searching - some sources allow you to search multiple databases at the same time, for example the databases vendors EBSCO and ProQuest allow you to search more than one database at a time
• For example, PubMed and Google Scholar (these seem like databases, but do not have controlled vocabulary or reproducible searches (there is a hidden algorithm that is determining what you see) so for this purpose would not be considered a journal database.)
• Also, journal platforms like Elsevier or Sage only allow you to search one publisher's journals and are not considered a journal database.
• Any websites you searched, for example, government or agency webpages (this is sometimes called the Grey Literature)
• Citation searching - this is when you look at the references of an article you have found, this can be done manual or through Google Scholar.  If you have done searching this way, you will want to clearly reference the articles that you mined for citations
• Contacts - did you seek additional studies or data by contacting authors or experts in the field?
• Other methods - anything else you did to find references

A search strategy, is 'how' you searched the information sources, for each information source you will want to report:

• What were the exact keyword and terms you used and how did you combine them? (See box below for more on keywords and Boolean logic)
• How did you add anything to limit your search? (for example additional keywords, or limit by article type or publication type, limit by population)
• Did you add any filters after you searched? (For example, filter to English language or peer review, or certain publication dates)
• Include the date when you performed the search? (When writing up a search strategy you want to include the date you searched, this helps if you (and the reader of your search strategy) come back to see if there is anything new on the topic.)

This information is adapted from the PRISMA-S guidelines for reporting searches and search strategies.

Rethlefsen M. L., Kirtley S., Waffenschmidt S., Ayala A. P., Moher D., Page M.J., Koffel J.B. (2021). PRISMA-S Group. PRISMA-S: an extension to the PRISMA Statement for Reporting Literature Searches in Systematic Reviews. Systematic Reviews, 10 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-020-01542-z

You can always start searching an online source by just putting some keywords in the box to see what results come back, but knowing a little more about how the databases work can help in returning more relevant sources.

Boolean Logic: watch this short video on  Boolean operators  (e.g. AND; OR or NOT)

• AND means that both words must be present (makes for more narrow results) - Fungi and Cancer
• OR means that either word may be present (makes for broader results and is usually used for synonyms) - Fungi OR Mushrooms
• NOT means that a word will be excluded from the results (makes for more narrow results) - (Fungi OR Mushrooms) NOT Yeast

Parentheses:  using parenthesis along with Boolean operators can help the database know what results you want (read the Boolean operators in the correct order).

• This search, Cancer AND Fungi OR Mushrooms, will return articles about cancer and fungi and articles about mushrooms
• This search, Cancer AND (Fungi OR Mushrooms), will return articles about cancer and fungi and articles about cancer and mushrooms

In the EBSCO databases I will usually put synonyms in the same box with an OR and different concepts each in their own box (the boxes effectively work as parentheses in the search:

Truncation symbols:  most databases allow the use of * to truncate a word.  In searching it will return results for any word that starts with the characters you enter for example: nurs* = nurse, nurses, nursing, and nursery (this can be very helpful if a word has multiple endings, but also note that this last word, nursery, actually has a different meaning than the rest, so sometimes truncating can bring in some irrelevant results.

Search strategy : Searching databases in a consistent, structured manner will save you time. Keeping track of your search history can help you refine your topic, your thinking and your search strategy, and ultimately retrieve more relevant results. After each search, reflect on the keywords and synonyms you used, are there other terms, or another way to combine, to get more relevant results?

Steps in developing a search strategy include:

   - define terms and write down your research question      - identify, and keep track of key words, terms, and phrases    - identify keyword synonyms or reflect on narrower (or broader search terms)    - determine a timeframe for search results    - consider what type of material you will include and why    - identify where you will search for the information

This is just one example (not a template) for how a search strategy might be written up.  Note that the searches are clearly reproducible, someone could go to the information sources listed and do exactly the same searches.  Additionally, it includes the date the searches were done and the limiters applied in each source.

In August 2021, the databases MEDLINE and Biological Abstracts were searched using the terms: (fungi or mushroom*) AND bioactive compounds. In each database the searches were further limited to English language, published between 2016 and 2021, and peer review articles.  This resulted in 869 results in MEDLINE, and 2032 in Biological Abstracts.  So I did a more narrow search by adding in the concept of depression, leaving me with seven results in Biological Abstracts and  five results in MEDLINE. The resulting 12 articles were then hand reviewed by skimming titles and abstracts, and five applicable articles were selected for inclusion.  Additionally, the online source, Google Scholar was searched (in incognito mode) using the terms: depression and mushrooms and "bioactive compounds".  From there three additional articles were selected from the first two pages of results.  As a final step, two previously selected articles were entered back into Google Scholar and the "cited by" function was used to find additional newer articles (Barros et al. 2007; Elkateeb et al. 2019).

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Introduction

The literature search process

• Develop an effective search strategy 
• Determine the type of information
• Identify where to search
• Search and manage results
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Library resources and support

Develop an effective search strategy

• 1. Identify key concepts
• 2. Identify alternate terms
• 3. Incorporate search techniques

If all concepts are not identified, your search strategy may not be correct and the literature identified may not address your research.  

For example, if your research topic is:

 "The role of social media for promoting participation in sport by refugees living in rural areas" 

Four concepts are included in this research question: 

Several frameworks are available that assist when developing a search strategy associated with the key concepts in a research question.

While your research question may not always fit the formats suggested here, using a framework for guidance can still be a helpful starting point. 

For  clinical questions,  effectiveness of interventions, treatments or the impact of exposures need to be answered.

For qualitative research , and evaluating experiences of a specific phenomenon use the following frameworks: 

It is important to note that sometimes not all the concepts in a research question should be included in a search strategy. Some concepts may be less important than others or may unnecessarily complicate or restrict a search strategy. If including a concept in a strategy increases the chance of missing relevant references, it is best to exclude that concept. 

Once you have identified the key concepts in your research question, the next step is to think laterally and identify alternate terms, such as synonyms, abbreviations, colloquialisms, and acronyms that other researchers may have used to describe the same concept. 

Tips for identifying search terms : 

• Conduct a preliminary search in a subject database within your research field to clarify the topic  
• Identify common terms used in the literature 
• Note any relevant subject headings used in the databases. 
• Check their definitions to confirm whether they are suitable for your research 
• Check titles, abstracts, and author keywords on articles you have already identified as relevant to your research 
• Use the reference list at the end of these articles to identify further research that may guide you, then search for these articles in the key databases within your research area. 

It is important to understand the terminology used in your research field. Dictionaries and encyclopaedias can help to clarify the meaning of terms; specialist dictionaries and encyclopaedias may assist to define discipline-specific terms.   Check the Subject Resource Guides for links to specialist dictionaries and encyclopaedias .

Checking for variations   

Keeping track of search terms 

Returning to the example research topic :

The role of social media for promoting participation in sport by refugees living in rural areas

Synonyms and related terms which may be identified as useful for this research question could include the following:

New terms and concepts can be added when found during the literature search.

Use the search planning form  or something similar to document your key concepts, with any synonyms and related terms.

Various techniques such as truncation, phrase and proximity searching, nesting,  Boolean operators and wildcards, can help to maximise the effectiveness of search strategies.These techniques are explained below.

When used together the techniques and strategies included in this section will enhance the potential and scope of results in your research topic.

Phrase searching

Proximity searching

Boolean operators

Using the research question:

The concept terms and their synonyms can be truncated and phrases identified. 

These terms and concepts can now be incorparted into any search strategy associated with the research question used as our example.

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Systematic reviews & evidence synthesis methods.

• Schedule a Consultation / Meet our Team
• What is Evidence Synthesis?
• Types of Evidence Synthesis
• Evidence Synthesis Across Disciplines
• Finding and Appraising Existing Systematic Reviews
• 0. Preliminary Searching
• 1. Develop a Protocol
• 2. Draft your Research Question
• 3. Select Databases
• 4. Select Grey Literature Sources
• 5. Write a Search Strategy
• 6. Register a Protocol
• 7. Translate Search Strategies
• 8. Citation Management
• 9. Article Screening
• 10. Risk of Bias Assessment
• 11. Data Extraction
• 12. Synthesize, Map, or Describe the Results
• Evidence Synthesis Resources & Tools

Writing a Search Strategy

It is recommended that you work with a librarian to help you design comprehensive search strategies across a variety of databases. Writing a successful search strategy takes an intimate knowledge of bibliographic databases.  

Using Boolean logic is an important component of writing a search strategy: 

• "AND" narrows the search, e.g. children AND exercise
• "OR" broadens the search, e.g. (children OR adolescents) AND (exercise OR diet) 
• "NOT" excludes terms, e.g. exercise NOT diet 
• "*" at the root of a word finds all forms of that word, e.g. (child* OR adolescen*) AND (exercise* OR diet*)
• parentheses ensure all terms will be searched together as a set 
• quotations around a phrase searches that exact phrase, e.g. (child* OR adolescen* OR "young adult*") 

Evidence Synthesis Search Strategy Examples

Agriculture Example: 

• Research question: What are the strategies that farmer organizations use, and what impacts do those strategies have on small-scale producers in Sub Saharan Africa and India? 
• Key concepts from the question combined with AND: (farmer organizations) AND (Sub-Saharan Africa OR India) 
• Protocol and search strategies for this question in CAB Abstracts, Scopus, EconLit, and grey literature
• Published scoping review for this question

Nutrition Example: 

• Research question: What are the health benefits and safety of folic acid fortification of wheat and maize flour (i.e. alone or in combination with other micronutrients) on folate status and health outcomes in the overall population, compared to wheat or maize flour without folic acid (or no intervention)? 
• Key concepts from the question combined with AND: (folic acid) AND (fortification) 
• Protocol on PROSPERO
• Published systematic review for this question with search strategies used in 14 databases

Search Strategy Template and Filters

• Human Studies Filter
• Randomized Controlled Trial Filters
• Other Methodology Search Filters

If you want to exclude animal studies from your search results, you may add a "human studies filter" to the end of your search strategy. This approach works best with databases that use Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) or other controlled vocabulary.

See Appendix 2 at the end of this published search strategy for an example of a human studies filter in a MEDLINE(Ovid) search strategy.

Line 13 searches for all animal studies, and then line 14 searches for only the full search results in line 12, NOT including any of the animal studies from line 13 (#12 NOT #13).

Add the following lines to the end of your search strategy to filter for randomized controlled trials. These are "validated search filters" meaning they have been tested for sensitivity and specificity, and the results of those tests have been published as a scientific article. The ISSG Search Filters Resource provides validated search filters for many other study design types.

Highly Sensitive MEDLINE (via PubMed) Filter from Cochrane

(randomized controlled trial [pt] OR controlled clinical trial [pt] OR randomized [tiab] OR placebo [tiab] OR drug therapy [sh] OR randomly [tiab] OR trial [tiab] OR groups [tiab])

Highly Sensitive MEDLINE (OVID)Filter from Cochrane

((randomized controlled trial.pt. or controlled clinical trial.pt. or randomized.ab. or placebo.ab. or drug therapy.fs. or randomly.ab. or trial.ab. or groups.ab.) not (exp animals/ not humans.sh.))​

CINAHL Filter from Cochrane

TX allocat* random* OR (MH "Quantitative Studies") OR (MH "Placebos") OR TX placebo* OR TX random* allocat* OR (MH "Random Assignment") OR TX randomi* control* trial* OR TX ( (singl* n1 blind*) OR (singl* n1 mask*) ) OR TX ( (doubl* n1 blind*) OR (doubl* n1 mask*) ) OR TX ( (tripl* n1 blind*) OR (tripl* n1 mask*) ) OR TX ( (trebl* n1 blind*) OR (trebl* n1 mask*) ) OR TX clinic* n1 trial* OR PT Clinical trial OR (MH "Clinical Trials+")

PsycINFO Filter from ProQuest

SU.EXACT("Treatment Effectiveness Evaluation") OR SU.EXACT.EXPLODE("Treatment Outcomes") OR SU.EXACT("Placebo") OR SU.EXACT("Followup Studies") OR placebo* OR random* OR "comparative stud*" OR  clinical NEAR/3 trial* OR research NEAR/3 design OR evaluat* NEAR/3 stud* OR prospectiv* NEAR/3 stud* OR (singl* OR doubl* OR trebl* OR tripl*) NEAR/3 (blind* OR mask*)

Web Of Science (WoS) Filter from University of Alberta - Not Validated

TS= clinical trial* OR TS=research design OR TS=comparative stud* OR TS=evaluation stud* OR TS=controlled trial* OR TS=follow-up stud* OR TS=prospective stud* OR TS=random* OR TS=placebo* OR TS=(single blind*) OR TS=(double blind*)

Scopus Filter from Children's Mercy Kansas City

 Copy/paste into 'advanced search':

TITLE-ABS-KEY((clinic* w/1 trial*) OR (randomi* w/1 control*) OR (randomi* w/2 trial*) OR (random* w/1 assign*) OR (random* w/1 allocat*) OR (control* w/1 clinic*) OR (control* w/1 trial) OR placebo* OR (Quantitat* w/1 Stud*) OR (control* w/1 stud*) OR (randomi* w/1 stud*) OR (singl* w/1 blind*) or (singl* w/1 mask*) OR (doubl* w/1 blind*) OR (doubl* w/1 mask*) OR (tripl* w/1 blind*) OR (tripl* w/1 mask*) OR (trebl* w/1 blind*) OR (trebl* w/1 mask*)) AND NOT (SRCTYPE(b) OR SRCTYPE(k) OR SRCTYPE(p) OR SRCTYPE(r) OR SRCTYPE(d) OR DOCTYPE(ab) OR DOCTYPE(bk) OR DOCTYPE(ch) OR DOCTYPE(bz) OR DOCTYPE(cr) OR DOCTYPE(ed) OR DOCTYPE(er) OR DOCTYPE(le) OR DOCTYPE(no) OR DOCTYPE(pr) OR DOCTYPE(rp) OR DOCTYPE(re) OR DOCTYPE(sh))

Sources and more information:

• Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions
• Cochrane RCT Filters for Different Databases
• American University of Beirut University Libraries Search Filters / Hedges
• Methodology Search Filters by Study Design Filters for RCTs, CCTs, Non-randomized/observational designs, and tests of diagnostic accuracy. Source: Countway Library of Medicine. (2019). Systematic Reviews and Meta Analysis: Methodology Filters.
• American University of Beirut University Libraries Search Filters Filters for RCTs, GUIDELINEs, systematic reviews, qualitative studies, etc. Source: American University of Beirut University Libraries. (2019). Systematic Reviews: Search Filters / Hedges.
• Search Filter (Search Hedge) Developed to define certain criteria for your search, many databases feature a built-in set of search filters that are commonly used to limit search results by age group, publication type, study type, and more. The Centre for Reviews and Dissemination has a list of published filters along with information on appraisal of search filters, links to articles that have evaluated filters, etc. When selecting a filter, be sure to look at the date of development as changes to database terms and structure can affect the performance of the search filter.

Video: Databases and search strategies (3:40 minutes)

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Thesis and Dissertation Guide

• Starting your Dissertation/Thesis
• Dissertation/Thesis Resources
• Books That May Help
• Literature Reviews
• Annotated Bibliography
• We Don't Have It? / Interlibrary Loan
• Online Learning Study Tips
• Search Strategy
• Advanced Search Techniques
• Kemp Library Video Tutorials
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• What are...
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• Apps You Didn't Know You Needed
• Who is citing me?
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• ESU Thesis Submission
• ESU Dissertation Submission

This page goes over what an academic search is, different levels of search strategy (how to form a specific search, how to structure that for your assignment, etc.), how to create an effective search in a database/search engine/anywhere, why search terms matter, how to effectively review your search results, and the structure of a journal article. This page also provides a tracking sheet that can be used to help remember all the different steps and directions you go in your research. 

Search Strategy (visual)

The Search Strategy Process

What are the parts of an article?

Search strategy and tips.

• Getting Started
• Keeping Track of Your Search
• Sample Search
• Why are search terms important?
• Adding Concepts
• Reviewing Results
• Is this Article Right for Me?
• Conceive : what’s the assignment? What will your topic be?
• Organize : what are you looking for? Historical information, current information, statistical data, peer reviewed article?
• Keywords : break your topic down into keywords or concepts.  Once you have keywords, find synonyms for those words and phrases. How can you combine them?
• Start Broad : start your searching with one or two keywords (broad topic) and narrow your search as you go with additional terms, altering what years of publication you’re looking for, only looking at peer reviewed articles, etc.
• If you’re not finding anything exact, find something close and try those keywords and subjects
• Reassess : if you’re not getting the results you’re looking for, you may need to change your searches, broaden or narrow your topic, or change your topic.  Ask for help if you’re not sure what your best option is.
• Restart: research is a cyclical process, you may need to start from scratch or just from an earlier step like choosing new keywords.
• Research Tracking Sheet

Keep track of your search and your results. Remember research is a  process   and you may try many things before you find what works best for your topic. If you think of it like troubleshooting a problem on your computer that might help. 

Keep track of your search terms and jot down other words you find while perusing the articles that result from your searches.

The " search history " option under the search box can also help with that.

Email, print, or save articles that might be useful for your research, even if you're not sure that you're going to use them.

This sample topic is used to demonstrate how to pull out keywords and critically assess your topic. 

If your topic is: 

What is the influence of Spanish literary custom on Medieval lyric poetry?

 1. Identify keywords or phrases:       

     Spain(ish)      literature      culture      Medieval      lyric poetry

 2. Explore synonyms for your keywords/phrases:

     Medieval: Middle Ages, Dark Ages, Gothic 

     Culture: customs, tradition, practices

3. Use these terms in your search. Combine the synonyms with the word "or".

For example:   Medieval OR Middle Ages OR Dark Ages OR Gothic

4. Make use of the  Subject Headings  option on the left of your screen to find appropriate subject headings for your topic and use them in a search

Note : some of your initial keywords may be similar like   literature  and  lyric poetry .  Other keywords you could use for either of these terms:   literary, poems, lyric poems, prose  or because we are disucssing Spanish literary customs from a specific time period, you can use non-English terms such as " kharjas " or " Mester de Juglaria ". You could also look at specific famous poems such as  Cantar de Mio Cid  or  Mester de Clerecia . 

Use unique, specific terms.  If you're researching a subject with a unique vocabulary, don't be afraid to use those terms.  It's the difference between searching " ocelot " (8,490,000 results in Google) and " Leopardus pardalis " (387,000 results in Google). That's over an 8 million result difference. 

By using specific and/or unique terms, you are likely to find more relevant information. It is also likely to be of a higher quality, as most people don't use professional vocabulary casually. 

Remember to search in the advanced search mode

Enter your 1st keyword(s)/phrase(s) in the first line (using our sample search from two tabs ago,  Medieval or Middle Ages ).

Your second concept in our example is culture . Enter that key phrase and any synonyms in the second line of the search box. Your search results should then include both concepts somewhere in the record.

You can add as many concepts as you like - all databases and the library catalog will allow you to add more than the default 3 fields when you're in advanced search.

Below you see an example of combining 2 concepts with multiple keywords in a database.

Once you have collected some articles, take a closer look at them.

• Read and review what you have. Do you have enough information to support your topic?
• If you don't like what you have or you don't have enough good information, go back to your search. Try some new keywords or a different database.
• Explore some of the subject headings from the articles that you do want to use.
• If some of your articles have citations you might want to look at some of the sources listed there.
• If you're stuck -- ask a librarian for help.

Reading these sections of an article/book will help you determine if the item you're looking at is relevant to your research. The title, abstract and discussion/conclusion are usually all you really need to read from an article to see if you can use it. 

• Abstract : This is a summary of the article/item and will give you a good idea if it will be of use. This is the only part that will be in the item record and in the article. 
• Introduction : This will tell you the history of the topic and the goal(s) of what you’re reading.
• Literature Review : Summary of similar or previous research on the topic. *May not be included.
• Methodology : How did they approach the topic/their research? *May not be included.
• Results : Lists and discusses what the research discovered. *May not be included. 
• Discussion/Conclusion : The results of what they found and their implications.
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• URL: https://esu.libguides.com/thesis

• University of Michigan Library
• Research Guides

Evidence Syntheses (Scoping, systematic, & other types of reviews)

• Search Strategy
• Types of Reviews
• Should You Do a Systematic Review?
• Work with a Search Expert
• Covidence Review Software
• Evidence in an Evidence Synthesis
• Information Sources

Developing an Answerable Question

Creating a search strategy, identifying synonyms & related terms, keywords vs. index terms, combining search terms using boolean operators, a sr search strategy, search limits.

• Managing Records
• Selection Process
• Data Collection Process
• Study Risk of Bias Assessment
• Reporting Results
• For Search Professionals

Validated Search Filters

Depending on your topic, you may be able to save time in constructing your search by using specific search filters (also called "hedges") developed & validated by researchers. Validated filters include:

• PubMed’s Clinical Queries &  Health Services Research Queries pages
• Ovid Medline’s Clinical Queries  filters (also documented by McMaster Health Information Research Unit)
• EBSCOhost’s main search page for CINAHL (Clinical Queries category)
• American U of Beirut, esp. for " humans" filters .
• Countway Library of Medicine methodology filters
• InterTASC Information Specialists' Sub-Group (ISSG) Search Filter Resource
• SIGN (Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network) filters page

Why Create a Sensitive Search?

In many literature reviews, you try to balance the sensitivity of the search (how many potentially relevant articles you find) and specificit y (how many definitely relevant articles  you find ), realizing that you will miss some.  In an evidence synthesis, you want a very sensitive search:  you are trying to find all potentially relevant articles.  An evidence synthesis search will:

• contain many synonyms & variants of search terms
• use care in adding search filters
• search multiple resources, databases & grey literature, such as reports & clinical trials.

PICO is a good framework to help clarify your systematic review question.

P -   Patient, Population or Problem: What are the important characteristics of the patients &/or problem?

I -  Intervention:  What you plan to do for the patient or problem?

C -  Comparison: What, if anything, is the alternative to the intervention?

O -  Outcome:  What is the outcome that you would like to measure?

Beyond PICO: the SPIDER tool for qualitative evidence synthesis.

5-SPICE: the application of an original framework for community health worker program design, quality improvement and research agenda setting.

A well constructed search strategy is the core of your evidence synthesis and will be reported on in the methods section of your paper. The search strategy retrieves the majority of the studies you will assess for eligibility & inclusion. The quality of the search strategy also affects what items may have been missed.  Informationists can be partners in this process.

For an evidence synthesis, it is important to broaden your search to maximize the retrieval of relevant results.

Use keywords:  How other people might describe a topic?

Identify the appropriate index terms (subject headings) for your topic.

• Index terms differ by database (MeSH, or  Medical Subject Headings ,  Emtree terms, Subject headings) are assigned by experts based on the article's content.
• Check the indexing of sentinel articles (3-6 articles that are fundamental to your topic).  Sentinel articles can also be used to  test your search results.

Include spelling variations (e.g., behavior , behaviour).  

Both types of search terms are useful & both should be used in your search.

Keywords help to broaden your results. They will be searched for at least in journal titles, author names, article titles, & article abstracts. They can also be tagged to search all text.

Index/subject terms  help to focus your search appropriately, looking for items that have had a specific term applied by an indexer.

Boolean operators let you combine search terms in specific ways to broaden or narrow your results.

An example of a search string for one concept in a systematic review.

In this example from a PubMed search, [mh] = MeSH &  [tiab] = Title/Abstract, a more focused version of a keyword search.

A typical database search limit allows you to narrow results so that you retrieve articles that are most relevant to your research question. Limit types vary by database & include:

• Article/publication type
• Publication dates

In an evidence synthesis search, you should use care when applying limits, as you may lose articles inadvertently.  For more information, see, Chapter 4: Searching for and selecting studies of the Cochrane Handbook particularly regarding language & format limits in Section 4.4.5 .

Finding information

A search strategy is an organised approach to searching that helps you find relevant and accurate information about your topic. It includes using keywords and alternative terms, structuring your search with AND and OR and applying filters (limits).

In brief, developing a search strategy will help you:

• Generate keywords to start your search
• Search effectively using alternative terms, ANDs and ORs, and limits (e.g. publication date, resource type, language etc)
• Conduct parallel searches if you are not finding relevant results

Identifying keywords

Whether you have been given a broad or specific topic, you will need to identify the key concepts from the assignment question. These are the words or phrases that describe your topic and become the keywords (search terms) you will use as the basis of your search.

For help identifying keywords from your assignment topic, see understanding your question .

Broad question example

Will artificial intelligence ultimately benefit or harm humankind?

Our keywords may be:

• Artificial intelligence (AI)

Brainstorming your topic can also help you further develop the main concepts and keywords you can use for your search.

Specific question example

Explore the ways in which artificial intelligence (AI) has transformed various aspects of human life, from communication and healthcare to industry and entertainment. Discuss both the positive and negative implications of this transformation. Will artificial intelligence ultimately benefit or harm humankind?

• Communication
• Entertainment

Note : You may need to perform multiple searches with different combinations of your keywords to find information on the varying aspects of your topic.

• Artificial intelligence, Communication, Benefit, Harm
• Artificial intelligence, Healthcare, Benefit, Harm

Searching and reviewing your results

Start searching by entering the keywords you identified from your topic into the Library catalogue or a relevant database. You can use the in-built filters (also called limits) in the catalogue or database to quickly narrow your search results by date (last 5 or 10 years), resource type (books, peer-reviewed journals) or language (English) based on your assignment requirements.

Review your initial search results by quickly scanning the title and abstract (summary) of the items you find to check if they are relevant to your topic. Based on the keywords from your assignment, your initial results may not always retrieve the best or most relevant resources.

Expanding and refining your search

You can use the following techniques to help improve your search and further develop your search strategy.

Alternative terms

Concepts can often be expressed in different ways, e.g. the term harm may be referred to using the related terms risks or disadvantages . Think about the different terms (alternative terms, related terms, synonyms) that may be used to describe the same concept. This can help expand your search to find more information. To find alternative keywords, try the following:

• Use a thesaurus
• Search for the keyword/concept in Google or Google Scholar
• Scan the abstracts (summaries) of relevant articles identified from your initial search for alternative keywords, phrases or subjects

The following table shows alternative terms that could be used for some of the main concepts from the specific assignment topic:

Combining your search terms

When searching in the catalogue and databases, you can combine your keywords using AND and OR.

AND narrows your search, returning results that contain all of your terms. For example, Artificial intelligence AND communication will only return articles that include both keywords, Artificial intelligence and communication.

OR broadens your search, returning results that contain either of your terms. For example, Artificial intelligence OR generative AI will return articles that include either of these keywords.

Other search techniques

You can use these tips to search the Library catalogue, databases, or Google.

Phrase searching

Phrase searching allows you to search for two or more words as an exact phrase. This will only retrieve articles where those words appear together in the text. It will decrease the number of results you get but make the results more relevant. To search for a phrase, add double quotes around the term. For example:  “artificial intelligence”

Truncation can help you search for a word that has multiple endings. To truncate, add the truncation symbol (usually an asterisk *) after the last common letter of variations. For example, communicat* will retrieve articles with the terms communicat e , communicat ion , communicat ing and communicat ed in them.

Example of a search strategy

Using these techniques, you can create a search strategy that can be used across different databases. Remember, you may have to do multiple searches using different combinations of keywords to ensure you retrieve relevant sources for each aspect of your topic.

“artificial intelligence” OR AI AND benefit OR job efficiency AND communication OR content creation

“artificial intelligence” OR AI AND harm OR job loss AND communication OR content creation

Can’t find what you need?

If you retrieve too many or too few results or aren’t finding relevant sources, you may need to revise your search strategy.

Too many results

• Add additional concepts to your search (using AND)
• Check if there are narrower or more specific terms you could use, e.g. you could search for job efficiency or virtual assistants instead of the broader term benefits .
• Make sure you are not combining different concepts with OR instead of AND
• Apply filters such as resource type, date, subject, language, etc. to your search

Too few results

• Check your keywords are spelled correctly
• Add more alternative keywords or phrases to your search (using OR)
• Remove some of the concepts or search for broader terms
• Make sure you are not combining similar (alternative) keywords with AND instead of OR
• Try your search in a different database

Parallel searching

If you are still not finding much information on your topic, you may want to consider a parallel search. For example, if you were researching the use of AI among secondary school students and this was not returning many results, you could instead search for information on AI use amongst university students. You could then use this literature in your assignment, identifying similarities and differences between university and high school students.

• Subject guides
• Researching for your literature review
• Develop a search strategy

Researching for your literature review: Develop a search strategy

• Literature reviews
• Literature sources
• Before you start
• Keyword search activity
• Subject search activity
• Combined keyword and subject searching
• Online tutorials
• Apply search limits
• Run a search in different databases
• Supplementary searching
• Save your searches
• Manage results

Identify key terms and concepts

Start developing a search strategy by identifying the key words and concepts within your research question. 

For example:   How do s t udents view inclusive educational practices in schools ?

Treat each component as a separate concept (there are usually between 2-4 concepts).

For each concept list the key words derived from your research question, as well as any other relevant terms or synonyms that you have found in your preliminary searches. Also consider singular and plural forms of words, variant spellings, acronyms and relevant index terms (subject headings).  

As part of the process of developing a search strategy, it is recommended that you keep a master list of search terms for each key concept. This will make it easier when it comes to translating your search strategy across multiple database platforms. 

Concept map template for documenting search terms

Combine search terms and concepts

Boolean operators are used to combine the different concepts in your topic to form a search strategy. The main operators used to connect your terms are AND and OR . See an explanation below:

• Link keywords related to a single concept with OR
• Linking with OR broadens a search (increases the number of results) by searching for any of the alternative keywords

Example: perspective  OR attitude

• Link different concepts with AND
• Linking with AND narrows a search (reduces the number of results) by retrieving only those records that include all of your specified keywords

Example: inclusive education  AND student perspective

• using NOT narrows a search by excluding certain search terms
• Most searches do not require the use of the NOT operator

Example: education  NOT higher education  will retrieve all results that include the word education  but don’t contain the phrase  higher education .

See the website for venn diagrams demonstrating the function of AND/OR/NOT:

Combine the search terms using Boolean

Advanced search operators - truncation and wildcards

Use symbols to retrieve word variations:

The truncation symbol is commonly an asterisk * and is added at the end of a word.

• The asterisk applied to the root of a word captures other endings to that root word making it useful for retrieving singular, plural and other variations of a keyword.

Example:  educat *  will retrieve educat ion, educat ors, educat ional , etc

Note: If you don't want to retrieve all possible variations, an easy alternative is to utilise the OR operator instead e.g. education OR educational.

The wildcard symbols include the question mark ? and hash #. They replace zero, one or more characters in the middle of a word.

Example:  wom # n finds woman or women, behavio ? r finds behaviour or behavior.

The symbols may vary in different databases - See the Database search tips guide for details or check the Help link in any database.

Phrase searching

Use quotes to keep word order when searching for phrases.

For phrase searching, place two or more words in "inverted commas" or "quote marks".

Example: “inclusive education”

In some databases, words may be searched separately if the quote marks are not used. In other databases, word order may be maintained without the need for quote marks.

See the Database search tips for details on phrase searching in key databases, or check the Help link in any database.

Subject headings (index terms)

Identify appropriate subject headings (index terms).

Many databases use subject headings to index content. These are selected from a controlled list and describe what the article is about. 

A comprehensive search strategy is often best achieved by using a combination of keywords and subject headings where possible.

In-depth knowledge of subject headings is not required for users to benefit from improved search performance using them in their searches.

Advantages of subject searching:

• Helps locate articles that use synonyms, variant spellings, plurals
• Search terms don’t have to appear in the title or abstract

Note: Subject headings are often unique to a particular database, so you will need to look for appropriate subject headings in each database you intend to use.

Subject headings are not available for every topic, and it is best to only select them if they relate closely to your area of interest.

Create a gold set

It is useful to build a ‘sample set’ or ‘gold set’ of relevant references before you develop your search strategy.  .

Sources for a 'gold set' may include:

• key papers recommended by subject experts or supervisors
• citation searching - looking at a reference list to see who has been cited, or using a citation database (eg. Scopus, Web of Science) to see who has cited a known relevant article
• results of preliminary scoping searches.

The papers in your 'gold set' can then be used to help you identify relevant search terms

• Look up your 'sample set' articles in a database that you will use for your literature review. For the articles indexed in the database, look at the records to see what keywords and/or subject headings are listed.

The 'gold set' will also provide a means of testing your search strategy

• When an indexed article is not retrieved, your search strategy can be revised in order to include it (see what concepts or keywords can be incorporated into your search strategy so that the article is retrieved).
• If your search strategy is retrieving a lot of irrelevant results, look at the irrelevant records to determine why they are being retrieved. What keywords or subject headings are causing them to appear? Can you change these without losing any relevant articles from your results?

Example search strategy

An example of a search strategy incorporating all three concepts that could be applied to different databases is shown below:.

The above search strategy in a nested format (for use in a single search box) would look like:

(student* OR pupil* OR "young people" OR learner*) AND (perception* OR experience OR voice OR perspective*) AND (inclusi* OR "special education" OR belonging OR disabilit*)

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Develop Your Search Strategy

Course: develop your search strategy.

Course Overview

This course provides a clear understanding of the most popular online search strategies, including Boolean Logic. It’ll help you to decide which is the best search strategy to fit your needs, and gives lots of practical examples for carrying out a search using the most common approaches and tools. 

Learning Outcomes

This course will help you to:

• Recognize the benefits of an online search strategy 
• Understand the most popular types of searches, and the benefits/limitations of each (including Boolean)
• Apply search strategies in response to specific assignments/ research questions
• Search online repositories including Google Scholar
• Recognize when search results are relevant and useful
• Keep effective records of search results

Course Instructor: Dr. Eric Addae-Kyeremeh

Dr. eric addae-kyeremeh.

Dr. Eric Addae-Kyeremeh is the Head of School in the School of Education, Childhood, Youth and Sport at Open University. Eric has over 20 years of professional experience that involves teaching, research, consultancy and public engagement. He was admitted into Fellowship by BCS, The Chartered Institute for IT in 2012 for demonstrating leadership, eminence and authority in the area of educational technologies. In recognition of his expertise, significant impact and contribution to leadership and management in education and training, he was awarded Chartered Fellowship by the Chartered Management Institute (CMI) in the same year. Prior to joining the Open University in 2011, Eric worked in the Further Education (FE) sector in England from 2000-2010, firstly as a lecturer in Computing and ICT and then in a range of leadership and management positions. During his career in FE, he led and managed a number of subject areas, including Science and Mathematics; Information and Communication Technology; and Business.

Module One: What Is a Search Strategy?

This module will help you to:  

• Recognize the benefits of using online search       
• Establish the importance of developing a search strategy before starting your essay or assignment     
• Avoid some of the pitfalls in searching for online sources    

Module Two: Boolean Logic Searches

• Determine appropriate keywords for a search on a given topic, including synonyms    
• Adapt your use of keywords to improve your search      
• Plan and carry out a basic search in a database  

Module Three: Searching Online Repositories

• Apply search strategies to find information from online repositories     
• Use Google Scholar to find information for your studies or assignment    
• Search other websites and repositories for materials and digital assets licensed under Creative Commons    

Module Four: Managing and Analyzing Search Results

• Quickly decide which of the materials you have retrieved are most relevant for your topic     
• Keep a record of what you read and intend to read in an efficient way    
• Use online tools to keep up to date with information in your subject or interest area    

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Research for Essay Writing in English

• Library Terminology
• Types of sources
• Google vs. Library Databases
• Building your search strategy
• Running your search
• Evaluating your results
• Chicago Manual of Style

Search strategy worksheet

This worksheet can be used to prepare for your search and to document your search process.

• Search Strategy Worksheet

Search Strategy: Synonyms and related terms

You can also view this video on YouTube

Search Strategy: Combining your ideas together

Learning Objectives

By the end of this module, you should be able to:

• Apply proper usage of search operators (e.g. boolean operators, truncation symbols, parentheses)
• Select relevant keywords, expressions, and terminology to retrieve useful information and resources
• Understand the need for a search strategy when searching in a library catalogue or database 

1. What is a search strategy?

A search strategy is an organized structure of key terms used to search a database or a library catalogue. it combines the main concepts of your search question in order to retrieve accurate results.  .

Your search strategy will account for:

• possible search terms, keywords, phrases or expressions
• truncated or wildcard variations of search terms
• usage of search operators

2. Use search operators

Search operators are commands that you can use to filter and refine your search results. here are some search operators that you should know about.  .

Boolean operators: They form the basis of mathematical sets and database logic. They connect your search words together to either narrow or broaden your set of results and help you find exactly what you are looking for. 

Truncation: Truncation is a technique that broadens your search to include various word endings and spellings. Adding a truncation symbol at the end of the root of a keyword enables you to search for some  variations of that keyword 

Truncation symbols may vary by databases, but we often see: *, !, ? or #  (Check the help or support page of a database to learn more about the symbols they use)

Canad * = Canada, Canadian, Canadians, Canadiens, Canadiennes, etc.

modern * = modern, modernism, modernist, etc. 

Wildcards: Wildcards are used when you a word that can be spelled in different ways but has the same meaning. Wildcards substitute a symbol for one letter of a word. 

Truncation symbols may vary by databases, but we often see: * or ? (Check the help or support page of a database to learn more about the symbols they use)

wom*n = woman, women

colo?r = color, colour  

Quotation marks: Use quotation marks when proximity between two words is key. This is useful with expressions, proper names, or concepts with more than one word. When using quotation marks, the database will search for exactly what you enclose into the quotations. Make sure to have the proper spelling. 

"Mark Twain"

"climate change"

"Civil War"

Parentheses: Use parentheses to group search terms together. When putting parentheses, you can perform several Boolean searches at the same time. A database will perform the search enclosed in parentheses first.

("climate change" OR "global warming")

(teen* OR adolescent) AND media AND violence  

(Some content from this section was taken from MIT Libraries - Database Search Tips CC-BY-NC 4.0)

3. Steps to build a search strategy

To build a search strategy, you should start with your research question. we will use the following question for our example:  does fair trade chocolate actually mean better conditions for cocoa farmers.

Step 1: Locate the main concepts of your question

• cocoa farmers
• working conditions

* Don't be tempted by words such as: Cause / effect / determine / factors / role / research / trends / benefits / advantages / drawbacks / disadvantages / impact / etc...  They are not the main concepts of your questions and will not improve your search strategy.  

Step 2: Make a list of synonyms of your main concepts. Are there other ways to express those ideas or concepts?

Step 3: Organize your keywords/concepts with search operators to create a search string

*This is an example. A search string can be complex or simple, depending on your need

Step 4: Test your search strategy in the library catalogue or a database (see Running your search) and refine as needed!

If you have questions, or if you run into problems that the guide does not address, e-mail Catherine Lachaîne at [email protected]

This online guide is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International  license. This page is attributed to Catherine Lachaîne. 

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• Next: Running your search >>
• Last Updated: Oct 29, 2022 6:43 PM
• URL: https://uottawa.libguides.com/research-essay-writing

• Study and research support
• Literature searching

Literature searching explained

Develop a search strategy.

A search strategy is an organised structure of key terms used to search a database. The search strategy combines the key concepts of your search question in order to retrieve accurate results.

Your search strategy will account for all:

• possible search terms;
• keywords and phrases;
• truncated and wildcard variations of search terms; and
• subject headings (where applicable).

Each database works differently so you need to adapt your search strategy for each database. You may wish to develop a number of separate search strategies if your research covers several different areas.

It is a good idea to test your strategies and refine them after you have reviewed the search results.

How a search strategy looks in practice

Take a look at this example literature search in PsycINFO (PDF) about self-esteem.

The example shows the subject heading and keyword searches that have been carried out for each concept within our research question and how they have been combined using Boolean operators. It also shows where keyword techniques like truncation, wildcards and adjacency searching have been used.

Search strategy techniques

The next sections show some techniques you can use to develop your search strategy.

Skip straight to:

• Choosing search terms
• Searching with keywords
• Searching for exact phrases
• Using truncated and wildcard searches

Searching with subject headings

• Using Boolean logic

Citation searching

Choose search terms.

Concepts can be expressed in different ways eg “self-esteem” might be referred to as “self-worth”. Your aim is to consider each of your concepts and come up with a list of the different ways they could be expressed.

To find alternative keywords or phrases for your concepts try the following:

• Use a thesaurus to identify synonyms.
• Search for your concepts on a search engine like Google Scholar, scanning the results for alternative words and phrases.
• Examine relevant abstracts or articles for alternative words, phrases and subject headings (if the database uses subject headings).

When you've done this, you should have lists of words and phrases for each concept as in this completed PICO model (PDF) or this example concept map (PDF).

Watch this short video on how to plan a search and generating good search terms:

As you search and scan articles and abstracts, you may discover different key terms to enhance your search strategy.

Using truncation and wildcards can save you time and effort by finding alternative keywords.

Search with keywords

Keywords are free text words and phrases. Database search strategies use a combination of free text and subject headings (where applicable).

A keyword search usually looks for your search terms in the title and abstract of a reference. You may wish to search in title fields only if you want a small number of specific results.

Some databases will find the exact word or phrase, so make sure your spelling is accurate or you will miss references.

Search for the exact phrase

If you want words to appear next to each other in an exact phrase, use quotation marks, eg “self-esteem”.

Phrase searching decreases the number of results you get and makes your results more relevant. Most databases allow you to search for phrases, but check the database guide if you are unsure.

Truncation and wildcard searches

You can use truncated and wildcard searches to find variations of your search term. Truncation is useful for finding singular and plural forms of words and variant endings.

Many databases use an asterisk (*) as their truncation symbol. Check the database help section if you are not sure which symbol to use. For example, “therap*” will find therapy, therapies, therapist or therapists.

A wildcard finds variant spellings of words. Use it to search for a single character, or no character. Check the database help section to see which symbol to use as a wildcard.

Wildcards are useful for finding British and American spellings, for example: “behavio?r” in Medline will find both behaviour and behavior.

There are sometimes different symbols to find a variable single character. For example, in the Medline database, “wom#n” will find woman and also women.

Watch this video to learn more about searching using truncation and wildcards:

Use adjacency searching for more accurate results

You can specify how close two words appear together in your search strategy. This can make your results more relevant; generally the closer two words appear to each other, the closer the relationship is between them.

Commands for adjacency searching differ among databases, so make sure you consult database guides.

In OvidSP databases (like Medline), searching for “physician ADJ3 relationship” will find both physician and relationship within two major words of each other, in any order. This finds more papers than "physician relationship".

Using this adjacency retrieves papers with phrases like "physician patient relationship", "patient physician relationship", "relationship of the physician to the patient" and so on.

Database subject headings are controlled vocabulary terms that a database uses to describe what an article is about.

Watch this video to learn more about using subject headings in database searching:

Using appropriate subject headings enhances your search and will help you to find more results on your topic. This is because subject headings find articles according to their subject, even if the article does not use your chosen key words.

You should combine both subject headings and keywords in your search strategy for each of the concepts you identify. This is particularly important if you are undertaking a systematic review or an in-depth piece of work

Subject headings may vary between databases, so you need to investigate each database separately to find the subject headings they use. For example, for Medline you can use MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) and for Embase you can use the EMTREE thesaurus.

SEARCH TIP: In Ovid databases, search for a known key paper by title, select the "complete reference" button to see which subject headings the database indexers have given that article, and consider adding relevant ones to your own search strategy.

Use Boolean logic to combine search terms

Boolean operators (AND, OR and NOT) allow you to try different combinations of search terms or subject headings.

Databases often show Boolean operators as buttons or drop-down menus that you can click to combine your search terms or results.

The main Boolean operators are:

OR is used to find articles that mention either of the topics you search for.

AND is used to find articles that mention both of the searched topics.

NOT excludes a search term or concept. It should be used with caution as you may inadvertently exclude relevant references.

For example, searching for “self-esteem NOT eating disorders” finds articles that mention self-esteem but removes any articles that mention eating disorders.

Watch this video to learn more about how to combine keywords efficiently to find relevant sources:

Citation searching is a method to find articles that have been cited by other publications.

Use citation searching (or cited reference searching) to:

• find out whether articles have been cited by other authors
• find more recent papers on the same or similar subject
• discover how a known idea or innovation has been confirmed, applied, improved, extended, or corrected
• help make your literature review more comprehensive.

You can use cited reference searching in:

• OvidSP databases
• Google Scholar
• Web of Science

Cited reference searching can complement your literature search. However be careful not to just look at papers that have been cited in isolation. A robust literature search is also needed to limit publication bias.

Watch this video to learn more about citation search:

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How to write a search strategy for your systematic review

Home | Blog | How To | How to write a search strategy for your systematic review

Practical tips to write a search strategy for your systematic review

With a great review question and a clear set of eligibility criteria already mapped out, it’s now time to plan the search strategy. The medical literature is vast. Your team plans a thorough and methodical search, but you also know that resources and interest in the project are finite. At this stage it might feel like you have a mountain to climb.

The bottom line? You will have to sift through some irrelevant search results to find the studies that you need for your review. Capturing a proportion of irrelevant records in your search is necessary to ensure that it identifies as many relevant records as possible. This is the trade-off of precision versus sensitivity and, because systematic reviews aim to be as comprehensive as possible, it is best to favour sensitivity – more is more.

By now, the size of this task might be sounding alarm bells. The good news is that a range of techniques and web-based tools can help to make searching more efficient and save you time. We’ll look at some of them as we walk through the four main steps of searching for studies:

• Decide where to search
• Write and refine the search
• Run and record the search
• Manage the search results

Searching is a specialist discipline and the information given here is not intended to replace the advice of a skilled professional. Before we look at each of the steps in turn, the most important systematic reviewer pro-tip for searching is:

 Pro Tip – Talk to your librarian and do it early!

1. decide where to search .

It’s important to come up with a comprehensive list of sources to search so that you don’t miss anything potentially relevant. In clinical medicine, your first stop will likely be the databases MEDLINE , Embase , and CENTRAL . Depending on the subject of the review, it might also be appropriate to run the search in databases that cover specific geographical regions or specialist areas, such as traditional Chinese medicine.

In addition to these databases, you’ll also search for grey literature (essentially, research that was not published in journals). That’s because your search of bibliographic databases will not find relevant information if it is part of, for example:

• a trials register
• a study that is ongoing
• a thesis or dissertation
• a conference abstract.

Over-reliance on published data introduces bias in favour of positive results. Studies with positive results are more likely to be submitted to journals, published in journals, and therefore indexed in databases. This is publication bias and systematic reviews seek to minimise its effects by searching for grey literature.

2. Write and refine the search 

Search terms are derived from key concepts in the review question and from the inclusion and exclusion criteria that are specified in the protocol or research plan.

Keywords will be searched for in the title or abstract of the records in the database. They are often truncated (for example, a search for therap* to find therapy, therapies, therapist). They might also use wildcards to allow for spelling variants and plurals (for example, wom#n to find woman and women). The symbols used to perform truncation and wildcard searches vary by database.

Index terms  

Using index terms such as MeSH and Emtree in a search can improve its performance. Indexers with subject area expertise work through databases and tag each record with subject terms from a prespecified controlled vocabulary.

This indexing can save review teams a lot of time that would otherwise be spent sifting through irrelevant records. Using index terms in your search, for example, can help you find the records that are actually about the topic of interest (tagged with the index term) but ignore those that contain only a brief mention of it (not tagged with the index term).

Indexers assign terms based on a careful read of each study, rather than whether or not the study contains certain words. So the index terms enable the retrieval of relevant records that cannot be captured by a simple search for the keyword or phrase.

Use a combination

Relying solely on index terms is not advisable. Doing so could miss a relevant record that for some reason (indexer’s judgment, time lag between a record being listed in a database and being indexed) has not been tagged with an index term that would enable you to retrieve it. Good search strategies include both index terms and keywords.

Let’s see how this works in a real review! Figure 2 shows the search strategy for the review ‘Wheat flour fortification with iron and other micronutrients for reducing anaemia and improving iron status in populations’. This strategy combines index terms and keywords using the Boolean operators AND, OR, and NOT. OR is used first to reach as many records as possible before AND and NOT are used to narrow them down.

• Lines 1 and 2: contain MeSH terms (denoted by the initial capitals and the slash at the end).
• Line 3: contains truncated keywords (‘tw’ in this context is an instruction to search the title and abstract fields of the record).
• Line 4: combines the three previous lines using Boolean OR to broaden the search.
• Line 11: combines previous lines using Boolean AND to narrow the search.
• Lines 12 and 13: further narrow the search using Boolean NOT to exclude records of studies with no human subjects.

Writing a search strategy is an iterative process. A good plan is  to try out a new strategy and check that it has picked up the key studies that you would expect it to find based on your existing knowledge of the topic area. If it hasn’t, you can explore the reasons for this, revise the strategy, check it for errors, and try it again!

3. Run and record the search

Because of the different ways that individual databases are structured and indexed, a separate search strategy is needed for each database. This adds complexity to the search process, and it is important to keep a careful record of each search strategy as you run it. Search strategies can often be saved in the databases themselves, but it is a good idea to keep an offline copy as a back-up; Covidence allows you to store your search strategies online in your review settings.

The reporting of the search will be included in the methods section of your review and should follow the PRISMA guidelines. You can download a flow diagram from PRISMA’s website to help you log the number of records retrieved from the search and the subsequent decisions about the inclusion or exclusion of studies. The PRISMA-S extension provides guidance on reporting literature searches.

It is very important that search strategies are reproduced in their entirety (preferably using copy and paste to avoid typos) as part of the published review so that they can be studied and replicated by other researchers. Search strategies are often made available as an appendix because they are long and might otherwise interrupt the flow of the text in the methods section.

4. Manage the search results 

Once the search is done and you have recorded the process in enough detail to write up a thorough description in the methods section, you will move on to screening the results. This is an exciting stage in any review because it’s the first glimpse of what the search strategies have found. A large volume of results may be daunting but your search is very likely to have captured some irrelevant studies because of its high sensitivity, as we have already seen. Fortunately, it will be possible to exclude many of these irrelevant studies at the screening stage on the basis of the title and abstract alone 😅.

Search results from multiple databases can be collated in a single spreadsheet for screening. To benefit from process efficiencies, time-saving and easy collaboration with your team, you can import search results into a specialist tool such as Covidence. A key benefit of Covidence is that you can track decisions made about the inclusion or exclusion of studies in a simple workflow and resolve conflicting decisions quickly and transparently. Covidence currently supports three formats for file imports of search results:

• EndNote XML
• PubMed text format
• RIS text format

If you’d like to try this feature of Covidence but don’t have any data yet, you can download some ready-made sample data .

And you’re done!

There is a lot to think about when planning a search strategy. With practice, expert help, and the right tools your team can complete the search process with confidence.

This blog post is part of the Covidence series on how to write a systematic review.

Sign up for a free trial of Covidence today!

[1] Witt  KG, Hetrick  SE, Rajaram  G, Hazell  P, Taylor Salisbury  TL, Townsend  E, Hawton  K. Pharmacological interventions for self‐harm in adults . Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2020, Issue 12. Art. No.: CD013669. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD013669.pub2. Accessed 02 February 2021

Laura Mellor. Portsmouth, UK

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Ensuring Patent Title Clearing in Transactions

Essential patent title clearing is vital in transactions to verify the accuracy and validity of a patent's ownership, mitigating potential risks and guaranteeing successful deal execution. A thorough examination of public records, patent history, and chain of title is necessary to uncover discrepancies and irregularities that may impact patent ownership. Inconsistencies in the chain of title, document errors, and discrepancies in patent assignment records can all lead to confusion and ambiguity. By adopting a rigorous and systematic approach to patent title clearing, businesses can identify and address potential issues, ultimately validating the validity and enforceability of their patents. Further analysis can reveal additional strategies for optimizing patent portfolio management.

Table of Contents

Understanding Patent Title Importance

Maintaining a clear and accurate patent title is imperative, as it serves as a key identifier for intellectual property protection and facilitates efficient searching, retrieval, and management of patent information. A well-crafted patent title plays a pivotal part in a company's patent strategy, as it enables effective patent portfolio management and informed decision-making. Inaccurate or misleading titles can lead to title risks, such as mistaken assumptions about patent coverage, incorrect patent classification, and potential infringement issues. Additionally, unclear titles can hinder patent monetization and licensing opportunities, ultimately affecting a company's bottom line. It is necessary to confirm that patent titles accurately reflect the invention's scope and are consistent with the patent's specifications. By doing so, companies can mitigate title risks, optimize their patent strategy, and capitalize on the value of their intellectual property assets. A thorough understanding of the importance of patent titles is the first step in developing a robust patent strategy and minimizing potential pitfalls.

Identifying Potential Title Issues

When identifying potential title issues, a thorough examination of public records is vital to uncover any discrepancies or irregularities that may impact patent ownership. A meticulous analysis of the patent's history, including assignments, mergers, and acquisitions, is also key in revealing potential title defects. By conducting these searches and analyses, patent holders can proactively address any title issues that may arise.

Search Public Records

Thorough examination of public records is a crucial step in identifying potential title issues that could compromise the validity of a patent. This involves a meticulous review of court filings, online databases, and other publicly available documents to uncover any potential liabilities or encumbrances. A detailed search of public records can reveal critical information such as lawsuits, liens, assignments, and other transactions that may impact patent ownership or validity. Online databases, such as the United States Patent and Trademark Office's (USPTO) Patent Assignment Database, provide access to patent ownership records, including assignments, mergers, and changes in ownership. Additionally, court filings, such as lawsuits and bankruptcy proceedings, can also be searched to identify potential title issues. By conducting a thorough search of public records, patent buyers and sellers can identify potential title issues early on, allowing them to take corrective action to clear the title and facilitate a smooth transaction.

Analyze Patent History

A thorough examination of a patent's historical record is essential for identifying potential title issues, as it provides a detailed account of the patent's ownership, assignments, and licensing agreements throughout its lifecycle. Analyzing patent history involves a process known as Patent Archaeology, which involves meticulously reviewing historical documents and records to uncover potential title defects. This process requires a deep understanding of the patent's Historical Context, including the timeline of events, key stakeholders, and relevant transactions. By examining the patent's chain of title, assignees, and licensors, potential issues such as unrecorded assignments, incomplete documentation, or conflicting claims can be identified. An exhaustive analysis of patent history also involves reviewing publicly available records, such as patent office records, court dockets, and Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) filings. This rigorous process enables the detection of potential title issues, allowing for prompt resolution and clearance of the patent title.

Reviewing Patent Portfolio History

Patent portfolio history analysis involves a meticulous examination of a company's patent applications, issued patents, and abandoned or expired patents to identify trends, patterns, and sectors of strength and weakness. This analysis provides valuable insights into a company's patent legacy, highlighting sectors where they have successfully developed and maintained a strong patent position. A thorough review of the patent portfolio history helps to inform a company's portfolio strategy, enabling them to make informed decisions about which patents to maintain, abandon, or acquire. By examining the patent portfolio history, companies can identify opportunities to strengthen their patent position, mitigate risks, and optimize their patent portfolio for future transactions. A detailed understanding of the patent portfolio history also facilitates the identification of potential issues that may impact patent title clearing, such as potential conflicts or disputes. By conducting a thorough review of the patent portfolio history, companies can confirm a clear and thorough understanding of their patent assets, ultimately enabling them to make informed decisions and leverage the value of their patent portfolio.

Chain of Title Verification

Chain of title verification involves a meticulous examination of the ownership history of a patent or patent application to confirm that the current owner or assignee has a valid and unbroken chain of title, free from any defects or encumbrances that could affect its validity or enforceability. This process requires a thorough review of all relevant documents, including assignments, licenses, and other transactions that have affected the patent's ownership. The goal is to establish that the current owner has a complete and unbroken chain of title, from the original inventor to the present day.

In today's digital age, blockchain security can play a pivotal part in chain of title verification. By creating an immutable and transparent record of ownership, blockchain technology can help to prevent fraud and safeguard the integrity of the patent title. Additionally, title insurance can provide an added layer of protection against potential defects or encumbrances in the chain of title. By combining these technologies with traditional verification methods, patent owners and assignees can have greater confidence in the validity and enforceability of their patent rights.

Analyzing Assignments and Licenses

When analyzing assignments and licenses, a critical component of patent title clearing, it is vital to conduct a thorough chain of title review to confirm that all transactions affecting the patent's ownership are accurately reflected. This review process involves examining the execution dates of relevant documents, such as assignment agreements and licenses, to establish a clear and unbroken chain of title. By scrutinizing these documents, patent professionals can identify potential issues or defects that may impact the patent's ownership and validity.

Chain of Title Review

How do the complex webs of assignments and licenses impact the patent's ownership trajectory, and what critical details must be verified to confirm a clear chain of title? A thorough chain of title review is vital to ascertain that the patent's ownership history is accurate and complete. This involves meticulously analyzing assignments, licenses, and other agreements that have transferred or affected the patent's ownership. Critical details to verify include the identity of the assignor and assignee, the effective date of each assignment, and the scope of any licenses granted. Record management plays a pivotal part in this process, as accurate and up-to-date records are necessary for tracing the patent's ownership history. Title insurance companies often provide valuable assistance in this regard, as they maintain exhaustive databases of patent assignments and licenses. By leveraging these resources and conducting a thorough review, parties can confirm a clear chain of title, mitigating the risk of disputes and facilitating a smooth transaction.

Document Execution Dates

Analyzing assignments and licenses necessitates a meticulous examination of document execution dates, as these dates significantly impact the patent's ownership trajectory by establishing the sequence of events and resolving potential priority disputes. Inaccurate or missing execution dates can lead to ambiguities in the chain of title, compromising the validity of patent rights. A thorough review of execution dates is vital to reconstruct the execution timeline, confirming that the sequence of events is accurately reflected. This involves verifying the date stamping of each document, including assignments, licenses, and other agreements, to confirm their chronological order. By doing so, potential conflicts or inconsistencies can be identified and addressed, providing a clear and unbroken chain of title. In addition, a precise execution timeline enables the resolution of priority disputes, providing clarity on the rightful owner of the patent at any given point in time. A meticulous examination of document execution dates is, consequently, a vital step in patent title clearing in transactions.

Identifying Hidden Liens and Encumbrances

Frequently, title examiners encounter complex title issues that necessitate a thorough investigation to uncover hidden liens and encumbrances. This is particularly vital in patent title clearing, where undisclosed interests or hidden assets can substantially impact the validity of a patent's ownership.

To identify such encumbrances, examiners must conduct a meticulous review of all relevant records, including patent applications, assignments, and licenses. This involves analyzing the chain of title, verifying the identity of all parties involved, and detecting any inconsistencies or irregularities.

Special attention should be paid to potential hidden assets, such as unrecorded assignments or secret agreements, which can affect the patent's ownership. Furthermore, examiners must be aware of undisclosed interests, including those held by related entities or individuals with a stake in the patent's development. By adopting a rigorous and systematic approach, title examiners can uncover hidden liens and encumbrances, thereby providing that patent title clearing is thorough and accurate.

Addressing Inconsistencies and Discrepancies

Upon identifying hidden liens and encumbrances, the next step in patent title clearing involves reconciling any inconsistencies and discrepancies that may be present in the chain of title, as these irregularities can have a profound impact on the validity of a patent's ownership. Failure to address these issues can lead to title conflicts, rendering the patent ownership uncertain and potentially jeopardizing the entire transaction.

Common discrepancies that may arise include:

• Document errors, such as incorrect patent numbers, misspelled names, or inaccurate dates, which can lead to confusion and ambiguity in the chain of title.
• Inconsistencies in patent assignment records, including incomplete or missing documents, which can create uncertainty around patent ownership.
• Discrepancies in patent status, such as conflicting records of patent expiration or maintenance fees, which can impact the patent's validity and enforceability.

It is vital to carefully review and reconcile these discrepancies to establish a clear and unencumbered patent title. By doing so, parties involved in the transaction can confidently proceed with the deal, knowing that the patent ownership is secure and valid.

Due Diligence in Patent Transactions

In patent transactions, a meticulous due diligence process is essential to verify that all parties involved have a thorough understanding of the patent's history, ownership, and validity, thereby mitigating potential risks and liabilities. This process involves an exhaustive review of the patent's documentation, including assignment records, licenses, and litigation history. A thorough due diligence process enables parties to identify potential issues and develop a deal strategy that minimizes risk.

| Risk Assessment and Deal Strategy | Develop strategy to mitigate identified risks

Best Practices for Clearing Patent Title

Clearing patent title requires a meticulous process that involves verifying the chain of ownership and identifying any potential issues that could impact the validity of the patent, building on the thorough understanding of the patent's history and ownership established during due diligence.

To ensure effective patent clearance, it is essential to adopt best practices that mitigate risks and ensure a smooth transaction. Here are some key considerations:

• Conduct thorough searches : Perform comprehensive searches of patent office records, litigation databases, and other sources to identify any potential issues or encumbrances that could impact the patent's validity or ownership.
• Verify chain of title : Carefully review the patent's chain of title to ensure that all assignments, licenses, and other transactions are properly recorded and valid.
• Assess risk : Conduct a thorough risk assessment to identify potential issues that could impact the patent's validity or ownership, and develop strategies to mitigate these risks.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long does the patent title clearing process typically take?.

The patent title clearing process typically takes 3-6 months, depending on the complexity of the patent portfolio and transaction velocity, with the patent timeline influenced by factors such as prior art searches and ownership disputes.

Can Patent Title Issues Be Resolved After a Transaction Closes?

While it's possible to resolve patent title issues post-transaction, leveraging post-closing remedies and escrow provisions can mitigate potential disputes, allowing parties to address and rectify title defects, thereby preserving the transaction's integrity and value.

Who Is Responsible for Ensuring Patent Title Clearing in a Merger?

In a merger, the buyer typically bears the responsibility for verifying patent title clearing, as they conduct thorough due diligence to uncover potential issues, while the seller is expected to provide accurate representations and warranties regarding patent ownership.

What Is the Average Cost of Clearing Patent Title in a Transaction?

The average cost of clearing patent title in a transaction varies widely, depending on cost factors such as the number of patents, complexity of ownership, and jurisdiction, requiring careful budget allocation to facilitate accurate estimation and efficient management.

Can Patent Title Clearing Be Done In-House or Is Outside Help Needed?

When deciding on patent title clearing, companies can leverage in-house capabilities, such as dedicated IP teams, for routine tasks, but may require external proficiency for complex cases, providing thorough and accurate title clearance.

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