how to write an essay about xenophobia

5 Essays About Xenophobia

The word “xenophobia” has ties to the Greek words “xenos,” which means “stranger or “guest,” and “phobos,” which means “fear” or “flight.” It makes sense that today we define “xenophobia” as a fear or hatred of strangers or foreigners. Xenophobia has always existed, but the world has experienced a surge in recent years. The essays described in this article provide examples of xenophobia, its ties to anti-immigration and nationalism, and how diseases like COVID-19 trigger prejudice.

“These charts show migrants aren’t South Africa’s biggest problem”

Abdi Latif Dahir  | Quartz Africa

Between March 29-April 2 in 2019, violence broke out in a South African municipality. Foreign nationals were targeted. Even though people were killed and businesses looted and destroyed, the police didn’t make any arrests. This represents a pattern of violence against foreigners who are mostly migrants from other places in Africa. Reporter Abdi Latif Dahir explains that these recent attacks are based on a belief that migrants cause South Africa’s economic and social problems. In this article from Quartz Africa, he outlines what people are blaming migrants for. As an example, while politicians claim that migrants are burdening the country, the data shows that migrants make up a very small percentage of the country.

Abdi Latif Dahir reports for Quartz Africa and speaks multiple languages. He also holds a master’s of arts degree in political journalism from Columbia University.

“Opinion: A rise in nationalism could hurt minorities”

Raveena Chaudhari | The Red and Black

Nationalism is on the rise in many countries around the world, including the US. The election of Donald Trump signaled a resurgence in nationalism, including white nationalism. In her essay, Raveena Chaudhari explains that far-right politics have been gaining steam in Western Europe since the 1980s. The US is just following the trend. She also uses the terms “patriotism,” which is an important part of the American identity, and “nativism,” which is closely linked to a fear of immigrants and diversity. Xenophobia easily emerges from these ideas. Minorities feel the consequences of a rise in nationalism most keenly. Raveena Chaudhari is a junior accounting major and staff writer for The Red and Black, a nonprofit corporation that circulates the largest college newspaper in Georgia. For 87 years, it operated under the University of Georgia but is now independent of the college.

“The Deep Roots of Trump’s Anti-Immigrant Policies”

Daniel Denvir | Jacobin

In this essay, author Daniel Denvir digs into the background of President Trump’s anti-immigration policies. At the time of this piece’s writing, the Supreme Court had allowed the administration to exclude certain groups from entering the United States. The travel ban has been labeled the “Muslim ban.” Where did these anti-immigrant views come from? They aren’t original to Donald Trump. Denvir outlines the history of racist and xenophobic policies that paint immigrants as a threat to America. Knowing that these views are ingrained in American society is important if we want change.

Daniel Denvir is the host of “The Dig” on Jacobin Radio and the author of All-American Nativism, a critique of nativists and moderate Democrats.

“Nationalism isn’t xenophobia, but it’s just as bad” 

Jeffrey Friedman | Niskanen Center

If you’re unsure what the difference is between nationalism and xenophobia, this essay can help clarify things. Written in 2017, this piece starts by examining surveys and studies measuring how xenophobic Trump supporters are. They also explore the reasons why people oppose illegal/legal immigration. The core of the essay, though, takes a look at nationalism vs. xenophobia. While different, Friedman argues that they are both irrational. The distinction is important as it reveals common ground between Trump supporters and Trump opponents. What does this mean?

Jeffrey Friedman is a visiting scholar in the Charles and Louise Tarver Department of Political Science at the University of California. He’s also an editor and author.

Xenophobia ‘Is A Pre-Existing Condition.’ How Harmful Stereotypes and Racism are Spreading Around the Coronavirus 

Jasmine Aguilera | Time

As COVID-19 spreads throughout the world, there’s been a surge in racism against people of Asian descent. In her essay, Jasmine Aguilera relates examples of this discrimination, as well as responses as people take to social media to combat xenophobia. Reacting with racism to a disease is not a new phenomenon. It’s happened in the past with SARS, Ebola, and H1N1. Society always looks for a scapegoat and minorities usually suffer. This has an impact on a population’s health, livelihood, and safety.

Jasmine Aguilera is a contributor to Time Magazine. She has written several articles about COVID-19 for the publication.

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About the author, emmaline soken-huberty.

Emmaline Soken-Huberty is a freelance writer based in Portland, Oregon. She started to become interested in human rights while attending college, eventually getting a concentration in human rights and humanitarianism. LGBTQ+ rights, women’s rights, and climate change are of special concern to her. In her spare time, she can be found reading or enjoying Oregon’s natural beauty with her husband and dog.

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Xenophobia: The Fear of Strangers

Adah Chung is a fact checker, writer, researcher, and occupational therapist. 

 PBNJ Productions/Blend/Getty

• Fighting Xenophobia

What Is the Opposite of Xenophobic?

Xenophobia, or fear of strangers, is a broad term that may be applied to any fear of someone different from an individual. Hostility towards outsiders is often a reaction to fear. It typically involves the belief that there is a conflict between an individual's ingroup and an outgroup.

Xenophobia often overlaps with forms of prejudice , including racism and homophobia , but there are important distinctions. Where racism, homophobia, and other forms of discrimination are based on specific characteristics, xenophobia is usually rooted in the perception that members of the outgroup are foreign to the ingroup community.

Whether xenophobia qualifies as a legitimate mental disorder is a subject of ongoing debate.

Xenophobia is also associated with large-scale acts of destruction and violence against groups of people.

Signs of Xenophobia

How can you tell if someone is xenophobic? While xenophobia can be expressed in different ways, typical signs include:

• Feeling uncomfortable around people who fall into a different group
• Going to great lengths to avoid particular areas
• Refusing to be friends with people solely due to their skin color, mode of dress, or other external factors
• Difficulty taking a supervisor seriously or connecting with a teammate who does not fall into the same racial, cultural, or religious group

While it may represent a true fear, most xenophobic people do not have a true phobia. Instead, the term is most often used to describe people who discriminate against foreigners and immigrants.

People who express xenophobia typically believe that their culture or nation is superior, want to keep immigrants out of their community, and may even engage in actions that are detrimental to those who are perceived as outsiders.

Is Xenophobia a Mental Disorder?

Xenophobia is not recognized as a mental disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). However, some psychologists and psychiatrists have suggested that extreme racism and prejudice should be recognized as a mental health problem.

Some have argued, for example, that extreme forms of prejudice should be considered a subtype of delusional disorder .   It is important to note that those who support this viewpoint also argue that prejudice only becomes pathological when it creates a significant disruption in a person's ability to function in daily life.

Other professionals argue that categorizing xenophobia or racism as a mental illness would be medicalizing a social problem.  

Types of Xenophobia

There are two primary types of xenophobia:

• Cultural xenophobia : This type involves rejecting objects, traditions, or symbols that are associated with another group or nationality. This can include language, clothing, music, and other traditions associated with the culture.
• Immigrant xenophobia : This type involves rejecting people who the xenophobic individual does not believe belongs in the ingroup society. This can involve rejecting people of different religions or nationalities and can lead to persecution, hostility, violence, and even genocide.

The desire to belong to a group is pervasive—and strong identification with a particular group can even be healthy. However, it may also lead to suspicion of those who are perceived to not belong.

It is natural and possibly instinctive to want to protect the interests of the group by eliminating threats to those interests. Unfortunately, this natural protectiveness often causes members of a group to shun or even attack those who are perceived as different, even if they actually pose no legitimate threat at all.

Xenophobia vs. Racism

Xenophobia and racism are similar in that they both involve prejudice and discrimination, but there are important differences to consider. Where xenophobia is the fear of anyone who is considered a foreigner, racism is specifically directed toward people based on their race or ethnicity. People can be both xenophobic and racist.

Examples of Xenophobia

Unfortunately, xenophobia is all too common. It can range from covert acts of discrimination or subtle comments to overt acts of prejudice or even violence . Some examples of xenophobia include:

• Immigration policies : Xenophobia can influence how nations deal with immigration. This may include hostility and outright discrimination against immigrants. Specific groups of people may be the target of bans designed to keep them from moving to certain locations.
• Displacement : In the U.S., the forcible removal of Indigenous people from their land is an example of xenophobia. The use of residential schools in the U.S. and Canada was also rooted in xenophobic attitudes and was designed to force the cultural assimilation of Native American people.
• Violence : For example, attacks on people of Asian descent have increased in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. 

Causes of Xenophobia

There are a number of different factors believed to contribute to xenophobia: 

• Social and economic insecurity : People often look for someone to blame in times of economic hardship or social upheaval. Immigrants and minorities are often scapegoated as the cause of society's ills.
• Lack of contact : People with little or no contact with people from other cultures or backgrounds are more likely to be fearful or mistrustful of them.
• Media portrayals : The way immigrants and minorities are portrayed in the media can also influence people's attitudes towards them. If they are only shown in a negative light, it can reinforce people's prejudices.
• Fear of strangers : In general, people are more likely to be afraid of unfamiliar things. This can apply to both physical appearance and cultural differences.

Impact of Xenophobia

Xenophobia doesn't just affect people at the individual level. It affects entire societies, including cultural attitudes, economics, politics, and history. Examples of xenophobia in the United States include acts of discrimination and violence against Latinx, Mexican, and Middle Eastern immigrants.

Xenophobia has been linked to:

• Hostility towards people of different backgrounds
• Decreased social and economic opportunity for outgroups
• Implicit bias toward members of outgroups
• Isolationism
• Discrimination
• Hate crimes
• Political positions
• War and genocide
• Controversial domestic and foreign policies

Certainly, not everyone who is xenophobic starts wars or commits hate crimes. But even veiled xenophobia can have insidious effects on both individuals and society. These attitudes can make it more difficult for people in certain groups to live within a society and affect all aspects of life including housing access , employment opportunities, and healthcare access.

The twisting of a positive trait (group harmony and protection from threats) into a negative (imagining threats where none exist) has led to any number of hate crimes, persecutions, wars, and general mistrust.

Xenophobia has a great potential to cause damage to others, rather than affecting only those who hold these attitudes.

How to Combat Xenophobia

If you struggle with feelings of xenophobia, there are things that you can do to overcome these attitudes.

• Broaden your experience. Many people who display xenophobia have lived relatively sheltered lives with little exposure to those who are different from them. Traveling to different parts of the world, or even spending time in a nearby city, might go a long way toward helping you face your fears.
• Fight your fear of the unknown. Fear of the unknown is one of the most powerful fears of all. If you have not been exposed to other races, cultures, and religions, gaining more experience may be helpful in conquering your xenophobia.
• Pay attention. Notice when xenophobic thoughts happen. Make a conscious effort to replace these thoughts with more realistic ones.

If your or a loved one's xenophobia is more pervasive, recurring despite exposure to a wide variety of cultures, then professional treatment might be in order. Choose a therapist who is open-minded and interested in working with you for a long period of time.

Xenophobia is often deeply rooted in a combination of upbringing, religious teachings, and previous experiences. Successfully combating xenophobia generally means confronting numerous aspects of the personality and learning new ways of experiencing the world.

While xenophobia describes a fear of strangers, foreigners, or immigrants, xenophilia, or the act of being xenophilic, describes an appreciation and attraction to foreign people or customs.

History of Xenophobia

Xenophobia has played a role in shaping human history for thousands of years. The ancient Greeks and Romans used their beliefs that their cultures were superior to justify the enslavement of others. Many nations throughout the world have a history of xenophobic attitudes toward foreigners and immigrants. 

The term xenophobia originates from the Greek word xenos meaning "stranger" and phobos meaning "fear.

Xenophobia has also led to acts of discrimination, violence, and genocide throughout the world, including:

• The World War II Holocaust 
• The internment of Japanese Americans during World War II
• The Rwandan genocide
• The Holodomor genocide in Ukraine
• The Cambodian genocide

Recent examples in the United States include discrimination toward people of Middle Eastern descent (often referred to as "Islamophobia") and xenophobic attitudes towards Mexican and Latinx immigrants. The COVID-19 pandemic also led to reports of xenophobia directed toward people of East Asian and Southeast Asian descent in countries throughout the world.

Suleman S, Garber K, Rutkow L. Xenophobia as a determinant of health: An integrative review . J Public Health Policy . 2018;39(4):407-423. doi:10.1057/s41271-018-0140-1

Choane M, Shulika LS, Mthombeni M. An analysis of the causes, effects and ramifications of xenophobia in South Africa . Insight Afr . 2011;3(2):12-142.

Poussaint AF. Is extreme racism a mental illness? Yes: It can be a delusional symptom of psychotic disorders .  West J Med . 2002;176(1):4. doi:10.1136/ewjm.176.1.4

Bell C. Racism: A mental illness? . Psychiatr Serv . 2004;55(12):1343. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.55.12.1343

Baumeister RF, Leary MR. The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation . Psychol Bull . 1995;117(3):497-529.

National Cancer Institute. Let's talk about xenophobia and anti-Asian hate crimes .

Klein JR. Xenophobia and crime . In: Miller JM, ed. The Encyclopedia of Theoretical Criminology . Oxford: Blackwell Publishing; 2014. doi:10.1002/9781118517390.wbetc094

Merriam-Webster. ' Xenophobia' vs. 'racism .'

Romero LA, Zarrugh A. Islamophobia and the making of Latinos/as into terrorist threats . Ethnic Racial Stud . 2018;12:2235-2254. doi:10.1080/01419870.2017.1349919

American Medical Association. AMA warns against racism, xenophobia amid COVID-19 .

By Lisa Fritscher Lisa Fritscher is a freelance writer and editor with a deep interest in phobias and other mental health topics.

What Is Xenophobia? Types & Effects

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

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On This Page:

Xenophobia refers to the fear, hatred, or prejudice against strangers or people perceived as foreign or different from one’s community or culture. It involves hostility and perceived conflict towards those considered an “outgroup.”

Xenophobia originates from the Greek words “xenos” meaning “stranger” and “phobos” meaning “fear.” So, in literal terms, it describes fear of strangers.

However, in common usage, xenophobia also encompasses general discrimination, negative attitudes, and hostile behaviors towards immigrants, foreigners, and cultural outsiders.

What is Xenophobia?

Xenophobia is the fear or hatred of people perceived as being different from oneself. This can be based on a person’s race, ethnicity, nationality, religion, or other distinguishing characteristics.

Xenophobia can often lead to discriminatory behaviors and attitudes, such as prejudice, racism, and even violence. It is important to recognize and address xenophobia, as it can have harmful effects on individuals and society as a whole.

This can typically stem from the deep-rooted belief that there is a conflict between the individual’s ingroup and the outgroups.

Someone xenophobic may feel uncomfortable being in the presence of people from a different group, refuse to be friends or associate with these individuals, may not take outgroup individuals seriously, or may believe their ingroup is superior to the outgroup.

While racism is the belief that one race is superior to another, xenophobia is the hatred of outsiders based on fear, which could then result in feelings of superiority over those outsiders.

Xenophobia is an issue as this type of thinking separates people into insiders and outsiders, which can ultimately cause attitudes such as fear, hate, and humiliation.

Xenophobia could also result in people feeling excluded from the culture they wish to live in or even violence in the most extreme cases. Xenophobia can, therefore, lead to negative experiences at the individual and the social level.

Is it a Mental Disorder?

Xenophobia is not recognized as a mental health condition since there are no criteria for it in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).

Some researchers have debated whether xenophobia should be given its own criteria or made a sub-type of another condition. Poussaint (2002) suggested that extreme xenophobic attitudes should be considered a sub-type of delusional disorder.

The reasoning behind this is that extreme violence because of xenophobia should be indicative of a mental health condition, and not viewing extreme xenophobia as pathological can normalize and legitimize these views.

The researcher, therefore, proposes there be a ‘Prejudice type’ under the criteria of delusional disorder, which can account for extreme xenophobic attitudes and behaviors.

In contrast, others have maintained that extreme xenophobia should not be labeled as a mental health condition, as they argue it is a social problem rather than a health issue (Bell, 2004).

While xenophobia contains the word ‘phobia,’ a diagnosable mental health condition, it is not suggested to be as extreme as other clinical phobias people may experience, such as agoraphobia or claustrophobia.

While it is possible to have a clinical fear of strangers, these individuals would fear all strangers, including those that would be of the same race, ethnicity, and culture as them. People with a fear of all strangers would experience anxious symptoms associated with phobias even while only thinking of strangers.

They would also try to avoid all strangers as much as possible. Therefore, the condition would be significantly detrimental to their lives.

While xenophobia is not a diagnosable mental health condition, it can become a symptom of other mental health conditions. For instance, extreme racist views which stem from xenophobia could be a symptom of psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia.

Likewise, xenophobia could be because of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). If someone develops PTSD after experiencing terrorism and violence in another country, they could then develop xenophobia attitudes because of that experience.

Types of Xenophobia

There are two main types of xenophobia:

Cultural Xenophobia

Individuals who have culturally xenophobic views may reject objects, traditions, or symbols which are associated with another group.

For instance, this could be clothing that is traditional of another culture, different languages, or traditional music of another culture.

Culturally xenophobic people may believe their own cultures and traditions are superior to those belonging to other groups.

This type of xenophobia may present as people making negative remarks about culturally traditional clothing or making derogatory comments when people speak another language around them.

Immigrant Xenophobia

Individuals who express immigrant xenophobia may reject people or groups of people who they believe do not fit in with their ingroup society.

This may involve rejecting people who have different religions or nationalities and avoiding people who have different skin colors to them.

Individuals with this type of xenophobia may consider people in their own social or cultural group as being superior to others, avoid places heavily populated by immigrants, or make negative comments about people who belong to other cultures or countries.

The cause of xenophobia can be complicated. Evolutionary psychologists may argue that xenophobia may be a part of the genetic behavioral heritage because fear of outside groups protected ancestral humans from threat.

Due to this, we may still have a predisposition to being wary of outgroups and may feel more inclined to spend our time with those who are like us. This has also been demonstrated in experiments using the ‘Strange Situation.’

In these classic studies, infants were shown to have anxiety (e.g., crying, not wanting to go near the stranger) when left in a room with a stranger compared to someone familiar.

Factors that affect xenophobic attitudes are mainly considered internal and external. Internal factors are genetics and personality traits, while environmental factors are within the range of intergroup relations and education.

A study by Kocaturk and Bozdag (2020) investigated the relationship between personality traits and xenophobic attitudes. They found that those who had high scores of ‘agreeableness,’ which is associated with compassion and kindness, had lower levels of xenophobic attitudes.

In comparison, those who scored highly on narcissism and psychopathy were shown to be linked with higher levels of xenophobic attitudes.

While some people may be more predisposed to be xenophobic, a lot of the attitudes are a learned response. For instance, if people grow up with families who are xenophobic, they will likely pass on these beliefs to their children.

Similarly, if people are brought up in areas with little diversity or went to school with primarily people who were of the same culture and race or spoke the same language as them, they may not be as knowledgeable of people outside of their own culture or nationality.

This lack of knowledge may also affect the tolerance someone may have of other people, and there may be a stronger sense of ingroup and outgroup.

Social media and news outlets could also fuel xenophobic attitudes, such as politicians using political propaganda to weaponize xenophobia to manipulate emotional tensions within a community to further their agenda. Social media can make it easier than ever to find like-minded individuals and communities who have the same xenophobic attitudes.

Also, social media could influence individuals’ opinions if something is presented to them in a way that can sway views.

Previously tolerant individuals might become exposed to intolerant views, which can shift their opinions in the same way that those with intolerant views may find information that makes their views more extreme (Bursztyn et al., 2019).

Xenophobic attitudes can have a wider impact on societies, including cultural attitudes, economics, politics, and history.

Xenophobia has been linked to the following:

War and genocide

Hostility towards ‘others.’

Decreased social and economic growth for outgroups

Discrimination

Hate crimes

The spread of false information about certain cultures

Controversial policies

Those experiencing xenophobic attitudes towards them may find it difficult to live in their society. They may have fewer job opportunities, housing access, and rights than others.

This could negatively affect their mental health, making them feel socially isolated or depressed.

They may also feel unsafe, dismissed, disconnected, and constantly feel like they are being threatened.

A study on experiences of xenophobia among U.S. Chinese older adults found that they had increased levels of depression, poorer health, an increased risk of isolation, and was more likely to have suicidal ideation (Dong, Chen, & Simon, 2014).

On the other hand, those who express xenophobic views may also face negative impacts. They could lose friends with people who do not share their views or even lose their job, in extreme cases, if their xenophobic actions are reported. This may also result in these individuals feeling socially isolated or depressed.

Current issues could also strengthen xenophobic attitudes and cause negative impacts. For instance, the increase in immigration over the years on a global scale may have strengthened xenophobic attitudes (Yakushko, 2009).

The terrorist attack of 9/11 in New York was followed by anti-Muslim xenophobia. Likewise, the European Union referendum in Britain in 2016 also saw a significant increase in xenophobic attitudes towards immigrants, with a 41% reported increase in racially aggravated offenses in June 2016 compared to June 2015 (Home Office, 2016).

More recently, the outbreak of COVID-19 sparked an increase in xenophobic attitudes towards Asian communities, with more than 1700 anti-Asian hate incidents documented across the United States between March and May 2020 (Le, Cha, Han, & Tseng, 2020).

Combating Xenophobia

For those who have xenophobic attitudes, it may be beneficial to undergo a type of therapy that would alter the incorrect and harmful perceptions they have of others.

A lot of xenophobia could have stemmed from deep-rooted core beliefs that may be difficult to change. If someone with these beliefs wants therapy, the therapists should provide a non-judgemental approach to help the individual.

Cognitive behavioral therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) utilizes methods to challenge unhelpful thoughts and beliefs and aims to adjust these to more realistic or helpful ones.

This could also work if the person with xenophobia experiences anxiety or irrational fears of other people.

Anger management

Also, anger management could be an option for those who are more prone to violent or threatening outbursts towards those who are not a part of their ingroup.

Through anger management, individuals can learn skills to manage their negative emotions like fear and anxiety to overcome this.

Broaden experiences

Otherwise, those who recognize and want to change their xenophobic attitudes may benefit from broadening their experiences. They could travel to other parts of their country or another country where the culture and language are different to help them with their tolerance of people who they consider different from them.

This could relate to exposure therapy, a common practice used with people who have phobias, with the idea that the more exposure one has to something fearful, the less fearful one will be over time.

Individuals could also educate themselves in other ways, such as watching documentaries that discuss other cultures, reading informative books, attending talks, or joining social groups for those wanting to learn more about different cultures, ethnicities, languages, etc.

Consider similarities with the ‘outgroup’

Additionally, when talking to individuals that would have been considered part of the ‘outgroup,’ it may be useful to search for similarities with that person, such as shared interests.

This could increase how much they relate to others as they may notice that there are a lot more similarities between people than they originally thought.

They could also try to learn something from people they encounter, such as understanding situations from another’s perspective.

The less unknown people become, the less likely the individual will feel uncomfortable around them.

Coping With Xenophobia

If someone has experienced xenophobic comments directed towards them and this is affecting their mental health, they may also consider therapy depending on how severely affected they feel.

If individuals are experiencing depression or anxiety because of xenophobia, they could be prescribed anti-depressants to help combat some of the symptoms. However, this may not always be recommended as the first response to mental health issues.

They may also consider counseling or group therapy to discuss how they are feeling and to find ways to manage their negative feelings.

Online communities and support groups are another way to find like-minded individuals who may have had similar experiences. These groups can provide a safe space to be heard and reminded that they are not alone.

For anyone who is noticing xenophobia in society, it may be useful to call out xenophobic comments or intervene if safe to do so. This can inform the person who is being xenophobic that their behavior is problematic, and they may be less likely to repeat their behavior.

Since xenophobic attitudes can begin in childhood, it may be beneficial to educate children at a young age to help prevent deep-rooted xenophobia from taking form.

Speaking honestly with children about xenophobia could help them learn to challenge this behavior if they notice it, such as speaking up for a child in their class who may become a target.

Finally, other ways to tackle xenophobia are to report incidents if safe to do so, both in public and online, share stories about xenophobic experiences to increase awareness, call out news outlets if they are using xenophobic language, and support human rights organizations.

Further Information

Choane, M., Shulika, L. S., & Mthombeni, M. (2011). An analysis of the causes, effects and ramifications of xenophobia in South Africa. Insight on Africa, 3(2), 129-142.

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological bulletin, 117(3), 497.

Bell, C. (2004). Racism: A mental illness?. Psychiatric Services, 55(12), 1343-1343.

Bursztyn, L., Egorov, G., Enikolopov, R., & Petrova, M. (2019). Social media and xenophobia: evidence from Russia (No. w26567). National Bureau of Economic Research.

Corcoran, H., Lader, D., & Smith, K. (2016). Hate Crime, England and Wales . Statistical bulletin, 5, 15.

Dong, X., Chen, R., & Simon, M. A. (2014). Experience of discrimination among US Chinese older adults. Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biomedical Sciences and Medical Sciences, 69 (Suppl_2), S76-S81.

Kocaturk, M., & Bozdag, F. (2020). Xenophobia among University Students: Its Relationship with Five Factor Model and Dark Triad Personality Traits. International Journal of Educational Methodology, 6 (3), 545-554.

Le, T. K., Cha, L., Han, H. R., & Tseng, W. (2020). Anti-Asian xenophobia and Asian American COVID-19 disparities .

Poussaint, A. F. (2002). Yes: it can be a delusional symptom of psychotic disorders. The Western journal of medicine, 176 (1), 4-4.

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Why Xenophobia?

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  Abstract

Excerpted From: Natsu Taylor Saito, Why Xenophobia?, 31 Berkeley La Raza Law Journal 1 (2021) (174 Footnotes) ( Full Document )

In 2020, manifestations of xenophobia increased in the United States with the spread of the coronavirus (COVID-19). For example, in March, not long after the World Health Organization declared the coronavirus to be a pandemic, a teenager stabbed three Asian Americans, including children aged two and six, in a Texas store “because he thought the family was Chinese, and infecting people with the coronavirus.” This did not deter President Donald Trump from continuing to refer to the disease as the “Chinese virus.” Shortly thereafter, one group tracking hate crimes reported 650 instances of anti-Asian discrimination or harassment in just one week. Such attacks are not limited to those presumed to be Chinese or even Asian, as illustrated by a young white man's April 2020 Facebook post calling upon his fellow Arizona residents to “shoot to kill these Navajo [who] are 100% infected with the Coronavirus.”

American Indians have long been depicted in settler discourse as internal enemies and, ironically, the resulting stigma of “foreignness” still follows those Indigenous to this land. Thus, for example, in July 2020, American Indian activists and their allies gathered in the Black Hills (Paha Sapa) of South Dakota to contest the president's visit to Mt. Rushmore were met by Trump supporters vehemently insisting that they “go home.” The monument, which symbolizes genocidal expansionism and defaces lands sacred to the Lakota people, is located on unceded Indian land within the boundaries identified by the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, but this was, apparently, irrelevant to those confronting the Lakota Treaty defenders.

These are but a few examples of the xenophobia that permeates so much of American culture today. Over the past few years, toddlers have been ripped away from their parents and held in cages, and the government shut down over how much more money should go into a southern border wall. Central Americans fleeing gang-driven violence are described as terrorists and drug lords. Muslims are persistently viewed as terrorists and regularly targeted, sometimes lethally, by vigilantes as well as by law enforcement agencies. And in the meantime, people of color from all backgrounds are routinely told to “go back” to where we came from. Why has xenophobia been so persistent throughout United States history?

This essay uses the experiences of people of color within the United States to begin an analysis of the structural drivers of xenophobia in settler states. Xenophobia has always been deeply entwined with racism, but it has also maintained a life of its own. In the Angloamerican settler colonial project, racism has consistently been invoked to justify the appropriation of Indigenous lands and resources, the enslavement of American Indian and African peoples, the exploitation of other peoples of color, and the restrictions placed on citizenship and immigration. In light of this history, why do we also have xenophobia? What does xenophobia accomplish that racism alone does not?

In this initial exploration, I assume that in the United States, xenophobia, like racism, serves many purposes and that developing effective remedies requires an understanding of these purposes. Xenophobia is a product of empire that serves to legitimize the existence of colonially-derived states, including the United States. It empowers the state by providing external threats to combat when internal divisions threaten social stability, allowing exceptions to constraints on the use of state power, creating justifications for massive “defense” and surveillance expenditures, and diverting attention from the real costs and consequences of empire.

Thinking carefully about the “why” of xenophobia--why it persists and why it takes particular forms--is important because its perceived (or implicit) social utility is the source of its power; its functions, or purposes, give us vital information about how that power can be diminished. In the United States, racism is frequently condemned, in theory, if not in practice. In one form or another, this has been true at least since the Reconstruction era, when the Fourteenth Amendment's promise of equal protection under law was quickly subverted by the Supreme Court's narrow interpretation of the Reconstruction Amendments and its protection of legally mandated apartheid. However, discriminatory measures targeting people on the basis of their “outsider” status rather than their racial identity or ethnicity are met with more ambivalence.

A common presumption is that the damage wrought by xenophobia is best addressed by inclusion and absorption into the dominant society. However, because xenophobia reinforces a “national” identity, it may be that, somewhat counterintuitively, it furthers the interests not only of those who envision the United States as an explicitly racial project but also those who believe themselves committed to an assimilationist, “postracial” future. This essay provides a preliminary exploration of the thesis that if a primary purpose of xenophobia is to consolidate and maintain structures of internal colonial rule, it will be best countered not by the assimilation of those deemed Other, but by the recognition of their right to “freely determine their political status and freely pursue their economic, social and cultural development”--in other words, by supporting their right to self-determination.

Xenophobia is a phenomenon integrally related to race and empire. It is generated by and, in turn, fuels the dynamic of difference that always undergirds colonial and neocolonial occupation and exploitation. Xenophobia serves to legitimize and empower states rooted in the colonial world order, including the contemporary American settler state. These dynamics are worth exploring because understanding them will allow us to counter the xenophobia that has been so persistent throughout U.S. history.

Thus, for example, some variant of assimilation or “multiculturalism” is usually presumed to be the most effective response to xenophobia. However, to the extent that its contemporary manifestations are rooted in, legitimize, and empower settler colonial relations, proposed solutions that reinforce the settler state will further entrench xenophobia. This means that assimilationism--or approaches that focus on inclusion rather than decolonization--may, in fact, exacerbate the problem. This is because assimilationism reinforces the hegemony of an on-going occupation that relies upon the subjugation and/or disappearance of those deemed Other. There are no quick fixes for, as Achiume notes, “[f]ully confronting” the challenges of xenophobia “requires a radical rethinking of the relationship between territory and political community.”

In the meantime, as we work towards that radical rethinking, there is nothing to be gained by reinforcing that which needs to be dismantled. For example, rather than reinforcing the legitimacy of the state by claiming-- counterfactually--that this has always been a “nation of immigrants,” we can interrogate its claimed prerogative to assert jurisdiction over indigenous lands and peoples. Mobilizing against external enemies can be a tactic for diverting attention and resources from the disparities caused by structural racism. In such cases, we can insist on policies and practices that redress those disparities, rather than believing that, somehow, if we join together in a “national” cause, racial prejudices will dissipate.

We can openly and vigorously defend those--like Kaepernick--who question mandatory displays of allegiance to a state incapable of protecting its residents from its own security forces. We can refuse to accept otherwise unlawful or unconstitutional state action, or the channeling of public funds into massive “defense” projects simply because the government invokes the mantra of national security or domestic terrorism. Finally, rather than waiting for the consequences of American empire to find their way back home, we can insist that state resources be used to protect and defend those who are most vulnerable. We cannot know which options will prove most effective, but an analysis focused on structure and function reveals many ways to deny xenophobia its power. And that, I believe, is a good place to start.

Distinguished University Professor and Professor of Law, Georgia State University College of Law, Atlanta.

Vernellia R. Randall Founder and Editor Professor Emerita of Law The University of Dayton School of Law Email

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“I really believe in the power of storytelling to change the ways in which people think about immigration and to challenge xenophobia and racism,” says Erika Lee. Photo by: Lisa Miller/University of Minnesota

The Long History of Xenophobia in America

From colonial times to today, the demonization of outsiders has existed alongside the idea of the U.S. as a nation built by immigrants

The United States has always been a nation of immigrants—and seemingly also always a nation suffused with xenophobia, a fear or hatred of those same immigrants.

In 1750, Benjamin Franklin worried that large numbers of “swarthy” foreigners, speaking their own language among themselves, would swamp the colonies and their British subjects. The dangerous outsiders? They were Germans.

Erika Lee, J91, tells that story, among many others, in her award-winning book America for Americans: A History of Xenophobia in the United States , published last year. Regents Professor and the director of the Immigration History Research Center at the University of Minnesota, Lee says it’s important to know this complex history to be able to overcome it.  

“Xenophobia doesn’t just reveal itself through a bigoted relative who is saying stuff about ‘the Mexicans’ at Thanksgiving dinner,” says Lee. “Xenophobia is a form of racism that has been embedded in our laws.”

One way to overcome the alienation that xenophobia brings is to combat the negative stereotypes about immigrants and refugees, and help see them as fellow human beings just like us, Lee says. She leads an effort to do just that, with the Immigrant Stories digital storytelling project. Funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities, the project’s 350 digital stories profile immigrants as “real people, not stereotypes,” she says.

Xenophobia in America

Video by: Jenna Schad

When Lee was at Tufts as an undergraduate, she focused on history, and created her own major in ethnic studies, with advisor Reed Ueda, a professor of history. She also taught a course on the Civil Rights Movement in the Experimental College , “which made me realize how much I love teaching,” she says. “I’m forever grateful for that education.”

With a parade of anti-immigrant measures coming out of Washington, it’s more important than ever to understand what lies behind the xenophobia in this country, Lee says. Tufts Now spoke with her to learn more about that history—and what can be done to overcome it.

Tufts Now : The United States has a very long history of xenophobia, as you document in your book. And yet most Americans don’t know about it. Why is that?

Erika Lee : This is one of the most important questions to ask, because it speaks to why and how xenophobia can persist and endure. We don’t recognize what a strong and pervasive force it has been—or we discount it or willingly ignore it.

But I think it also speaks to a much larger question about history, memory, and the uses of history in crafting our understanding of ourselves.

One of the most important things about xenophobia is that it’s a shapeshifting, wily thing, just like racism. You think it’s gone away, and it comes back. It evolves so that even though one immigrant group finally gains acceptance, it can easily be applied to another.

And sometimes the group that just made it can be very active in leading the charge against the others. It’s unfortunately one of the ways in which racism and our racial hierarchy are at work in the United States.

Are some classes of Americans more xenophobic than others?

I would say that xenophobia flourishes in every community and in every class. One of the great examples of this is Chinese immigration and exclusion. In the book, I focus on the campaigns to drive Chinese people out of Seattle in the late 1800s. There was mob violence that was led by those whom we have been accustomed to identify as working-class whites.

And then there were the more “polite” campaigns, the ones that were led by judges, lawyers, professionals who basically told the agitators, “We agree with you. The Chinese must go, but do we need to resort to lawlessness? How about we organize a campaign of intimidation? Let’s blacklist the housewives—the employers who hire Chinese people, and publish their names in the newspaper. And let’s make it so just horrific to live in Seattle if you’re Chinese that they will self deport.”

Before studying this history, I don’t think I completely understood the depth of that cross-class racism, and the ways in which it can manifest itself differently.

Is the same true about racism in more recent times?

Yes! There are lots of examples of liberal and progressive xenophobia and racism. When I was researching the history behind 1965 Immigration Act—a law that was praised for formally ending discrimination in immigration law and reopening up the country to immigrants—I was struck by how lawmakers could still restrict immigration from the Western hemisphere in what was essentially a Civil Rights law. They described the U.S. being ‘overrun by black and brown immigrants’ at the same time that they insisted on the need to end discrimination.

It seems that this fear of being displaced pushes some lawmakers and others to double down against certain immigrants, especially those from Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Immigration is treated as a zero-sum game; new immigration is a threat to us already here. We can’t both gain at the same time. Your gain is my loss.

You write in the book that xenophobia is a form of racism. How does that work—and has it changed over time?

Racism identifies certain groups as good and superior to others. In the early 20th century, it was considered a matter of biology. Today, we often talk about it as being a matter of “culture.” There are “good immigrants” and there are “bad immigrants” who are a threat to “us.” The dividing line between “good” and “bad” has been marked by religion, national origin, class, gender, and sexual orientation. But especially race.

This relationship between xenophobia is a legacy of the racism that justified slavery and settler colonialism. In fact, early immigrants were always judged in relationship to their place on that spectrum of whiteness and blackness.

For example, Germans were first labeled “swarthy,” a term that was meant to signify blackness and to imply that German immigration was undesirable. But we never restricted their immigration or their ability to become naturalized citizens.

Cartoons of Irish Catholics from the 19th century make them look very similar to apes. This was effective in marking the Irish as a threat, because African Americans were already drawn in similar stereotypical and dehumanizing ways. But again, we never restricted Irish immigration or prohibited them from becoming naturalized citizens.

But then the Chinese came, and here we can see the difference that race makes. The Chinese were automatically seen as more like Native Americans and African Americans than European immigrants. The Chinese were excluded and barred from becoming naturalized citizens.

Xenophobia has influenced government policy from the time of Benjamin Franklin right up to the present. Do you think it is worse now?

It is, but one of the things that I try to emphasize is that you could not have Donald Trump and his policies without Bill Clinton and Barack Obama. You couldn’t have so many Americans shouting “build the wall” without the 2006 Fence Act that George W. Bush signed into law, and that Barack Obama helped to implement, or without Operation Gatekeeper in 1994, which was put in place by Bill Clinton.

What is worse today is the explicit, unabashed, unapologetic, vitriolic language. That is a centerpiece of President Trump’s campaign, first in 2015 when he said Mexicans are rapists and criminals, to today where he’s doubling down on xenophobia ahead of the 2020 elections. He was just here in Minnesota and one of his favorite targets is Ilhan Omar, a Muslim Black woman—a U.S. citizen and a Democratic Congresswoman who he told to ‘go back’ to where she had come from last year.

Previous presidents’ policies certainly had been xenophobic, but they also gave lip service to the idea of the United States as a nation of immigrants, that diversity is a strength. You don’t get any of that with this president, and it makes a difference.

So this administration is more xenophobic than average?

The immigration policies that have been put into effect during this administration have been so numerous, so broad in their scope, and so cruel that they are unparalleled in any other period or other administration.

They have impacted every category of immigrant—from refugees, asylum seekers, illegal, and legal immigrants. And because they have been put in place by executive order, there has been no debate, no calling of witnesses, no rebuttal, no ability for experts, advocates, or lawmakers on either side to be able to contest the justification of the laws.

And that was before COVID-19. I’ve just finished compiling and analyzing the 63 different immigration-related executive actions that have been put in place since January 30, 2020. Sixty-three! They have effectively ended immigration in all forms under the guise of public health concerns even though the infection rates are much, much higher within our country than in any other. We have already identified this era as the most restrictive immigration era in U.S. history.

Has this very obvious xenophobia throughout U.S. history deterred immigrants?

Absolutely. It’s deterred people, and it has encouraged—even forced—people to return home. One of the other aspects of immigration history that we never focus enough attention on is how 30 percent of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, and especially amongst certain groups like Italians in the early 20th century, actually returned home. There could be many reasons for that—jobs that didn’t work out, failed marriages—but a lot of it was that they just didn’t feel welcome here.

Have you seen that personally?

One of the saddest things I’ve seen in the past few years is an internalization of xenophobia. I have volunteered in my kids’ public high school, helping mostly refugee students write their college essays. Here in Minneapolis, they are largely from Somalia.

In 2017, some of my students had been in this country for only four years. They learned English and were working two part-time jobs in addition to going to school. They had compelling personal stories, but when I read their essays, I noticed that they did not mention anything about being refugees.

I’d ask them, “Is there a reason why you don’t want to put that part of your story in your college essay? I think it is phenomenal.” They said, “I don’t want to because ‘refugee’ is a bad word, isn’t it? They won’t want me. Right?” And my heart just sank.

So yes, xenophobia absolutely has an impact. There’s the violence of xenophobia. Families being split apart, etc. But even if you’re not at risk of that, it can manifest itself in deeply personal ways.

While there are vocal anti-immigrant groups, who is advocating now for immigrants?

One of the things that has changed in recent years is that people are leading spontaneous and mass protests against many anti-immigrant measures. I’m sure you remember January 27th, 2017, the Friday that the Muslim ban was announced by the Trump administration.

It was late in the afternoon. By that evening, there were lawyers, advocates, and crowds of people at many of the international airports in the United States with “you are welcome here” signs.

This kind of mass protest didn’t happen before when we passed the Exclusion Act, when we deported Mexican and Mexican Americans during the Great Depression, when we interned Japanese Americans during World War II. These challenges and protests today are so fundamental and so important. They give me hope.

And of course, with the elections coming up, we have the chance to vote xenophobic politicians out of office.

And how can the view of immigrants be more positive, especially among those who fear the effects of immigration?

I think about this on a daily basis. I really want to try to change the narrative about immigration, to combat the threat narrative.

I direct the Immigration History Research Center at the University of Minnesota. It started 55 years ago as an immigrant archive. Its founders believed that it was necessary to document the experiences and life histories of what was then called the “new immigration” from southern, central, and eastern Europe. One goal was “to recover the full-bodied humanity of immigrants” through oral histories, research, and archive-building.

We are still working hard to achieve this mission in a new era of global migration. In 2012, I wanted to do the same for this new generation of immigrants and refugees, and especially the young people who were in my classrooms.

So my colleagues and I started the Immigrant Stories digital storytelling project, and it grew nationally and internationally. It’s a digital storytelling website that allows anyone anywhere to create, preserve, and share their story for free with video, audio, and text. There are now over 350 stories in the collection representing 55-plus ethnic groups.

I really believe in the power of storytelling to change the ways in which people think about immigration and to challenge xenophobia and racism. They help us see immigrants and refugees as real people, not stereotypes. And they remind us what unites us, rather than divides us.

Historian Erika Lee to Deliver Commencement Address for Class of 2022

Confronting the Legacy of Anti-Asian Racism in America

Cheyanne Atole’s Poetry of Identity

Xenophobia in Historical Perspective: Causation, Consequences, and Conquest

• First Online: 15 December 2021

Cite this chapter

• Thandeka Newlady Shoyisa 3 &
• Kehinde Damilola Ilesanmi 4  

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1 Citations

Xenophobia is a Greek word where “Xeno” means strange or foreign and “phobia” means fear or hatred for something different, strange, or foreign. This word is commonly known and used when explaining the prejudice against a particular cultural group or foreign nationals based on their nationality. Accordingly, xenophobia means the fear of a guest or stranger, though, in recent times, it typically depicts the hatred of strangers. According to the South African Human Rights Commission (SAHRC), xenophobia is “the deep dislike of non-nationals by nationals of a recipient state”. Xenophobia can be manifested in different forms; it can be “cultural” (based on the difference in culture) or “societal” (when a certain group of people is not considered a part of society). The two types of xenophobia are cultural and societal. Cultural xenophobia includes discrimination of a certain different cultural group. This may be based on the difference in language, clothing, traditions, and even music associated with that cultural group. On the other hand, societal xenophobia is targeted mostly at immigrants who are not considered as part of society. This is due to differences in religion, nationality, and general cultural background.

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Shoyisa, T.N., Ilesanmi, K.D. (2021). Xenophobia in Historical Perspective: Causation, Consequences, and Conquest. In: Abidde, S.O., Matambo, E.K. (eds) Xenophobia, Nativism and Pan-Africanism in 21st Century Africa. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-82056-5_12

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Essay on Xenophobia

Students are often asked to write an essay on Xenophobia in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Xenophobia

Understanding xenophobia.

Xenophobia is the fear or hatred of strangers or foreigners. It’s a complex issue that can lead to discrimination, violence, and social conflict.

Causes of Xenophobia

Xenophobia can stem from various factors like cultural differences, economic competition, or historical conflicts. It’s often fueled by stereotypes and misinformation.

Impacts of Xenophobia

Xenophobia can harm individuals and communities, leading to social division and conflict. It can also hinder cultural diversity and mutual understanding.

Addressing Xenophobia

To combat xenophobia, it’s important to promote tolerance, diversity, and understanding. Education and open dialogue can play a key role in this process.

Also check:

• 10 Lines on Xenophobia

250 Words Essay on Xenophobia

Defining xenophobia.

Xenophobia, derived from the Greek words ‘xenos’ (strange) and ‘phobos’ (fear), is the irrational or unreasoned fear of that which is perceived as different or foreign. It is a social phenomenon that manifests in numerous ways, primarily through attitudes of prejudice and discrimination.

The Roots of Xenophobia

Xenophobia is deeply rooted in human psychology and societal structures. It can be traced back to our evolutionary past, where in-group favouritism and out-group hostility were survival mechanisms. In modern times, xenophobia often arises from economic, political, and social insecurities, creating scapegoats for complex issues.

Xenophobia’s Impact on Society

Xenophobia’s impact is far-reaching and detrimental. It fosters social division, fuels hate crimes, and hinders cultural exchange and mutual understanding. Additionally, it can lead to policies that are discriminatory and violate human rights.

Combating Xenophobia

Addressing xenophobia requires a multi-faceted approach. Education plays a crucial role in challenging stereotypes and fostering understanding. Policies promoting diversity and inclusivity can also help. Moreover, media has a responsibility to portray diverse groups accurately and sensitively.

In an increasingly globalized world, xenophobia is a hurdle to unity and progress. As we strive for a more inclusive and understanding society, it is paramount to confront and challenge xenophobic attitudes wherever they appear.

500 Words Essay on Xenophobia

Introduction.

Xenophobia, derived from the Greek words ‘xenos’ meaning ‘stranger’ or ‘foreigner’ and ‘phobos’ meaning ‘fear’, is an intense or irrational dislike or fear of people from other countries. It manifests in many ways, ranging from bias and prejudice to violence and hate crimes. Xenophobia is a complex and multifaceted issue that has significant socio-cultural and political implications.

Historical Context and Causes

Xenophobia is not a new phenomenon. It has been prevalent throughout history, often exacerbated during times of economic hardship, political instability, or when a society feels its identity is under threat. The causes of xenophobia are multifaceted, often rooted in ignorance, misinformation, and fear. It can stem from a perceived threat to a community’s economic status, cultural identity, or social cohesion.

The impacts of xenophobia are far-reaching and destructive, affecting individuals and communities on multiple levels. At an individual level, victims of xenophobia can experience psychological trauma, social isolation, and economic disadvantage. On a societal level, xenophobia can lead to social division, conflict, and can undermine social cohesion. It can also negatively impact a nation’s reputation and relationships with other countries.

Xenophobia and Globalization

In the age of globalization, where the world is more interconnected than ever, xenophobia poses a significant challenge. As people move across borders for work, education, or refuge, they often encounter unfamiliar cultures and societies. This increased diversity can lead to tension and fear, fueling xenophobia. However, globalization also provides an opportunity for increased understanding and tolerance, as exposure to different cultures can challenge pre-existing stereotypes and biases.

Addressing xenophobia requires a multifaceted approach. Education plays a crucial role in combating ignorance and misinformation that often fuels xenophobia. Schools and universities should promote cultural understanding and tolerance, encouraging students to challenge their biases and stereotypes. Governments have a responsibility to enact and enforce laws that protect individuals from hate crimes and discrimination. The media also plays a critical role in shaping public opinion and should strive to present balanced and accurate depictions of different cultures and communities.

Xenophobia is a complex and pervasive issue with significant implications for individuals and societies. It is a product of fear and ignorance, often exacerbated by economic hardship and political instability. However, through education, legislation, and responsible media representation, it is possible to challenge xenophobia and promote a more inclusive and tolerant society. In the age of globalization, it is more important than ever to address xenophobia and strive for a world where diversity is celebrated rather than feared.

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What Is Xenophobia, And Is It A Phobia?

Xenophobia can be described as fear, hatred, or prejudice against those different from you. The object of xenophobia may be anything considered strange or unknown to an individual or group, including those of different nationalities, ethnic backgrounds, regions, religions, cultures, or neighborhoods. 

Xenophobia is often associated with hostility, violence, and aggression against groups of people. Stories about xenophobia are frequent in the news, but is this behavior truly a phobia – and does it affect a person’s mental health?

Is xenophobia a mental health disorder?

Xenophobia is not recognized as a mental disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). The American Psychiatric Association maintains that racism and xenophobia are cultural or social issues rather than psychopathology.

Some psychiatrists may believe that xenophobia cannot or should not be treated. However, other mental health professionals may argue that racist attitudes and xenophobic ideas should be considered a symptom of a mental health disorder. Even though xenophobia is not a mental health condition, it may still be treated with therapy.

The concept of xenophobia is not a psychological phobia . To be diagnosed as an actual phobia, a person with xenophobia must have an intense fear or hatred towards people of all different cultures, customs, or nationalities instead of a single target.

Many individuals who are considered xenophobic do not dislike all people from other cultures. Often, their aversion may be reserved for particular groups of people, such as those of East Asian or Southeast Asian descent, religions, customs, or geographical locations like Eastern Europe. This long history of xenophobia shows that it is deeply rooted in societal beliefs and negative stereotypes.

Characteristics of xenophobia

Individuals who demonstrate xenophobia often believe their culture, ethnicity, race, or social group is superior to others.

While characteristics and ways of expressing xenophobia may vary from person to person, there may be common signs among individuals, including the following:

• They may feel uncomfortable around individuals from a different group than their own, such as Chinese Americans or religious minorities; anti Asian sentiments are frequently reported in the news
• They may take extreme measures to avoid certain areas or contact with that group, like avoiding neighborhoods with a high concentration of foreign workers
• They may refuse to be friends with other individuals simply because of their skin color, nationality, ethnic background, or other external factors
• They may believe in stereotypes about other groups or label people negatively due to their background, skin color, or social standing, perpetuating the history of xenophobia
• They may find it difficult to report to a superior who is not from the same cultural, ethnic, racial, or religious background as them, especially if they have immigrant xenophobia
• Individuals who demonstrate xenophobia often believe their culture, ethnicity, race, or social group is superior to others. 

Xenophobic attitudes and behaviors may appear in many contexts in everyday life, and they aren’t necessarily violent. Some individuals could be unaware that they are expressing a xenophobic attitude. Nonetheless, such belief structures may have an adverse impact on mental health and public health concerns.

Some common potential xenophobic behaviors could include:

• Negatively criticizing the way someone from another culture dresses, such as traditional Eastern Europe garments
• Referring to your culture’s food as normal and another group’s as weird exemplifying increased xenophobia
• Refusing to travel somewhere because of a particular ethnic group there, like avoiding areas with a high population of immigrants
• Having no friends or acquaintances from outside groups because they make you uncomfortable, especially young people from diverse backgrounds
• Feeling like those who don’t speak English well or speak other languages are not intelligent
• Avoiding neighborhoods where racial minorities live
• Making fun of AAVE (African American Vernacular English) or someone’s accent or assuming it makes someone less intelligent
• Assuming that other countries or cultures are underdeveloped or lack the same qualities as your own, reflecting the belief in cultural superiority

Causes of xenophobia

Xenophobia may be deeply rooted, based on various factors, including upbringing, religious teachings, environment, culture, and past experiences. Historical events, such as the Great Depression or World War II, might have shaped government policy and influenced public opinion on immigration, leading to xenophobia and racism.

Individuals with xenophobic beliefs or attitudes may not have had much exposure to groups of individuals they consider different, such as indigenous people or outsiders. Therefore, they might develop a fear or dislike of the unknown. Nationalistic views and material or economic factors may contribute to xenophobia among some individuals. A specific traumatic experience or crisis, like xenophobic attacks, may also cause these beliefs.

Impact of xenophobia

Xenophobia can have a significant impact not only on the targeted group of people or individual but on societies, cultural attitudes, politics, history, and economics. Colloquially, xenophobia refers to the behavior of a group or an individual based on the intense dislike of or intolerance for people of another race or culture. 

Xenophobia could also be based on a perceived threat. For example, someone may believe that immigrants from specific countries are criminals or will harm their livelihood. The level of fear or hatred displayed with xenophobia often exceeds typical racially prejudiced behavior.

Xenophobia may be associated with the following examples:

• Hostility and violence towards those of different groups or backgrounds (so called “strangers”)
• Reduced social and economic opportunities for those in the discriminated group or outgroup
• Implicit bias towards those in the discriminated group
• Discrimination
• Hate crimes
• War and genocide
• Political positions
• A lack of education on foreign policies 

There may be other forms and different degrees of how individuals express xenophobia. The effects of xenophobia may impact the health and social activities of people. However, whether it’s a violent crime or a xenophobic attitude, it may negatively affect how individuals live within a society. 

For example, immigrants traveling to the United States from a South American country may experience racism when they speak their language or attempt to get a job to support themselves in a new location. On the other hand, immigrants from certain European countries, such as England, may be treated with respect or kindness when trying to arrange a job. This unequal treatment of people from different regions highlights the importance of organizations like the United Nations, which works to promote equality, understanding, and cooperation among nations to combat such discrimination.

How to overcome xenophobia

Xenophobia is often a learned response. Overcoming this mindset may take active unlearning of previous opinions or behaviors. To successfully overcome xenophobia in yourself, you may have to challenge various aspects of your life and the way you see the world. It is possible for xenophobic people to change their xenophobic attitudes. Overcoming their fear of strangers may reduce have crimes and minimize mental illness.

If you are experiencing feelings of xenophobia, you may choose to implement dramatic changes. A professional counselor, open-minded friend or family, or support group may be an option. You can also try the following tips. 

Educate yourself

If you have feelings of xenophobia, one of the reasons may be a lack of understanding or education about a particular group of individuals. 

You may consider reading books or watching videos from credible sources to educate yourself and gain exposure. Credible sources may include:

• Psychological journals 
• Encyclopedias from the library 
• Library resources, such as news stories or non-fiction historical books 
• Books about racism or xenophobia written by minorities impacted by xenophobia 
• Online videos from minorities who have been targeted by xenophobia
• University staff 
• University libraries or resource pages
• Google Scholar

Educating yourself may help you clear up any mistakes or assumptions that could fuel your fear.

Expand your experiences

A potentially effective way to overcome xenophobia is broadening your horizons and immersing yourself in cultures, traditions, and worldviews that are different from your own. 

Traveling to new countries or cities may help you gain new experiences. This experience could enable you to conquer any problematic beliefs and attitudes. You might also try to learn a new language to interact with those from other countries or individuals in your community who don’t speak fluent English. 

Practice mindfulness

It may be helpful to replace your xenophobic thoughts with mindfulness. Mindfulness can be a powerful tool for challenging negative thought patterns. Meditation, breathing techniques, and yoga can all be helpful ways to practice mindfulness and stay in the present.

Talk to your children

Because xenophobia is often learned, consider talking to your children about this negative mindset early and often. Have an honest and open conversation with them. Expose them to different cultures, traditions, and ethnic groups, and challenge stereotypes they pick up at school or in the media.  

You might also teach your children to embrace differences in people, and welcome those from different social and economic backgrounds. Consider encouraging them to see people as complex individuals and not groups of individuals. Working on empathy with your children may also be helpful. 

Talk to a therapist

If you’re finding it difficult to overcome your feelings of xenophobia, a licensed mental health professional may be able to help. They can provide tools and guidance to help you understand where these feelings come from and successfully overcome them.

Therapy for those impacted by xenophobia 

For those that have experienced xenophobia firsthand, therapy may be beneficial in supporting you during difficult times. Studies show that online treatment is effective in treating those individuals experiencing complex emotions related to a traumatic event, such as a xenophobic act. 

Online therapy is available if you’ve been affected in any way by xenophobia or discrimination or have xenophobic feelings you’d like to overcome. Xenophobia can trigger feelings of shame, whether you’re on the giving or receiving end of the equation. Online therapy is a discreet way of seeking treatment, and you can attend sessions via live chat, voice call, messaging, or video conferencing. 

If you’d like to try therapy, you might consider an online therapy platform such as BetterHelp, which has a database of therapists specializing in various topics. 

Suppose you or someone you know has experienced xenophobic prejudice or violence, or you’d like to overcome your xenophobic attitudes. In that case, it may be helpful to seek support from a therapist. 

Consider reaching out for unbiased and compassionate trauma assistance by trained therapists and counselors.

Frequently Asked Questions

What does the word xenophobia mean? What's the opposite of xenophobia? What is xenophobia Oxford dictionary?

What is the purpose of xenophobia  what are the synonyms for xenophobia what do you call someone who hates foreigners what are the consequences of xenophobia when did xenophobia stop what factors cause xenophobia.

What is the meaning of xenophilia?  What is a sentence for xenophobia? What is a fancy word for disrespectful? Why are South Africans xenophobic? Are South Africans xenophobic? What is the difference between Afrophobia and xenophobia?

• Everything You Need To Know About Trichophobia Medically reviewed by Paige Henry , LMSW, J.D.
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EssayEmpire

Xenophobia essay.

Xenophobia has come to be defined as the fear of foreigners. Etymologically, xenophobia can be broken down into the Greek terms xenos (stranger) and phobos (fear). In common usage xenophobia refers to a disdain for individuals or groups of persons that are different from oneself. This dislike can range from simple rude comments to much more dangerous forms of intolerance. Therefore, the term can have varying levels of sever ity in the amount of the fear of the foreign population, as well as in how this fear is manifested in thought and action. Several examples of both state and nonstate manifestations of xenophobia are warranted.

Immigrant groups are often subjected to xenophobic attitudes of existent populations in countries around the world. If a historical view is taken, it can be remembered that during the colonial periods colonists often held xenophobic views of native populations. In each of these cases, individuals and groups frequently associated cultural and ethnic stereotypes with the feared groups. This practice exacerbated cultural misunderstandings and has only served to increase the levels of narrow-mindedness that enter into these groups’ interactions in everyday life, as well as in social and political institutions.

Whole societies have experienced times in which xenophobia was ostensibly state governmental policy. Japan from the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries is a prime example of this policy. During this period almost all foreigners and foreign influences were removed or banned from the country. While this policy ended in the mid-nineteenth century, it serves as a stark representation of xenophobia as governmental policy.

However, most xenophobia is not expressed through governmental policy. It is usually articulated on a more direct, personal level. An example of this type of xenophobia can be found in the successive waves of immigrants to New York City in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Each new population of immigrants was subject to the xenophobic attitudes of the present inhabitants, many of whom also had immigrated recently and had been subject to xenophobia themselves. This xenophobia expressed itself through epithets, violence, and general discrimination, such as the “Irish need not apply” signs found in many shops.

In more recent times, immigration has continued to be a source of xenophobia. In the United States, for example, many groups have come together to protest illegal immigration, primarily from Latin America. Many observers have noted the xenophobic messages hidden superficially below the surface of the rhetoric in such publications and on such Web sites.

There are also many instances of xenophobia existing within the boundaries of one country, but among different factions, cultural minorities, or regional populations. For example, the Kurds of northern Iraq, as a population, have experienced xenophobic policies from governmental entities as well as a general social climate of xenophobia from other social and religious groups in that country. These exclusionary policies and less formal prejudices, for example, have contributed to the splintering of Iraq.

As countries experience increasing levels of social, political, and economic interdependence, the world is becoming ever more multicultural. This elevated level of interaction among diverse members of different communities may lead to a more tolerant and socially beneficent global population. Many signs indicate that the world is on the march to less xenophobia because of this increased contact and integration. However, many trends point to the unfortunate fact that xenophobia will continue to exist because of increased competition for resources, commerce, and political power.

The relative levels of xenophobia in and among countries are difficult to directly quantify. However, measures that investigate levels of perceived discrimination and the number of hate crimes in a population (although many countries do not yet have adequate tracking systems) can provide transferable evidence of the persistence of xenophobia. For example, a 2008 study by Human Rights First revealed that Finland, Ireland, the Slovak Republic, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States showed moderate to high rises in the overall numbers of hate crimes in 2006 and 2007. Further, evidence of the problem of xenophobia was addressed in conferences sponsored by the United Nations in 2001 and 2009.

The future of xenophobia as a human condition is unlikely to end. This, of course, is a sad report on human relations that people fear what is not directly familiar to themselves and their normal experiences. One can only hope that the future will provide increased opportunities for diverse groups and populations to share their cultural traditions in an atmosphere of genuine interest in the other and mutual respect for them and their ways of life.

Bibliography:

• Human Rights First. 2008 Hate Crime Survey: Racism and Xenophobia, 2008, www.humanrightsfirst.org/discrimination/reports.aspx?q=print&s=racism-and xenophobia&p=racvio.
• Roemer, John E.,Woojin Lee, and Karine Van Straeten. Racism, Xenophobia, and Distribution: Multi-issue Politics in Advanced Democracies. New York: Russell Sage. 2007.
• Saideman, Stephen M., and R.William Ayres. For Kin or Country: Xenophobia, Nationalism, and War. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008.
• Taras, Ray. Europe Old and New: Transnationalism, Belonging, Xenophobia. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2009.
• Wistrich, Robert S. Demonizing the Other: Antisemitism, Racism, and Xenophobia. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic, 1999.

This example Xenophobia Essay is published for educational and informational purposes only. If you need a custom essay or research paper on this topic please use our writing services. EssayEmpire.com offers reliable custom essay writing services that can help you to receive high grades and impress your professors with the quality of each essay or research paper you hand in.

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American Post-1945 panel(s) at PAMLA 2024 [extended due date]

We invite proposals for papers dealing with American Literature from 1945 to the present to be shared at the Pacific Modern Lanugage Association, held this year from November 7-10 at the Margariaville Resort in Palm Springs, California. The conference will be held completely in person.

Our panel organizers believe in a capacious understanding of post-1945 American Literature. The category of “literature” includes imaginative works (fiction, poetry, drama) but also essays, memoirs, or creative nonfiction. Texts that are written by American-identifying authors or  texts about America or American life are welcome. 

We are open to proposals on a wide variety of topics, with particular consideration granted to papers that engage with the conference theme of "Translation in Action." The postwar period offers a rich body of writing to consider, as a diversifying America has led to a diversifying American literary canon. Writers who engage with questions of translation do so in a context of a nation becoming more linguistically and culturally variegated, even in the midst of surges of xenophobia and resentment toward changes to an Anglo-dominated, English-speaking, mythical, ahistorical vision of the nation.

Topics of particular interest include but are not limited to:

--Integrating questions of linguistic translation in literary texts

--Managing the presence of multiple languages within a text

--Translation of cultural practices and senses of identity

--Linguistic hierarchies inside and outside English-dominated polities

--Figurative language and stream-of-consciousness as forms of translation

--Translation in light of AI-generated or language poetry

--Postmodernism, the signifying chain, and translation

--Refusing to translate and the untranslatable

--The market for translations

--The place of translations in English departments

--Translation across media

Paper proposals are due on June 30, 2024. Submit your 250-word abstracts via the PAMLA portal: https://pamla.ballastacademic.com/Home/S/19145 .

Send questions to Jeffrey Gonzalez at [email protected] .