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Not Just Lumber—Using Wood in the Sustainable Future of Materials, Chemicals, and Fuels

• Published: 21 July 2016
• Volume 68 , pages 2395–2404, ( 2016 )

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• Joseph E. Jakes 1 ,
• Xavier Arzola 1 , 2 ,
• Rick Bergman 3 ,
• Peter Ciesielski 4 ,
• Christopher G. Hunt 1 ,
• Nima Rahbar 5 ,
• Mandla Tshabalala 1 ,
• Alex C. Wiedenhoeft 6 &
• Samuel L. Zelinka 7  

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Forest-derived biomaterials can play an integral role in a sustainable and renewable future. Research across a range of disciplines is required to develop the knowledge necessary to overcome the challenges of incorporating more renewable forest resources in materials, chemicals, and fuels. We focus on wood specifically because in our view, better characterization of wood as a raw material and as a feedstock will lead to its increased utilization. We first give an overview of wood structure and chemical composition and then highlight current topics in forest products research, including (1) industrial chemicals, biofuels, and energy from woody materials; (2) wood-based activated carbon and carbon nanostructures; (3) development of improved wood protection treatments; (4) massive timber construction; (5) wood as a bioinspiring material; and (6) atomic simulations of wood polymers. We conclude with a discussion of the sustainability of wood as a renewable forest resource.

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Wood’s 390 Millionth Birthday

Wood is one of the major innovations of land plants “invented” some 390 million years ago. Wood enabled individual plants to increase their stature and persistence in the environment, facilitating the ability of trees to play roles in landscape change and biome composition and to fundamentally alter the global cycling of water, minerals, and carbon. Since prehistoric times, humans have found wood invaluable for meeting many of their needs, including energy, tools, and shelter—not surprising given its near-ubiquity, versatility, and renewability. Only in the comparatively recent past have other nonrenewable natural resources, such as fossil fuels or metal ores, become the resources of choice to meet our material needs. We postulate that wood will play an increasing role in the sustainability of our future materials through both expansion of uses for current forest products and development of alternatives to materials currently derived from nonrenewable resources. Life cycle assessments, which categorize energy consumption and emission profiles for products over their whole life cycle, 1 , 2 consistently show that many wood-based materials use less fossil fuels to produce than do competing materials. 3 , 4 Using wood products can also lower atmospheric carbon dioxide levels because growing forests capture carbon and harvested wood products store the accumulated carbon while in service.

Historically, wood research has been the purview of wood technologists; however, we see the future of wood research as interdisciplinary, collaborative, quantitative, and meaningful, both scientifically and societally. In this review, we briefly introduce wood as a material, present current trends in forest products research advancing and expanding the role of wood-based materials in our sustainable materials future, and further discuss the sustainability of forests for wood resources. One notable exception from this review is cellulose nanomaterials research. Nevertheless, cellulose nanomaterials is the subject of another review in this JOM special edition. 5

Wood Structure and Composition

Wood is an anisotropic cellular tissue, the structure and properties of which are derived to solve plant problems—sap conduction, mechanical support, and storage and synthesis of biochemicals—in space and over time. 6 , 7 The properties of wood that make it desirable as a natural resource, such as its exceptional strength-to-weight ratio or the richness, breadth, and subtlety of cell wall biopolymers, are thus predicated on the biological origins and functions of wood in the living plant.

Wood solves the simultaneous need for conduction, support, and storage by combining arrays of cells of different sizes, shapes, chemistries, and functions, and it does so using large numbers of cells integrated over long distances (from root to branch). The bulk of wood is made of cells of an axial system oriented parallel to the long axis of the major tree components, including roots, trunks, and branches. The axial system is primarily implicated in conduction and mechanical support in most woods, with a lesser role in storage and synthesis. The other cell system in wood is the radial system, which is composed of cells oriented perpendicular to both the long axis of the tree component and growth rings. The radial system is primarily implicated in (connected to) storage and synthesis.

The two basic body plans for wood are that of softwoods (such as pines, cedars, and spruces; Fig.  1 a) and that of hardwoods (such as elms, oaks, ashes, maples, and birches; Fig.  1 b). Both softwoods and hardwoods share a fundamental anatomy based on relative relationships among the axial system, the radial system, and the typically round cross sections of roots, trunks, and branches. This topology gives rise to three distinct planes of view in wood: transverse, radial, and tangential (Fig.  1 b). The transverse plane is the cross section that is perpendicular to the axial system. Radial and tangential planes are cut parallel to the axial system and oriented relative to the cells of radial system, parallel to the rays for a radial-longitudinal plane and perpendicular to the rays for a tangential-longitudinal plane.

From tree to cell wall layers. Stylized tree silhouettes for a generic softwood (a) and a generic hardwood (b). Variations in cell types, size, and distribution within the axial system gives rise to growth rings, which are used to define the three primary planes of wood structure (c). Photomicrographs of transverse sections of a typical softwood (d) and a typical hardwood (e). The idealized lamellar structure of cells with secondary walls (f) from the lumen outward, secondary cell wall layers (S3, S2, and S1), primary cell wall, and middle lamella

The primary differences between softwoods and hardwoods are found in the cells of the axial system (Fig.  1 d and e, respectively)—the radial systems of each are, although different in their specific anatomy, generally similar in cell type, function, and distribution. Cells in wood, especially in dry wood, have two domains: the cell wall (the physical substance of the cell) and the cell lumen (interior void volume or air space delimited by the cell wall). Softwoods are characterized by a comparatively simple wood structure—greater than 90% of softwoods by volume are typically a single type of cell, the tracheid. Tracheids are long, thin cells serving double duty of conduction and mechanical support. Although the softwood-type body plan first evolved more than 390 million years ago, it continues to be an efficient, competitive design, boasting some of the tallest ( Sequoia sempervirens , greater than 115 m tall) and oldest ( Pinus longaeva , more than 4000 years old) living trees in the world. Hardwoods are characterized by a cellular-level division of labor between dedicated conductive cells (vessel elements) and mechanical cells (fibers). A third cell type, specialized for storage and synthesis, is also found in most hardwoods, axial parenchyma. The total volume of each cell type in hardwoods varies widely from species to species, and because hardwood species are found in most habitats that include woody plants, this diversity of patterns is the basis of the wide variety of wood structure and properties found in nature.

Most woody cells have secondary cell walls. Proceeding from the lumen of the cell outward, the first layer encountered is the innermost layer of the secondary cell wall, the thin S3. This is followed by the thick S2, the thin S1, the primary cell wall, and then the middle lamella. Secondary cell walls are nano-fiber-reinforced composites of highly oriented semicrystalline cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix of amorphous cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. Elucidating the fine details of the cell wall nanostructure is still an open area of research. 8 , 9 The S2 layer is much thicker than the S1 and S3 layers and therefore has a larger influence on wood properties than have the other cell wall layers. The helical angle the cellulose microfibrils make with the longitudinal cell axis is called the microfibril angle (Fig.  1 f) and in the S3 layer is typically >70°, in the S2 is typically low (5°–30°), and is typically 50°–70° in the S1. 6 The primary wall is very thin and characterized by a randomly oriented web of cellulose microfibrils. 10 , 11 The middle lamella fills in the regions between cells (Fig.  1 f) and consists of about 20% hemicelluloses embedded as an irregular, interconnecting network in a matrix of lignin. 6 , 12 In most cases, the primary cell wall, middle lamella, and primary cell wall of the adjacent cell wall are not separable as distinct layers; these three layers together are known as the compound middle lamella. In typical wood cells, cellulose microfibrils are about 15–20 nm in diameter. 10 , 13

Chemically, on a dry basis, secondary wood cell walls consist of about 35% highly oriented, semicrystalline cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix of amorphous cellulose (20%), hemicelluloses (30%), and lignin (15%). 14 Cellulose, which is the most abundant biopolymer on Earth, is a linear polysaccharide made from the simple sugar d -glucose (Fig.  2 a). Individual cellulose chains are held together by intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen bonds to form the semicrystalline cellulose elementary fibrils. The structure of cellulose microfibrils in any cell wall layer is proposed to consist of a 3 by 4 array of approximately 3-nm-diameter semicrystalline cellulose elementary fibrils with thin layers of less-ordered structures integrated into the cellulose microfibrils between the elementary fibrils. 10 , 11 Hemicelluloses are amorphous, highly branched polymers composed primarily of the sugars d -mannose (Fig.  2 b), d -galactose, d -xylose (Fig.  2 c), l -arabinose, and d -glucuronic acid. Lignin, which is the second most abundant biopolymer on Earth, is an amorphous, highly cross-linked aromatic polymer polymerized through free radical reactions from sinapyl alcohol (Fig.  2 d), coniferyl alcohol, and p -cumaryl alcohol. Carbon–carbon (C–C) and carbon–oxygen–carbon (C–O–C; ether) bonds are formed during lignin polymerization. The overall chemical composition in wood can vary between tree species and type of wood tissue within a given tree.

Examples of the molecular precursors of wood polymers including (a) six-carbon (6C) sugar d -glucose (cellulose), (b) 6C sugar d -mannose (hemicellulose), (c) five-carbon (5C) sugar d -xylose (hemicellulose), and (d) Sinapyl alcohol (lignin)

Water is another important component of wood that affects numerous wood properties, including mechanical, thermal, electrical, dimensional stability, and durability. 15 For example, changes in the amount of water in wood can cause changes of nearly 10 orders of magnitude in electrical properties and anisotropic dimensional changes in bulk wood of approximately 10, 5, and 0.1% in the tangential, radial, and longitudinal directions, respectively. The accessible hydroxyl (–OH) and other polar chemical groups (such as ether and carbonyl linkages) in the amorphous cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin readily adsorb water. The moisture content (MC) of wood is defined as water mass divided by oven-dried wood mass and when not in contact with liquid water depends on ambient temperature and relative humidity (RH). Below the fiber saturation point, approximately 30% to 40% MC, all water in wood is bound by intermolecular attractions within the wood cell wall polymers. At higher MCs, free water forms in wood cavities, such as cell lumina and open cell corners.

Current Topics

Industrial chemicals, biofuels, and energy from woody materials.

Energy-rich biopolymers that constitute woody cell walls present an important opportunity for production of renewable fuels and chemicals. Strategies for production of liquid fuels and chemicals from woody feedstocks can be generally divided into two classes consisting of biochemical pathways and thermochemical pathways. Biochemical pathways typically aim to depolymerize cellulose and hemicelluloses into C6 and C5 sugars (for example, Fig.  2 a–c) using cocktails of hydrolytic enzymes. The process of hydrolyzing polysaccharides to soluble sugars is called “saccharification.” Challenges associated with enzymatic deconstruction of biomass are contributed by the complex lignocellulosic structure of wood cell walls. 16 In lignocellulosic biofuels research, resistance to saccharification is often termed “recalcitrance.” Treatments that expose the biomass to elevated temperatures and chemicals such as dilute sulfuric acid, 17 mixtures of organic solvents (such as methyl isobutyl ketone, ethanol, and water), which is also called organosolv, 18 and sulfite 19 have been shown to overcome recalcitrance and enhance saccharification yields of the resulting residues by increasing the accessibility of cellulose to enzymes. The solubilized sugar stream produced from enzymatic hydrolysis, called hydrolysate, is then subjected to additional biological or chemical catalytic upgrading to produce desired fuel molecules. The traditional process used for this purpose is biological fermentation to produce ethanol. 20 More recent efforts aim to produce fuel molecules other than ethanol from hydrolysate by strategies wherein sugar-derived compounds such as furans, organic acids, and polyols serve as intermediates for the production of hydrocarbons through reduction and carbon–carbon coupling reactions. 21 , 22

Thermochemical conversion pathways differ from biochemical conversion pathways in that they rely primarily on elevated temperatures, rather than on biocatalysts, to deconstruct biomass into small molecules. Technologies such as fast pyrolysis, gasification, and hydrothermal liquefaction fall under this category. Fast pyrolysis is a process wherein biomass is rapidly heated to temperatures of 400°C to 600°C in an inert environment where the feedstock decomposes into light gases including CO, CO 2 , and small hydrocarbons; condensable gasses comprising heavier hydrocarbons and aromatic compounds; and char. For liquid fuel production, the desired product is obtained by condensation of the heavy gasses into a liquid called “pyrolysis oil” or “bio-oil.” The competing reactions that occur during pyrolysis govern the formation of light gasses, condensable vapors, and char. These reactions occur at different rates and with different activation energies and thereby provide an opportunity to tune the product distribution by controlling process conditions. For example, production of condensable vapors occurs with a lower activation energy and by more rapid kinetics relative to char formation; therefore, very rapid heating in tandem with short residence times in the reactor shift product yields toward condensable gases while minimizing char formation. 23 Raw bio-oil from pyrolysis has high oxygen content and therefore relatively low energy content compared with petroleum-derived liquid fuels. Efforts to address this challenge have resulted in processes such as catalytic fast pyrolysis, 24 where raw pyrolysis vapors are passed through a deoxygenation catalyst prior to condensation, and fast hydropyrolysis where pyrolysis is performed under a significant overpressure of hydrogen gas, which removes oxygen from the biomass primarily in the form of H 2 O. 25 Fast pyrolysis also serves as the first step in gasification, another thermochemical conversion strategy that produces syngas (i.e., a mixture of H 2 , CO, and CO 2 ) from biomass by controlled reaction of the gaseous products with steam and/or oxygen at a high temperature (700°C to 1000°C). Although gasification plants for both coal and biomass have existed for several decades, 26 this technology has experienced a resurgence of attention from the biofuels community due in part to recent projections that gasification technology could contribute significantly to future renewable heat and power generation. 27

Although the importance of producing renewable fuels from woody feedstocks is widely recognized, recent techno-economic evaluations of biorefinery processes have highlighted the importance of producing additional valuable chemical co-products from wood polymers in order for biorefineries to achieve economic self-sustainability. For example, in the context of a biochemical biorefinery, the importance of lignin valorization has been specifically identified. 28 Conventional biorefinery models combust lignin to generate process heat; however, recent advances in biochemical processing of lignin have resulted in genetically engineered microbes capable of metabolizing lignin into valuable platform chemicals. 29 Alternative approaches have developed one-pot catalytic systems for depolymerization and subsequent conversion of lignin from poplar wood into high-value specialty chemicals, such as methoxypropylphenols, with high yield and selectivity. 30 Such strategies are prompting researchers to re-envision the modern biorefinery to a process where biomass fractionation and conversion of lignin to valuable chemical co-products play a central role. 31

Wood-Based Activated Carbon and Carbon Nanostructures

The earliest known use of wood-based carbon materials is 3750 BC when the ancient Egyptians and Sumerians used wood chars for the reduction of copper, zinc, and tin ores in the manufacture of bronze and as domestic smokeless fuel. 32 Since then, many other forms of wood-based carbon materials have been developed, including activated carbons and carbon nanostructures.

Activated carbons are used in numerous commercial applications including water treatment, CO 2 capture, energy storage, supercapacitors, and heterogeneous catalysis. 33 They are also used in the food industry for purification of oils and fats and alcohol drinks, as well as in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries for gas and drug purification. The basic procedure to produce activated carbon is to first carbonize the material at high temperatures under inert environments to produce a microporous carbonaceous mass with a high surface-to-volume ratio. The surfaces in the microporous carbon can then be further activated by processes, such as steam activation, to increase the amount and specificity of its absorptivity. Although activated carbons can be produced from almost any carbon-based raw material, it is more cost effective and environmentally desirable to produce them from sustainable or waste materials. Activated carbons produced from wood or similar lignocellulosic materials show great promise because they can possess highly developed microporous structures that are likely enhanced by naturally occurring nanostructures in the cell walls. For example, activated carbons produced from coconut shells have long been shown to have high volumes of micropores, making them a commonly used raw material for applications where high adsorption capacity is needed, such as water filters. Nevertheless, the natural variability in precursors like wood poses challenges because it can result in production of activated carbons without the necessary control over important properties, which include porosity, morphology, mechanical properties, and surface chemistry. 34 Fortunately, development of more flexible and robust routes to new carbon materials derived from renewable resources like wood is becoming a topic of increased interest and improvements are expected. 33

Carbon nanofibers (CNFs) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are examples of carbon nanostructures that can be derived from wood. Based on the fact that isolated lignin has the largest carbon content among wood components, CNFs have been produced from lignins and used in fabrication of electrodes for lithium-ion batteries and supercapacitors. 35 CNF networks can be produced by a process involving the rapid freezing of an aqueous lignin solution, followed by sublimation of the resultant ice, to form a uniform network made up of individual interconnected lignin nanofibers. Carbonization of lignin nanofibers yields a similarly structured CNF network. 36 Researchers are also investigating first spinning lignin-based fibers followed by carbonization to create single CNFs. 37 Lignin-based CNFs seem to be promising and may play a role in the lignin valorization needed to achieve economic self-sustainability in biorefineries.

CNTs are a particular form of fullerene, first reported by Iijima. 38 They are tubular structures that can be 1–2 nm in diameter and ≥1 mm in length. CNTs have great tensile strength and are considered to be 100 times stronger than steel, while being only one sixth of its weight, making them potentially the strongest, smallest fiber known. They also exhibit high electrical conductivity, high surface area, unique electronic properties, and potentially high molecular adsorption capacity. 39 Applications currently being investigated include polymer composites (conductive and structural filler), electromagnetic shielding, electron field emitters (flat panel displays), supercapacitors, batteries, hydrogen storage, and structural composites. Interestingly, CNTs have been produced from wood fiber using a low-temperature process, which included continuous oxidization at 240°C and cyclic oxidation at 400°C. The inside diameter of the CNTs was approximately 4–5 nm, and the outside diameter ranged from 10 nm to 20 nm. No CNTs were produced when pure lignin or pure cellulose were tested, indicating that the cell wall nanostructure, likely the cellulose elementary fibrils, plays an important role in CNT formation. Apparently, the differential ablation properties of the major cell wall components, cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, are critical for the formation of CNTs at comparatively low temperatures. 40

Massive Timber Construction (Tall Wood Building)

Wood has been used as a building material for millennia. In the United States, most single-family homes are built using “stick frame” wood construction with wooden studs carrying the vertical loads and wood panel products, such as plywood or orientated strandboard (OSB), attached to the outside for lateral and transverse loads. Interest has recently increased in building nonresidential and multistory residential wood buildings using larger timber components. For example, in 2008, a nine-story high-rise was completed in London using wood structural members. The structure, called “24 Murray Grove,” became the world’s tallest residential wood structure. 41 Timber buildings from 9 to 20 stories high are also planned in New York, Portland, Canada, Norway, and Austria. 42

Tall wood buildings can be realized through the use of mass timber construction. “Mass timber” is a class of wood composites that includes glue-laminated timber (glulam), structural composite lumber, and cross-laminated timber (CLT) (Fig.  3 ). Glulam consists of stacked lumber glued along the grain to form a massive beam. Structural composite lumber is a general term that can refer to wood composites made from veneers or flakes of wood aligned so that the grain is parallel to form a billet. Structural composite lumber made from veneers is referred to as laminated veneer lumber (LVL). Structural composite lumber made from flakes is referred to as parallel strand lumber (PSL), laminated strand lumber (LSL), or orientated strand lumber (OSL), depending on the size and aspect ratio of the flakes used to make the composite. CLT has attracted the most attention for its use in tall wood buildings. CLT is a massive panel product made from layers of dimensional lumber where the long axis of each layer is orientated 90° from the previous layer. CLT panels may vary from approximately 50 mm to 500 mm in thickness, can be manufactured up to 18 m long, and are typically delivered to the job site with all openings for windows and doors precut. 43 CLT is the main component of the 24 Murray Grove building and figures prominently in the design of the winners of the United States Tall Wood Building Prize competition.

Massive timber composites. From left to right: cross-laminated timber (CLT), structural composite lumber (LVL), and glulam

Mass timber composites were developed throughout the 20th century; however, recent advances in manufacturing and fastening systems have made them easier to use and more attractive as a building material. The rise of large computer numerically controlled (CNC) routers now allows for massive CLT panels to be prefabricated to a high precision at the mill before being delivered to the jobsite. Massive timber composites are also being made under tighter control of RH, which is important because wood changes dimension with changes in MC. 15 Furthermore, the dimensional stability of structural composite lumber and CLT are inherently greater than that of solid wood as a result of the different orientations of individual wood components within the larger timber. 44 The dimensional stability of these composites is extremely important in high-rise construction where small, moisture-induced deformations are additive through the height of the building. Finally, new fastening systems such as self-tapping screws and epoxied steel rods have been developed to connect mass timber composites. These technologies have improved the moment-resisting capacity and seismic performance of timber joints. 45 – 47

Developing Improved Wood Protection Treatments

Wood is widely used in construction in North America, and replacing decayed or moldy wood costs billions of dollars per year. 48 In addition, concerns about decay sometimes prevent wood from being used. Clearly, improved decay resistance without significant added cost or detrimental environmental effects would increase wood utilization.

In wood construction, the primary agents of wood decay are brown rot fungi, which are adapted to this recalcitrant food source and produce a severe loss of wood strength during early decay. Whereas fungi and their secreted enzymes fit easily into the lumina of wood cells (Fig.  1 f), the pores in the nanostructure of wood cell walls are too small for even the smallest enzymes to gain access. Brown rot fungi are able to attack wood by producing low-molecular-weight oxidants or oxidant precursors, much smaller than enzymes, which diffuse through the wood cell wall, to oxidize and cleave cell wall polymers. This releases soluble sugars that can be taken up as a carbon source by the fungus. 49

If wood is wet enough to support microbial activity for a prolonged period, or cyclically wet and dry often enough, decay will occur unless the wood is treated with wood preservatives or chemically modified because the spores of wood decay organisms are ubiquitous. Wood preservatives are chemicals added to the wood to protect it from fungi and insect attack and frequently contain copper. 50 Wood preservatives are registered pesticides, and future regulation and their availability depend on maintaining their registration with environmental regulators, such as the Environmental Protection Agency in the United States. 51 An alternative to wood preservatives is a chemical or thermal modification of wood polymers to alter the wood chemical or physical structure to inhibit decay. Such modified wood products have significant market penetration in Europe and are commercially available worldwide. Commercialized techniques include thermal modification, impregnation and in situ polymerization of furfuryl alcohol, and acetylation by impregnation and reaction with acetic anhydride.

Current questions include how chemical modifications inhibit decay and how lower cost-effective modification procedures can be developed. The mechanism of decay prevention in acetylated wood has been the most extensively studied of all chemical modifications, but it is still debated. 52 Acetylation becomes effective at approximately 10% to 20% weight gain by replacing wood polymer hydroxyl (–OH) groups (see Fig.  2 ) with acetoxy (–OCOCH 3 ) groups. 53 Wood polymers swell with moisture, increasing their free volume. In acetylated wood, the new acetoxy groups occupy some of this volume and make the wood polymers less hydrophilic, thereby lowering the amount of water that can be absorbed in wood cell walls. Among other theories, decay inhibition has been attributed to this lowered cell wall MC, which may result in lower diffusion rates for fungal oxidants through wood cell walls. 52 Nevertheless, the connection between MC and diffusion inside the cell wall remains unclear.

It was recently proposed that ion diffusion inside wood is a percolation-controlled phenomenon, 54 and recent experimental results showed a MC threshold below which ions did not diffuse through wood cell walls. 55 , 56 This led to the hypothesis that the key to stopping fungal oxidant diffusion lies in preventing the formation of a percolating network of diffusion domains within the cell wall. 57 This hypothesis, although unproven, suggests that it might be possible to develop new, low-cost modifications that inhibit decay by modifying only those cell wall polymers implicated in cell wall diffusion.

Wood as a Bioinspiring Material

In a living tree, wood is a multifunctional material simultaneously fulfilling the tree’s needs for sap conduction, mechanical support, and storage and synthesis of biochemicals. As with many of Nature’s materials, the performance of wood in a living tree is unrivaled by current synthetic materials and the study of Nature’s design secrets continues to be a reliable source to improve or develop new technologies. Researchers continue striving to understand the structure and properties of wood for inspiration to improve or create new materials, structural designs, and theoretical formulations.

As a complex composite, wood is providing academic inspiration for development of modeling and computational frameworks to solve optimization problems related to mechanical properties of complex heterogeneous materials. 58 Branch-trunk joints in trees are complex orthotropic, fiber-reinforced composites with extraordinary strength and toughness. Biomimetic joints are being developed as an alternative approach to solve T-joint problems for potential use in lightweight aircraft structures. 59 Renewable packaging films inspired by the nanostructure of wood cell walls have been formed by mixing cross-linked galactoglucomannan–lignin polymers, microfibrillated cellulose, and glycerol. 60 Also, multifunctional artificial materials with tunable mechanical performances and a propensity for self-healing have been created from nanofibrillated cellulose and cationic poly(vinyl amine) by mimicking the cell wall nanostructure. 61

Moisture responses in wood are also being studied with the motivation to inspire new stimuli-responsive and multifunctional materials. Stimuli-responsive materials change according to the environment they are in and are designed to be sensitive to a variety of stimuli, such as temperature, heat, solvent, light, moisture, and electric or magnetic fields. Such materials have applications in areas as diverse as energy harvesting, sensors, drug delivery systems, biomimetic robotics, and artificial muscles. 62 – 66 In trees, researchers have studied moisture-activated unidirectional movements, such as pine cone opening 67 and bending of tree branches. 68 Models have been developed relating these unidirectional movements to moisture-induced swelling in the amorphous components of wood cell walls and the cellular organization of wood tissue with different cellulose microfibril angles. Additionally, wood slivers consisting of a few softwood tracheids were found to be moisture-activated torsional actuators that can reversibly twist multiple revolutions per centimeter length and produce specific torque higher than that of an electric motor. 55 , 69 The twist is caused by swelling between the helically wound cellulose microfibrils in the S2 secondary cell wall (Fig.  1 f). The wood slivers also possess moisture-activated shape memory twist capabilities. 55 , 69 Individual wood cell walls were also discovered to be moisture-activated materials for chemical transport. Ions implanted into cell walls were observed to diffuse only above a threshold MC. 55 , 56 Both the shape memory and chemical transport thresholds are likely controlled by the moisture-dependent glass transition of hemicelluloses in the 60% to 80% RH range at room temperature. 70 – 72 Glass transitions are often responsible for shape memory and stimuli-responsive behavior in polymers. When considered in bulk as a polymer, wood does not experience the macro-scale mechanical softening at the glass transition like other polymers, which is expected, given that wood must perform its mechanical functions above the MC-inducing glass transition in the living tree. An improved understanding of the wood cell wall nanostructure may lead to biomimetic polymer smart materials with improved mechanical properties.

Applications of Atomistic Simulations in Understanding Small-Scale Material Properties of Wood

Wood is a hierarchal material, and understanding its structure and properties requires thorough knowledge of material properties down to the nano- and molecular-scales. Many properties at these length scales cannot be assessed experimentally. Fortunately, numerical methods, such as atomistic simulations, are emerging as powerful tools at these small scales for simulating underlying physical and chemical mechanisms or predicting the thermodynamic properties of wood cell walls from the atomistic level. This motivates the use of molecular dynamics (MD) as it enables researchers to build bottom-up models starting from the chemical structure of the basic constituents of wood.

There has been much focus on understanding the structure and properties of crystalline nanocellulose because it is the primary nanoscale component responsible for the superb mechanical properties of wood. For example, united-atom MD simulations were used to quantify changes in different morphologies of cellulose to reveal that the semicrystalline phase may be an intermediate, kinetically arrested phase formed at amorphous cellulose formation. 73 MD simulation showed in Iβ crystalline cellulose that elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio, yield stress and strain, and ultimate stress and strain are highly anisotropic, and that although properties that describe elastic behavior of the material are independent of strain rate, yield and ultimate properties increase with increasing strain rate. 74 In another MD study, 75 the fracture energy of crystalline cellulose was found to depend on crystal width, due to edge defects that significantly reduce the fracture energy of small crystals but have a negligible effect beyond a critical width. Remarkably, ideal dimensions optimizing fracture energy are found to be similar to the common dimensions of crystalline nanocellulose found in nature, suggesting a natural optimization of structure.

Other researchers have focused on the assembly and interactions of wood polymers in the wood nanostructure because the overall material properties of wood are a direct function of these currently unknown nanostructures and interactions. Some of the earliest MD simulations studied interactions of lignin models with the surface of cellulose microfibrils. Attractions between lignin and cellulose microfibril surfaces that were observed suggested that the polysaccharide components of the cell wall may be influencing deposition of lignin. 76 In another study, lignin adsorption was found to likely be dependent on crystal orientation of the microfibril. 77 In a more recent study, bamboo molecular models of lignin, hemicellulose, and lignin carbohydrate complex (LCC) structures were used to study elastic moduli and adhesion energies between these materials and cellulose microfibril faces under dry conditions. It was shown that the hemicellulose model has stronger mechanical properties than lignin, whereas lignin exhibits greater tendency to adhere to cellulose microfibrils. The study suggested that the abundance of hydrogen bonds in hemicellulose chains is responsible for improving the mechanical behavior of LCC.

Overall, as the preceding examples of studies clearly show, atomistic simulations provide a platform for studying structures, interactions, and properties at the nano- and molecular scales. The role of simulations is expected to continue to increase as research increases. Nevertheless, because wood is such a complex and unknown material at these small scales, a key to increasing the potential benefits of simulations in forest products research will be developing appropriate experiments to further validate simulated results.

Sustainable Forest Management for Renewable Wood Resources

The sustainable management of forests is complex because it must consider not only the regeneration of trees harvested for material usage but also the maintenance of benefits that are both societal (e.g., recreation, food, and spiritual) and ecological (e.g., climate regulation, biodiversity, and protection of soil and water resources). Based on analyses of the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015 of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, forests reportedly cover 31% of the today’s world land surfaces 78 and efforts to sustainably manage forests, including forest management certification programs, continue to increase worldwide. 79 Certification programs came about to demonstrate the commercial viability of a “sustainable” alternative to historical practices that viewed forests as an infinite resource. Currently, about 10% of the world’s forests are in a certification program, 79 and increased international awareness of and demand for chain of custody and supply chain verification in wood and wood products 80 further supports a transition toward sustainable forest products production. With enhanced and interdisciplinary research into wood and wood products, we have the expectation that high-value products and feedstocks from forest materials will help increase the monetary value of forests and, thus, support their sustainable management.

The advancement of wood science is critical for the development of sustainable materials, fuels, and chemicals from forest resources. It is also invaluable to researchers who draw inspiration from the elegant, hierarchical structure of wood for developing advanced materials and structures. Numerous synergies exist between different research areas that should be exploited through multidisciplinary teams to accelerate efforts. For example, biorefinery researchers would benefit from improved biomimetic deconstruction pathways if the mechanisms used by decay fungi to deconstruct the recalcitrant wood cell walls into usable energy were better understood. Similarly, assuming controlling chemical transport through the cell wall is the key to preventing the onset of wood decay, a collaboration between researchers developing wood protection treatments and multifunctional smart chemical transport membranes would also be mutually beneficial. Such collaborations between seemingly different research areas are key to accelerating wood science and positioning it in the future with ample opportunity for innovative, meaningful contributions across a broad spectrum of material science research.

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Acknowledgements

J.E.J. acknowledges funding from 2011 USDA PECASE awards. Financial support for P.N.C. was provided by the Computational Pyrolysis Consortium (CPC) funded by the Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO) of the U.S. Department of Energy. We also thank Steve Schmeiding from the USDA Forest Products Laboratory for the photo used in Fig. 3.

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Jakes, J.E., Arzola, X., Bergman, R. et al. Not Just Lumber—Using Wood in the Sustainable Future of Materials, Chemicals, and Fuels. JOM 68 , 2395–2404 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-016-2026-7

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Introduction

Positive impact on the environment, wood in everyday life.

Nowadays, many people do not find it necessary to pay much attention to wood and recognize its role in the world. However, wood is not only an important commodity that everyone can use but a significant natural resource that has to be stored and respected. It plays a prominent role in human life throughout history. At this moment, about 245 countries use 55 different food products (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2016).

For example, India and China are the two greatest food producers and consumers where a large area remains under forests, and the United States has reduced its exports considerably (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2016). Despite the intention to use wood in a variety of ways without thinking about consequences, wood has to be considered as a helpful natural resource with many positive impacts on the environment, human health, and well-being.

Wood as a renewable resource has a positive impact on the environment. In today’s world, “green” business gains recognition as compared to concrete and steel, wood helps to enlarge energy efficiency and minimize energy consumption (American Forest Foundation, n.d.). In addition, such important forms of fuel like fossil fuels cannot be renewed, and they may eventually run out and become unavailable to people.

Other achievements like petrochemical-based plastics are frequently used as good alternatives to wood, but this material is also not renewable (“Wood and wood products,” 2002). Finally, the conversion of wood products requires a lower level of energy and pollution volumes than those of plastic or steel products creation (“Wood and wood products,” 2002). People cannot predict and control their petrochemical-based resources, and wood is a resource that may be renewed with time.

Reduction of waste and pollution is another important benefit of wood as a natural building material in the environment. Pollutants may be of different forms and challenge the ecosystem in a variety of ways (Rinkesh, n.d.). Global warming, an increased number of diseases, and the quality of life are not the only evident outcomes of human civilization and modernization. People succeed in industrial and technological development without noticing how harmful their actions are to air, water, and soil.

Air pollution occurs due to smoke from chimneys and factories (Rinkesh, n.d.). Water pollution includes industrial waste and severe contamination (Rinkesh, n.d.). From this perspective, wood waste is organic, and its utilization can be helpful to the environment. It is impossible to avoid or reduce the amount of waste from wood production. However, new outcomes are associated with waste because of wood. For example, people may employ leftovers as fuel to produce energy and wood ash as an effective soil fertilizer.

Many modern building materials contribute to the greenhouse effect, and wood is the one that does not. One should be interested in why wood products’ production, implementation, burning, or storage is not considered a direct threat to the environment. The point is that responsibly sourced wood remains a renewable building material and a natural source that can remove the level of carbon from the air (“The benefits of wood,” n.d.).

Compared to other building materials, wood products have a lower carbon footprint and remain an appropriate alternative to substitute fossil fuels (“The benefits of wood,” n.d.). Trees are necessary to sustain a natural balance in the environment, as well as important for human progress. Therefore, people must use this resource wisely and think about the consequences of their decisions and relationships with nature. It is evident that wood may help the environment in several important ways, and its role in climate change cannot be ignored.

Not long ago, people tried to do everything possible to get rid of wood constructions and use bricks or steel to strengthen their buildings and improve their statuses. Nowadays, fashion changes its direction, and it becomes interesting and beneficial to have wood products at home, school, or work due to its effects on health and well-being. The natural environment is one of the major contributors to positive health outcomes like stabilized blood pressure, reduced aggression, stress control (“Health & well-being,” n.d.). In addition, it turns out to be easy to incorporate nature into a building project and add the required number of elements made from wood (“Health & well-being,” n.d.).

Many users of this material in their homes believe that their choices prove their respect for nature and protect their health. Comfort and health are enhanced in human lives along with wood products and architectural approaches. As a result, inhabitants of wooden-made houses demonstrate a possibility to lower blood pressure, normalize their heart rates, and avoid stress-associated problems.

Wood is a natural resource that can be used by people to find out the necessary protection and establish a barrier between the heat, cold, and appropriate living conditions for humans. As a natural insulator, wood promotes warmth and thermal stability (“Health & well-being,” n.d.).

The investigations by the US Environmental Protection Agency (as cited in “Health & well-being,” n.d.) show that approximately 90% of Americans spend their time indoors, including their homes, workplaces, schools, and other buildings. It means that the quality of the material and the temperature within play an important role in human health. Wood does not harm but improves health, and its implementation in modern buildings is a solution with several benefits to protect people physically and emotionally.

Numerous people’s attempts are directed to the improvement of their health and avoidance of various irritants. Many investigations prove that visible wood lowers stress, improves health, and becomes an economically advantageous building selection (“Health & well-being,” n.d.). The immune system of a person undergoes considerable changes and challenges because of the inability to control blood pressure and heart rate. Therefore, such problems as a lack of focus, low productivity, bad task performance, and health decline are observed in modern people (“Health & well-being,” n.d.). Wood and its associated thermal, physical, and emotional comfort help humans in several ways, including vital signs control.

In total, it is true that wood plays a significant role in human lives and supports the environment. In this essay, attention was paid to several important properties of wood. Firstly, it is a renewable source that reduces waste and controls pollution. Secondly, wood is a building material that removes barriers between nature and humanity. Finally, wood is a contributor to human health, emotional well-being, stress controller, and vital signs stabilizer. The benefits of wood and forests in the environment, human health, and well-being may vary, but the essence remains the same – wood products have to be produced and used as building and industrial alternatives in various spheres of life.

• American Forest Foundation. (n.d.). Wood: A good choice for energy efficiency and the environment . Web.
• The benefits of wood. (n.d.). Web.
• Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2016). Global forest products: Facts and figures . Web.
• Health & well-being . (n.d.). Web.
• Rinkesh. (n.d.). What is pollution?
• Wood and wood products . (2002). Web.
• Vulnerable Coastal Areas Preservation Strategies
• Green Desalination and Traditional Desalination in UAE
• Environmental Factors and Health Promotion: Indoor and Outdoor Air Pollution
• Business’s Total Carbon Footprint Analysis
• Timber and Sustainability
• Apple’s Health, Safety and Wellness
• Nuclear Power in India
• A Green House in Canada: A Cost Benefit Analysis
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The Role of Wood in World History

The destruction of the world’s forests is a major concern in our age. According to the UN about 40 percent of Central America’s forests were destroyed between 1950 and 1980 and during the same period Africa lost about 23 percent of its forests. A whole range of environmental problems is associated with deforestation, among them severe flooding, accelerated loss of soil, encroaching deserts and declining soil productivity 1 . Sometimes we get the impression that these problems are unique to our time, but vast areas of surface of the earth were stripped of their tree cover well before the modern period.

The ancient Middle East

Today it is hard to believe that in antiquity vast forests were growing in the Middle East. However, during the early part of the third millennium BCE, the mountain slopes of this region were covered with massive cedar forests. These forests disappeared in the millennia before Christ’s birth about two thousand years ago. The destruction of the cedar forests of the Middle East is told in the oldest know, surviving written story in the world:  The epic of Gilgamesh . The epic was written in Mesopotamia sometime during in the 3rd millennium BCE. The second episode of the epic is known as “The forest Journey” and is the story of deforestation in the Middle East 2 .

The forests of the ancient Near East were the resource for the construction of temples and palaces in the kingdoms and empires in the Fertile Crescent. The rulers of these kingdoms and empires undertook massive building programmes to display their power and wealth. In doing so they needed large amounts of, mainly, cedar timber. The story of Gilgamesh is the story of the ruler of the city-state of Uruk, in what is present-day Iraq. Gilgamesh wished to make for himself “a name that endures” by building “walls, a great rampart and the temple of blessed Eanna” 3 . To realise his ambitious construction programme he needed large amounts of timber and, fortunately for Gilgamesh, the natural forests of Mesopotamia remained almost untouched at that time. But it was not an easy task for Gilgamesh to enter the forests and cut down the trees he needed for his temples. The cedar forests were the gardens of the Mesopotamian gods and it was protected against humanities need for timber by a guard named Humbaba. The gods understood very well that human beings never recognised the limits of their needs and their resources. Therefore the chief Sumerian deity appointed a guard, Humbaba, to prevent humans to enter the forests. But Gilgamesh was determined to get his hands on the timber and went “to the land where the cedar is felled” 4 . When Gilgamesh and his companions arrived at the forests a fight with the formidable Enlil for control over the forests followed. After a heavy struggle Humbaba was killed by the king of Uruk:

Then there followed confusion; for this was the guardian of the forest whom they had struck to the ground: he at whose words Hermon and Lebanon were used to tremble. Now the mountains were moved, the ranges of the hills were moved, for the guardian of the cedar lay dead.

The author of the epic knew that once humans started to exploit the forests, nothing could stop them from cutting down all the trees:

So Gilgamesh felled the trees of the forests and Endiku cleared their roots as far as the bank of Euphrates. 5

Gilgamesh and Enkidu cut down the cedar forest and in particular the tallest of the cedar trees to make a great cedar gate for the city of Uruk. They build a raft out of the cedar and floated down the Euphrates River to the city.

The fate of the cedar forests was sealed. The Phoenicians, one of the oldest sea-trading nations in the world, needed timbers for their ships and used the cedars of Lebanon to construct them. Writers such as Homer, Pliny, and Plato, along with the Old Testament provide us with well-documented descriptions of the once richly forested mountains of Lebanon. The Bible also vividly describes the practice of rulers in the Ancient Middle East to fell cedar trees to build massive monuments. The account of the construction of the first temple in Jerusalem tells us that king Solomon sends a message to the king of Tyre with the request to provide him with timber: “so give orders that cedars of Lebanon be cut for me”. What follows is a detailed account of how the trees are taken down from the mountains of the Lebanon and floated in rafts by the sea to Israel 6 . Al these stories, myths and histories from the ancient world confirm that civilisations of the ancient world were destroying forest resources.

The Hellenic period

According to Perlin most of the Ancient Middle East lost its forests by the end of the third millennium BCE. He argues that this removed one of the fundaments under the ancient civilisations in the Middle East and as a consequence the centre of trade and power in the Mediterranean shifted to areas that still had sufficient reserves of timber: Crete and the Greek world. The kingdoms and empires in the Middle East started to import wood for timber, fuel and bronze from the island of Crete but in the long run this was not sustainable. In the early second millennium BCE, the Minoan civilisations developed on Crete and its economy was based on the abundant availability of wood. This was used for fuel in the copper furnaces for the production of bronze, the major export of Crete at that time. The Minoan civilisations flourished for about 600 years, but by 1450 BCE it suddenly collapsed almost entirely. Perlin attributes this solely to the massive deforestation of the island. That is very unlikely because the collapse of the Minoan civilisation was caused by the massive eruption of the Thera Volcano . This buried Crete under a layer of ash and large Tsunamis destroyed coastal areas. It is likely that the eruption caused a temporary massive loss of woodlands on the island and as a result the Minoans had to turn to Greece for its timber and fuel supplies and soon the centre of gravity moved to the Greek world   7 .

In the millennium that followed the Greek world developed into one of the major power centres of the Mediterranean. Two conditions were important for the growing influence of this region: the first is the long coastline of Asia Minor and Greece and the many islands scattered along these coasts; secondly the availability of timber. The first condition made communication by sea easy and the availability of timber made this communication possible because it allowed the construction of ships. Because of this, the forests of Asia Minor, the Greek peninsula and of Macedonia were one of the main sources of the power and wealth of this region. The availability of wood turned the different civilisations that developed in Greece and Asia Minor into formidable maritime and trading powers. It is not surprising that when Rome conquered Macedonia in 167 BC they prohibited the Macedonians from cutting timber. The Romans were aware of the role that wood had played in its rise as a great power. The prohibition was a precautionary measure to prevent Macedonia from developing into a maritime power that might rival Rome’s and of course to satisfy its own timber needs 8 .

The Roman period

For the Romans, as for other civilisations before, wood played an important role in their economy. The importance of wood is reflected in Pliny’s  Natural History . He devoted books XII to XVI of this work entirely to trees and recognised the importance of forests for human existence:

…the trees and forests were supposed to be the supreme gift bestowed by her on man. These first provided him with food, their foliage carpeted his cave and their bark served him for aliment. 9

Roman soldiers felling trees for construction purposes. Detail Trajan’s Column. Source:  Wikimedia commons

In Pliny’s time Italy was almost completely stripped of its forest cover. For this reason the Romans had to import most of the timber form all parts of the Empire and metallurgic industries, which depended heavily on charcoal, moved out of Italy. The centres of mining and metal smelting became the most deforested areas of the Roman Empire. Pliny must have realised that human industry and activities put forests at risk of destruction. In a world where trees were a scarce resource it is not surprising that Pliny wrote with awe about the massive forests in Germany:

In the northern region is the fast expanse of the Hercynian Oak Forest, untouched by the ages and coeval with the world, which surpasses all marvels by its almost immortal destiny. 10

But it was not just awe that inspired Pliny because the Romans realised that these forests were an important resource for their industries. Faced wood shortages, Rome increasingly turned to northern Europe for their wood supplies. Unfortunately for them they never succeeded in conquering the areas east of the Rhine and they had to turn elsewhere for timber, in particular to the Mediterranean. The Roman Empire’s expansion into Syria had very harmful effects on the remaining cedar forests in the mountains. It was not until the Emperor Hadrian introduced protective measures and declared the cedar forests of Lebanon his Imperial Domain, that the destruction of the forests was slowed. 11

China and Venice

Now that we have explored the importance of wood and forests of antiquity, we make a big jump forward in time to examine the importance of wood in the rise of the West. Without the abundant availability of wood, Europe would never have been able to undertake the exploration of the world’s oceans that led to the great geographic discoveries. This development had become very difficult in the Middle East, were the ancient forests were had largely disappeared during antiquity.

In China, signs of wood shortages appeared in the 13th century. This was caused by a rapid growth of the population and the resulting demand on the timber supplies at that time. But this did not prevent China from building ocean-going ships. The main reason why China did not circumnavigate Cape of Good Hope is more of a political nature than a matter of resource shortages or ecology. 12

At the same time at the other side of the Eurasian landmass, Europe woke up from its relative isolation of the Middle Ages. Trade and commerce started to expand and most of this trade was by sea. This was partly encouraged by its ecology because Europe has no long navigable rivers and transport by land was difficult because the massive woods, bad road conditions and extensive wetland areas which made it very difficult to transport goods over long distances over land. Luckily Europe has a long coastline and for this reason most long distance navigation took place along the coasts. As a result it was important for European powers to development seaworthy vessels that could transport bulk goods over long distances and over rough seas. The first region where new vessels were developed was in the western the Mediterranean and in particular in Venice. To leave her Muslim competitors behind and establish maritime supremacy over de Mediterranean Venice developed superior ships. The city was very successful in building large numbers of high quality ships and for a considerable time Venice was the most important maritime power in Europe. However, Venice paid a high price for its rapid expanding sea power. The first signs of timber shortages can be identified by the end of the 15th century and by 1590 Venice had to import complete ship hulls from Northern Europe. Soon Venice had to abandon its prominent position as a maritime power and the centre of maritime activity shifted for the first time since antiquity away from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic and North Sea coasts. 13

Spanish galleon. Source: Wikimedia Commons

During the 15th and 16th centuries Spain was building a sea borne empire in the Americas and the Far East. The expansion was a heritage of the struggle against the Moors in the later Middle Ages. In search for allies against their Muslim enemies the Spanish and Portuguese explored the coasts of West Africa. In doing so they discovered the Azores in 1427 and in 1497-98 the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and reached India by sea. He brought back a cargo of spices that netted a huge profit and opened up lucrative trade routes with the Far East.

This was the start of the rapid expansion of Europe overseas. The Spanish and Portuguese were the first, but others followed soon, not in the least the English and the Dutch. English pirates were raiding Spanish ships in the Caribbean and along the African coast, and explorers such as Francis Drake traded openly in Spanish territories. This brought Spain into conflict with England and other European powers. After years of preparation Philip II ordered in 1588 The Armada to attack and invade England. The invasion failed and the Armada was destroyed. The construction of The Armada in the 1580’s left large parts of Spain devoid of trees and heralded the decline of Spanish supremacy at sea. The countries around the North Sea had access to abundant forests in Scandinavia, the Baltic Sea region and in Germany. But in the south of England there were also some reserves of wood available. This availability of wood allowed England, France and Holland to build large fleets to take advantage of the opening up of the world seas. 14

The rise of Britain

Because of the relative late development, during late Middle Ages and early Modern Period, of large-scale shipping and industry around the North Sea basin, shortages of wood only appeared in the early Modern Period. In England the first signs of timber shortages were noticed during the wars against France in the 1620’s. In order to obtain enough timber for its fleet, England started to import wood supplies, first from the Baltic region and Scandinavia, later from the Colonies in North America. In the middle of the 18th century Europe faced an acute shortage of wood, and as a consequence, an energy crisis. The response to the energy shortage was the increasing use of an inferior fuel: coal. The change from wood to coal as major energy source had far reaching consequences. 15

Charcoal production in the 18th century. Plate from Encyclopédie by Diderot and D’Alembert, 1751 – 1772.

The shift to coal first happened in England, where the shortage of wood was most acute. Wood was not only used for the construction of ships but also for heating and cooking as well as industrial processes. In order to provide a sufficient supply of charcoal woodlands in England were managed with a coppice rotation system but over time these woodlands could not supply enough fuel for the growing demands of domestic users and industry, in particular the iron industry. Iron was scarce and costly, and production was falling off because England’s forests could not supply enough charcoal for smelting the ore. The problem was that mineral coal was useless for iron smelting so the industry desperately needed wood. However, in regions where wood was scarce but coal abundant Iron masters had long been experimenting with coal as a fuel for smelting. Finally the Darby family in the early 18th century, after three generations of effort, succeeded with transforming coal into coke. This processed type of coal was clean and therefore useful as a fuel to smelt iron. However, the severity of shortages differed significantly from region to region and areas with abundant wood or peat the transition to coal was slow. For example, in Sheffield, the transition to coal was not completed until the 1820s. 16  The knowledge how to make coke spread slowly but surely and soon the production of iron rose because of the abundant availability of the new fuel in many localities, especially Northern England and the Midlands. These developments ended the supremacy of wood as a construction material and fuel and it was replaced by steel as the chief construction material and coal as the major energy source. This process was also reinforced when the railways, also depending on coal, could transport the fuel to any part of the country making the production of iron independent of the location. The coal revolution in England made it the first country to leave the wood era, and enter the true iron age and the industrial period. 17

The present and the future

Nowadays steel and concrete are the predominant materials used to construct tall buildings and long-span bridges. But wood is still used as a major material in houses, smaller buildings, for decorative purposed and furniture. It is also a raw material for pulp-based products such as paper. Although wood is in many cases replaced by stronger and lighter materials, it is still in great demand. The present worldwide depletion of forests and reafforestation of large parts of the developed world is a new chapter in an old story. A better understanding of what happened with forests and woodlands in the past might help us to preserve forests for the future.

1 Perlin, John, A Forest Journey. The Role of Wood in the Development of Civilisation (Cambridge, MA; London, 1989), p. 15.

2 Ibid., p. 35.

3 The Epic of Gilgamesh , English version by N.K. Sandars (London, 1960), p. 59.

4 Ibid, p. 68

5 Ibid., p. 82

6 1 Kings 4: 6-10

7 Perlin, Forest Journey , pp. 44-55.

8 Ibid., p. 101

9 Pliny, Natural History , edited by E.H. Warmington (Cambridge MA, 1968), Book XII . I . 2

10 Ibid., Book XVI . II . 6

11 Mikesell, Marvin W. . “The Deforestation of Mount Lebanon”, The Geographical Review , Volume 69, 1( 1969), p. 21; J. Donald Hughes, The Mediterranean: An Environmental History (Santa Barbara, CA.: ABC-CLIO, 2005), pp. 39-44, 47.

12 13. Ponting, Clive, A Green History of the World (London, 1991), p. 278.

13 Perlin, Forest journey , 145-161; Ponting, Green History , p. 278

14 Ibid., p. 278

15 Ibid., pp. 279-281.

16 Rotherham, Ian D & David Egan, “The Economics of Fuel Wood, Charcoal and Coal: An Interpretation of Coppice Management of British Woodlands”, in: Mauro Agnoletti, Marco Armiero, Stefania Barca and Gabriella Corona (eds.), History and Sustainability. Third International Conference of the European Society for Environmental History: Proceedings (Florence: University of Florence/ESEH, 2005) , pp. 100-101.

17 Perlin, Forest Journey , pp. 227-245

forestry Jan Oosthoek wood world history

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James Wood has been a staff writer and book critic at The New Yorker since 2007. In 2009, he won the National Magazine Award for reviews and criticism. He was the chief literary critic at the Guardian , in London, from 1992 to 1995, and a senior editor at The New Republic from 1995 to 2007. His critical essays are collected in “ The Broken Estate: Essays on Literature and Belief ”; “ The Irresponsible Self: On Laughter and the Novel ,” which was a finalist for the National Book Critics Circle Award; and “ The Fun Stuff: And Other Essays .” Wood is also the author of the novel “ The Book Against God ”; a study of technique in the novel, “ How Fiction Works ”; and a collection of essays, “ Serious Noticing: Selected Essays, 1997-2019 .” His latest novel, “ Upstate ,” was published in 2018. He is a professor of the practice of literary criticism at Harvard University.

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• Wood Identification Guide

by Eric Meier

When attempting to identify a wood sample, it’s important to keep in mind the limitations and obstacles that are present in our task. Before starting, please have a look at  The Truth Behind Wood Identification  to approach the task in a proper mindset; I consider the linked article to be required reading for all those visiting my site with the intent of identifying wood.

1. Confirm it is actually solid wood.

Before proceeding too much farther into the remaining steps, it’s first necessary to confirm that the material in question is actually a solid piece of wood, and not a man-made composite or piece of plastic made to imitate wood.

Can you see the end-grain? 

Manufactured wood such as MDF, OSB, and particleboard all have a distinct look that is—in nearly all cases—easily distinguishable from the endgrain of real wood. Look for growth rings—formed by the yearly growth of a tree—which will be a dead-giveaway that the wood sample in question is a solid, genuine chunk of wood taken from a tree.

Is it veneered? 

If you see a large panel that has a repeating grain pattern, it may be a veneer. In such cases, a very thin layer of real wood is peeled from a tree and attached to a substrate; sometimes the veneer can be one continuous repeating piece because it is rotary-sliced to shave off the veneer layer as the tree trunk is spun by machines. Assuming it is a real wood veneer with a distinct grain and texture—and not merely a piece of printed plastic—you may still be able to identify the outer veneer wood in question, but you should still realize that is it only a veneer and not a solid piece of wood.

Is it painted or printed to look like wood? 

Many times, especially on medium to large-sized flat panels for furniture, a piece of particleboard or MDF is either laminated with a piece of wood-colored plastic, or simply painted to look like wood grain. Many of today’s interior hardwood flooring planks are good examples of these pseudo-wood products: they are essentially a man-made material made of sawdust, glues, resins, and durable plastics.

2. Look at the color.

Some questions to immediately ask yourself:

Is the color of the wood natural, or is it stained?

If there is even a chance that the color isn’t natural, the odds are increased that the entire effort of identifying the wood will be in vain.

Is it weathered or have a patina?

Many woods, when left outside in the elements, tend to turn a bland gray color. Also, even interior wood also takes on a patina as it ages: some woods get darker, or redder, and some even get lighter or lose their color; but for the most part, wood tends to darken with age.

Is it possible to sand or plane the board to see the natural raw color of the wood?

The most predictable baseline to use when identifying wood is in a freshly sanded state. This eliminates the chances of a stain or natural aging skewing the color diagnosis of the wood.

3. Observe the wood grain.

If the wood is unfinished, then look at the texture of the grain. Ask yourself these questions:

Does the wood have an open, porous texture?

Most softwoods will be almost perfectly smooth with no grain indentations, while many common hardwoods have an open pore structure, such as oak or  mahogany ; though there are some hardwoods that are also smooth to the touch, such as maple .

Can you tell if the wood is quartersawn or plainsawn?

By observing the grain patterns, many times you can tell how the board was cut from the tree. Some wood species have dramatically different grain patterns from plainsawn to quartersawn surfaces. For instance, on their quartersawn surfaces, lacewood has large lace patterns, oak has flecks, and maple has the characteristic “butcher block” appearance.

Is there any figure or unusual characteristics, such as  sapwood , curly or wild grain, burl/knots, etc.?

Some species of wood have figure that is much more common than in other species: for example, curly figure is fairly common in soft maple , and the curls are usually well-pronounced and close together. Yet when birch or cherry has a curly grain, it is more often much less pronounced, and the curls are spaced farther apart.

4. Consider the weight and hardness of the wood.

If it’s possible, pick the piece of wood up and get a sense of its weight, and compare it to other known wood species. Try gouging the edge with your fingernail to get a sense of its hardness. If you have a scale, you can take measurements of the length, width, and thickness of the wood, and combine them to find the density of the wood. This can be helpful to compare to other density readings found in the  database . When examining the wood in question, compare it to other known wood species, and ask yourself these questions:

Is the wood dry?

Wood from freshly felled trees, or wood that has been stored in an extremely humid environment will have very high moisture contents. In some freshly sawn pieces, moisture could account for over half of the wood’s total weight! Likewise, wood that has been stored in extremely dry conditions of less than 25% relative humidity will most likely feel lighter than average.

How does the wood’s weight compare to other species?

Taking into account the size of the board, how does its weight compare to other benchmark woods? Is it heavier than oak ? Is it lighter than pine ? Look at the weight numbers for a few wood species that are close to yours, and get a ballpark estimate of its weight.

How hard is the wood? 

Obviously softwoods will tend to be softer than hardwoods, but try to get a sense of how it compares to other known woods. Density and hardness are closely related, so if the wood is heavy, it will most likely be hard too. If the wood is a part of a finished item that you can’t adequately weigh, you might be able to test the hardness by gouging it in an inconspicuous area. Also, if it is used in a piece of furniture, such as a tabletop, a general idea of its hardness can be assessed by the number and depth of the gouges/dings in the piece given its age and use. A tabletop made of pine will have much deeper dents than a tabletop made of Oak. Additionally, you can always try the “fingernail test” as a rough hardness indicator:  find a crisp edge of the wood, and with your fingernail try to push in as hard as you can and see if you’re able to make a dent in the wood.

5. Consider its history.

Many times we forget common sense and logic when attempting to identify wood. If you’ve got a piece of Amish furniture from Pennsylvania, chances are more likely that the wood  will be made of something like black walnut or  cherry , and not  African wenge or  jatoba . You might call it  “wood profiling,”  but sometimes it can pay to be a little prejudiced when it comes to wood identification. Some common-sense questions to ask yourself when trying to identify a piece of wood:

Where did it come from?

Knowing as much as you can about the source of the wood—even the smallest details—can be helpful. If the wood came from a wood pile or a lumber mill where all the pieces were from trees processed locally, then the potential species are immediately limited. If the wood came from a builder of antique furniture, or a boat-builder, or a trim carpenter: each of these occupations will tend to use certain species of woods much more often than others, making a logical guess much simpler.

How old is it?

As with the wood’s source, its age will also help in identification purposes. Not only will it help to determine if the wood should have developed a natural patina, but it will also suggest certain species which were more prevalent at different times in history. For instance, many acoustic guitars made before the 1990s have featured  Brazilian rosewood backs/sides, yet due to CITES restrictions  placed upon that species,  East Indian rosewood became a much more common species on newer guitars. (And this is a continuing shift as newer replacements are sought for rosewoods altogether.)

How large is the piece of wood?

Some species of trees are typically very small—some are even considered shrubs—while others get quite large. For instance, if you see a large panel or section of wood that’s entirely black, chances are it’s either painted, dyed, or stained:  Gaboon ebony  and related species are typically very small and very expensive.

What is the wood’s intended use?

Simply knowing what the wood was intended for—when considered in conjunction with where it came from and how old it is—can give you many clues to help identify it. In some applications, certain wood species are used  much  more frequently than others, so that you can make an educated guess as to the species of the wood based upon the application where it was used. For instance, in the United States: many older houses with solid hardwood floors have commonly used either red oak or  hard maple ; many antique furniture pieces have featured quartersawn white oak ; many violins have spruce tops; many closet items used  aromatic red cedar , and so forth. While it’s not a 100% guarantee, “profiling” the wood in question will help reduce the number of possible suspects, and aid in deducing the correct species.

6. Find the X-Factor.

Sometimes, after all the normal characteristics of a sample have been considered, the identity of the wood in question is still not apparent. In these instances—particularly in situations where a sample has been narrowed down to only a few possible remaining choices—it’s sometimes helpful to bring in specialized tests and other narrower means of identification.

The following techniques and recommendations don’t necessarily have a wide application in initially sorting out wood species and eliminating large swaths of wood species, but will most likely be of use only as a final step in special identification circumstances.

Believe it or not, freshly machined wood can have a very  identifiable scent . When your eyes and hands can’t quite get a definitive answer, sometimes your nose can. Assuming there is no stain, finish, or preservative on or in the wood, quickly sand, saw, or otherwise machine a section of the wood in question, and take a whiff of the aroma.

Although new scents can be very difficult to express in words, many times the scent of an unknown wood may be similar to other known scents. For instance, rosewoods (Dalbergia spp.) are so named for their characteristic odor that is reminiscent of roses. Although difficult to directly communicate, with enough firsthand experience scents can become a memorable and powerful means of wood identification.

Fluorescence

While certain woods can appear basically identical to one another under normal lighting conditions, when exposed to certain wavelengths—such as those found in blacklights—the wood will absorb and emit light in a different (visible) wavelength. This phenomenon is known as  fluorescence , and certain woods can be distinguished by the presence or absence of their fluorescent qualities. See the article  Fluorescence: A Secret Weapon in Wood Identification   for more information.

Chemical Testing

There are only a small number of chemical tests regularly used on wood, most of which are very specialized and were developed to help distinguish easily confused species with one another. They work by detecting differences in the composition of heartwood extractives. A chemical substance (called a  reagent)  is usually dissolved in water and applied to the wood surface: the surface is then observed for any type of chemical reaction (and accompanying color change) that may occur. Two of the most useful are the tests that are meant to separate  Red and White Oak , and  Red and Hard Maple .

Heartwood Extractives Leachability

Sometimes a wood species will have  heartwood extractives that will be readily leachable in water and capable of conspicuously tinting a solution of water a specific color. For instance, the heartwood extractives contained in osage orange (Maclura pomifera)  contain a yellowish-brown dye that is soluble in water. (This can sometimes be observed anecdotally when the wood is glued with a water-based adhesive: the glue’s squeeze-out is an unusually vibrant yellow.)

In a simple water extract color test, wood shavings are mixed with water in a vial, test tube, or other suitably small container, and the color of the water is observed after a few minutes. If the heartwood extractives are leachable by water, then a corresponding color change should quickly occur.

In addition to osage orange (Maclura pomifera) ,  merbau (Intsia spp.) , and rengas (Gluta spp. and Melanorrhoea spp.)  are also noted for their readily leachable heartwood extractives. Because this property is quite uncommon, it can serve to quickly differentiate these woods from other lookalikes.

7. Look at the endgrain.

Perhaps no other technique for accurate identification of wood is as helpful and conclusive as the magnified examination of the endgrain. Frequently, it brings the identification process from a mostly intuitive, unscientific process into a predictable, repeatable, and reliable procedure.

Looking at the endgrain with a magnifier shouldn’t be a mystifying or esoteric art. In many cases, it’s nearly as simple as examining small newsprint under a magnifying glass. There are three components necessary to reap the full benefits contained in the endgrain:

I. A prepared surface.

When working with wood in most capacities, it becomes quickly apparent that endgrain surfaces are not nearly as cooperative or as easily worked as face grain surfaces. However, in this case,  it is absolutely critical that a clear and refined endgrain surface is obtained.

For a quick glance of a softwood sample, a very sharp knife or razor blade can be used to take a fresh slice from the endgrain. However, in many denser species, especially in tropical hardwoods, one of the best ways to obtain a clear endgrain view is through diligent sanding. It’s usually best to begin with a relatively smooth saw cut (as from a fine-toothed miter saw blade) and proceed through the grits, starting at around 100, and working up to at least 220 or 320 grit, preferably higher for the cleanest view.

II. The right magnifier.

It need not be expensive, but whatever tool is used to view the endgrain should have adequate magnifying power. In most instances, 10x magnification is ideal, however, anything within the range of 8 to 15x magnification should be suitable for endgrain viewing. (Standard magnifying glasses are typically in the range of 2 to 4x magnification.)

These stronger magnifiers, sometimes called  loupes , usually have a smaller viewing area than standard magnifying glasses. Fancier models—with built in lights, or larger viewing surfaces—are available at a premium; but the most basic models are usually only a few dollars.

III. A trained eye.

• Hardwood Endgrain Anatomy
• Softwood Endgrain Anatomy

Still stumped?

USDA’s Forest Products  Laboratory

You can mail your physical wood samples to the Center for Wood Anatomy Research . 

• Professional wood identification
• Only available to US citizens
• Slow turnaround times (up to a month or more)
• Limited to three IDs per year

See their Wood ID Factsheet for more info.

Alden Identification Service

You can mail your physical wood samples (even small sections taken from antiques) to Alden Identification Service.

• Faster turnaround times (ranging from a few days to a week or two)
• Paid service

See their ordering page for more info. (Note that Harry Alden has written several books while at USDA, including both Hardwoods and Softwoods of North America.)

Ask for help online

If the wood ID is merely a curiosity, or non-critical, you can post pictures of the wood in question.

• No need to send physical samples
• Greatly limited by the quality of the pictures provided
• Extra work usually required to get adequate clarity in photos

See article of Common US Hardwoods to help find the most commonly used woods.

Get the hard copy

Why I will no longer be replying to every wood ID request I’ve replied to literally thousands of wood ID requests on this site over the past 13+ years, but as the site’s popularity has grown, so has the time demands for ID on a daily basis. (Contrary to what some may seem to think, I am not some all-knowing wood wizard that can instantly ID your wood. It can actually take me a long time to sift through a lot of different resources.) Over the past few years, my backlog of pending wood species to be added to the …  Read more »

Very straight grain, almost black/ lit ribbon veneer on chest

Dear Erick. These are a set of 3 tables that I intend to sell , but I don’t know how much to ask. Could you please help? Cheers. They are very heavy, I believe I found a date burned on the table that says 1994.

Hi all, thanks Eric for all your time and work. Ive here a fairly dense (id guess 700-1000kg/m3) log section, density is difficult as we have all layers of the tree, nullifying the water test. yellowish, greenish, brown heart. Yellow cream sapwood. A black layer between sapwood and bark (cambium??) Pictures of end grain, including all the layers. The outside of the log, but possibly not bark but what is immediately underneath. Also rough sawn side grain if at all useful. The smell is beautiful, my nose says ginger beer, my partner says vanilla nutmeg. Fruity spicy. Thanks, hopefully this …  Read more »

What’s your general geographic region?

Thanks for taking the time Eric. I’m East Anglia, England. However, this was in a big joblot including everything from African blackwood, to snakewood to brazilian rosewood. The lady had no clue about any of it so I’ve a big lot of unidentified. This one was really stumping me though.

Hmm, I’m stumped too. It may be something less common, or something that was more common in decades past, but is now no longer in common trade. Nice looking stuff though.

Hello, this cabin was built in the ’80s and I’m trying to identify the type of wood that was used. Any help would be greatly appreciated. Thank you!

Great resource. Thanks for sharing your knowledge with everyone.

I’ve had this dresser for 5p years, bought at a curiosity store in the country. It’s a beautiful design. Any idea what it is? thanks

• How the project got started
• Contributors
• Wood Filter tool
• Browse Woods (by common name)
• Browse Woods (by scientific name)
• The Truth Behind Wood Identification
• Hardwood Anatomy
• Softwood Anatomy
• Common US Hardwoods
• Fluorescence: A Secret Weapon in Wood Identification
• Ash Wood: Black, White, and Everything in Between
• Brazilian Rosewood, East Indian, and Other Rosewoods
• Cedar Confusion
• Elm Wood: Hard and Soft
• Genuine Lignum Vitae and Argentine Lignum Vitae
• Hard Maple and Soft Maple
• Mahogany Mixups: the Lowdown
• Pine Wood: An Overall Guide
• Poplar, Cottonwood, and Aspen: What’s What?
• Red Oak and White Oak
• Sorting Out Satinwoods
• Spruce and Other Lookalikes
• True Hickory and Pecan Hickory

Wood Info & Stats

• Are Rosewoods (and Bubinga) really banned by CITES?
• Ebony: Dark Outlook for Dark Woods?
• Halo Woods (and Shady Naming Practices)
• How Wood is Formed in Trees
• Restricted and Endangered Wood Species
• State Trees of the United States
• The Ten Best Woods You’ve Never Heard Of
• Top Ten Most Overrated Woods

Mechanical Properties

• Bow Woods (from a mathematical perspective)
• Top Ten Hardest Woods
• Top Ten Heaviest Woods
• Top Ten Softest Woods
• World’s Strongest Woods
• Wood Allergies and Toxicity
• Wood Dust Safety
• Drying Wood at Home
• Finishing Exotic and Tropical Hardwoods
• Four Common Finishing Mistakes (and how to avoid them)
• Gluing Oily Tropical Hardwoods
• How to Turn a Bandsaw Bowl from a Board
• Preventing Color Changes in Exotic Woods
• Wood and Moisture
• Wood Finishes: What Works When
• Working with Obscure or Unknown Woods

You can help support the site by buying one of these resources, designed and published by The Wood Database

The specific links on this site are affiliate links (as an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases) and help support the site at no extra cost to you.

Donating wood samples and pictures of wood items If you’ve got a new or unusual wood species that isn’t on the site, please consider sharing it with the rest of us! I’m also interested in getting photos of completed wood projects—especially of obscure or lesser known woods. See my page on donating wood samples for more info. 

Support me directly through Patreon If you’ve been helped by the Wood Database, consider saying “thanks” and helping to support the project. There is of course no obligation, but if you’d like to give back and ensure that the project continues to grow, consider supporting me on Patreon .

Apr 19, 2024

Mastering Term Papers: The Essential Guide From Start to Finish

Forget those groans and sighs whenever a term paper is assigned. Think of them as an incredible opportunity to take a deep dive into a topic you find fascinating, flex your research skills, and produce a piece of work that truly showcases your academic growth. 

This guide will walk you through every step of the process, simplifying term papers and empowering you to achieve your best possible results.

Understanding Term Papers

Term papers are a cornerstone of academic life, but are they the same as research papers? Not quite! While both involve research and writing, term papers hold a specific weight in your academic journey.

What is a Term Paper?

A term paper, also known as a course paper, is an extended research essay assigned towards the end of a term. It goes deeper than a typical essay, requiring you to present a comprehensive grasp of the course material.

Unlike a book report that summarizes information, a term paper demands critical analysis, where you explore a specific topic within the course framework. It's your chance to not just regurgitate facts, but to engage with the subject, form an argument, and support it with credible evidence.

Key Elements of a Term Paper: Building a Strong Foundation

Every successful term paper rests on a solid foundation. Here are the essential components you'll need to master:

Thesis Statement: This is the central argument of your paper, acting as a roadmap for your reader. A strong thesis statement is clear, concise, and directly addresses the prompt or topic.

Argument Structure: Think of your paper as a well-constructed building. Your arguments act as the supporting beams, holding your thesis statement aloft. Each body paragraph should focus on a single point that strengthens your overall argument.

Evidence Base: Facts, statistics, and expert opinions are the bricks and mortar of your argument. Ensure your evidence comes from credible sources, such as academic journals, scholarly books, and reputable websites. Don't forget to properly cite your sources to avoid plagiarism.

Differentiating Term Papers from Other Academic Works

While different academic assignments share similarities, each has a unique flavor. Let's unravel how term papers differ from their scholarly cousins:

Term Paper vs. Research Paper: They overlap significantly, yet depth is the key differentiator. Term papers focus on demonstrating knowledge acquired during a course. Research papers delve deeper, expecting original research, analysis, and a novel contribution to the field.

Term Paper vs. Dissertation: Dissertations are doctoral-level behemoths compared to the smaller-scale term paper. Dissertations involve far more extensive original research, with broader implications across a discipline. Term papers often build the research muscle needed for such larger projects.

Term Paper vs. Essay: Think of essays as sprints, while term papers are marathons. Essays are shorter, with a more focused thesis and narrower argument. Term papers require you to sustain a thesis over a greater length and offer more comprehensive analysis.

Choosing a Topic for Your Term Paper

Selecting the right topic is like finding the right key to unlock the door of a compelling term paper. Here's your toolkit:

Brainstorming with Bounds: Start by mind-mapping concepts covered in your course. Remember, your instructor wants to see your grasp of the material, so stay within those parameters.

Finding Your Passion: What intrigued you in class discussions or readings? A passion for the topic fuels your research and makes the writing process more enjoyable.

Scope Matters: Be realistic about the time and resources you have. Choose a topic that is narrow enough to research thoroughly but broad enough to support a substantial argument.

The Goldilocks Zone: Your topic shouldn't be so general that you drown in information, nor so specific that research hits a dead end. Find that perfect "just right" balance.

Get Feedback Early: Run your topic ideas by your instructor. Their insights can save you from a path strewn with frustration.

Research Strategies for Term Papers

A well-researched term paper stands out. Here's how to navigate the ocean of information for that academic treasure:

Library Power: Your campus library is your ally! Librarians are masters at guiding you to the best databases, books, and journals for your field. Don't hesitate to ask for help.

Digital Databases: Academic databases like JSTOR and Google Scholar are goldmines of peer-reviewed articles, essential for credible research.

Beyond Textbooks: Expand your worldview! Consider primary sources (e.g., interviews, archival documents), government reports, and credible news websites to add depth.

Notes Are Your Lifeline: Effective note-taking isn't just copying information. Summarize key points in your own words, note the source and page number for easy referencing, and tag information based on how it fits your argument.

Organization is Key: Create an outline or mind map to see the big picture of your research. Digital tools like Evernote or OneNote can be lifesavers for managing a large project.

The Importance of Originality and Plagiarism Avoidance

Your unique insights are what make your term paper valuable. Here's how to safeguard your work and reputation:

The Art of Attribution: Whenever you use someone else's ideas or words, credit them through citations. Use the citation style required by your instructor (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).

Paraphrase with Care: Even if you rephrase an idea in your own words, it still needs citation. Aim to primarily express your original thoughts and analysis.

When in Doubt, Cite: It's far better to over-cite than accidentally slip into plagiarism.

Is It Necessary to Use Plagiarism Detection Software for Every Term Paper?

Plagiarism detection tools like Turnitin or Grammarly are your failsafe. They help identify unintentional plagiarism, such as missed citations or poorly paraphrased passages. Consider it a step in ensuring your hard work reflects your originality and understanding.

Important Note: These tools are not foolproof, and should not replace your own careful citation practices. Use them as part of your editing process, not as a shortcut.

Selecting a Topic

Choosing a compelling topic is the first step to a successful term paper. Here's where originality and research scope become your guiding lights.

We already outlined how you can select the best topic for your term paper (see above), but you can also look for connections between your ideas and the broader themes in your field to make this process easier. This can create a deeper understanding and even pave the way for future research, like a dissertation or capstone project, that explores the topic in greater detail.

Can Any Topic Be Suitable for a Term Paper as Long as It's Well-Researched?

While thorough research is essential, topic suitability plays a crucial role. Here's why:

Alignment Matters: Your topic should align with the course objectives and the professor's expectations. Check the assignment guidelines carefully to ensure your chosen subject fits the scope of the course.

Finding the Sweet Spot: Consider research availability. Can you find enough credible sources to support a comprehensive analysis? Conversely, is the topic so narrow that locating sufficient information becomes a challenge?

Term Paper Format

Term papers have a specific format that ensures clarity and professionalism. Here's a breakdown with practical tips to set you apart:

Title Page: This is your first impression, so make it count! Include the title of your paper, your name, your instructor's name, course number, and the due date.

Abstract (Optional): A concise summary (100-200 words) highlighting your thesis statement, key arguments, and main points.

Introduction: Hook your reader with a captivating introduction that introduces the topic, presents the research question, and outlines your thesis statement.

Body Paragraphs: Each paragraph should focus on a single point that supports your overall argument. Use clear transitions to connect your ideas and integrate evidence effectively. Remember to properly cite your sources according to the required style guide (e.g., APA, MLA).

Conclusion: Summarize your main points, restate your thesis in a new way, and leave the reader with a lasting impression.

References: This is where you meticulously list all the sources you used in your paper. Formatting should be consistent with the chosen style guide. ( Tip: Use a reference management tool like Zotero or Mendeley to streamline this process!)

Research Papers

Term papers and research papers share some similarities, but also have distinct purposes and structures:

Term Papers: Focus on demonstrating your understanding of course material through critical analysis and synthesis of existing research.

Research Papers: Delve deeper, often requiring original research, a more complex argument, and a contribution to a specific field of study.

The skills you hone while writing term papers, like crafting a strong thesis statement, conducting effective research, and properly citing sources, are invaluable for tackling research papers later in your academic journey.

Writing Process: Transforming Ideas into a Polished Paper

A term paper isn't born overnight. Here's a step-by-step journey to guide you through the process:

Research and Exploration: Dive deep into your sources, take meticulous notes, and organize your findings around your potential thesis statement.

Outlining: Create a skeleton of your paper, mapping out your introduction, body paragraphs (each with clear topic sentences), and conclusion. This helps with structure and avoids wandering arguments.

Drafting the Rough Cut: Let the words flow! Focus on getting your main ideas on paper. Don't worry about perfection at this stage; focus on the big picture of your argument.

Revision – Part 1: The Big Picture. Step back for a few hours (or even a day!) then reread your draft with a critical eye. Does the structure flow? Are there areas that need better evidence? Does your thesis shine through clearly?

Revision – Part 2: The Nitty Gritty. Focus on sentence structure, clarity, and word choice. Read out loud to catch awkward phrasing. Double-check your citations to ensure accuracy.

Proofreading with a Fresh Eye: Enlist a classmate or use a tool like Grammarly for a final polish. Look for typos, grammatical errors, and clarity issues.

Position Papers: Term Papers as a Foundation

The skills you develop in drafting a term paper translate directly to persuasive writing formats like position papers :

Building a Strong Argument: In both term papers and position papers, your ability to develop a clear thesis and support it with evidence is essential.

Organization is Key: Both formats demand a structured presentation, with clear introductions, supporting paragraphs, and impactful conclusions.

Power of Persuasive Language: Term papers help you sharpen your writing for impact. Apply that skill in position papers to convince readers of your perspective.

Crafting an Effective Outline: The Blueprint for Your Paper

A robust outline is like your term paper's compass. Here's how to create one that'll steer you towards a polished final product:

Start Simple, Get Detailed: Begin with your thesis statement at the very top. Then, list your main points (think Roman numerals - I, II, III). Under each main point, break down supporting arguments or evidence (using capital letters - A, B, C).

Flexibility is Key: Outlines are fluid! As your research progresses, add more supporting points or rearrange them as your understanding of the topic solidifies.

Digital Tools to the Rescue: Consider apps like OneNote, Evernote, or even good old Google Docs to easily rearrange sections, add notes, and keep your outline dynamic.

Does an Outline Need to Include Every Detail That Will Appear in the Term Paper?

Your outline should not be a word-for-word preview of your term paper. It's a roadmap, highlighting the major points, supporting arguments, and overall structure. Including every tiny detail leads to a cumbersome outline that hinders your writing flow.

Understanding the Purpose of an Outline: Benefits Beyond Structure

Outlining does more than organize your thoughts. Here's why it's worth the effort:

Early Warning System: A well-made outline can reveal gaps in your research early on. Did you find enough evidence to support Point III? Time to hit the library again!

Time Saver: A clear outline makes the writing process smoother. You know what to write about next, reducing time spent staring at a blank screen.

Combats Overwhelm: Seeing your term paper broken down into smaller chunks makes the entire project seem less daunting.

A Living Document: Don't be afraid to revisit and revise your outline as you research and your ideas evolve.

Components of a Term Paper Outline

A well-structured outline is the backbone of a successful term paper. Here's a breakdown of its key components:

Thesis Statement: This is the foundation of your entire paper, so prominently position it at the top of your outline. It should be a concise and clear statement of your central argument.

Introduction: Briefly outline the key points you'll cover in the introduction, such as background information, the research question, and a preview of your thesis statement.

Body Paragraphs: This is the heart of your outline. Break down each body paragraph by:

Main Topic: Identify the main point you'll address in each paragraph.

Key Arguments: List the sub-points or arguments that will support your main topic.

Evidence: Briefly mention the sources (e.g., author, publication) that you'll use to substantiate your arguments. Don't worry about full citations here, just enough detail to jog your memory.

Conclusion: Outline the key takeaways you'll emphasize in your conclusion, including a restatement of your thesis in a new way and the significance of your findings.

Selecting Main Topics and Subtopics

Choosing strong main topics and subtopics is crucial for a clear and coherent outline. Here's how to navigate this step:

Brainstorming Power: Start by listing all the relevant points you want to cover in your paper. Group related points together to form potential main topics.

Prioritization is Key: Order your main topics logically, ensuring they flow smoothly from one point to the next and build towards your thesis.

Subtopics – Your Supporting Cast: Each main topic needs strong subtopics to develop your arguments. Ensure they directly connect back to your main topic and provide specific evidence for your claims.

Integrating Research and Sources

Your outline should reflect how you'll use research to support your arguments. Here are some tips:

Source Integration: As you identify relevant sources, jot down brief notes about their main points and how they align with your subtopics.

Avoid Information Overload: Don't try to list every detail from your sources. Focus on how they support specific arguments you'll make in the body paragraphs.

Credibility Check: Briefly evaluate the credibility and relevance of each source as you incorporate it into your outline.

Should You Cite Every Source You Consult During Your Research Process?

Yes, you should develop a comprehensive reference list that includes all the sources you consult during your research, even if you don't directly quote them in your paper. Here's why:

Credit Where Credit is Due: Citing all your sources acknowledges the work of others and avoids plagiarism.

Evaluation Matters: Consulting a variety of sources demonstrates a thorough investigation of the topic. However, use your critical thinking skills to evaluate the credibility and relevance of each source before incorporating it into your paper.

Tip: Use a reference management tool like Zotero or Mendeley to keep track of your sources and streamline the citation process!

Outline Formatting and Styles

The right outline format helps bring clarity and organization to your term paper. Here's a look at common styles and when to use them:

Alphanumeric Format: This classic format uses a combination of Roman numerals, letters, and numbers to create a hierarchy.

I. Introduction

A. Background

B. Thesis Statement

Decimal Format: A purely numerical system that creates a clear visual outline. Ideal for complex papers with many subtopics.

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background

1.2 Thesis Statement

Choosing the Right Style:

Complexity: For straightforward term papers, alphanumeric may suffice. If multiple levels of supporting points are necessary, the decimal format keeps things organized.

Instructor Preference: Always check with your professor for any specific requirements or guidelines they may have.

Revision and Refinement of the Outline

Your initial outline may not be perfect. Here's how to refine it throughout your writing journey:

Research-Driven Refinement: As you delve into your sources, you may discover new subtopics or need to rearrange sections. Continuously adapt your outline to reflect your evolving understanding.

Feedback Loop: Submit your outline to your professor early for valuable feedback. Their guidance can steer you in the right direction from the start.

Don't Be Afraid to Reorganize: If a particular section isn't flowing well, try restructuring it in your outline. Experiment until you find a logical and persuasive argument flow.

Capstone Project

The rigorous research and organizational skills you hone with term papers directly translate to the grand culmination of your academic program – the capstone project . Here's how:

Research Base: Capstones demand in-depth, original research. Your term paper experience will help you effectively navigate scholarly sources and synthesize information.

Time Management: Large projects benefit from strong planning. Outlining skills developed through term papers aid in structuring a capstone's complex timeline.

Writing Foundation: Capstones require clear, persuasive writing – something you've practiced consistently in term papers.

Critical Thinking: Term papers teach you to analyze and interpret information. This skill is vital when tackling the complex, real-world issues often addressed in capstone projects.

Advanced Academic Writing Techniques

While term papers lay a solid foundation, advanced academic writing techniques elevate your work to a new level. Let's explore strategies that can be applied across various academic papers:

Nuances of Argumentation: Go beyond simply stating your argument. Anticipate counterarguments and address them head-on, demonstrating a well-rounded understanding of the topic.

Evidentiary Strength: Proof matters! Utilize a variety of credible sources, from peer-reviewed journals to primary sources when applicable, to support your claims and add depth to your analysis.

Coherence is Key: Ensure a seamless flow of ideas. Transitions between paragraphs and sections should be clear and logical, guiding the reader through your argument effortlessly.

Engaging with the Conversation: Don't write in a vacuum. Reference and engage with the works of scholars in your field. Show how your work contributes to the ongoing academic dialogue.

Are Advanced Writing Techniques Essential for the Success of an Undergraduate Term Paper?

While not strictly mandatory, advanced writing techniques can improve your term paper. Here's how:

Stronger Arguments: Anticipating counterarguments demonstrates critical thinking and strengthens the overall persuasiveness of your work.

Impressing Your Professor: Professors appreciate well-researched and well-argued papers. Advanced techniques showcase your dedication and understanding of the subject matter.

Standing Out from the Crowd: A well-crafted term paper with advanced elements can distinguish you from your peers, especially in competitive programs.

Dissertations or Thesis: Building on Your Expertise

The skills you refine with term papers become the cornerstone for tackling more complex projects like dissertations or theses . Here's how your experience translates:

Research Prowess: Term papers hone your research skills, preparing you for the more intensive research required for dissertations or theses.

Organizational Mastery: Outlining and structuring term papers prepare you for the even more intricate planning involved in a dissertation or thesis.

Critical Thinking Powerhouse: Analyzing and synthesizing information is a core skill practiced in term papers, essential for dissecting complex issues in a dissertation or thesis.

Academic Papers: A Spectrum of Skills in Action

The skills you develop through term papers are valuable across a range of academic writing formats :

Research Papers: Term papers build a strong foundation for research papers, which delve deeper into a specific topic and often require original research.

Literature Reviews: Analyzing and synthesizing sources in term papers translates directly to the comprehensive literature review process required for many academic endeavors.

Grant Proposals: Clear and persuasive writing, honed through term papers, is essential for crafting compelling grant proposals to secure research funding.

Securing Academic Success Through Effective Term Paper Writing

Term papers, while sometimes daunting, are powerful tools in your academic arsenal. Mastering the art of crafting a compelling term paper increases your grades and opens a broader gateway to scholarly achievement.

Remember these key takeaways:

Originality Matters: Developing your unique voice, analyzing sources critically, and avoiding plagiarism set your work apart and demonstrate your understanding of the material.

Research is Your Foundation: Dedicating time to exploring high-quality sources elevates your arguments by adding depth and credibility.

Structure Brings Clarity: A well-organized outline and clear writing guide your reader through your thought process and make your arguments more impactful.

By prioritizing these strategies, you'll create term papers that meet the requirements and demonstrate a commitment to learning and understanding. This dedication pays off – the skills acquired in term paper writing translate directly to improved performance in future academic pursuits, whether that be in research papers, capstone projects, or even graduate-level dissertations.

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Test Resources

TOEFL® Resources by Michael Goodine

Sample toefl integrated essay – certification of wood, the question.

This TOEFL integrated writing question is taken from the official  TOEFL Practice set . Check it out if you want the reading and lecture.

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The Sample Essay

          The reading and the lecture are both about ecocertification of wood products, which is a way to show that they are environmentally friendly. ​  The author of the reading believes that American companies will not adopt this practice.  The lecturer casts doubts on the claims made in the article.  She thinks that American wood companies will eventually certify their products.

            First of all, the author points out that customers will likely ignore such a label. It is mentioned that many products are now given special labels, so shoppers no longer trust them. This point is challenged by the lecturer. She says customers actually do pay attention to claims when they are made by official agencies. Furthermore, she she argues that Americans will be enthusiastic about products that are endorsed by a trustworthy organization​.

          Secondly, the author contends that it costs a lot to have wood inspected, so certified products will be more expensive. The article notes that American consumers are strongly motivated by price, and as a result will choose products that have not been certified. The lecturer rebuts this argument. She suggests that customers do not care too much about small differences in price. She elaborates on this by mentioning that certified products will only be about five percent more expensive, which will not affect the purchasing decisions of buyers.

          Finally, the author states that certification only makes sense for companies that sell products outside of the United States. The article establishes that American firms sell most of their products domestically, and their customers are happy with their merchandise as it is. The professor, on the other hand, posits that American businesses should be afraid of foreign competitors. She puts forth the idea that foreign firms could flood into America and win customers by selling ecocertified wood to people who care about the environment.

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How to Write a Term Paper in 5 Steps

Term papers are a key way to test a student’s knowledge and research skills, but they can be difficult to write. In this guide, we explain the best methods to write a term paper, including the proper term paper format and even how to choose a term paper topic.

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What is a term paper?

A term paper is a piece of academic writing in which a student demonstrates their knowledge of a topic of study. Term papers constitute a large portion of the final grade, making them a serious assignment. There is typically no more than one term paper assigned each term, although how long a term lasts depends on the school system.

Keep in mind that a term paper is one specific type of academic paper. It is more intensive than a standard writing assignment but is not as in-depth as a thesis paper or dissertation.

How long is a term paper?

There is no standard length for a term paper; each subject, course, and professor has their own preferences. Term papers can be as short as five pages or as long as twenty pages, but they usually fall somewhere in the middle.

What’s the difference between a term paper and a research paper?

Technically speaking, a research paper is a paper that argues its main point with original data and evidence. However, the term research paper is used informally to refer to any paper that requires research, even when collecting data and evidence from other preexisting sources. So in that sense, a term paper can be a research paper if the student must research other sources to complete it.

The terms term paper and research paper are often used interchangeably. However, term papers are generally assigned once per term, whereas a teacher or professor can assign as many research papers as they wish.

What’s the difference between a term paper and an essay?

An essay is any writing that asserts the author’s opinion or perspective, whether for school, publication, or just the author’s personal enjoyment. Unlike research-oriented term papers that draw from data and evidence, essay writing is based only on the author’s experience or viewpoint.

Essays are usually shorter than term papers and more casual in tone. Keep in mind that term papers are strictly academic, whereas essays can be written for various audiences.

How do I write a term paper?

Writing a term paper still follows the standard writing process but with some extra focus in certain areas.

1 Developing ideas

The first step of writing a term paper is brainstorming to come up with potential topics and then selecting the best one. Sometimes your topics are assigned, but often you’ll have to choose one yourself.

In addition to picking a topic that you’re personally interested in, try to settle on one that has sufficient depth. Avoid topics that are too broad because you won’t be able to cover everything, and stay away from topics that are too specific because you may not find enough information to fill the required paper length.

If you’re looking for inspiration, check out our list of term and research paper topics .

2 Preparation (research)

The preparation stage is when you determine your main point and the parts of your topic you’re going to discuss. For most term papers, that requires research. If you’re not conducting your own research, then you’re finding and reviewing sources to use instead.

A good place to start is by writing your thesis statement , a single sentence that sums up the main point(s) your paper tries to make. Your thesis statement determines what evidence and counterarguments you’ll need to discuss. Deciding on these early can help streamline your research.

Once you establish what you want to include in your term paper, you can start putting it in order by writing an outline . Think of the outline as the blueprint of your term paper, mapping out each part of your topic, paragraph by paragraph.

Be sure to follow the term paper format for the assignment. This means adhering to the guidelines and planning enough content to meet the length requirement.

4 First draft

Writing the first draft is easier if you follow your outline. Although this stage can be the most labor-intensive, remember that everything doesn’t need to be perfect. You can still go back later to revise and optimize your wording, but for the first draft, just focus on getting all your ideas down on paper.

This isn’t always easy. If you’re having trouble or get stuck at certain points, go back to the fundamentals and revisit your first-year writing skills. If you have writer’s block, don’t be afraid to take a break and try again later—your brain could just be too tired to come up with ideas.

5 Editing and proofreading

After you have completed a first draft, it’s time to begin the editing process. This is when you correct the mistakes in the first draft and detect other issues that need revising. If a section seems weak or inadequate, you can revise the wording or even rewrite it entirely. You may find that something is missing from your first draft, so now is the time to add it.

We recommend rereading your term paper twice—once to correct the wording and structural mistakes and another time to proofread . Revising it twice allows you to better focus on particular issues instead of trying to address everything at once. If you’re trying to determine the right word choice , spending time on spelling and grammar might be a distraction. It’s better to separate the tasks and do them one at a time.

Term paper FAQs

How do i write my term paper.

Writing a term paper still follows the standard writing process, but goes deeper into certain areas. Start by brainstorming topics that you find interesting before selecting one that has ample source material. Then begin your research. When you’re ready to start writing, create an outline, then a first draft, and finally revisions.

There is no standard length for a term paper; every teacher or professor has their own requirements. Term papers can be as short as five pages or as long as twenty pages, but they usually fall somewhere in the middle.

Technically speaking, a research paper supports its thesis with original data and evidence. However, the term research paper is used informally to refer to any paper that requires research, even when collecting data and evidence from other preexisting sources. So in that sense, a term paper can also be a research paper if the student relies on other sources to complete it.

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Writing Guides  /  How to Write a Good Term Paper (Updated for 2021)

How to Write a Good Term Paper (Updated for 2021)

What Is a Term Paper?

Term papers are popular assignments in high school and college. They are typically longer assignments than regular essays, and allow you to do in depth research. Many professors request term papers at several points throughout the year, especially at the ends of each term, to assess your learning. A term paper can be about any subject , from the sciences to the arts. Therefore, it is a good idea to learn how to write a good term paper now.

As with other types of academic papers, a term paper generally has an introduction, body, and conclusion. This article will show you how to write a good term paper, how to pick the right subject for a term paper, and how to get the best help when you need it.

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Why Are Term Papers Different from Essays?

When you write a term paper, you will usually be expected to do research , and show what other people have written about the subject. However, a term paper should also show independent thought. A term paper is not regurgitating what other people have said, as with many types of research papers and reviews of literature. Rather, a term paper calls on you to present your findings with some new insight or awareness. For this, you need to come up with a strong idea or central argument.

How Long is a Term Paper?

Many students are frightened by the prospect of writing term papers because they can be longer than a regular essay assignment. Do not despair. Not all term papers are long. Some term papers are only a few pages long, but it is true, they can run to 20 pages or more. The length of a term paper depends on the class and the instructor.

If you have never written a term paper before, creating one can seem scary and even overwhelming. When you have trouble writing your term papers, always seek help from qualified writing tutors either in person or online. You can also view samples of other people’s term papers to help you with your work.

How to Get Help With Term Papers

Fortunately, there are steps you can follow to make sure you create the best possible paper and get a good grade. Viewing other people’s good term papers can help you structure your own and improve your writing in the future. You may also receive help with term papers to help you narrow down your subject or conduct research.

Following a plan to write your term paper can also help you reduce anxiety and stress, and being more comfortable will contribute to a higher-quality, well-written paper. The first thing you need to know when writing a term paper is how to pick a topic and come up with a good thesis statement. Then you can think about how to organize and format your term paper, proof read it, and prepare it to turn into your class.

Term Paper Topics

The following sample topics should give you a good idea about what to write about in different subject areas.

• The causes and effects of the American Civil War.
• The history and evolution of the sport of lacrosse.
• Why female executives earn less than their male counterparts.
• Historical trends in fashion design in Japan.
• The major industries contributing to greenhouse gas emissions.
• Three leadership theories and how to apply them.
• Causes of schizophrenia.
• Religious iconography in medieval Dutch art.
• Tracing the origin and evolution of noodles from China to Italy.
• The ethical questions posed by genetic testing.
• Should Bank of America buy Citigroup?
• Global influences on European jazz.
• Is outsourcing ethical?
• Aesthetics and concepts of beauty in different cultures around the world.
• Gender roles and norms in Nigerian society.
• The rhetorical strategies used by Martin Luther King.
• Defining the proof for the historical Jesus.
• The politics of race in Brazil.
• Symbolism in the works of James Joyce.
• The influences of Mughal India outside the subcontinent.
• Possible solutions to the Middle East crisis.

Term Paper Format

The format of your term paper will vary considerably depending on the subject and the preferences of your professor. Usually, your term paper will include a title, an introduction, a body, a conclusion, and a list of references or works cited. However, check with your instructor for specific guidelines and preferences.

In many cases, the term paper format will also include subheadings. Subheadings divide longer term papers into smaller sections, almost like chapters in the book. Using subheadings helps you to organize your research better and creates a better flow for your ideas.

Short term papers may not need subheadings. The following basic term paper outline shows you how to structure your work into three main parts: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion.

Term Paper Outline

I. Introduction

A. Start with an interesting sentence or two that grabs the reader’s attention, such as an astonishing fact, statistic, or anecdote.

B. Discuss why the topic is important.

C. Present your thesis statement.

A. Discuss the main points you are trying to make, based on your research.

B. Refer theory and to practical applications as you go about analyzing all the evidence.

C. Include references to primary and secondary sources in your analysis whenever possible.

III. Conclusion

In the conclusion to your term paper, ask yourself some questions:

A. What have you learned? What do you hope the reader has learned?

B. Where do you go from here? Do you have any advice for future research or how to apply what you learned?

Sample Term Paper Outline

I. Introduction: Every year, millions of United States veterans experience the symptoms of PTSD, anxiety, and depression with often devastating consequences. The suicide rates among veterans is higher than it is among the general population; by some counts, the suicide rate among veterans is almost twice as high. Therefore, it is important to study the ways the veterans’ health care system is failing and what can be done to provide early intervention and treatment.

II. Subheading: The Prevalence of Suicide Among Veterans

III. Subheading: Stigma Against Mental Health Care Among Veterans

IV. Subheading: How to Raise Awareness about Mental Health Among Military Leaders and Promote Mental Health Care

V. Subheading: The Importance of Changing Organizational Culture in the Military to Promote Mental Health

VI. Subheading: Providing Effective Mental Health Screenings After Discharge

VII. Subheading: Pilot Projects and Case Studies That Have Proven Effective in their Communities

VIII. Subheading: Suggestions for Public Policy

IX. Conclusion: Based on evidence and theory, the stigma against mental health is the primary impediment for veterans suffering from PTSD and other mental health problems. Early intervention is critical, which is why the military needs to provide more regular screenings both for active duty members and for veterans after discharge. With a few changes to public policy and freeing up funding, the Veterans Administration can save American lives.

[related essays]

Steps For Writing a Good Term Paper

1.  Choose a Few Good Topics to Investigate

Before you launch into your term paper, spend some time brainstorming. The brainstorming process helps to loosen up your mind, freeing you from cognitive constraints and anxiety. Simply allow yourself to think creatively and openly about different subjects so that you come up with a topic that interests you. You will have a much easier time writing about something that interests you than something that does not, unless your term paper topic has been decided for you.

When you’re trying to decide what to write about, there will probably be several different topics that interest you. They might be completely different topics, or they might be different parts of the same topic. Make sure you come up with at least three or four things you’re interested in, and write them down. You could even go through your textbook for some ideas.

You’ll end up choosing only one to write your term paper on, but you want to make sure you have some options at first. If you choose only one topic right away and it doesn’t work out, you have to go all the way back to the beginning again and start all over. That’s best avoided.

2.  Gather Research on Your Topics

The foundation of a good term paper is research. Before you start writing your term paper, you need to do some preliminary research. Take your topics with you to the library or the Internet, and start gathering research on all of the topics you’re interested in.

Take a look at what you can find on each of the topics you’re considering, to see what you’ll have to work with if you choose a particular topic. You might find that some topics offer much more available information than others, which will help you decide what you are writing about.

You might also find that your topics are too broad to make a good paper, and you need to narrow them down a little bit in order to make them easier to write about. The research you’re doing will help guide you if you’re narrowing or changing topics. You can also seek help from your professor or a writing tutor during this stage of the term paper research process.

3.  Narrow Your Focus and Select Only One Topic from Your List

As you begin to narrow down your focus, one topic will stand out from the rest as the right choice from both an interest and information standpoint. That’s the one you’ll want to choose to write your term paper about. It’s interesting to you, and it’s something you can find plenty of research and information on. Those are both important when you’re going to be creating a term paper. You don’t want to be making things up to fill space, so you have to find a topic that has enough information to fill the number of pages you’ve been asked to write. Choosing a topic that interests you also makes writing about it easier and more fun, and you’ll produce a better paper that way.

4.  Outline What Your Paper is Going to Include

Outlining means organizing your thoughts. You do not have to create a formal outline for it to be useful. A quality outline can just as easily be a drawing or word map. Even if your professor doesn’t require an outline, you should create one to use when you write your paper. With an outline, you can become clearer about the specific direction your paper is taking and will stay focused and on task as you’re writing.

If you do not have an outline, your thoughts could be too disorganized, leading to frustrations as you write. Most expert writers know that writing without an outline can waste time, and your term paper could take twice as long. Therefore, you don’t want to start writing your paper, only to lose direction, and end up rambling or saying the same thing over and over again. An outline prevents most of the problems students make when they are new to writing term papers.

Your paper should start out strong, move through the points you want to make, and wrap up. An outline allows you to envision the entire paper from start to finish, just as a professional athlete visualizes how they are going to win a race. With an outline, you can get to the point where you already know what you are going to say and the writing flows from there. An outline can help you make sure you write cleanly and coherently, so that you can get the best possible grade. When you work from an outline, you also ensure that you don’t forget something important and end up leaving it out of your paper.

5.  Write Your Introductory Paragraph

Now comes the fun part. You begin writing your term paper by creating a strong introduction. To write the introduction, draw upon the emotional reasons you are interested in this subject. Create your introductory paragraph first, to allow you to communicate the purpose of the term paper.

The introduction should tell the reader what you’re going to address in your paper and give a little bit of background on the issue you’re addressing. You should also have a thesis statement that sums up the main objective your paper. The thesis statement is usually placed at the end of the introductory paragraph. Once you get the introduction completed, you can move on to the body of the paper and start making your points.

Depending on the length of the term paper, an introduction can be one paragraph or several. A longer term paper might require a longer introduction, so that you can give the reader valuable background information, or tell a story that illuminates the purpose of the subject. However, shorter term papers require only a paragraph leading the reader to your main points. Your introduction will be proportional to the rest of the term paper.

6.  Move Through the Body of the Paper One Paragraph at a Time

Don’t get ahead of yourself. Work as methodically as possible, sticking to your outline so you remain focused. Do not rush, even if you feel you are under pressure. You’ll want to work your way through each paragraph of your term paper carefully, so you don’t start making mistakes or leaving out important information that your readers will need or expect.

Each one of the paragraphs of your paper should be either a different subtopic or a transition to a different idea, so you don’t blend everything all together and confuse people reading the paper. Using subheadings can help you organize your paper effectively.

Also, take care not to change focus in the middle of a paragraph either. Rambling and veering off topic can confuse the reader and make your paper seem choppy. If you need help writing your body paragraphs in your term paper, make sure you seek help from a qualified writing tutor.

Most readers like it when you use good transition sentences in your term paper. A transition sentence will link one paragraph to the next, so that the ideas flow smoothly when moving from one subtopic or idea to another. The transition sentences are like connecting the dots. With transitions, your paper has a good flow to it. That can make it much easier and more interesting to read.

7.  Create a Strong Conclusion Paragraph

The last paragraph or section of your paper should be your conclusion. As with the introduction, the length of the conclusion will vary depending on the length of the term paper. A longer term paper can have a conclusion that is several paragraphs long because you need to provide the reader with suggestions for applying the research, such as making changes to public policy.

A conclusion also leaves the reader—and you—with a sense of closure. There are no loose ends. You did what you set out to do, nothing more and nothing less. You do not want to introduce any new ideas here, but you can talk about potential for future research based on what you learned.

A solid conclusion to a term paper should also be a wrap-up of everything you wrote about in the term paper. You can reiterate some of your main points, discuss the importance of the subject, and ultimately end on a strong note. Take some time to come up with a good concluding sentence or two, so your reader doesn’t feel like he or she has been left hanging. A writing tutor can help you design the perfect conclusion if you are struggling.

8.  Make Sure You Create a Reference Page in the Proper Style

A References page, also known as the Bibliography or Works Cited page, is an essential part of every term paper. Don’t forget about your reference page! You could get accused of plagiarism if you do.

The references page includes all the external sources you used to compose your term paper. It doesn’t matter if you used two sources or 50 sources, you need to make sure they’re all on your reference page in addition to being cited throughout the body of the paper. Give credit where credit is due; you would always want someone to do the same for you. The References page also shows the reader that you did your research, and di not simply make up all the information in your term paper.

Follow the guidelines for whatever style of citation your instructor wants you to use. The most common citation formats include APA, MLA, and Chicago style [A1]  . If the choice is up to you, choose the one you’re most comfortable with and make sure you’re consistent with citations in the paper and on the reference page, so you don’t end up losing points over something that could have easily been corrected or adjusted before you turned the paper in.

9.  Edit, Proofread, and Edit Again

Don’t underestimate the need to proofread and edit. Even if you write well and you’re really happy with your paper, the chances are high you can make some changes that will improve it. One of the best ways to find problems with your paper is to read it out loud and see how it sounds to you. You’ll catch mistakes much easier that way, and you’ll be able to fix them quickly and move on.

10.  Make Sure You Have a Good Title and the Right Formatting

Before you turn in your paper, spend some time creating a title that’s professional but will catch your reader’s attention. Also, make sure your paper is formatted the way your professor wants. It’s not just about the citation and references. The line spacing, margins, and other formatting issues also matter. If you’ve been given specifics and you don’t follow them, it can really hurt your grade, even if you write a good paper otherwise.

• Plagiarism can get you a failing grade. Make sure you cite your sources correctly throughout your paper and create a good reference page.
• Get started early. Don’t wait until the last minute to work on your paper, because you’ll be rushed and the end product won’t be as good.
• Have a friend or family member read your paper, and see if they have questions or don’t understand something. A fresh set of eyes can really make a difference when editing a paper.

Congratulations! You now have a better idea of what a term paper is and how to write a good one. Now you are ready to start your term paper. If you need help at any stage of the writing process, always seek help from a qualified professional who can help you. Writing a term paper is something you will have to do again and again as a student. It pays to have a positive attitude, and even enjoy the process because most professors will require you to write a term paper.

Take the first step to becoming a better academic writer.

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Norwegian Wood

By haruki murakami.

• Norwegian Wood Summary

While on an airplane descending to Hamburg Airport, Toru Watanabe hears the Beatles song " Norwegian Wood " played over the speakers and is overcome by painful memories of his past. He remembers a meadow where he and Naoko , the girl he loved, walked 18 years ago when he was still 19.

Toru grew up in Kobe with Kizuki as his best and only friend. Along with Naoko, who was Kizuki's girlfriend and childhood friend, Toru and Kizuki formed an inseparable small group. However, their lives were torn apart in their second year of high school when Kizuki inexplicably committed suicide. Independent of each other, both Toru and Naoko decide to leave their hometown for Tokyo to attend university, where they run into each other in 1968 in their first year. The two end up going on dates every Sunday, simply walking extensively throughout the city; meanwhile, Toru deals with his stuttering and eccentrically neat roommate, nicknamed " Storm Trooper ," and gets to know Nagasawa , a charismatic and egoistic upperclassman in the dorm. Nagasawa begins to take him out some nights to find random girls to sleep with.

On Naoko's 20th birthday, Toru comes over to her apartment, and when she breaks down into tears he comforts her and then has sex with her. The next day he tries to contact her again, but later finds that she has moved. Concerned, he sends her a letter. Meanwhile, Toru meets Midori Kobayashi , an underclassman in his drama class with a vibrant and quirky personality who seems to have taken an interest in him. A few weeks later Midori invites him over to her house, and while watching a house fire from her balcony they kiss.

Toru receives a letter from Naoko explaining that she has gone to Ami Hostel, a special kind of sanatorium, to recover from psychological problems she has been having. Toru visits her there and meets Reiko Ishida, a woman in her late thirties who is Naoko's roommate. Reiko explains that at the sanatorium, located in the middle of a remote forest, people do not try to cure but rather adapt to their individual deformities. That night Toru sees Naoko in the moonlight by his bed, and mysteriously she reveals her naked body to Toru, astounding him with its perfection.

During Toru's stay, Reiko and Naoko separately tell him their life stories. Reiko was an aspiring concert pianist until a nervous breakdown derailed her career; and then her mental problems made it difficult for her to have a normal life until a man married her and promised to take care of her. However, due to an incident in which a young piano student of hers manipulated her, she had another nervous breakdown, after which she came to the sanatorium. Naoko tells Toru about how she witnessed her older sister's suicide.

Upon returning to Tokyo, Toru feels disoriented, as though he left part of himself in the quiet world of Ami Hostel. However, Midori revitalizes him by taking him drinking. Later she takes him to the hospital where her father is dying of brain cancer, and Toru bonds with the man, who dies within a week. Around this time, Nagasawa invites Toru to a dinner with his girlfriend Hatsumi ; at the dinner, the couple falls out over Nagasawa's inability to consider Hatsumi's feelings.

Toru makes another visit to Ami Hostel to see Naoko and then moves from the dorm into a house. Due to his ignoring her, Midori angrily refuses to speak with Toru, and this combined with news from Reiko that Naoko's condition is worsening sends Toru into a depression. However, he manages to pull himself out of it. He and Midori come to realize that they love each other, but they agree to wait while Toru tries to understand his relationship with Naoko.

Out of nowhere, Toru receives news that Naoko has killed herself; grief-stricken, he spends a month traveling alone aimlessly away from Tokyo. However, he feels compelled to return and restart his life. Reiko leaves the sanatorium to visit, and together the two hold a small funeral for Naoko involving Reiko playing every song she knows on the guitar. Afterwards, Reiko sleeps with Toru, and then the next day she leaves for a new life in Hokkaido. Some time later from some unknown place, Toru calls Midori telling her that he needs her.

Norwegian Wood Questions and Answers

The Question and Answer section for Norwegian Wood is a great resource to ask questions, find answers, and discuss the novel.

What makes Midori such an engaging and forceful character in Norwegian Wood by Haruki Murakami?

Midori is an endearing character, and unlike the others, because of his engaging personality. As a drama student, his personality has a wide berth. He dresses different, wears his hair short, and live without constraint. He is quirky, exhuberant,...

What day of the week does Midori finally call Toru?

Midori finally calls Toru on a Friday evening.

Where does Toru sit to read Naoko's letter?

In Chapter Five, we learn that Toru sits on his bed in his room when he reads Naoko's letter.

Study Guide for Norwegian Wood

Norwegian Wood study guide contains a biography of Murakami, literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis.

• About Norwegian Wood
• Character List

Essays for Norwegian Wood

Norwegian Wood essays are academic essays for citation. These papers were written primarily by students and provide critical analysis of Norwegian Wood by Murakami.

• She Once Had Me: The Significance of the Women in Norwegian Wood
• The Strange and the Unusual: The Complexities of a Bildungsroman in 1960’s Tokyo

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Everything You Need to Know to Write an A+ Term Paper

Last Updated: March 4, 2024 Fact Checked

Sample Term Papers

Researching & outlining.

• Drafting Your Paper
• Revising Your Paper

Expert Q&A

This article was co-authored by Matthew Snipp, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Raven Minyard, BA . C. Matthew Snipp is the Burnet C. and Mildred Finley Wohlford Professor of Humanities and Sciences in the Department of Sociology at Stanford University. He is also the Director for the Institute for Research in the Social Science’s Secure Data Center. He has been a Research Fellow at the U.S. Bureau of the Census and a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He has published 3 books and over 70 articles and book chapters on demography, economic development, poverty and unemployment. He is also currently serving on the National Institute of Child Health and Development’s Population Science Subcommittee. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin—Madison. There are 13 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,246,621 times.

A term paper is a written assignment given to students at the end of a course to gauge their understanding of the material. Term papers typically count for a good percentage of your overall grade, so of course, you’ll want to write the best paper possible. Luckily, we’ve got you covered. In this article, we’ll teach you everything you need to know to write an A+ term paper, from researching and outlining to drafting and revising.

Quick Steps to Write a Term Paper

• Hook your readers with an interesting and informative intro paragraph. State your thesis and your main points.
• Support your thesis by providing quotes and evidence that back your claim in your body paragraphs.
• Summarize your main points and leave your readers with a thought-provoking question in your conclusion.

• Think of your term paper as the bridge between what you’ve learned in class and how you apply that knowledge to real-world topics.
• For example, a history term paper may require you to explore the consequences of a significant historical event, like the Civil War. An environmental science class, on the other hand, may have you examine the effects of climate change on a certain region.
• Your guidelines should tell you the paper’s word count and formatting style, like whether to use in-text citations or footnotes and whether to use single- or double-spacing. If these things aren’t specified, be sure to reach out to your instructor.

• Make sure your topic isn’t too broad. For example, if you want to write about Shakespeare’s work, first narrow it down to a specific play, like Macbeth , then choose something even more specific like Lady Macbeth’s role in the plot.
• If the topic is already chosen for you, explore unique angles that can set your content and information apart from the more obvious approaches many others will probably take. [3] X Research source
• Try not to have a specific outcome in mind, as this will close you off to new ideas and avenues of thinking. Rather than trying to mold your research to fit your desired outcome, allow the outcome to reflect a genuine analysis of the discoveries you made. Ask yourself questions throughout the process and be open to having your beliefs challenged.
• Reading other people's comments, opinions, and entries on a topic can often help you to refine your own, especially where they comment that "further research" is required or where they posit challenging questions but leave them unanswered.

• For example, if you’re writing a term paper about Macbeth , your primary source would be the play itself. Then, look for other research papers and analyses written by academics and scholars to understand how they interpret the text.

• For example, if you’re writing a paper about Lady Macbeth, your thesis could be something like “Shakespeare’s characterization of Lady Macbeth reveals how desire for power can control someone’s life.”
• Remember, your research and thesis development doesn’t stop here. As you continue working through both the research and writing, you may want to make changes that align with the ideas forming in your mind and the discoveries you continue to unearth.
• On the other hand, don’t keep looking for new ideas and angles for fear of feeling confined. At some point, you’re going to have to say enough is enough and make your point. You may have other opportunities to explore these questions in future studies, but for now, remember your term paper has a finite word length and an approaching due date!

• Abstract: An abstract is a concise summary of your paper that informs readers of your topic, its significance, and the key points you’ll explore. It must stand on its own and make sense without referencing outside sources or your actual paper.
• Introduction: The introduction establishes the main idea of your paper and directly states the thesis. Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing sentence to intrigue your readers, and provide any necessary background information to establish your paper’s purpose and direction.
• Body paragraphs: Each body paragraph focuses on a different argument supporting your thesis. List specific evidence from your sources to back up your arguments. Provide detailed information about your topic to enhance your readers’ understanding. In your outline, write down the main ideas for each body paragraph and any outstanding questions or points you’re not yet sure about.
• Results: Depending on the type of term paper you’re writing, your results may be incorporated into your body paragraphs or conclusion. These are the insights that your research led you to. Here you can discuss how your perspective and understanding of your topic shifted throughout your writing process.
• Conclusion: Your conclusion summarizes your argument and findings. You may restate your thesis and major points as you wrap up your paper.

Drafting Your Term Paper

• Writing an introduction can be challenging, but don’t get too caught up on it. As you write the rest of your paper, your arguments might change and develop, so you’ll likely need to rewrite your intro at the end, anyway. Writing your intro is simply a means of getting started and you can always revise it later. [10] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source
• Be sure to define any words your readers might not understand. For example, words like “globalization” have many different meanings depending on context, and it’s important to state which ones you’ll be using as part of your introductory paragraph.

• Try to relate the subject of the essay (say, Plato’s Symposium ) to a tangentially related issue you happen to know something about (say, the growing trend of free-wheeling hookups in frat parties). Slowly bring the paragraph around to your actual subject and make a few generalizations about why this aspect of the book/subject is so fascinating and worthy of study (such as how different the expectations for physical intimacy were then compared to now).

• You can also reflect on your own experience of researching and writing your term paper. Discuss how your understanding of your topic evolved and any unexpected findings you came across.

• While peppering quotes throughout your text is a good way to help make your point, don’t overdo it. If you use too many quotes, you’re basically allowing other authors to make the point and write the paper for you. When you do use a quote, be sure to explain why it is relevant in your own words.
• Try to sort out your bibliography at the beginning of your writing process to avoid having a last-minute scramble. When you have all the information beforehand (like the source’s title, author, publication date, etc.), it’s easier to plug them into the correct format.

Revising & Finalizing Your Term Paper

• Trade in weak “to-be” verbs for stronger “action” verbs. For example: “I was writing my term paper” becomes “I wrote my term paper.”

• It’s extremely important to proofread your term paper. If your writing is full of mistakes, your instructor will assume you didn’t put much effort into your paper. If you have too many errors, your message will be lost in the confusion of trying to understand what you’ve written.

• If you add or change information to make things clearer for your readers, it’s a good idea to look over your paper one more time to catch any new typos that may have come up in the process.

• The best essays are like grass court tennis—the argument should flow in a "rally" style, building persuasively to the conclusion. Thanks Helpful 2 Not Helpful 0
• If you get stuck, consider giving your professor a visit. Whether you're still struggling for a thesis or you want to go over your conclusion, most instructors are delighted to help and they'll remember your initiative when grading time rolls around. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 1
• At least 2 hours for 3-5 pages.
• At least 4 hours for 8-10 pages.
• At least 6 hours for 12-15 pages.
• Double those hours if you haven't done any homework and you haven't attended class.
• For papers that are primarily research-based, add about two hours to those times (although you'll need to know how to research quickly and effectively, beyond the purview of this brief guide).

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://www.binghamton.edu/counseling/self-help/term-paper.html
• ↑ Matthew Snipp, PhD. Research Fellow, U.S. Bureau of the Census. Expert Interview. 26 March 2020.
• ↑ https://emory.libanswers.com/faq/44525
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/thesis_statement_tips.html
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/outline
• ↑ https://gallaudet.edu/student-success/tutorial-center/english-center/writing/guide-to-writing-introductions-and-conclusions/
• ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26731827
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/writing-an-abstract-for-your-research-paper/
• ↑ https://www.ivcc.edu/stylesite/Essay_Title.pdf
• ↑ https://www.uni-flensburg.de/fileadmin/content/institute/anglistik/dokumente/downloads/how-to-write-a-term-paper-daewes.pdf
• ↑ https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185937
• ↑ https://www.cornerstone.edu/blog-post/six-steps-to-really-edit-your-paper/

About This Article

If you need to write a term paper, choose your topic, then start researching that topic. Use your research to craft a thesis statement which states the main idea of your paper, then organize all of your facts into an outline that supports your thesis. Once you start writing, state your thesis in the first paragraph, then use the body of the paper to present the points that support your argument. End the paper with a strong conclusion that restates your thesis. For tips on improving your term paper through active voice, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Home » Write the Perfect Term Paper – A Step-by-Step Guide

Write the Perfect Term Paper – A Step-by-Step Guide

Writing a term paper can be a daunting task – especially if you’re a student who’s never written one before. But don’t worry, we’ve got you covered! In this blog post, we’ll provide you with a comprehensive, step-by-step guide for writing the perfect term paper. We’ll cover everything from choosing the right topic to crafting the perfect conclusion. So, let’s get started!

What is a term paper?

A term paper is an academic paper that is usually written at the end of the school year. It requires students to conduct thorough research on a given topic and compile their findings into a well-structured paper. It often requires students to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the subject matter.

The length of a term paper can vary. However, it is typically longer than a regular essay and can take anywhere from 10 to 20 pages. It is important to note that a term paper is not the same as a research paper . While there are some similarities, a term paper is more focused on the student’s own opinion, whereas a research paper is more focused on existing research and data.

What to consider when choosing a topic

Choosing the right topic is one of the most important steps in writing a term paper. You want to make sure that you select a topic that is interesting, relevant, and has enough research material available.

When choosing a topic, make sure to consider your interests and the course material. It’s important to pick a topic that you have an understanding of and can easily research. It’s also helpful to pick a topic that is not overly broad or narrow.

If you’re having trouble deciding on a topic, it can be helpful to brainstorm ideas. You can also talk to your professor or classmates to get their input.

Preparing to write the term paper

Before you begin writing your term paper, it’s important to do some preparation. This includes gathering all of the research materials you need and organizing them in an easy-to-access way.

Make sure you have access to all of the resources you need to research your topic, such as books, journals, and websites. You should also create a bibliography of all of the sources you use so you can easily reference them in your paper.

You should also take some time to familiarize yourself with the topic. This will help you to better understand and analyze the material you’re researching.

Structuring your term paper

Once you’ve done your preparation, it’s time to start structuring your term paper. A good term paper should have a clear structure that makes it easy to follow.

The structure of a term paper typically consists of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. The introduction should provide an overview of the topic and explain why it is important. The body paragraphs should provide an in-depth analysis of the topic and use evidence to support your argument. The conclusion should summarize your findings and reiterate why the topic is important.

Creating an outline for your term paper

Creating an outline for your term paper is an important step in the writing process. An outline will help you organize your thoughts and ensure that you stay on track.

Your outline should include an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. You should also include a list of the sources you plan to use.

We recommend using the following format for your outline:

• Introduction
• Background information
• Thesis statement
• Paragraph 1
• Paragraph 2
• Paragraph 3
• Reiteration of the thesis
• Bibliography/Sources

Writing the introduction

Now that you have an outline, it’s time to start writing your introduction. The introduction should provide an overview of the topic and explain why it is important.

The introduction should also include a thesis statement, which is a sentence or two that summarizes the main point of the paper. This will help guide the rest of your paper and make it easier to stay focused.

It’s important to keep your introduction short and to the point. You don’t want to give too much away or get too bogged down in detail. The goal of the introduction is to provide a general overview of the topic and to draw the reader in.

Developing an argument

Once you’ve written your introduction, it’s time to start developing an argument. This is where you will use evidence to support your claims and explain why your argument is valid.

When developing your argument, make sure to use facts and evidence from reliable sources. It’s also important to include counterarguments to show that you are aware of other perspectives.

It’s also helpful to use a variety of sources, such as books, articles, and websites. This will help make your argument more convincing.

Writing the body of the paper

The body of the paper is where you will expand on your argument and provide evidence to support it. Each body paragraph should have a clearly defined topic sentence that explains the point of the paragraph.

Make sure to use evidence from reliable sources to back up your claims. You should also make sure to explain how the evidence supports your argument. This will help make your argument more convincing.

You should also use transitions between paragraphs to make the paper flow more naturally. This will help the reader follow your argument more easily.

Crafting the conclusion

The conclusion is where you will summarize your argument and explain why it is important. It should also include a call to action, which is a statement that encourages the reader to take a certain action.

Start your conclusion by summarizing the main points of your argument. You should also explain why your argument is important.

Next, you should reiterate your call to action. This can be a statement that encourages the reader to further explore the topic or take a certain action.

Finally, make sure to end your conclusion on a strong note. This can be a powerful quote or a statement that wraps up the paper.

Revising and editing your term paper

Once you’ve written your paper, it’s important to take some time to revise and edit it. This is where you will make sure that your paper is clear and concise.

First, read through your paper and make sure that it flows logically. Look for any areas where the argument could be strengthened and make sure your evidence is accurate and up-to-date.

Next, read through your paper for any grammar or spelling mistakes. It’s important to make sure that your paper is free of errors before you submit it.

Finally, have someone else read your paper to get their feedback. This can be helpful in identifying any areas that need improvement.

Final tips for writing the perfect term paper

Writing a perfect term paper requires a lot of hard work and dedication. Here are a few final tips to help make the process a bit easier:

• Start early: Don’t wait until the last minute to start writing your paper. Give yourself plenty of time to research, write, and edit your paper.
• Stick to the structure: Make sure to follow the structure of your paper. This will help ensure that your paper flows logically.
• Take breaks: Writing a term paper can be a long and tedious process. Make sure to take regular breaks to give your mind a rest.
• Get help: If you’re having trouble writing your paper, don’t be afraid to ask for help. Reach out to your professor or classmates for assistance.
• Use reliable sources: Make sure to use reliable sources when researching your topic. This will help ensure that your paper is accurate and up-to-date.
• Proofread your paper: Take the time to read through your paper for any grammar or spelling mistakes before submitting it.

Writing a term paper can be a daunting task – but it doesn’t have to be. By following our step-by-step guide, you can easily write the perfect term paper. Just remember to start early, stay organized, and use reliable sources.

If you’re having trouble writing your term paper, AcademiaWriting.com can help. Our team of experienced writers can help you get the perfect term paper written quickly and efficiently. So, what are you waiting for? Get started on your term paper today!

By Erin Cross

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How to Write a Successful Term Paper

By: Tasha Kolesnikova

Studying at college or university, you have to deal with a variety of assignments. They are necessary to gain new knowledge, skills, and experience important for your future career. Some tasks may be pretty easy, while others require a lot of time and effort. However, you should challenge yourself because it is when you’re developing and becoming better.

Can I Ignore the Length Requirements?

Introduction, make sure you have enough time, start by creating an outline, use a strong tongue, don't forget about proofreading, how to write a term paper proposal, how to start a term paper, how to finish a term paper, term paper apa formatting, term paper mla formatting, term paper chicago formatting, social issues topics.

Regardless of the major you choose, each discipline has a specific structure and goals. You’ll have lectures, practical lessons, internships, and so on. Your professor may use different strategies to test your knowledge, and writing is one of them.

It is not so hard when it goes about regular essays. But the term paper is something the most students are afraid of. It is a voluminous piece that synthesis all your knowledge received during the course.

We’re ready to provide you with an ultimate guide to write a term paper. Let’s start from the beginning.

Definition of a Term Paper

A term paper is a research document that you write after a semester or year of work. This assignment helps you determine your understanding of the course content and the aspects required by the curriculum.

Writing a term paper has other purposes as well. Working on your task, you delve deeper into the discipline, get acquainted with its main problems and challenges. It also improves your analytical, critical thinking, and writing skills, which are useful both during your studies and after university.

Your professor can assign you a specific topic, depending on the material being studied. Sometimes the choice is up to you, or you can choose a narrower theme from a broader list of options.

Regardless of the title, it would help if you delved in. We’ve prepared some actionable tips to come up with outstanding writing. You may follow them or send us your “ write my essay ” message if you need professional assistance. Our authors are eager to share their experiences and help you to boost academic performance.

How Long Is a Term Paper?

There is no universal standard for the volume you should adhere to. It depends on the requirements of your institution.

If you search for this information on the Internet, you will see that different sources offer different data. One website claims that you need to submit a 10-page document, while another writes about 45 pages. This is why it is important to read your professor's requirements carefully.

The volume determines which approach you take to writing. For example, if your paper is short, you need to state your thoughts concisely and clearly, going straight to the point. If it is long, do not fill the pages with hot air, but try to do thorough research and look at the issue from different angles.

You may write about 10% less or more, but overall try to adhere to the particular number of pages or words. All students are in identical conditions, so your article should be standardized. If you don’t know what to write about, ask your professor about additional instructions.

It would also be a great idea to read some examples written by other students or professional authors. Filter out the documents with the same volume as you need and pay notice to the paper writer's structure .

Term Paper and Research Paper - Differences

We understand if you are confused after reading our introduction. If you need to conduct research, why are you writing a term paper and not a research one?

Many students confuse these two types of assignments. But certain aspects indicate the differences between them.

Writing a research paper takes months or even years. It covers various aspects of the topic, up to the development of new strategies and innovative ideas.

The term paper should be submitted by the end of the semester or year. Its content is based on the material covered. Of course, you can use additional resources, but in general, custom term paper assignment is only relevant to the themes you discussed in class.

The purpose is another crucial difference between the two assignments.

When you work on a research paper, you need to work through the problem and find a viable solution. You are dealing with a hypothesis that needs to be confirmed or refuted.

The term papers have the task of reflecting your knowledge of the discipline. It is more straightforward but influences the final score much more.

What Are Parts of Term Paper?

Each student paper has its structure you should strictly adhere to. It is useful to organize your thoughts and to provide your readers with a clear and understandable text. Here is the list of the main parts you should include in your term assignment.

The cover or title page is necessary to introduce your paper and provide the basic information about it, including your data, professor’s name, topic, etc. More detailed requirements depend on the particular formatting style, so read your instructions carefully.

This part is something like a short introduction to your paper. It lets your readers understand the overall direction, the issue you explore, and why you have decided to choose this particular theme. If you have additional comments that may be interesting for your audience, provide them here as well.

Start your paper with an exciting and engaging statement. The main thing you should know about the thesis is that it is a pivot point of your writing. You build all body paragraphs and the primary research around it.

If you don’t know how to write a thesis , you may read some articles or ask for professional help.

The body consists of the main paragraphs. The traditional essay structure includes 3 of them; however, if you’re writing a 10-pages or even 40-pages paper, you should change your structure according to requirements.

You should develop your findings, ideas, or arguments, considering the final goal. For example, if your task is to analyze some issues and perceive readers to accept your point of view, you should provide compelling evidence-based arguments. If you need to explore the theme, write down, and develop the main ideas it covers. Make sure each paragraph is devoted to one aspect only.

This part is of great significance because you should show particular progress. Have you accepted certain things about your topic? Have you changed your view from the moment you started working on the piece? Any insights you’ve gained you should describe in the Results section. If you’re not satisfied with them, you can explain the reasons here as well.

It is a conclusion chapter where you can wrap up. You should analyze your text and provide readers with the next steps one should follow to continue one’s research on the subject you’re working through.

As an unusual essay conclusion, the discussion doesn’t contain any new information.

Main Tips to Write a Killer Term Paper

Do not hope that you will complete this task in a day or an hour. Some students make the mistake of starting paper right away. This is a beginner's mistake. You may think that if you have already written a few lines, this indicates significant progress. But these proposals will be weak, meaningless.

Any work takes time. Think of it as a project with specific goals. You can split a task into multiple milestones and set a deadline for each one.

If you realize that you cannot write this piece on time, hire an experienced writer. The more experience you have, the faster the process lasts.

So, you've gathered enough information. We understand if you don't know what to do next and what your first step should be.

Get a sense of control with a paper outline. This is your plan that describes all stages of the process. It also helps you organize your time and information.

In the end, you can come back to this plan again to check how the final version matches your initial expectations. If you have developed a high-quality outline, you can quickly determine which aspects of the document are needed and which are just filling the space.

You should write the term paper competently. You have done the research, collected enough information, analyzed it. Any of your doubts will indicate a lack of professionalism.

This is why you need to keep an eye on your writing style. Formal academic writing involves an active voice, professional vocabulary, and no fluffy words. You don't need to write something that doesn't make any sense for the main task.

Remember, we said that writing a term paper is long and complicated? Most students hate this. They spent a lot of time writing all sections of the article and do not feel like proofreading the entire text.

But if you have not yet encountered academic writing, you may not imagine how many mistakes a text can contain. Even if you are a very literate person, you may not notice some typos and occasional flaws. Of course, this does not make you incompetent, but readers can lose confidence in your paper.

Proofread the piece very thoroughly and carefully. Wait a few days before doing this; your brain should not be tired.

How to Make a Term Paper Outline

An outline is the part of the writing process that deserves a little more attention.

Use it as the guiding map that is always ready to point you in the right direction if you get confused.

There are several ways to design an outline, and you can download different templates from the Internet.

Some methods are suitable for people who like to organize all information in a coherent plan. But if you are a creative person, you can also choose a suitable template for yourself. For example, a mind map.

An outline is not something that your professor will check, so you don't have to worry about the exact format and details. The main thing is to make sure that you fully understand the content and use it for your writing.

Even before you start researching a topic and writing, you need to prepare a college term paper proposal. This is a document that will help you defend your idea in front of the professor. Even before starting the main work, you will submit this proposal to get approval.

You need to show the importance of this theme by including recent data with correct links. Why do you think your piece will correlate with the course syllabus? How is it useful for you and your fellow students?

Set goals for your college assignment and organize your ideas into one article. This will let the professor know that you have understood the assignment correctly.

It's okay if you fail at this stage. It is needed just so that the professor checks whether you are on the same wavelength and can provide you with any further instructions.

So, you received confirmation from your professor, came up with a topic, conducted initial research, and made an outline. What's next?

• Try to narrow down your topic. You need a learning perspective that allows you to organize and structure your thoughts.
• Create bait for your readers. Have a brainstorming session and write down different ideas: rhetorical questions, anecdotes, statistical facts, etc
• Come up with a thesis statement. If you cannot summarize your article's main idea in 1-2 sentences, you need to return to the first step and think about narrowing the topic.
• Check out the style requirements. Your piece must be in a standardized format. Below you will learn more about APA format and others.
• Do more research. You can go deeper because now you know your goals better. Use quality and trusted sources only.
• Write the first sentence. If you worry too much, just start. You may delete the first sentences later, but don’t look for a perfect moment: start as soon as you have enough information.

You may think that the conclusion chapter is not so important because it doesn’t provide your readers with any new information. However, each section has its tasks and goals, so don't relax too early.

The last paragraphs should provide an answer to a fundamental question. This question is “So what?”. Just imagine your regular reader who finishes the text and doesn’t understand what is next. Was your text just a pleasant evening reading? Is it one more piece to improve academic performance? Or is it something more that was created to contribute to the field you’ve studied?

If you don’t have strict instructions from your professor, you can decide on your own. Think about questions your work creates, and provide the audience with steps to follow.

Term Paper Format

All college and university papers must be standardized. The requirements are the same for all students regardless of their educational institutions. If you plan to pursue a scientific career, you’ll deal with these standards all the time.

Formatting is not the most straightforward task because you need always be concentrated on some details that seem to be useless for you. It is clear why you should develop a unique thesis statement, but some students can’t get why they should use the particular font type or double-spacing.

That’s why formatting is one of the most popular writing services. While you’re working on tasks you like, the professional author and editor provide you with quality formatting.

Several styles are typical for the modern scientific society. Let’s look at them to get a basic understanding.

If you are studying psychology or other social sciences, the APA format is your choice. Here's a shortlist of the main things to consider:

• White A4 sheet 8.5 x 11 inches.
• Times New Roman or other easily readable 12 point font.
• Double spacing for all text.
• 1 "margins on the left, right, top, and bottom of the sheet.
• Indent the paragraph by 1/2 inch.
• The first-page heading, which includes the capitalized running head and the page number.

The MLA style is the preferred guideline for dealing with the humanities such as English and Literature, Arts, etc. Some of the features of this style are:

• Times New Roman, Arial or similar, 12 point font.
• Double spacing for the entire document. Get rid of single or one and a half intervals.
• Enter your contact details and instructor in the upper left corner.
• Take care of 1 "padding on all sides of the sheet.
• Add your last name and page number to all pages in the upper right corner.
• Align the title of the article in the center. Don't use bold, italic, quotation marks, underlines, etc.
• Align the entire article to the left.
• Indent all paragraphs to the right 1/2 inch.

Chicago or Turabian styles are used when it goes about the law assignments. The requirements are similar, but there are some differences as well. Take a look at this list:

• Times, Times New Roman 12 pt font.
• 1-inch margins on all sides.
• Double-spacing.
• Left-justified text with a ragged right edge.
• 12 inch indent for the first sentence of each paragraph.
• Provide page numbers in the top right corner.

Of course, we can’t provide you with all the format requirements in this article. You should have an official relevant guide with all details and examples to follow. Ask your professor if you have any questions. And don’t forget about correct citing, it is necessary to avoid plagiarism.

• The main arguments for and against the death penalty.
• What is more important: national identity or globalization?
• Social isolation and its consequences.
• Should church and state function together?
• Could modern advertising be dangerous?

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How to Write a Term Paper 101: A Tutorial to Takeover

As the end of the semester draws closer, many students are losing their sleep over the thought of writing a term paper. But you’re worrying pointlessly because  PaperPerk  has brought expert help to your doorstep! 

Our comprehensive guide on how to write a term paper is sure to help you with every step. So read this article thoroughly because we cover everything from definition to steps on composition and templates with examples.

Table of Contents

What Is a Term Paper?

A term paper is a written project required at the end of a semester. It is designed to evaluate a student’s knowledge and understanding of a particular subject. Typically, it takes the form of a discussion or analysis of an assigned topic. 

But it can also resemble a scientific report,  reflective essay , or even a research paper. As an essential component of a student’s academic journey, a term paper is characterized by its in-depth exploration of a specific subject matter.

Key Characteristics

One of the key features of a term paper is that it requires a significant amount of research , as it aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic. This research-intensive nature of the term paper sets it apart from other academic assignments. 

Additionally, term papers demand technical writing skills, as they need to be well-organized, structured, and adhere to specific formatting requirements. A high-quality term paper should be well-written, thoroughly researched, and analytical. 

It should demonstrate critical thinking and provide valuable insights into the subject matter. With an Impactful term paper, a student showcases their ability to synthesize and analyze information, ultimately contributing to their overall academic success.

How to Write a Term Paper: A Comprehensive Guide

The biggest step in learning how to write a term paper is to understand the importance of creating a term paper outline. This  research paper outline  is the beacon that will guide through your writing process. The following part of this post contains steps on composing an outline and its component. 

How to Write a Term Paper: Outlining a Term Paper

Below are the essential components of an outline. Once you gather your information, you’ll incorporate it within these compartments to avoid creating a chaotic cluster of random data. 

Introduction

Let’s look at these a bit more closely and understand how to use these elements in the best way. 

Also known as the  title page , the cover page of a term paper is the first impression of the paper. It provides all the necessary information about the paper along with a neat and professional look. It should include the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Course name and code
• Instructor’s name
• Date of submission

Steps to compose a cover page:

• Centrally align the title of your paper in the middle of the page.
• Add your name, course name, and number below the title.
• Include your instructor’s name and the date of submission at the bottom.

You might be required to add more than these common elements if your professor asks you to. Many students additionally write the name of the university, department or other relevant details. 

The abstract is a brief summary of your term paper, usually between 150-250 words. It should highlight the main points, including the research question, methods, results, and conclusions. 

Using an  abstract  optimally allows readers to quickly grasp the main points and significance of your term paper. The abstract is usually placed at the beginning of the paper, right after the cover page. 

Steps to compose an abstract:

• Write a concise summary of your paper’s purpose and research question.
• Briefly describe the methods used in your research.
• Summarize the main findings or results.
• Conclude with a brief statement of your paper’s implications or significance.

Ensure that all the information you incorporate within your abstract accurately reflects the content and findings within your paper. Double-check that there is consistency between the abstract and the main body of the paper in terms of the research objectives, methodology, and conclusions. 

The  introduction  sets the stage for your term paper. It provides background information, states the research question, depicts the purpose of the study and explains the paper’s significance. 

Steps to compose an introduction:

• Begin with a hook to capture the reader’s attention.
• Provide background information on your topic.
• Clearly state your research question.
• Explain the significance of your research and its contribution to the field.

The body of your term paper is where you present your arguments , evidence, and analysis. It should be organized into sections or subheadings, each focusing on a specific aspect of your research.

Steps to compose the body:

• Organize your content into logical sections or subheadings.
• Present your arguments and support them with evidence from your research.
• Analyze the evidence and explain its relevance to your research question.
• Use appropriate citations to acknowledge the sources of your information.

The results section presents the outcomes and the findings of your research study. It should be clear, concise, and focused on the data collected during your study.

Steps to compose the results section:

• Summarize the data collected during your research.
• Use tables, charts, or graphs to visually represent your findings.
• Describe any patterns, trends, or relationships observed in the data.
• Ensure that your results are relevant to your research question.
• Avoid repetition of any information. 

The  discussion section  interprets the results of your term paper and explains their implications. It should also address any limitations of your research and suggest areas for future study.

Steps to compose the discussion section:

• Interpret your results and explain their significance.
• Discuss any limitations or weaknesses in your research.
• Compare your findings to previous studies and explain any differences.
• Suggest areas for future research based on your findings.

The  conclusion  brings your term paper to a close by summarizing the main points. This final section of your paper also restates the significance of your research.

Steps to compose a conclusion:

• Restate your research question and summarize the main points of your paper.
• Emphasize the significance of your research and its contribution to the field.
• Offer recommendations or suggestions for future research.
• End with a strong closing statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader.

By following this comprehensive guide, you can write a well-structured and impactful term paper that demonstrates your understanding of the subject and contributes valuable insights to the field.

How to Write a Term Paper Proposal: A Tutorial

A term paper proposal serves as a blueprint for your research. It helps in organizing your thoughts and ideas. Lets focus on the essential features of a term paper proposal and understand steps on how to compose each part.

Essential Features of a Term Paper Proposal

Relevance and importance.

The title of your term paper proposal should attract your readers and provide them with a clear idea of your work. It should be clear, concise, and accurately reflect the subject of your research.

Steps to compose a title:

• Identify the main topic or theme of your research.
• Choose relevant keywords that represent the key concepts of your research.
• Combine these keywords to create a clear and informative title.
• Ensure that your  title  is not too long or overly complex.
• Consider your audience’s ability to understand your title.

The objectives section outlines the specific goals of your research. These goals should be clear, measurable, and achievable within the scope of your term paper.

Steps to compose objectives:

• Begin by stating the general purpose of your research.
• Break down this purpose into specific, measurable objectives.
• Ensure that your objectives are achievable within the timeframe and resources available for your term paper.
• Keep your objectives focused and relevant to your research question.

The relevance and importance section demonstrates the significance of your research within the context of your field of study. It should explain why your research is necessary and how it contributes to the existing body of knowledge.

Steps to compose the relevance and importance section:

• Explain the context of your research by providing background information on the topic.
• Identify gaps or limitations in the existing literature that your research aims to address.
• Explain how your research contributes to the field by offering new insights or perspectives.
• Emphasize the potential impact of your research on the broader academic community or society as a whole.

Putting It All Together: Writing a Term Paper Proposal

Now that you clearly understand the essential features of a term paper  proposal , it’s time to put it all together. Follow these steps to create a well-structured and compelling proposal:

• Begin by writing a clear and concise title that accurately reflects the subject of your research.
• Compose a brief introduction that overviews your research topic and its significance. This introduction should also include a clear statement of your research question.
• Outline the specific objectives of your research, ensuring that they are clear, measurable, and achievable within the scope of your term paper.
• Explain the relevance and importance of your research by demonstrating its significance within your field of study. Highlight the gaps or limitations in the existing literature that your research aims to address.
• Provide a brief overview of your research methodology, including the methods you plan to use for data collection and analysis.
• Include a tentative timeline for your research, outlining the milestones and deadlines for each project stage.
• Conclude your proposal with a summary of the main points and a restatement of the significance of your research.

By following these comprehensive steps, you can create a well-structured and persuasive term paper proposal that demonstrates the importance of your research and sets the stage for a successful term paper.

How to Write a Term Paper: Formatting

A term paper format refers to the set of rules and standards that dictate the structure and presentation of a term paper. Formatting is essential to learn how to write a term paper as it ensures consistency, enhances readability, and maintains a professional appearance. 

A proper structure allows readers to concentrate on the content rather than the presentation. Several formatting styles are used in term papers, with the American Psychological Association (APA) style and the Modern Language Association (MLA) style being the most common.

Using APA Style in a Term Paper:

• Choose a standard font, such as 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, or 12-point Times New Roman.
• Apply double-spacing throughout the paper, including the abstract, main text, quotes, tables, figures, and references.
• Create a title page containing the paper’s title, author’s name, affiliated institution, and a running head.
• Organize the content using headings that adhere to  APA guidelines for different heading levels.
• Incorporate the author-date citation method for in-text citations and format the reference list according to APA guidelines.

Using MLA Style in a Term Paper:

• Opt for a standard font, such as 12-point Times New Roman.
• Double-space the entire paper, including the main text, quotes, and the Works Cited page.
• Include a header with the last name of the author and page number on the top right corner of all pages.
• Use parenthetical citations within the text and format according to  MLA guidelines .
• Follow MLA guidelines for formatting headings and subheadings, if applicable.

Adhering to the appropriate style guide when formatting term papers is crucial for maintaining academic integrity and ensuring that your work is easily comprehended and properly cited.

Choosing the Perfect Term Paper Topics

Writing a term paper can be a daunting task, but choosing the right term paper topics can make all the difference. In this part, we will provide you with some useful tips and tricks to make the process as smooth as possible.

The Starting Point

In most cases, students are assigned term papers by their professors. These topics are related to course outline to assess pupil’s understanding of the course material. As well as their ability to think critically and conduct research on a specific subject. 

Other times, teachers provide students a chance to choose a topic of their liking. But before you go on and pick a topic for your term paper, put the following concerns at the forefront. 

• The course objective 
• Your own interest. 

The Course Objective

Your term paper is essentially assigned to assess your command on the subject. Prioritize your course outline or objective before picking your  research paper topics . This will ensure that your paper is relevant and reflects what you have learnt so far about the subject. 

Your Interests

Your personal interests play a significant role in the success of your term paper. When you choose a topic that genuinely interests you, you are more likely to engage in  writing a research paper . This enthusiasm will not only make the writing process more enjoyable but also result in a higher quality term paper. 

Before picking a specific topic, make sure to conduct thorough research and align your personal liking to your course objective. The following tips on how to pick the perfect term paper topic will assist you in acing your grade.

Tips for Choosing the Perfect Term Paper Topic

While picking a topic for yourself, be mindful of certain things:

Adjusting Topic Length

Consider if the topic would adjust your required length for a term paper. Suppose you’re to write a  10-page research paper , what kind of topic would adjust within those 10 pages? Registering the narrowness or broadness of the topic can help.

Authentic Resources

The second thing you need to consider is the resources of your information. Check if the source you’re working with is authentic. Reliable  sources for a research paper  include academic journals, books, think tanks, and reputable websites.

Complexity of the Subject

To ensure the clarity of your topic, consider its complexity. It is important that the chosen subject can be effectively presented to your audience. Additionally, ensure that you have a solid understanding of the subject matter yourself.

By considering the length, resources, and complexity of your chosen topic, you can ensure that your term paper is engaging, informative, and well-researched. So, take the time to select the perfect topic and get ready to ace your term paper!

How to Write a Term Paper: A Template With Example

This template also contains examples that are highlighted in a different color. 

Title Page 

Abstract 

• Remember to never exceed the abstract more than 250 words.

1.1 Background

1.2 problem statement, 1.3 objectives, 2. literature review, 3. methodology, 5. discussion, 6. conclusion, 7. references.

• The references section uses the appropriate citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).

8. Appendices

• If necessary, this section includes additional material such as raw data, survey questionnaires, interview transcripts, or any other supplementary information that supports the research.

This guide on how to write a term paper must have been helpful to you. But we understand that wrapping your head around something so detailed can be difficult when you’re stressed out. And most students are stressed out by the end of the semester due to multiple deadlines.  That’s why we have brought you our  term paper writing service  so you can relax and focus more on your upcoming exams. Our experts are dedicated to helping students excel academically with quality content and on-time submission. Check us out today and bid goodbye to academic worries!

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How to Write a Term Paper: A Complete Guide With Examples

You just got your term paper assignment and have no idea what to do or how to start? This guide will navigate you through every step of the process, from idea formation to final editing and proofreading. We will start with outlining, drafting and brainstorming, and get you through the writing part in no time. So, let’s dive into the question of how to write a term paper.

If you want to know everything you will need about term papers, this guide, written by the writers at the best essay writing service will help you along.

Table of Contents

What is a term paper.

A term paper is an academic milestone more so than anything else. As a student, you are tasked with learning and then transmitting that knowledge to others. A term paper is just that, a way to show what you have learnt, and disseminate the knowledge to others. Unlike other types of academic writing , a term paper is more detailed, requires more research, and is generally seen as the hardest piece of written work aside from a thesis.

The aim of a term paper is to showcase your understanding of the subject matter and how well you handle pressure and deadlines. In this context, a term paper proves invaluable. In terms of scope, term papers may zero in on an important historical event – if you’re studying history – a scientific concept, or a contentious argument. The choice hinges on the prompt created by your academic advisor. The typical length of a term paper can stretch to five or seven pages, and is generally the prerequisite to attend end-of-semester examination. But, it is also a part of the weighted grade you’ll receive, which only adds to its importance.

For the average student, writing a term paper takes around two weeks, and is a process many do not fully understand. Term paper starts from a very basic element, a question.

Say your teacher wants you to analyze the arguments for and against US involvement in World War II. How would you start? By asking a question; something like: Why did the US enter the war? Or, why did the US waive its neutrality and entered the war.

This opens the door for you and allows you to find an article or two that then leads to the second step, and so on and so on, until you are done. The problem is many students do not know how the process works, or what skills are needed to get the job done. To write an excellent paper you need to plan carefully, adapt to new conditions, be analytical yet persuasive, and understand how referencing works. In addition, the paper has to be formatted to specifications of your chosen citation style – APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, Harvard, etc. This is a lot of work!

What is the Purpose of a Term Paper

At its core, a term paper serves to test your ability to understand arguments and defend them using written constructs within a pre-determined time period. Put simply, it tests your ability to navigate complex ideas when faced with a deadline – something that comes in handy in almost every job you’ll ever have later in life. If you can understand a complex event, a scientific theory, or a debatable stance, based on the directive from your academic mentor, you can manage pretty much anything that is thrown your way.

A typical term paper will be between five to seven pages, and represents the pinnacle of writing tasks in the semester. The process of term paper writing, even when the topic is prescribed, can be an arduous and time-consuming undertaking. To succeed you need meticulous planning, good composition skills, and scrupulous analysis, structure, and edit

Doing the Basics Right Saves You Time

As Seneca famously said, “Luck Is What Happens When Preparation Meets Opportunity.” In short, prepare, prepare, prepare. To create a perfect term paper you need to know, well in advance, how it will look, what will it be about, and how will it be structured. This then allows you to simply fill in the blanks as you go. But, if you start a day before submission, you’re toast – or, you can always ask for help from us J – because the result will be Red Bull frenzy induced compilation of internet’s best hits. And trust me when I say, your teacher has those stored in memory; you’re not the first student to turn a deaf ear on old Seneca….

So, let’s see how to start your term paper:

• Select your topic – If possible choose something that you’re personally interested in. When you choose early, all the good topics are still free, so keep that in mind.
• Research your topic – Once chosen, sit at your computer and run through Google Scholar or your University Library for anything that pops up when you type in your exact topic.
• Create an outline – When you have a basic understanding of the topic, prepare an outline. It’s always going to be fairly standard, so once you get it right, you can re-use whenever you need to in the future.
• Thesis statement – Now starts the tricky part. Just kidding, this is still the Top Lane, we’re not even close to the Jungle. Thesis statements are always pretty similar. Jolt down your guiding question and then, based on what you’ve read, write a one sentence argument. For example, if writing about solar and wind, you might go with: Solar and wind power are the future of energy production because fossil fuels are unsustainable.
• Topics, topic sentences, and paragraphs – Every paragraph starts with a topic sentence that describes what the paragraph is talking about. The easiest way to understand is this. If writing a paper about wind and solar, you would need at least three topic sentences – 1)Wind 2)Solar 3)Benefits of using wind and solar. Naturally, a term paper needs much more than just three, but you get the idea.
•   Conclusion – Once you’ve written down the topic sentences and outlined the paper, note your own expectations of what you’ll find in the conclusion. This will help you understand what is happening, and when you’re actually writing the conclusion it will tell you if you were right or wrong.

Pro tip: If all of this is too much for you, there is always the possibility of asking professionals for help. Our team of term paper writers are here to help, so feel free to reach out!

Structure of a Term Paper

As you’ve probably guessed by now, every paper has to have a specific structure. In general, you can expect to have at least three parts – introduction, body, and a conclusion. However, longer papers may need several sub-sections, perhaps even an abstract or a summary, and a page dedicated to bibliography.

A typical term paper has three to five body paragraphs that form the backbone of your arguments and analytical discourse. A bibliography is always needed, even if your sources predominantly comprise course materials or excerpts from consulted textbooks. Depending on the chosen style, you will need either a Works Cited page (MLA), a Reference page (APA) or a Bibliography (Harvard, Chicago). Given its pivotal role in determining your final course grade, make sure to adhere to the highest writing and editing standards.

Term Paper Outline

• Title page – this is where you enter your name, teacher name, school, class, and date. The formatting will depend on your chosen style
• Introduction – Introduction sets the stage for your arguments. This is where you present statistics, define helpful terms, and finally present your thesis statement. IMPORTANT: Thesis statement is always the last sentence in the introduction.
• Body 1: Historical setting or development
• Body 2: Current state of knowledge about the problem
• Body 3: Main argument and potential implications
• Body 4: Argument for
• Body 5: Argument against
• Body 6: Summary
• Conclusion : Bring all of the body arguments together and restate your thesis statement.
• Bibliography : Provide references for all sources cited in the term paper using the style of your choice

Now let’s get to the nitty gritty of the writing process.

Topic Selection – In most cases teachers or instructors will provide students with a list of pre-approved topics to choose from. But, in some cases you will get the opportunity to choose for yourself. This is both a blessing and a curse, because it can lead you into a deep pit of despair if you are not careful.

Length – Every paper will have an assigned length. You should never go under the minimum or the maximum word/page count, as that will take points away from your final score. If the prompt asks for 10 pages, write that.

Sources – Consult your school library, Google Scholar, and any other database that has access to journals and books on your topic.

Simplify – While it is admirable to be able to write in a high-brow voice, it’s much better to use plain language as much as possible, but staying within the confines of academic jargon. No don’t’s, couldnt’s, or should’ve. If something is too complicated to explain simply, you do not understand it properly. Ask for clarification.

Do not be afraid to wander – Choosing a common topic may be a safe bet, but your teacher will grade you higher if you take a topic nobody else even though about. Brownie points are there for the taking. Just make sure you know what you’re talking about!

Don’t overextend – While the entire combined histories of all monastic orders may seem like an interesting topic (well, to us at least), it is waaaaaaay too broad to cover in 5 or 10 pages. Heck, that would probably take an entire compendium with multiple volumes. In short, don’t be a megalomaniac and choose a topic that fits in 5 pages.

How to Write a Term Paper: The Writing Process

Before starting your write up, the teacher will expect a proposal. This is a very short summary of the topic, your thesis statement, and a few sources. The goal is to present a topic that you can defend and ask the teacher to approve it.

So how do you write a proposal? Start by writing down your thesis statement and guiding question. Then identify three to four sources and jolt down key statistics and pieces of information that are linked to your thesis statement. The goal is to show you’ve done the work. The proposal will generally have a full outline (see above) so that the teacher knows what you are planning to do. If you explain what the topic is and why it is important in writing , the teacher will accept the proposal.

Introduction, well, Introduces the Term Paper

Your essay has to start strong, which is why 99.99%  of all introductions start with a hook that captivates the audience. A hook can be anything, a statistic (like 40% of people in the US have no savings whatsoever, which means around 140 million people are completely broke – now that’s a hook, line, and sinker).

Once you know the reader is hooked, you present a brief overview of the topic you will discuss. This is where you bring statistics, data, and broader theories or concepts that may relate.

The end of the introduction is always reserved for the thesis statement, which is the last sentence of the introduction.

Try to be concise – not more than ¾ of a page (cca 200-250 words), but detailed enough so that the reader understands what the paper is about.

Writing the Body Sections

When you are certain you can understand the concepts and arguments presented in the literature, it’s time to write your body paragraphs.

The goal is to provide the reader with enough context and argumentation to prove your point. So, if you’re writing about the advantages of nuclear energy, you have to provide evidence from the literature as well as a thorough analysis of all benefits and drawbacks. The goal is to be as objective as possible, while ensuring your results are accurate.

Do not dwell on too much detail, you cannot fit all of the information in a 5 – 10 page paper. Isolate the most important pieces of evidence, maybe 3-4 and focus on those.

As a rule of thumb, you will aim for 4 – 5 body paragraphs minimum, but in most cases you will need more. The first section should be the literature review, where you analyze state-of-the-art of the topic you are writing about.

Following the literature review is your analysis, which draws from the information you’ve collected. It’s important to note, do not try and make up new stuff, or draw conclusions in this section. Simply analyze and summarize the findings in your own voice.

The last paragraph of the body section can be your own summary, where you present a different opinion. Be concise and do not go into too much detail, simply note if you think there are any discrepancies in the literature.

Remember : Always start your paragraphs with a topic sentence and try to contain the information within the paragraph to the topic.

Writing the Conclusion

Conclusion is the most important part of the term paper, even though many do not give it enough attention. This is where you put everything you’ve written together and summarize key findings.

Important : Conclusion is not the place to add new information or knowledge!

To write a good conclusion keep in mind your initial research question and thesis statement. The goal of the term paper is to answer the question and prove your thesis statement is correct. Has your paper done this? Write it down and explain why or why not your initial proposal was correct. A thesis statement can be wrong, and you must acknowledge this in your conclusion.

In the conclusion:

• Summarize your findings
• Discuss implications for future reseasrch

Editing and Finalization

The final word of the conclusion has been written, references added and alphabetized, the paper and the title page formatted. You are finally done. Or, maybe not! Now is the time for the final edit.

Teachers, above everything else, hate reading papers with spelling mistakes and poor grammar. To make sure your paper does not annoy the teacher (you don’t want a lower grade), make sure it is completely free of any errors.

The best way to do this is by using a machine learning tool combined with close reading on your own. The machine will weed out the glaring errors, and you will finish the job.

Read through the draft carefully. Remove any fluff or excess words that add nothing to the argument. You will likely find several sentences you will want to change. Do this now. Once done, start the second read-through.

In this read-through you will hone in on the arguments. Do they make sense? Are statistics properly cited, and do you sound coherent? If the answer is no, you will want to fix the mistakes until satisfied.

Now, finally, you are done! Congratulations. Pat yourself on the back. Oh, wait, we forgot about the abstract!

Abstract Comes First, or Last

In no uncertain terms, do not write the abstract before you’ve completed the term paper. This is always the last part of the writing process, but strangely enough the one your paper starts with. Go figure.

When you do get to this stage, use our secret formula. Well, it’s not really secret but we like to think so. The abstract needs three parts to work well, the introduction, the method/procedure, and the conclusion/findings. Depending on the topic these will vary slightly but you will always find them in an abstract.

Introduce your topic and what you plan to do in two to three sentences.

Describe what method you will use – such as literature review, an experiment, or something else. Two to three sentences.

Define the results you obtained after using the method. Two to three sentences.

Remember : The abstract should be between 120 and 200 words in length, no more is needed.

No, they are not. A research paper is an original piece of writing that comes after some type of original research has been done. Maybe you’ve found a new civilization during a dig, or a new chemical element. The research paper is meant to publicize this finding so other scientists can critique, refute, or confirm its validity. A term paper is a much simpler version that requires no original research. But, a term paper is your preparation for writing a research paper later in life.

This will depend on your teacher. In many cases, you will get a pre-defined format to follow, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago. If not, we recommend using APA or Harvard, as they are relatively simple to learn and have a ton of resources to help you along.

It is important to remember you are not writing a book, so keep the topic narrow. For example, if writing about renewable energy, choose only one type of energy or just one region. Do not try to cram everything into 5-10 pages; it won’t work.

Writing a term paper is certainly a challenge, but it is also manageable if you dedicate yourself to the process. Prepare well in advance, read a lot, and do not be afraid to ask for help if you get stuck. Your teachers are paid to help you, so email them if you get stuck. Above everything, make sure you are interested in the topic, as that will make the process so much easier.

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Term Paper: Step-by-Step Guide for Getting an A+

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Students in higher learning institutions must submit their term papers at the end of each semester. Fundamentally, these projects play a crucial role in evaluating the learner’s knowledge of a specific subject. In this case, scholars should engage in adequate preparation before writing a complete document. Then, some of the essential steps include defining a topic, finding credible sources, creating and revising a document’s outline, and drafting a term work. Moreover, an outline of such work differs from that of other essays since it must include subsections. Further on, writers must ensure all the subtopics relate to a central thesis statement. Besides, each body paragraph must contain a topic sentence, supportive proof, appropriate descriptions, and a concluding and transitioning statement. In turn, its conclusion must include a concise summary of the main points discussed in its body. As a result, this guide is designed to help students to learn how to write a correct term paper and achieve their academic goals successfully.

What Is a Term Paper and Its Purpose

According to its definition, a term paper is a comprehensive research assignment that students typically complete at the end of an academic year to demonstrate their understanding and knowledge of a specific subject, taking a significant portion of their grade. The main purpose of writing a term paper is to assess and evaluate students’ skills to conduct independent research, analyze primary and secondary data, organize their thoughts coherently, support their arguments with evidence, and present their findings in a structured format (Phillips, 2018). To achieve this objective, learners must prepare such documents for them to succeed in their studies. Moreover, such an assignment refers to serious study work that they need to submit to their instructors at the end of a semester to pass their courses. On the other hand, professors use these types of papers to track and evaluate their students’ knowledge about their areas of expertise. Further on, the process of organizing a term paper involves comprehensive research and methodological writing skills and follows specific analytical and organized structures (Coreil, 2013). Besides, good term papers have well-researched evidence that supports significant claims. As such, learners in higher educational institutions prepare such works when reflecting on their knowledge in a specific study area. In turn, the length of a term paper can vary significantly in terms of words and pages, depending on the course, instructor, and academic level:

High School

• Words: 1,500 to 2,500 words
• Pages: 5 to 8 full pages

College (Undergraduate)

• Words: 3,000 to 5,000 words
• Pages: 10 to 15 full pages

University (Upper-Level Undergraduate)

• Words: 4,000 to 6,000 words
• Pages: 13 to 20 full pages

Master’s

• Words: 5,000 to 7,500 words
• Pages: 17 to 25 full pages
• Words: 7,500 to 10,000 words
• Pages: 25 to 35 full pages

Term Paper Format

General formatting guidelines:

• Font: Times New Roman, 12-point
• Spacing: Double-spaced
• Margins: 1-inch margins on all sides
• Page Numbers: Top right corner, starting from the title page
• Headings and Subheadings: Use consistent formatting for headings and subheadings

Possible Topics

Students in higher learning institutions may come across different topics for writing their term projects. In practice, study themes vary from one subject to another and require students to engage in detailed research (Phillips, 2018). Hence, possible topics that one may come across for writing their documents are:

• Influence of colors on mood and behavior .
• Exploring the impact of telemedicine in patient-centered care .
• Impacts of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance .
• Is there a cancer epidemic due to industrial chemicals in the environment?
• Should federal courts be bound by the “original intent” of the framers?
• Do foreign investments threaten U.S. economic independence?
• Should morality and human rights influence foreign trade policy?
• Do rich nations have a responsibility to help developing countries?
• Partnership benefits at state and federal institutions.
• Same-sex adoption and access to reproductive technologies.
• Execution of juveniles.
• The lengthy appealing process for death row inmates.
• The Constitutional question of “cruel and unusual punishment.”

Different topics have a broad scope. Basically, themes given above show that students must carry out extensive research to provide a comprehensive response. On the other hand, they can decide on the content they include in their papers and give a comprehensive analysis of their subjects.

Step-by-Step Guide for Writing a Term Paper

Any student must prepare a final project to achieve desired grades and complete a study course. In this case, a good term paper typically ranges from 1,500 to 5,000 words of writing, depending on academic levels and specific course requirements. Besides, adequate preparation allows scholars to gather relevant evidence and draft their works effectively. To start a term paper, students begin with a clear and engaging introduction that provides background information on study topics assigned by their instructors, states their research questions or thesis statements, and outlines corresponding structures (Phillips, 2018). As a result, the necessary steps in writing a high-quality report that one should take into consideration when organizing an academic piece are:

Step 1: Preparation

Defining a topic.

Defining a specific subject for a project is the first and most crucial activity that any writer must consider. Fundamentally, describing a specific issue allows students to understand their course prompts and understand key ideas required to complete final projects. For example, a term paper in English literature is a comprehensive research assignment that involves analyzing, interpreting, and discussing a specific literary work, author, or theme, allowing instructions to evaluate students’ understanding and critical evaluation of the subject at the end of a semester (Coreil, 2013). To write an English term paper, students begin by selecting a relevant literary topic, conduct thorough research and analysis, create an outline, state a clear thesis statement, develop their arguments in structured sections, provide textual evidence and citations, conclude with a summary of their findings, and ensure to proofread and adhere to the required formatting guidelines. In this case, one must understand the meaning of essential terms with their context. Moreover, students should use resources, like a dictionary and thesaurus, to obtain the necessary definitions. In turn, they may opt to seek help from peers and lecturers when defining a topic for a research assignment.   

Preparing Ideas

Preparing ideas for any project leads to outstanding work. For example, students can identify all the relevant ideas and points that need to be covered before engaging in the actual writing process (Goodson, 2024). Unfortunately, many learners fail to consider preparing thoughts as an essential step when writing a term paper. As a result, they prepare low-quality essays and achieve low grades. In turn, students need to redo their projects to pass their classes. Hence, they should prepare initial ideas before organizing a term report by using acceptable methods.

Brainstorming

Scholars should consider brainstorming as an acceptable method to prepare ideas for a term paper. For example, brainstorming helps learners to come up with fresh and new facts for their writing. In this case, students think of the ideas that relate to their topics (Goodson, 2024). Moreover, the process generates unique ideas that can make one’s work to stand out. Hence, some ideas for brainstorming that one may use when preparing concepts and thoughts are:

• Come up with bad ideas first – Learners should think about research concepts related to their topics. In this case, successful students do not consider raising positive thoughts during brainstorming. Instead, they need to present both good and bad ideas concerning their subjects. On the other hand, writers should not feel ‘stupid’ for raising bad ideas since the strategy helps identify weaker and more robust ideas. Then, one should allow ideas to flow during the brainstorming strategy. Besides, scholars should focus on raising positive opinions after exhausting throwaway thoughts. Hence, authors need to increase both bad and good ideas that relate to their topics under analysis.
• Breaking and building ideas – One of the most effective strategies for turning a few ideas into many is to break them down. Principally, learners need to identify general writing themes that relate to a project and break them into smaller details. In this case, the process helps authors to see if some narrower ideas branch from their main themes. Alternatively, one may combine different ideas to create a broader subtopic for a document. Hence, writers need to break down more general concepts while combining narrow ones.
• Play word games – Outstanding term projects contain original and unique ideas. For example, word games are instrumental tools that prevent learners from producing generic and unoriginal ideas. In this case, word games motivate some out-of-box thinking. Moreover, “word storm” is an excellent method for a student to generate related ideas. In turn, this method allows authors to create thoughts naturally without overthinking.
• Creating a mood board – Learners should rely on writing methods that motivate them to generate fresh and unique ideas related to a research topic. For instance, combining imagery, color, and visual-spatial elements evokes emotions and feelings. and they spark fresh and new thoughts. In this case, students manage to recall some concepts acquired during learning by improving the overall paper’s quality.
• Doodling – Successful students spur creativity insights and increase attention when generating essential ideas for a term report. Essentially, doodling allows a learner to engage with visuals that spark new thoughts. Furthermore, practical doodling approaches help authors to break out of the traditional brainstorming approaches, and they rely on reading and talking. In this case, learners should break visual objects into small objects or combine unrelated items. Hence, these approaches motivate the brain to generate unique ideas for supporting a central theme.
• Changing a physical environment – Ordinary motivation plays a crucial role in the generation of new writing ideas. In this case, students should change their physical environment to avoid boredom. Basically, enriched and attractive environments affect how the human brain works and speed up how one generates new ideas and thoughts. Therefore, a successful learner can select the location for brainstorming effectively. 

Reading is an appropriate method that students may consider when generating ideas for term papers. For instance, reading is a traditional method, and writers use it to raise arguments related to a specific topic (Goodson, 2024). In this case, scholars must identify credible sources that relate to a study topic and read them to understand an assigned subject better before writing. This strategy plays a crucial in raising viable and accurate ideas about the project’s topic. However, scholars can take the necessary precautions since extensive reading is a tedious and monotonous process.   

Considering an Academic Audience

Different scholars read term papers for specific reasons. Basically, students must consider the target audience as academic readers to ensure articles meet their needs (Phillips, 2018). In most cases, scholars use the official language when writing and expressing thoughts. Moreover, formal language suits academic documents because it reveals professionalism and academic excellence.

Step 2: Setting Up the Stage

Researching for sources.

Terms papers must contain credible evidence obtained from academic sources. Essentially, scholars gather adequate evidence from different reliable sources, like books, journal articles, financial and laboratory reports, credible websites, and magazines (Hoogenboom & Manske, 2012). As a ground writing rule, all sources must provide adequate and irrefutable evidence to support the main arguments. In particular, one can find scholarly sources published in the last ten years because they contain the latest evidence and facts on issues under investigation. Hence, writers need to look for credible sources to support their main arguments.

Making Notes

Taking notes is a crucial step when writing term papers. Principally, scholars must read all the sources critically. In this case, the strategy allows one to understand the major concepts and ideas that relate to a research topic. Moreover, students should consider writing short notes to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding of the main messages made by authors of credible sources (Ecarnot et al., 2015). Then, successful scholars take notes and revise them to ensure they obtain the most substantial evidence that supports their research work. In turn, improving paper notes involves breaking broader ideas into smaller ones and combining others to make them stronger and more sensible. Therefore, students can take the necessary points to support their central ideas.    

Developing a Study Outline

Organizing thoughts plays a crucial role in preparing a quality document. Essentially, one should combine research notes obtained from scholarly sources and those gathered during brainstorming and put them into developing a term paper’s outline (Phillips, 2018). In this case, a well-organized outline helps writers to connect ideas. Moreover, this outline should contain a study topic with the main thoughts and concepts needed to be covered. Further on, clear outlines have smaller ideas that relate to the main ones. In turn, the strategy allows one to see direct connections between the main ideas and leads to an organized scholarly article. As a result, students should follow the basic writing steps below to create a clear outline:

• Organize notes and relevant evidence into groups of related ideas.
• Review a thesis statement to determine if it communicates the intended message.
• Define the main points to support a working thesis statement or research hypothesis.
• Include ideas and thoughts to strengthen the main points.
• Match supportive ideas with relevant sources obtained through research.
• Organize all the ideas to achieve a unique flow of information logically.
• Identify if some of the points presented need additional research and where thoughts require more development.
• Revise points and ideas to enhance the overall quality of a paper.

Writing an Annotated Bibliography

Successful scholars prepare annotated bibliographies that contain relevant and irrefutable research. Basically, each entry in an annotated bibliography for a document must include citation information with writing a short description and analysis (Coreil, 2013). In this case, scholars need to follow accepted citation styles, depending on instructions given by professors. Besides, an annotated bibliography must focus on a central topic of a term report. Students must ensure all sources remain relevant to their study topics. However, one should remember that typical annotated bibliography requirements may vary depending on the topic and term paper’s requirements. In turn, a useful annotated bibliography should help learners to keep track of research readings and gain a sense of a literature review. Hence, one needs to prepare a written annotated bibliography for a project when conducting research.

Step 3: Starting a Term Paper

Organizing a first draft.

First drafts of term papers help one to organize ideas in a good flow. Essentially, students should use their outlines and annotated bibliographies to write the first draft of a document (Coreil, 2013). In this case, scholars need to focus on presenting all the ideas in this draft. Further on, an appropriate draft enables one to test an outline and elaborate theories to support the central argument. As a result, good drafts resemble complete term reports. Finally, good drafts must contain a title page, abstract or executive summary, introduction, body, and conclusion with a reference page.

Putting Everything Together

A scholar should put all the ideas together into a complete term paper. For example, learners need to ensure a written document contains a logical flow of ideas (Goodson, 2024). In this case, the strategy enables students to identify some gaps in the presented concepts. Besides, putting everything together helps authors to identify some points that require more investigation.

Finding New Sources or Deleting Old Ones

Term papers must contain compelling ideas and arguments. For example, learners need to review their drafts to determine if all sources provide relevant and credible evidence (Hoogenboom & Manske, 2012). In practice, scholars change some sources that offer weak arguments. Besides, writers must remove previous scholarly sources with weak points of view or irrelevant information to a study since a research hypothesis may be changed during writing the first draft. Hence, one can change credible sources where necessary.

Altering an Outline

Learners should change their outlines of term papers to make such pieces more substantial and compelling. For instance, people must use their first drafts and new scholarly sources to make relevant changes in a term document’s outline (Coreil, 2013). Besides, the primary goal of this writing strategy is to strengthen study arguments and improve their clarity.

Creating a Working Thesis

Compelling term papers must contain well-organized thesis statements by considering research hypotheses and rationales. Fundamentally, scholars develop a working thesis statement, which includes the claim and significant points that scholars try to make (Gray, 2018). In this case, writers need to create a sentence that explains their positions taken on topics in question based on their hypotheses and rationales. Furthermore, lecturers evaluate all the body paragraphs and how they relate to the thesis and research question. In this case, one should use a revised outline, a written draft, and a completed annotated bibliography to create the working hypothesis and ensure it meets the necessary quality.

Step 4: Wrapping It Up

Outstanding term papers contain minimal or no flaws. Essentially, learners must revise their drafts to remove all the mistakes. For example, some factors that one must consider are spelling and grammatical errors, various writing technicalities, and idea flow (Goodson, 2024). In this case, revisions play a significant role in improving the paper’s overall quality and ensuring readers develop the motivation to evaluate all its sections. Hence, students need to revise the first term project’s draft to remove unnecessary mistakes.  

Editing is an important task, and it helps authors to make term papers compelling. In particular, students focus on enhancing the readability and relevance levels of research (Coreil, 2013). Hence, when writing a term paper, one must consider:

• Scholars can change the order of words during the editing process. In this case, the primary purpose of enhancing the term report’s euphony is to improve the rhythm and other dynamics. As a result, students can replace weak expressions to remove clichés and conversational writing style.
• Effective editing helps authors to enhance the brevity of statements and claims made throughout a document. In turn, short and concise words sound better than long or wordy statements.
• An effective editing process improves the honesty of claims made and evidence presented throughout a study work. In this case, term projects must include proven facts written in each paragraph. Moreover, one can specify scholarly sources of any data used in supporting topic sentences.
• Good students edit their documents to improve the quality of their literacy levels. On the other hand, one must proofread the work to remove punctuation, spelling and syntax mistakes, and typos. Finally, this process requires reading a whole term document several times to identify all writing errors and correct them accordingly.

Topic Sentences

Every paragraph in the body of a term paper must begin with a topic sentence. For example, learners ensure each section dwells on a single point related to a central thesis statement (Goodson, 2024). Moreover, one needs to reread a written work to ensure all paragraphs have the necessary opening statements.

Concluding Sentences

Every paragraph of a term report must end with a concluding sentence. In this case, students need to summarize all ideas covered in a paper’s body section (Hoogenboom & Manske, 2012). Besides, last sentences of paragraphs should include writing a summative claim, which brings all the concepts and thoughts into a unique closure.  

Transitions

All ideas presented in a term document must have a unique transitioning of ideas. For example, writers should use the necessary phrases to transition sentences and paragraphs (Goodson, 2024). In particular, the approach improves the overall readability and flow of ideas in any paper. As a rule, each paragraph’s last sentence must act as a transition to the next section. Hence, readers need to find connections between all the paragraphs in a written report.

Any learning institution requires students to follow specific formatting rules. In this case, learners must follow such guidelines when writing their term papers (Coreil, 2013). As a result, marking rubrics are useful tools that each learner needs to use to format their work.

Peer Reviewing

Peer review is an essential step in enhancing the term project’s quality. Mainly, one should identify scholars who are familiar with a study subject to read a written document. To achieve this objective, qualified scholars help students to identify some mistakes that may undermine the paper’s readability (Ecarnot et al., 2015). Besides, peers provide positive criticism, and this process allows students to make the necessary changes to their work.

Step 5: Writing a Final Draft

A term paper’s final draft must include all the changes made during revisions, editing, formatting, and peer review. In this case, scholars focus on submitting flawless documents that do not contain any forms of plagiarism (Hoogenboom & Manske, 2012). Besides, the written final draft must capture all the aspects covered during a research study with results, discussion, recommendations, limitations, and information for further analysis or investigation.

Basic Outline Template for a Term Paper

Cover Page with a Title

Abstract (150 words)

Table of Contents (if needed)

I. Introduction

A. Relevance of research

B. The purpose of a term paper or a discussed problem

C. Personal reaction to a study subject

D. Hypothesis and rationale

E. Short descriptions of methodology and key findings

F. Principal conclusions and thesis statement

A. Literature Review (if needed)

• Topic sentence
• Explanation
• Concluding sentence and transition

B. Methodology

D. Discussion

E. Recommendations and Limitations (if needed)

III. Conclusion

A. Summary of the main points

B. A strong response to a central thesis statement

C. A summative statement

Note: The presented structure for writing a term paper appears different since it contains some sections of a research paper, which are useful for any study, and includes various subheadings that relate to the main topic. Each subheading may have several body paragraphs. However, each paragraph must contain a topic sentence, a supporting example, and a relevant explanation.

Explanations for Key Aspects

Introduction.

The introduction must state the primary purpose of a term project. Mainly, scholars ensure the first part of the work acquaints readers with a problem under discussion (Gray, 2018). Besides, one must include a compelling and robust thesis statement in this section. As a rule, introduction paragraphs should not take up a large part of an entire document. Hence, the introduction section must provide an overview of the whole work in a straightforward and precise writing manner. In turn, some examples of sentence starters for beginning a term paper are:

• In recent years, the phenomenon of [topic] has gained notable attention due to its impact on [field or society].
• This project explores the critical issue of [topic], aiming to understand its implications for [specific group or area].
• The purpose of this examination is to investigate the underlying causes of [issue] and propose potential solutions, such as [solutions].
• Understanding [topic] is crucial for [field] because it directly affects [specific outcome or process].
• This research aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of [topic], focusing on [specific aspect].
• This paper explores the historical context of [topic] and its relevance to modern-day issues.
• Through a comprehensive review of [literature/field], this report seeks to examine the complex relationship between [concept A] and [concept B].
• By exploring [topic], this analysis contributes to a deeper understanding of [field or discipline].
• The evolution of [topic] over the past decade highlights the need for a thorough investigation of [specific aspect].
• The purpose of this term project is to challenge the traditional understanding of [topic] by presenting new insights and perspectives, such as [points].

The term document’s body must have different headings and subheadings that connect to the topic. In this case, scholars ensure the process of dividing a document into different sections enhances the clarity of the message (Ecarnot et al., 2015). Moreover, a suitable number of citations for a term paper generally ranges from 10 to 20, depending on the length and depth of the entire work, the topic’s complexity, and the specific requirements of the course and instructor. Finally, the writing strategy should not distract readers from appreciating the intended message.

The closing paragraph must restate the thesis statement included in the introduction. Essentially, students sum up the ideas presented in all the body paragraphs (Gray, 2018). Then, the most effective writing strategy that one may use is to restate all the topic sentences. Finally, authors provide a concluding statement, and it brings an entire study paper into a unique closure.

How to Write a Proposal for a Term Paper

A term paper proposal outlines the structure of the future work that scholars must complete. Principally, practical writing recommendations provide crucial elements that support the research process included in an actual paper. In this case, term proposals aim to constrict a wide area of interest into a complicated or specific topic (Coreil, 2013). Moreover, writers define the intention to discover a study issue and base their decision on the need to make changes, improve the condition of the matter, or advance scholarly knowledge in the specific area of interest. In turn, one needs to select essential parts of writing a term project and put them together in a unified format. Besides, one should briefly describe each section and tie key details to a chosen topic. Hence, a good term paper proposal must include the following parts:

• Title – Any documentmust have a concise and brief title, and it should resemble that of an actual term paper.
• Objectives – All proposals state a key goal of a future project and include its intended purpose on what it expects to achieve.
• Research question – An outstanding proposal must state study questions, and scholars intend to answer them through adequate research.
• Thesis statement – Propositions include a clear thesis statement that responds to the research question directly. In this case, a suitable thesis should be factual, clear, and subjective. Besides, one must ensure a central claim is a verifiable statement.
• Methodology – Proposal documents state actual methods used to gather and evaluate the relevant data, including appropriate and proven methods to conduct a research study.

Possible Writing Formats

Different educational institutions require learners to use writing formats when preparing term papers. For example, the most common formatting styles that one may come across include MLA 9, APA 7, Harvard, and Chicago/Turabian. In turn, each of these formats has specific guidelines, and they are.

Term papers formatted in APA 7 must contain a title page, which includes the relevant heading and identifies the student, date, and relevant institution. In this case, each page must contain a header, which consists of a shortened title of a term report and the specific page. However, the first page should have the phrase “Running Head” preceding the shortened title. In turn, in-text citations contain the author’s last name and publication date.

Projects formatted in MLA 9 do not require a cover page unless specified. In particular, writers include a header, which contains surnames and page numbers. Moreover, one must flush these writing details to the right margin of the page. In turn, all in-text citations must have the author’s last name and the exact page containing the evidence used.

Chicago/Turabian

Documents formatted in Chicago/Turabian must contain a title page, which has the title and identifies the author. Basically, one must capitalize all the letters in the heading. Moreover, page numbers begin on the second page and appear on the top right side. In turn, in-text citations appear as footnotes, which contain full bibliographic details of sources.    

Reports formatted in Harvard style must contain a title page, which includes the title and other details identifying the student, professor or tutor, and the relevant institution. In particular, one must write the title in capital letters. Then, the paper’s header contains the title and page number. However, one must flush these details to the right margin. As a result, in-text citations include the author’s surname, publication date, and the page containing the relevant evidence.

Term Paper Example

Research Topic: Is the “war on terror” a global civil war?

Scholars develop different conceptions of the term “war on terror.” Basically, some scholars argue that the United States uses the war on terror to control the weaker nations. In this case, the current research examined whether the war on terror is a civil war. Then, a review of relevant literature was an effective method of gathering the necessary data. In turn, study results show that the United States uses the war on terror to protect citizens’ rights, which proves the alternative hypothesis to be a valid statement.

Keywords : War on terror, hypothesis, and review of literature

I. Introduction Sample

The term war on terror became standard after the extremist attacks of September 11, 2001. Basically, President George W. Bush’s government confirmed a global campaign that involved open and secret military actions, new security lawmaking, and determinations to block extremism’s sponsoring, among other factors. In this case, the movement rallied for support from other countries, which willingly joined in the fight against terrorism. Although most scholars argue that the war on terror is an American strategy to control other countries, civil war theories prove otherwise.

Hypotheses:

H 0 – The United States uses the war on terror to control other countries.

H 1 – The United States uses the war on terror to protect the rights of its citizens.

II. Example of Body Paragraphs

A. Literature Review

Different theories of civil wars prove that persistent rebel groups that engage in criminal activities. For example, some of the civil war philosophies include motivation and feasibility, ideas of rebellion, organization of the uprising, and evidence of the causes, among other factors (Kimbrough & Sheremeta, 2019). In turn, these theories prove that civil war results from the emergence and persistence of a rebel army. Moreover, motivation and feasibility theories argue that rebels with excessive power engage in terrorism. Hence, persistent rebel groups engage in terrorism as a way of addressing their interests.

A review of relevant literature is a suitable method for gathering the necessary data for the essay. According to Reale et al. (2017), a literature review is an effective method for gathering information for research papers in history and other social sciences. Therefore, reviewing scholarly sources related to civil war and terrorism will contribute to gathering the necessary data.

Standard game theory shows that economic grievances lead to terrorism. According to traditional game theory, economic dissimilarities in the community motivate some people to engage in crime (Kimbrough & Sheremeta, 2019). In this case, the less productive but healthy groups tend to participate in violence against industrious but weak groups. Besides, such conflict levels undermine fairness, equity, or coercion, depending on the analyst’s political standpoint. Hence, economic grievances motivate some groups to engage in terrorism.

Study findings show that the United States targets specific terror groups since their predatory behavior in a country or region leads to adverse economic and social outcomes. In this case, militant groups lead to redistribution through violence when productive and weak agents engage in defensive actions. Moreover, militant groups engage in activities that cause other people to reiterate. In turn, research results from such activities include reciprocated hatred that inflicts harm to innocent citizens. Hence, the United States participates in peacekeeping missions that can lower the negative impacts of such conflicts.

III. Conclusion Sample

Most scholars argue that the war on terror is an American strategy to control other countries. In this case, different theories on civil wars prove that terrorism results from grievances and economic interests of some specific groups. Moreover, such activities destabilize the economic and social welfare of ordinary citizens. Thus, citizens focus on such terror groups intending to protect citizens of the affected countries. 

List of References

Kimbrough, E. O., & Sheremeta, R. M. (2019). Theories of conflict and war. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization , 159 , 384–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2019.02.007

Reale, E., Avramov, D., Canhial, K., Donovan, C., Flecha, R., Holm, P., Larkin, C., Lepori, B., Mosoni-Fried, J., Oliver, E., Primeri, E., Puigvert, L., Scharnhorst, A., Schubert, A., Soler, M., Soòs, S., Sordé, T., Travis, C., & Van Horik, R. (2017). A literature review on evaluating the scientific, social, and political impact of social sciences and humanities research. Research Evaluation , 27 (4), 298–308. https://doi.org/10.1093/reseval/rvx025

Comparison Table: Term Paper vs. Research Paper vs. Essay

Key Remarks . The main differences between a term paper and an essay are that the former involves in-depth research and analysis on an assigned topic over a specific course, being longer and more detailed, while the latter presents a focused argument or viewpoint on a particular subject, resulting in a shorter and less comprehensive writing piece. Moreover, the main differences between a term paper and a research paper are that the former demonstrates a better understanding and knowledge gained after completing a course, often summarizing existing research, while the latter explores and answers a specific study question or hypothesis, usually involving original research and detailed analysis. In turn, a term paper and a thesis paper are not the same because the former is a comprehensive writing assignment completed over a course to demonstrate a deep understanding of a specific subject, while the latter is a lengthy, original research project required for a graduate degree, solving an existing knowledge gap and presenting new findings or insights through writing.

Common Mistakes

• Lack of an Accurate Thesis Statement: Failing to establish a clear, concise thesis statement shows your lack of focus and direction in your term paper.
• Poor Organization: A disorganized structure can make your arguments hard to follow because you need to ensure your document has a logical flow of ideas with clear headings and subheadings.
• Insufficient Research: Relying on too few sources or not incorporating different perspectives can weaken your writing project since comprehensive research is crucial.
• Ignoring Guidelines: Not following the assignment writing guidelines or the specified format (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, Harvard, and others) can result in losing marks.
• Weak Introduction and Conclusion: An ineffective introduction may fail to engage readers, and a weak conclusion can leave your report feeling incomplete.
• Plagiarism: Failing to properly cite sources or presenting others’ works as your own can have serious academic consequences, and you must always cite your sources correctly.
• Inconsistent Argumentation: Presenting contradictory arguments or failing to support your claims with evidence can undermine your project’s credibility.
• Grammatical and Spelling Errors: Poor grammar and spelling mistakes can distract your readers and detract them from the quality of your work, suggesting you need to proofread your writing carefully.
• Overuse of Quotations: Relying too heavily on direct quotes can make your paper seem like you lack original analysis, and you need to paraphrase sentences where possible and use quotes sparingly.
• Not Revising and Editing: Submitting your first draft without revising can result in a document full of writing errors and weak arguments, and you must always take some time to revise and improve your work.

Term projects refer to research assignments completed by learners toward the end of educational semesters. The fastest way to write a term paper is to start with a clear outline, conduct focused research, develop a strong thesis statement, draft the work section by section without worrying about perfection, and then revise and proofread for clarity and accuracy. In this case, students must ensure their documents meet the necessary quality since they track and evaluate one’s knowledge. Hence, when writing a term paper, one should remember:

• Rely on comprehensive research and methodological writing skills.
• Include analytical and organized structures.
• Present well-researched evidence and support significant claims.
• Consider various paper formatting strategies as required by learning institutions.

Coreil, C. (2013). Term papers and academic writing: Setting new parameters, for undergraduates, graduate students; Self-study and use with a teacher . Infinity Publishing.

Ecarnot, F., Seronde, M.-F., Chopard, R., Schiele, F., & Meneveau, N. (2015). Writing a scientific article: A step-by-step guide for beginners. European Geriatric Medicine , 6 (6), 573–579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurger.2015.08.005

Goodson, P. (2024). Becoming an academic writer: 50 exercises for paced, productive, and powerful writing . Sage.

Gray, J. A. (2018). Introduction sections: Where are we going and why should I care? AME Medical Journal , 3 , 1–13. https://doi.org/10.21037/amj.2018.12.03

Hoogenboom, B. J., & Manske, R. C. (2012). How to write a scientific article. The International Journal of Sports Physical Therapy , 7 (6), 512–517. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3474301/

Phillips, R. (2018). Term papers: An informal guide . Independently Published.

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How to Write a Term Paper From Start to Finish

The term paper, often regarded as the culmination of a semester's hard work, is a rite of passage for students in pursuit of higher education. Here's an interesting fact to kick things off: Did you know that the term paper's origins can be traced back to ancient Greece, where scholars like Plato and Aristotle utilized written works to explore and document their philosophical musings? Just as these great minds once wrote their thoughts on parchment, you, too, can embark on this intellectual voyage with confidence and skill.

How to Write a Term Paper: Short Description

In this article, we'll delve into the core purpose of this kind of assignment – to showcase your understanding of a subject, your research abilities, and your capacity to communicate complex ideas effectively. But it doesn't stop there. We'll also guide you in the art of creating a well-structured term paper format, a roadmap that will not only keep you on track but also ensure your ideas flow seamlessly and logically. Packed with valuable tips on writing, organization, and time management, this resource promises to equip you with the tools needed to excel in your academic writing.

Understanding What Is a Term Paper

A term paper, a crucial component of your college education, is often assigned towards the conclusion of a semester. It's a vehicle through which educators gauge your comprehension of the course content. Imagine it as a bridge between what you've learned in class and your ability to apply that knowledge to real-world topics.

For instance, in a history course, you might be asked to delve into the causes and consequences of a significant historical event, such as World War II. In a psychology class, your term paper might explore the effects of stress on mental health, or in an environmental science course, you could analyze the impact of climate change on a specific region.

Writing a term paper isn't just about summarizing facts. It requires a blend of organization, deep research, and the art of presenting your findings in a way that's both clear and analytical. This means structuring your arguments logically, citing relevant sources, and critically evaluating the information you've gathered.

For further guidance, we've prepared an insightful guide for you authored by our expert essay writer . It's brimming with practical tips and valuable insights to help you stand out in this academic endeavor and earn the recognition you deserve.

How to Start a Term Paper

Before you start, keep the guidelines for the term paper format firmly in mind. If you have any doubts, don't hesitate to reach out to your instructor for clarification before you begin your research and writing process. And remember, procrastination is your worst enemy in this endeavor. If you're aiming to produce an exceptional piece and secure a top grade, it's essential to plan ahead and allocate dedicated time each day to work on it. Now, let our term paper writing services provide you with some valuable tips to help you on your journey:

• Hone Your Topic : Start by cultivating a learning mindset that empowers you to effectively organize your thoughts. Discover how to research a topic in the section below.
• Hook Your Readers: Initiate a brainstorming session and unleash a barrage of creative ideas to captivate your audience right from the outset. Pose intriguing questions, share compelling anecdotes, offer persuasive statistics, and more.
• Craft a Concise Thesis Statement Example : If you find yourself struggling to encapsulate the main idea of your paper in just a sentence or two, it's time to revisit your initial topic and consider narrowing it down.
• Understand Style Requirements: Your work must adhere to specific formatting guidelines. Delve into details about the APA format and other pertinent regulations in the section provided.
• Delve Deeper with Research : Equipped with a clearer understanding of your objectives, dive into your subject matter with a discerning eye. Ensure that you draw from reputable and reliable sources.
• Begin Writing: Don't obsess over perfection from the get-go. Just start writing, and don't worry about initial imperfections. You can always revise or remove those early sentences later. The key is to initiate the term papers as soon as you've amassed sufficient information.

Ace your term paper with EssayPro 's expert help. Our academic professionals are here to guide you through every step, ensuring your term paper is well-researched, structured, and written to the highest standards.

Term Paper Topics

Selecting the right topic for your term paper is a critical step, one that can significantly impact your overall experience and the quality of your work. While instructors sometimes provide specific topics, there are instances when you have the freedom to choose your own. To guide you on how to write a term paper, consider the following factors when deciding on your dissertation topics :

• Relevance to Assignment Length: Begin by considering the required length of your paper. Whether it's a substantial 10-page paper or a more concise 5-page one, understanding the word count will help you determine the appropriate scope for your subject. This will inform whether your topic should be broad or more narrowly focused.
• Availability of Resources : Investigate the resources at your disposal. Check your school or community library for books and materials that can support your research. Additionally, explore online sources to ensure you have access to a variety of reference materials.
• Complexity and Clarity : Ensure you can effectively explain your chosen topic, regardless of how complex it may seem. If you encounter areas that are challenging to grasp fully, don't hesitate to seek guidance from experts or your professor. Clarity and understanding are key to producing a well-structured term paper.
• Avoiding Overused Concepts : Refrain from choosing overly trendy or overused topics. Mainstream subjects often fail to captivate the interest of your readers or instructors, as they can lead to repetitive content. Instead, opt for a unique angle or approach that adds depth to your paper.
• Manageability and Passion : While passion can drive your choice of topic, it's important to ensure that it is manageable within the given time frame and with the available resources. If necessary, consider scaling down a topic that remains intriguing and motivating to you, ensuring it aligns with your course objectives and personal interests.

Worrying About the Quality of Your Upcoming Essay?

"Being highly trained professionals, our writers can provide term paper help by creating a paper specifically tailored to your needs.

Term Paper Outline

Before embarking on the journey of writing a term paper, it's crucial to establish a well-structured outline. Be mindful of any specific formatting requirements your teacher may have in mind, as these will guide your outline's structure. Here's a basic format to help you get started:

• Cover Page: Begin with a cover page featuring your name, course number, teacher's name, and the deadline date, centered at the top.
• Abstract: Craft a concise summary of your work that informs readers about your paper's topic, its significance, and the key points you'll explore.
• Introduction: Commence your term paper introduction with a clear and compelling statement of your chosen topic. Explain why it's relevant and outline your approach to addressing it.
• Body: This section serves as the meat of academic papers, where you present the primary findings from your research. Provide detailed information about the topic to enhance the reader's understanding. Ensure you incorporate various viewpoints on the issue and conduct a thorough analysis of your research.
• Results: Share the insights and conclusions that your research has led you to. Discuss any shifts in your perspective or understanding that have occurred during the course of your project.
• Discussion: Conclude your term paper with a comprehensive summary of the topic and your findings. You can wrap up with a thought-provoking question or encourage readers to explore the subject further through their own research.

How to Write a Term Paper with 5 Steps

Before you begin your term paper, it's crucial to understand what a term paper proposal entails. This proposal serves as your way to introduce and justify your chosen topic to your instructor, and it must gain approval before you start writing the actual paper.

In your proposal, include recent studies or research related to your topic, along with proper references. Clearly explain the topic's relevance to your course, outline your objectives, and organize your ideas effectively. This helps your instructor grasp your term paper's direction. If needed, you can also seek assistance from our expert writers and buy term paper .

Draft the Abstract

The abstract is a critical element while writing a term paper, and it plays a crucial role in piquing the reader's interest. To create a captivating abstract, consider these key points from our dissertation writing service :

• Conciseness: Keep it short and to the point, around 150-250 words. No need for lengthy explanations.
• Highlight Key Elements: Summarize the problem you're addressing, your research methods, and primary findings or conclusions. For instance, if your paper discusses the impact of social media on mental health, mention your research methods and significant findings.
• Engagement: Make your abstract engaging. Use language that draws readers in. For example, if your paper explores the effects of artificial intelligence on the job market, you might begin with a question like, 'Is AI revolutionizing our work landscape, or should we prepare for the robots to take over?'
• Clarity: Avoid excessive jargon or technical terms to ensure accessibility to a wider audience.

Craft the Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for your entire term paper and should engage readers from the outset. To craft an intriguing introduction, consider these tips:

• Hook Your Audience: Start with a captivating hook, such as a thought-provoking question or a compelling statistic. For example, if your paper explores the impact of smartphone addiction, you could begin with, 'Can you remember the last time you went a whole day without checking your phone?'
• State Your Purpose: Clearly state the purpose of your paper and its relevance. If your term paper is about renewable energy's role in combating climate change, explain why this topic is essential in today's world.
• Provide a Roadmap: Briefly outline how your paper is structured. For instance, if your paper discusses the benefits of mindfulness meditation, mention that you will explore its effects on stress reduction, emotional well-being, and cognitive performance.
• Thesis Statement: Conclude your introduction with a concise thesis statement that encapsulates the central argument or message of your paper. In the case of a term paper on the impact of online education, your thesis might be: 'Online education is revolutionizing learning by providing accessibility, flexibility, and innovative teaching methods.'

Develop the Body Sections: Brainstorming Concepts and Content

Generate ideas and compose text: body sections.

The body of your term paper is where you present your research, arguments, and analysis. To generate ideas and write engaging text in the body sections, consider these strategies from our research paper writer :

• Structure Your Ideas: Organize your paper into sections or paragraphs, each addressing a specific aspect of your topic. For example, if your term paper explores the impact of social media on interpersonal relationships, you might have sections on communication patterns, privacy concerns, and emotional well-being.
• Support with Evidence: Back up your arguments with credible evidence, such as data, research findings, or expert opinions. For instance, when discussing the effects of social media on mental health, you can include statistics on social media usage and its correlation with anxiety or depression.
• Offer Diverse Perspectives: Acknowledge and explore various viewpoints on the topic. When writing about the pros and cons of genetic engineering, present both the potential benefits, like disease prevention, and the ethical concerns associated with altering human genetics.
• Use Engaging Examples: Incorporate real-life examples to illustrate your points. If your paper discusses the consequences of climate change, share specific instances of extreme weather events or environmental degradation to make the topic relatable.
• Ask Thought-Provoking Questions: Integrate questions throughout your text to engage readers and stimulate critical thinking. In a term paper on the future of artificial intelligence, you might ask, 'How will AI impact job markets and the concept of work in the coming years?'

Formulate the Conclusion

The conclusion section should provide a satisfying wrap-up of your arguments and insights. To craft a compelling term paper example conclusion, follow these steps:

• Revisit Your Thesis: Begin by restating your thesis statement. This reinforces the central message of your paper. For example, if your thesis is about the importance of biodiversity conservation, reiterate that biodiversity is crucial for ecological balance and human well-being.
• Summarize Key Points: Briefly recap the main points you've discussed in the body of your paper. For instance, if you've been exploring the impact of globalization on local economies, summarize the effects on industries, job markets, and cultural diversity.
• Emphasize Your Main Argument: Reaffirm the significance of your thesis and the overall message of your paper. Discuss why your findings are important or relevant in a broader context. If your term paper discusses the advantages of renewable energy, underscore its potential to combat climate change and reduce our reliance on fossil fuels.
• Offer a Thoughtful Reflection: Share your own reflections or insights about the topic. How has your understanding evolved during your research? Have you uncovered any unexpected findings or implications? If your paper discusses the future of space exploration, consider what it means for humanity's quest to explore the cosmos.
• End with Impact: Conclude your term paper with a powerful closing statement. You can leave the reader with a thought-provoking question, a call to action, or a reflection on the broader implications of your topic. For instance, if your paper is about the ethics of artificial intelligence, you could finish by asking, 'As AI continues to advance, what ethical considerations will guide our choices and decisions?'

Edit and Enhance the Initial Draft

After completing your initial draft, the revision and polishing phase is essential for improving your paper. Here's how to refine your work efficiently:

• Take a Break: Step back and return to your paper with a fresh perspective.
• Structure Check: Ensure your paper flows logically and transitions smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion.
• Clarity and Conciseness: Trim excess words for clarity and precision.
• Grammar and Style: Proofread for errors and ensure consistent style.
• Citations and References: Double-check your citations and reference list.
• Peer Review: Seek feedback from peers or professors for valuable insights.
• Enhance Intro and Conclusion: Make your introduction and conclusion engaging and impactful.
• Coherence Check: Ensure your arguments support your thesis consistently.
• Read Aloud: Reading your paper aloud helps identify issues.
• Final Proofread: Perform a thorough proofread to catch any remaining errors.

Term Paper Format

When formatting your term paper, consider its length and the required citation style, which depends on your research topic. Proper referencing is crucial to avoid plagiarism in academic writing. Common citation styles include APA and MLA.

If unsure how to cite term paper for social sciences, use the APA format, including the author's name, book title, publication year, publisher, and location when citing a book.

For liberal arts and humanities, MLA is common, requiring the publication name, date, and location for referencing.

Adhering to the appropriate term paper format and citation style ensures an organized and academically sound paper. Follow your instructor's guidelines for a polished and successful paper.

Term Paper Example

To access our term paper example, simply click the button below.

The timeline of events from 1776 to 1861, that, in the end, prompted the American Civil War, describes and relates to a number of subjects modern historians acknowledge as the origins and causes of the Civil War. In fact, pre-Civil War events had both long-term and short-term influences on the War—such as the election of Abraham Lincoln as the American president in 1860 that led to the Fall of Fort Sumter in April of the same year. In that period, contentions that surrounded states’ rights progressively exploded in Congress—since they were the initial events that formed after independence. Congress focused on resolving significant issues that affected the states, which led to further issues. In that order, the US’s history from 1776 to 1861 provides a rich history, as politicians brought forth dissimilarities, dissections, and tensions between the Southern US & the people of slave states, and the Northern states that were loyal to the Union. The events that unfolded from the period of 1776 to 1861 involved a series of issues because they promoted the great sectional crisis that led to political divisions and the build-up to the Civil War that made the North and the South seem like distinctive and timeless regions that predated the crisis itself.

Final Thoughts

In closing, approach the task of writing term papers with determination and a positive outlook. Begin well in advance, maintain organization, and have faith in your capabilities. Don't hesitate to seek assistance if required, and express your individual perspective with confidence. You're more than capable of succeeding in this endeavor!

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What is the Difference between a Term Paper and a Research Paper?

What is the fastest way to write a term paper.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

How To Write a Term Paper: A Guide That Works

30 June, 2020

16 minutes read

Author:  Mathieu Johnson

Once you’ve started your university career, you are going to be asked to present a term paper. What’s the difference between a term paper and a research paper? How can you write a good term? What’s the best way to structure it? Where can you find some tips to make the writing process faster? In this article, we’ll discuss a few tips to help you prepare a term paper quickly and professionally.

What Is a Term Paper… And What Is The First Step?

A term paper is a critical and analytical report on the topic or subject that you covered within the course of studies. It usually consists of two separate but equally important aspects: your own thoughts about the topic and a demonstration of your understanding of the existing literature. The main goal of this assignment is to summarize the material you learned and showcase your understanding of the topic. This aspect makes the term paper a universal instrument for assessing a student’s proficiency. It also explains why term papers cost so many points of your course grade.

We usually associate a term paper with a research paper , but although the concepts are quite similar, a research paper requires a more academic approach and a deeper investigation into the literature of your field of study.

To write an outstanding college term paper, you must understand that your professor has requested it in order to test your analytical thinking skills. You must collect relevant data, analyze it, and then make a summary or solve a particular problem. Such skills are highly relevant to the business world, so this type of the task is as practical as it is educational.

So, let’s start the preparation!

Before you begin writing

Unfortunately, there is no magical recipe that allows you to get everything done fast. You will need to choose the best way forward in whatever situation you find yourself, but here are some tips to help you prepare for the assignment.

To begin with, take the research stage seriously . Sometimes, when students are really interested in a topic, they only want to present their personal ideas about the problem. Unfortunately, if you’re not completely familiar with all the data from the various sources, you will need to reinvent the bicycle.

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In the initial stages of your research, investigate everything you can find on the topic . This may sound like a tall order, but you’ll find that it doesn’t actually entail that much reading. At this point you are only compiling the research, so you will be skimming through numerous prospects rather than reading them completely. Bear in mind that your aim is to get acquainted with the various aspects of your problem. The term paper summarizes the knowledge you gained within a course and requires to familiarize yourself with the research that other people have already made on your topic.

Thinking that your opinions are completely original and unique is quite egocentric, and it can get you into trouble. So, “your” thoughts about the problem are usually just somebody else’s statements that you have rephrased (or even a well-established academic concept!). Remember that your professor will be familiar with all the literature surrounding the issue: if you merely rewrite someone else’s thoughts and present them as your own (even if you don’t realize doing it), be prepared for criticism!

Applying a Structure To Your Term Paper

Once you have read all the leading authors and their approaches to your problem, it’s time to create a structure for your work. This is not yet an outline; you just need to decide what to write about. Sketch out the topic for the theoretical portion of your work and think about practical aspects and how you can approach the research in the best possible way.

At this point, you really need to call or email your supervisor . Your professor will have seen hundreds of term papers like yours (i.e., they have not yet been written, but a definite idea exists!) and will be prepared to give you feedback and advice. He or she will tell you what literature you have omitted, offer suggestions about what you should read, and give you feedback about your paper. It may well be that your approach has already occurred to somebody else, in which case there is no need to repeat it.

Choosing a Topic: Easy as Riding a Bike?

When you choose your topic, make sure you choose something that you are interested in . That’s our advice if you want a painless term paper. If you prefer to investigate a field that you’ve never really explored before, you can challenge yourself to do that, too. That might be sophisticated, but why not?

If you decide to investigate a topic or a problem that you are pretty familiar with, your writing will be more fluid. You will focus your attention on a specific aspect of the chosen field and expand your knowledge within that scope. On the contrary, choosing an unfamiliar subject matter can wash out your expertise.

Be prepared to change the topic if you find out that your research isn’t going anywhere. It might occur that you presuppose that your topic has a potential but somewhere at the stage of initial research, you find that it just won’t work. It’s always a good idea to consider two or three topics when you kick off the term paper writing – even if they are just different ways of examining the same problem. By doing this, you will be able to choose the best version, which may not be the one you started with at all!

Related Post: 100 Persuasive essay topics

Formulating a Thesis statement

Writing a proper thesis statement can also be challenging. To begin with, write down a couple of prominent ideas or concepts, then try to make rough drafts of them to see how they’ll work in the structural framework. You will probably find that one idea fits your style, interests, and knowledge base: you can choose that one as your thesis statement.

Remember that the thesis statement is the skeleton, the central concept of your paper. It is the elemental attribute of almost any academic paper – from master’s thesis to a simple five paragraph essay. If you do a thorough job on it, you will find that writing (and defending!) your argument is much easier.

Be aware that all of these stages are parts of a procedure – one leads to another. When writing a term paper, you should collect the material and wrap it up at the same time.

Planning – The Key To Success

Some people claim that they can write a term paper without any planning. In our opinion, this is impossible. If you don’t have a postgraduate degree and you aren’t a certified genius, you need to prepare an outline for your project. It may come as a surprise, but even people who claim otherwise actually prepare outlines – in their heads. But if you don’t have that much experience, use a pencil and your notebook to ensure that you don’t forget anything.

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That’s when we get to preparing your first draft . There’s only one thing to add here: do as many drafts as you need in order to achieve your goal. Understand that your aim is to create an excellent term paper and keep working at it until you are satisfied.

Term Paper Outline: Write Everything In The Proper Section!

In the Introduction , state the topic that you are going to investigate and the context of your work. This is the critical ‘selling’ moment of your work. In a nutshell, your introduction combined with a conclusion should give a sneak peek into what the whole paper is about. If your introduction is well-prepared, it will be quite complacent about the body of your project. The introduction must include an abstract that presents your thesis statement . You should explain your motivation (why should the reader be concerned about this problem?) , your methods (what scientific tools did you use?) , and the results (what you achieved) .

The Literature Review totally corresponds to its name – it is here to review the literature you compiled. Your professor will double check it to make sure that you understand the context of your argument. One more thing to add is: collect all the information you can! Ideally, you should read or at least glance through every book and author that you can find on the topic. Think of your task as a fascinating journey: if you approach it like that, reading hundreds of pages won’t seem like that much of a challenge.

In the Discussion , you must present the interpretations of the problem. Be honest, explain what you pieces of data you don’t agree with and what ideas and concepts you support. This section connects the dots between theory and practice when writing a term paper. Wherever possible, provide several interpretations of the subject matter, then choose the one(s) that are most relevant to the case you are presenting.

In the Body , focus on those arguments that prove your thesis statement. This section must be absolutely logical. If you have chosen a more complicated topic, use heading and sub-headings to improve the appearance of this section. While writing the body, keep your target audience (your professors) in mind. In other words, don’t just record the obvious causes/effects/solutions but also showcase your own findings – what you have discovered and how that proves your thesis statement. Demonstrate that you are familiar with the details and you will stun your readers with the prolific mastery of the topic.

Now, the Conclusion   is her to summarize both the content and the purpose of the paper. The most challenging part is not to make it too dry. Reiterate your thesis statement and briefly show how your results justified your proposition. At the very end, you can suggest a call to action or pose a rhetorical question or statement that leaves your reader wanting more.

What to do next?

When you have finished, reread your work a couple of times. You will almost certainly find a few faults, whether they are contextual, factual, syntactical, grammatical, or even simple spelling mistakes. A very useful tip is to wait for two or three days after writing your final draft to proofread it afterward. Your brain will have time to process the information, and you’ll be able to look at it with a fresh view.

When proofreading, take care to polish the structural problems. The skeleton (the logic and the thesis statement) should make sense. If they don’t, try to approach the problem from another perspective. The changes may take some time, but bear in mind that your objective is to produce professional work. Be patient!

After that, print the term paper. The human eye processes information differently on the paper than on a computer screen; that’s why you need to print it and take one final look for any possible mistakes. Even if you don’t see any serious defects, pay attention to formatting, punctuation, and synonyms. It’s an academic text, so make it shine!

Term Paper Sample

Be sure to check the sample of a term paper, completed by our writers. Use it as an example to perfect your own writing. Link:  Term Paper Sample: Consumer Buying Behavior .

The Do’s and Don’ts of Term Paper Writing

There you have the most important tips to help you succeed in writing a term paper. Now it’s up to you to stop reading and start writing!

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