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APA Title Page (Cover Page) Format, Example, & Templates

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

In APA Style (7th edition), the cover page, or title page, should include:

• A running head (professional papers only) and page number
• The title of the paper
• The name of the author(s)
• The institutional affiliation
• An author note; optional (professional papers only)
• A student paper should also include course information

Note : APA 7 provides slightly different directions for formatting the title pages of professional papers (e.g., those intended for scholarly publication) and student papers (e.g., those turned in for credit in a high school or college course).

Professional paper APA title page

Student paper APA title page

Formatting an APA title page

Note : All text on the title page should be double-spaced and typed in either 12-point, Times New Roman font. In the 7th edition, APA increaded the flexibility regarding font options: which now include Calibri 11, Arial 11, Lucida Sans Unicode 10, Times New Roman 12, or Georgia 11. All words should be centered, and capitalize the first letter of important words.

Running Head

In the 7th edition of the APA style manual, running heads are only required for professional papers that are being submitted for publication (student papers do not require a running head, but still need a page number).

Your title page should contain a running head that is flush left at the top of the page and a page number that is flush right at the top of the page.

Place the running head in the page’s header:

• The running head is the abbreviated title of the paper (IN UPPERCASE LETTERS) aligned left on the page header of all pages, including the title page. APA (7th edition) guidelines require that running heads be a maximum of 50 characters (spaces count as characters).
• The “Running head:” label used in the APA sixth edition is no longer used.
• Place the page number in this same header, but align right, beginning with page number 1 on the title page.
• This header should be 1 inch from the top. Some instructors allow for 1/2 inch, too, but the default is 1 inch.

Paper Title

Position the title of the paper in the upper half of the page. The title should be centered and written in boldface, and important words should be capitalized.

The APA recommends that your title should be a maximum of 12 words and should not contain abbreviations or words that serve no purpose.

Author Name(s)

Institutional affiliation.

Position the school or university’s name below the author(s) name, centered.

A student paper should also include the course number and name, instructor name, and assignment due date.

Further Information

• APA Student Title Page Guide
• APA Referencing
• How to Write a Lab Report
• Essay Writing Guide for Psychology Students
• APA Style Citations & References
• Example of an APA Formatted Paper

Related Articles

Student Resources

How To Cite A YouTube Video In APA Style – With Examples

How to Write an Abstract APA Format

APA References Page Formatting and Example

How do I Cite a Source with Multiple Authors in APA Style?

How to Write a Psychology Essay

Lab Report Format: Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

• The Complete Guide to APA Format in 2020

APA Title Page / Cover Page

• Headings and Subheadings
• Discussion Section
• Websites and Online Sources
• Journals and Periodicals
• Other Print Sources
• Other Non-Print Sources
• In-text Citations
• Footnotes and Endnotes
• Using MyBib Responsibly
• Miscellaneous Questions

Details to include

The title page (also known as the cover page) is the front page of your paper. It should contain:

• The running head , a header at the top of the page.
• The first page number .
• The title of the paper
• The institution for which you writing.

Running head

The running head should be in the top-left corner of the page in uppercase. It should include a shortened title of your paper. On the front page only, it should also be prepended with "Running head:".

First page number

The first page number -- generally page 1 -- should be in the top-right corner of the page. Both the page number and the running head should be a half inch from the top of the page.

The title of the paper can contain upper and lowercase letters, and ideally should be no more than 12 words in length. It should be direct, and should not contain abbreviations or other unnecessary words. It should not span longer than 2 lines. The first letter of each word should be uppercase, except for articles (a, an, the), and conjunctions (and, but, for, or, yet).

Underneath the title should be your name (or the author's name if you're not the author). It should be displayed as the first name , middle initial , and last name . Do not add titles (such as Dr.) to the beginning, or qualifications (such as PhD) to the end of an author's name.

Your institution

Finally, underneath the author's name, state the full name of the institution or school you're writing the paper for.

The font for all text on the title page should be Times New Roman, size 12pt, with double line-spacing.

A correct title page will look like the below image:

After completing your title page you will move on to writing an abstract of your paper.

Title Page in Research Paper: Importance, Guidelines & Examples

Make your research paper stand out with an impressive title page. Learn how to craft the perfect title page in research paper in this guide.

The title page is a crucial component of a research paper, serving as the first point of contact between the reader and the study. It provides readers with a first impression, signaling the credibility and relevance of the work. Beyond conveying essential information, a well-designed title page adds visual appeal to the paper, contributing to its overall presentation. In this article, we will explore the importance of title pages in research papers, exploring how they capture attention, convey vital information, and enhance the overall quality of the study.

Overview of Title Page in Research Paper:

The title page in research paper is typically located at the beginning of the document and provides key information about the paper. The title page presents a professional and organized appearance, setting the tone for the entire research paper.

Purpose of a Title Page

The purpose of a title page in a research paper is to convey important details about the study. It includes the title of the paper, the author’s name, the institutional affiliation, and sometimes additional information such as the course name, instructor’s name, or submission date. The title page helps to identify and differentiate the research paper, making it easier for readers, instructors, and researchers to locate, reference, and cite the work accurately. Additionally, it establishes the credibility and professionalism of the study, demonstrating the author’s attention to detail and adherence to academic standards.

Creating a Title Page

To create a title page for a research paper, start by centering the title of your paper at the top of the page. Then, on separate lines, include your name, your affiliation (university or institution), and the date of submission. Optionally, you can also include the course name, instructor’s name, and any other relevant information specified by your institution or guidelines. Make sure to format the title page according to the required style guide (e.g., APA , MLA ) with consistent font, spacing, and alignment.

Elements of a Title Page

A title page is an essential component of a research paper, providing key information about the study and its authors. The elements commonly included on a title page are:

Title : Choose a concise and descriptive title that accurately reflects the main focus of your research. It should be informative, engaging, and capture the essence of your study.

Author’s Name : Include your full name as the author of the research paper. If there are multiple authors, list them in the order they contributed to the study.

Institutional Affiliation : Mention the name of the institution or organization with which you are affiliated. This could be your university, research institute, or academic department.

Course Information : If the research paper is being submitted for a course, include the course name and number.

Date : Indicate the date of submission or completion of the research paper.

Instructor : Include the instructor’s name below the author’s name, affiliation, and course (if the paper is being submitted for a course), using a centered format.

Page Number : Typically, the title page is counted as page 1, although it is often not numbered. Numbering usually starts on the second page, which is usually the abstract or introduction.

Formatting Guidelines for a Title Page

The formatting guidelines for a title page provide specific instructions on how to structure and present the elements of a title page in a research paper. These guidelines ensure consistency and uniformity in academic writing. They may vary depending on the required citation style, such as APA (American Psychological Association) or MLA (Modern Language Association).

APA Formatting Guidelines

The APA formatting guidelines provide a set of rules for formatting academic papers, including the title page. According to APA guidelines, the title page should include the title of the paper, the author’s name, institutional affiliation, and a running head. The running head is a shortened version of the paper’s title and appears at the top of each page. Additionally, APA guidelines specify the use of specific font size and type, margins, and alignment for the title page.

MLA Formatting Guidelines

The MLA formatting guidelines, commonly used in humanities and liberal arts disciplines, also provide instructions for creating a title page. According to MLA guidelines, the title page should include the title of the paper, the author’s name, the course name and number, the instructor’s name, and the due date. Unlike APA, MLA does not require a running head on the title page. MLA guidelines specify the use of specific font size and type, margins, and alignment for the title page.

Title Page Examples

Title page examples provide visual representations of how a title page should be formatted and organized in different contexts. These examples serve as valuable references for students and professionals to understand the layout and presentation of a title page in various academic or professional settings.

Student Version Example

A student version example of a title page demonstrates how a title page should be formatted for academic papers or assignments completed by students. It typically includes the paper’s title, the student’s name, the course name and number, the instructor’s name, and the date. This example is designed to meet the specific requirements and guidelines provided by the educational institution or instructor.

Professional Version Example

A professional version example of a title page showcases how a title page should be formatted for research papers, articles, or other professional documents. In addition to the title, it typically includes the author’s name, institutional affiliation, and any relevant professional credentials. This example follows the formatting guidelines of the specific citation style used in the professional field, such as APA or MLA, and may also include additional information such as the publication date or the name of the journal or conference.

6 Tips for Writing an Effective Title Page

Here are some tips for writing an effective title page:

1. Follow the formatting guidelines

Familiarize yourself with the specific formatting guidelines provided by your educational institution or the citation style you are using (such as APA or MLA). Adhere to these guidelines for font size, margins, spacing, and other formatting elements.

2. Use a clear and concise title

The title should accurately reflect the content of your paper or document in a concise and descriptive manner. Avoid using vague or ambiguous titles that may confuse readers.

3. Include relevant information

Include essential information such as the author’s name, the title of the work, the course or assignment name (if applicable), the instructor’s name, and the date of submission. Ensure that all required elements are included based on the guidelines provided.

4. Use consistent formatting

Maintain consistency in font style, size, and formatting throughout the title page. This helps create a professional and organized appearance.

5. Consider the placement of elements

Arrange the elements on the title page in a logical and visually appealing manner. Typically, the title is centered at the top, followed by the author’s name and other details.

6. Double-check for accuracy

Before finalizing your title page, review it carefully for any spelling or grammatical errors. Make sure all the information provided is accurate and up to date.

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13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

How To Write A Research Paper

Step-By-Step Tutorial With Examples + FREE Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Expert Reviewer: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | March 2024

For many students, crafting a strong research paper from scratch can feel like a daunting task – and rightly so! In this post, we’ll unpack what a research paper is, what it needs to do , and how to write one – in three easy steps. 🙂 

Overview: Writing A Research Paper

What (exactly) is a research paper.

• How to write a research paper
• Stage 1 : Topic & literature search
• Stage 2 : Structure & outline
• Stage 3 : Iterative writing
• Key takeaways

Let’s start by asking the most important question, “ What is a research paper? ”.

Simply put, a research paper is a scholarly written work where the writer (that’s you!) answers a specific question (this is called a research question ) through evidence-based arguments . Evidence-based is the keyword here. In other words, a research paper is different from an essay or other writing assignments that draw from the writer’s personal opinions or experiences. With a research paper, it’s all about building your arguments based on evidence (we’ll talk more about that evidence a little later).

Now, it’s worth noting that there are many different types of research papers , including analytical papers (the type I just described), argumentative papers, and interpretative papers. Here, we’ll focus on analytical papers , as these are some of the most common – but if you’re keen to learn about other types of research papers, be sure to check out the rest of the blog .

With that basic foundation laid, let’s get down to business and look at how to write a research paper .

Overview: The 3-Stage Process

While there are, of course, many potential approaches you can take to write a research paper, there are typically three stages to the writing process. So, in this tutorial, we’ll present a straightforward three-step process that we use when working with students at Grad Coach.

These three steps are:

• Finding a research topic and reviewing the existing literature
• Developing a provisional structure and outline for your paper, and
• Writing up your initial draft and then refining it iteratively

Let’s dig into each of these.

Need a helping hand?

Step 1: Find a topic and review the literature

As we mentioned earlier, in a research paper, you, as the researcher, will try to answer a question . More specifically, that’s called a research question , and it sets the direction of your entire paper. What’s important to understand though is that you’ll need to answer that research question with the help of high-quality sources – for example, journal articles, government reports, case studies, and so on. We’ll circle back to this in a minute.

The first stage of the research process is deciding on what your research question will be and then reviewing the existing literature (in other words, past studies and papers) to see what they say about that specific research question. In some cases, your professor may provide you with a predetermined research question (or set of questions). However, in many cases, you’ll need to find your own research question within a certain topic area.

Finding a strong research question hinges on identifying a meaningful research gap – in other words, an area that’s lacking in existing research. There’s a lot to unpack here, so if you wanna learn more, check out the plain-language explainer video below.

Once you’ve figured out which question (or questions) you’ll attempt to answer in your research paper, you’ll need to do a deep dive into the existing literature – this is called a “ literature search ”. Again, there are many ways to go about this, but your most likely starting point will be Google Scholar .

If you’re new to Google Scholar, think of it as Google for the academic world. You can start by simply entering a few different keywords that are relevant to your research question and it will then present a host of articles for you to review. What you want to pay close attention to here is the number of citations for each paper – the more citations a paper has, the more credible it is (generally speaking – there are some exceptions, of course).

Ideally, what you’re looking for are well-cited papers that are highly relevant to your topic. That said, keep in mind that citations are a cumulative metric , so older papers will often have more citations than newer papers – just because they’ve been around for longer. So, don’t fixate on this metric in isolation – relevance and recency are also very important.

Beyond Google Scholar, you’ll also definitely want to check out academic databases and aggregators such as Science Direct, PubMed, JStor and so on. These will often overlap with the results that you find in Google Scholar, but they can also reveal some hidden gems – so, be sure to check them out.

Once you’ve worked your way through all the literature, you’ll want to catalogue all this information in some sort of spreadsheet so that you can easily recall who said what, when and within what context. If you’d like, we’ve got a free literature spreadsheet that helps you do exactly that.

Step 2: Develop a structure and outline

With your research question pinned down and your literature digested and catalogued, it’s time to move on to planning your actual research paper .

It might sound obvious, but it’s really important to have some sort of rough outline in place before you start writing your paper. So often, we see students eagerly rushing into the writing phase, only to land up with a disjointed research paper that rambles on in multiple

Now, the secret here is to not get caught up in the fine details . Realistically, all you need at this stage is a bullet-point list that describes (in broad strokes) what you’ll discuss and in what order. It’s also useful to remember that you’re not glued to this outline – in all likelihood, you’ll chop and change some sections once you start writing, and that’s perfectly okay. What’s important is that you have some sort of roadmap in place from the start.

At this stage you might be wondering, “ But how should I structure my research paper? ”. Well, there’s no one-size-fits-all solution here, but in general, a research paper will consist of a few relatively standardised components:

• Introduction
• Literature review
• Methodology

Let’s take a look at each of these.

First up is the introduction section . As the name suggests, the purpose of the introduction is to set the scene for your research paper. There are usually (at least) four ingredients that go into this section – these are the background to the topic, the research problem and resultant research question , and the justification or rationale. If you’re interested, the video below unpacks the introduction section in more detail. 

The next section of your research paper will typically be your literature review . Remember all that literature you worked through earlier? Well, this is where you’ll present your interpretation of all that content . You’ll do this by writing about recent trends, developments, and arguments within the literature – but more specifically, those that are relevant to your research question . The literature review can oftentimes seem a little daunting, even to seasoned researchers, so be sure to check out our extensive collection of literature review content here .

With the introduction and lit review out of the way, the next section of your paper is the research methodology . In a nutshell, the methodology section should describe to your reader what you did (beyond just reviewing the existing literature) to answer your research question. For example, what data did you collect, how did you collect that data, how did you analyse that data and so on? For each choice, you’ll also need to justify why you chose to do it that way, and what the strengths and weaknesses of your approach were.

Now, it’s worth mentioning that for some research papers, this aspect of the project may be a lot simpler . For example, you may only need to draw on secondary sources (in other words, existing data sets). In some cases, you may just be asked to draw your conclusions from the literature search itself (in other words, there may be no data analysis at all). But, if you are required to collect and analyse data, you’ll need to pay a lot of attention to the methodology section. The video below provides an example of what the methodology section might look like.

By this stage of your paper, you will have explained what your research question is, what the existing literature has to say about that question, and how you analysed additional data to try to answer your question. So, the natural next step is to present your analysis of that data . This section is usually called the “results” or “analysis” section and this is where you’ll showcase your findings.

Depending on your school’s requirements, you may need to present and interpret the data in one section – or you might split the presentation and the interpretation into two sections. In the latter case, your “results” section will just describe the data, and the “discussion” is where you’ll interpret that data and explicitly link your analysis back to your research question. If you’re not sure which approach to take, check in with your professor or take a look at past papers to see what the norms are for your programme.

Alright – once you’ve presented and discussed your results, it’s time to wrap it up . This usually takes the form of the “ conclusion ” section. In the conclusion, you’ll need to highlight the key takeaways from your study and close the loop by explicitly answering your research question. Again, the exact requirements here will vary depending on your programme (and you may not even need a conclusion section at all) – so be sure to check with your professor if you’re unsure.

Step 3: Write and refine

Finally, it’s time to get writing. All too often though, students hit a brick wall right about here… So, how do you avoid this happening to you?

Well, there’s a lot to be said when it comes to writing a research paper (or any sort of academic piece), but we’ll share three practical tips to help you get started.

First and foremost , it’s essential to approach your writing as an iterative process. In other words, you need to start with a really messy first draft and then polish it over multiple rounds of editing. Don’t waste your time trying to write a perfect research paper in one go. Instead, take the pressure off yourself by adopting an iterative approach.

Secondly , it’s important to always lean towards critical writing , rather than descriptive writing. What does this mean? Well, at the simplest level, descriptive writing focuses on the “ what ”, while critical writing digs into the “ so what ” – in other words, the implications . If you’re not familiar with these two types of writing, don’t worry! You can find a plain-language explanation here.

Last but not least, you’ll need to get your referencing right. Specifically, you’ll need to provide credible, correctly formatted citations for the statements you make. We see students making referencing mistakes all the time and it costs them dearly. The good news is that you can easily avoid this by using a simple reference manager . If you don’t have one, check out our video about Mendeley, an easy (and free) reference management tool that you can start using today.

Recap: Key Takeaways

We’ve covered a lot of ground here. To recap, the three steps to writing a high-quality research paper are:

• To choose a research question and review the literature
• To plan your paper structure and draft an outline
• To take an iterative approach to writing, focusing on critical writing and strong referencing

Remember, this is just a b ig-picture overview of the research paper development process and there’s a lot more nuance to unpack. So, be sure to grab a copy of our free research paper template to learn more about how to write a research paper.

You Might Also Like:

Can you help me with a full paper template for this Abstract:

Background: Energy and sports drinks have gained popularity among diverse demographic groups, including adolescents, athletes, workers, and college students. While often used interchangeably, these beverages serve distinct purposes, with energy drinks aiming to boost energy and cognitive performance, and sports drinks designed to prevent dehydration and replenish electrolytes and carbohydrates lost during physical exertion.

Objective: To assess the nutritional quality of energy and sports drinks in Egypt.

Material and Methods: A cross-sectional study assessed the nutrient contents, including energy, sugar, electrolytes, vitamins, and caffeine, of sports and energy drinks available in major supermarkets in Cairo, Alexandria, and Giza, Egypt. Data collection involved photographing all relevant product labels and recording nutritional information. Descriptive statistics and appropriate statistical tests were employed to analyze and compare the nutritional values of energy and sports drinks.

Results: The study analyzed 38 sports drinks and 42 energy drinks. Sports drinks were significantly more expensive than energy drinks, with higher net content and elevated magnesium, potassium, and vitamin C. Energy drinks contained higher concentrations of caffeine, sugars, and vitamins B2, B3, and B6.

Conclusion: Significant nutritional differences exist between sports and energy drinks, reflecting their intended uses. However, these beverages’ high sugar content and calorie loads raise health concerns. Proper labeling, public awareness, and responsible marketing are essential to guide safe consumption practices in Egypt.

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Home » Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and Templates

Research Paper Format – Types, Examples and Templates

Table of Contents

Research paper format is an essential aspect of academic writing that plays a crucial role in the communication of research findings . The format of a research paper depends on various factors such as the discipline, style guide, and purpose of the research. It includes guidelines for the structure, citation style, referencing , and other elements of the paper that contribute to its overall presentation and coherence. Adhering to the appropriate research paper format is vital for ensuring that the research is accurately and effectively communicated to the intended audience. In this era of information, it is essential to understand the different research paper formats and their guidelines to communicate research effectively, accurately, and with the required level of detail. This post aims to provide an overview of some of the common research paper formats used in academic writing.

Research Paper Formats

Research Paper Formats are as follows:

• APA (American Psychological Association) format
• MLA (Modern Language Association) format
• Chicago/Turabian style
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) format
• AMA (American Medical Association) style
• Harvard style
• Vancouver style
• ACS (American Chemical Society) style
• ASA (American Sociological Association) style
• APSA (American Political Science Association) style

APA (American Psychological Association) Format

Here is a general APA format for a research paper:

• Title Page: The title page should include the title of your paper, your name, and your institutional affiliation. It should also include a running head, which is a shortened version of the title, and a page number in the upper right-hand corner.
• Abstract : The abstract is a brief summary of your paper, typically 150-250 words. It should include the purpose of your research, the main findings, and any implications or conclusions that can be drawn.
• Introduction: The introduction should provide background information on your topic, state the purpose of your research, and present your research question or hypothesis. It should also include a brief literature review that discusses previous research on your topic.
• Methods: The methods section should describe the procedures you used to collect and analyze your data. It should include information on the participants, the materials and instruments used, and the statistical analyses performed.
• Results: The results section should present the findings of your research in a clear and concise manner. Use tables and figures to help illustrate your results.
• Discussion : The discussion section should interpret your results and relate them back to your research question or hypothesis. It should also discuss the implications of your findings and any limitations of your study.
• References : The references section should include a list of all sources cited in your paper. Follow APA formatting guidelines for your citations and references.

Some additional tips for formatting your APA research paper:

• Use 12-point Times New Roman font throughout the paper.
• Double-space all text, including the references.
• Use 1-inch margins on all sides of the page.
• Indent the first line of each paragraph by 0.5 inches.
• Use a hanging indent for the references (the first line should be flush with the left margin, and all subsequent lines should be indented).
• Number all pages, including the title page and references page, in the upper right-hand corner.

APA Research Paper Format Template

APA Research Paper Format Template is as follows:

Title Page:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Institutional affiliation
• A brief summary of the main points of the paper, including the research question, methods, findings, and conclusions. The abstract should be no more than 250 words.

Introduction:

• Background information on the topic of the research paper
• Research question or hypothesis
• Significance of the study
• Overview of the research methods and design
• Brief summary of the main findings
• Participants: description of the sample population, including the number of participants and their characteristics (age, gender, ethnicity, etc.)
• Materials: description of any materials used in the study (e.g., survey questions, experimental apparatus)
• Procedure: detailed description of the steps taken to conduct the study
• Presentation of the findings of the study, including statistical analyses if applicable
• Tables and figures may be included to illustrate the results

Discussion:

• Interpretation of the results in light of the research question and hypothesis
• Implications of the study for the field
• Limitations of the study
• Suggestions for future research

References:

• A list of all sources cited in the paper, in APA format

Formatting guidelines:

• Double-spaced
• 12-point font (Times New Roman or Arial)
• 1-inch margins on all sides
• Page numbers in the top right corner
• Headings and subheadings should be used to organize the paper
• The first line of each paragraph should be indented
• Quotations of 40 or more words should be set off in a block quote with no quotation marks
• In-text citations should include the author’s last name and year of publication (e.g., Smith, 2019)

APA Research Paper Format Example

APA Research Paper Format Example is as follows:

The Effects of Social Media on Mental Health

University of XYZ

This study examines the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students. Data was collected through a survey of 500 students at the University of XYZ. Results suggest that social media use is significantly related to symptoms of depression and anxiety, and that the negative effects of social media are greater among frequent users.

Social media has become an increasingly important aspect of modern life, especially among young adults. While social media can have many positive effects, such as connecting people across distances and sharing information, there is growing concern about its impact on mental health. This study aims to examine the relationship between social media use and mental health among college students.

Participants: Participants were 500 college students at the University of XYZ, recruited through online advertisements and flyers posted on campus. Participants ranged in age from 18 to 25, with a mean age of 20.5 years. The sample was 60% female, 40% male, and 5% identified as non-binary or gender non-conforming.

Data was collected through an online survey administered through Qualtrics. The survey consisted of several measures, including the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) for depression symptoms, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) for anxiety symptoms, and questions about social media use.

Procedure :

Participants were asked to complete the online survey at their convenience. The survey took approximately 20-30 minutes to complete. Data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, correlations, and multiple regression analysis.

Results indicated that social media use was significantly related to symptoms of depression (r = .32, p < .001) and anxiety (r = .29, p < .001). Regression analysis indicated that frequency of social media use was a significant predictor of both depression symptoms (β = .24, p < .001) and anxiety symptoms (β = .20, p < .001), even when controlling for age, gender, and other relevant factors.

The results of this study suggest that social media use is associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety among college students. The negative effects of social media are greater among frequent users. These findings have important implications for mental health professionals and educators, who should consider addressing the potential negative effects of social media use in their work with young adults.

References :

References should be listed in alphabetical order according to the author’s last name. For example:

• Chou, H. T. G., & Edge, N. (2012). “They are happier and having better lives than I am”: The impact of using Facebook on perceptions of others’ lives. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(2), 117-121.
• Twenge, J. M., Joiner, T. E., Rogers, M. L., & Martin, G. N. (2018). Increases in depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates among U.S. adolescents after 2010 and links to increased new media screen time. Clinical Psychological Science, 6(1), 3-17.

Note: This is just a sample Example do not use this in your assignment.

MLA (Modern Language Association) Format

MLA (Modern Language Association) Format is as follows:

• Page Layout : Use 8.5 x 11-inch white paper, with 1-inch margins on all sides. The font should be 12-point Times New Roman or a similar serif font.
• Heading and Title : The first page of your research paper should include a heading and a title. The heading should include your name, your instructor’s name, the course title, and the date. The title should be centered and in title case (capitalizing the first letter of each important word).
• In-Text Citations : Use parenthetical citations to indicate the source of your information. The citation should include the author’s last name and the page number(s) of the source. For example: (Smith 23).
• Works Cited Page : At the end of your paper, include a Works Cited page that lists all the sources you used in your research. Each entry should include the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the medium of publication.
• Formatting Quotations : Use double quotation marks for short quotations and block quotations for longer quotations. Indent the entire quotation five spaces from the left margin.
• Formatting the Body : Use a clear and readable font and double-space your text throughout. The first line of each paragraph should be indented one-half inch from the left margin.

MLA Research Paper Template

MLA Research Paper Format Template is as follows:

• Use 8.5 x 11 inch white paper.
• Use a 12-point font, such as Times New Roman.
• Use double-spacing throughout the entire paper, including the title page and works cited page.
• Set the margins to 1 inch on all sides.
• Use page numbers in the upper right corner, beginning with the first page of text.
• Include a centered title for the research paper, using title case (capitalizing the first letter of each important word).
• Include your name, instructor’s name, course name, and date in the upper left corner, double-spaced.

In-Text Citations

• When quoting or paraphrasing information from sources, include an in-text citation within the text of your paper.
• Use the author’s last name and the page number in parentheses at the end of the sentence, before the punctuation mark.
• If the author’s name is mentioned in the sentence, only include the page number in parentheses.

Works Cited Page

• List all sources cited in alphabetical order by the author’s last name.
• Each entry should include the author’s name, title of the work, publication information, and medium of publication.
• Use italics for book and journal titles, and quotation marks for article and chapter titles.
• For online sources, include the date of access and the URL.

Here is an example of how the first page of a research paper in MLA format should look:

Headings and Subheadings

• Use headings and subheadings to organize your paper and make it easier to read.
• Use numerals to number your headings and subheadings (e.g. 1, 2, 3), and capitalize the first letter of each word.
• The main heading should be centered and in boldface type, while subheadings should be left-aligned and in italics.
• Use only one space after each period or punctuation mark.
• Use quotation marks to indicate direct quotes from a source.
• If the quote is more than four lines, format it as a block quote, indented one inch from the left margin and without quotation marks.
• Use ellipses (…) to indicate omitted words from a quote, and brackets ([…]) to indicate added words.

Works Cited Examples

• Book: Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication Year.
• Journal Article: Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, volume number, issue number, publication date, page numbers.
• Website: Last Name, First Name. “Title of Webpage.” Title of Website, publication date, URL. Accessed date.

Here is an example of how a works cited entry for a book should look:

Smith, John. The Art of Writing Research Papers. Penguin, 2021.

MLA Research Paper Example

MLA Research Paper Format Example is as follows:

Your Professor’s Name

Course Name and Number

Date (in Day Month Year format)

Word Count (not including title page or Works Cited)

Title: The Impact of Video Games on Aggression Levels

Video games have become a popular form of entertainment among people of all ages. However, the impact of video games on aggression levels has been a subject of debate among scholars and researchers. While some argue that video games promote aggression and violent behavior, others argue that there is no clear link between video games and aggression levels. This research paper aims to explore the impact of video games on aggression levels among young adults.

Background:

The debate on the impact of video games on aggression levels has been ongoing for several years. According to the American Psychological Association, exposure to violent media, including video games, can increase aggression levels in children and adolescents. However, some researchers argue that there is no clear evidence to support this claim. Several studies have been conducted to examine the impact of video games on aggression levels, but the results have been mixed.

Methodology:

This research paper used a quantitative research approach to examine the impact of video games on aggression levels among young adults. A sample of 100 young adults between the ages of 18 and 25 was selected for the study. The participants were asked to complete a questionnaire that measured their aggression levels and their video game habits.

The results of the study showed that there was a significant correlation between video game habits and aggression levels among young adults. The participants who reported playing violent video games for more than 5 hours per week had higher aggression levels than those who played less than 5 hours per week. The study also found that male participants were more likely to play violent video games and had higher aggression levels than female participants.

The findings of this study support the claim that video games can increase aggression levels among young adults. However, it is important to note that the study only examined the impact of video games on aggression levels and did not take into account other factors that may contribute to aggressive behavior. It is also important to note that not all video games promote violence and aggression, and some games may have a positive impact on cognitive and social skills.

Conclusion :

In conclusion, this research paper provides evidence to support the claim that video games can increase aggression levels among young adults. However, it is important to conduct further research to examine the impact of video games on other aspects of behavior and to explore the potential benefits of video games. Parents and educators should be aware of the potential impact of video games on aggression levels and should encourage young adults to engage in a variety of activities that promote cognitive and social skills.

Works Cited:

• American Psychological Association. (2017). Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts, and Unanswered Questions. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2017/08/violent-video-games
• Ferguson, C. J. (2015). Do Angry Birds make for angry children? A meta-analysis of video game influences on children’s and adolescents’ aggression, mental health, prosocial behavior, and academic performance. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(5), 646-666.
• Gentile, D. A., Swing, E. L., Lim, C. G., & Khoo, A. (2012). Video game playing, attention problems, and impulsiveness: Evidence of bidirectional causality. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1(1), 62-70.
• Greitemeyer, T. (2014). Effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106(4), 530-548.

Chicago/Turabian Style

Chicago/Turabian Formate is as follows:

• Margins : Use 1-inch margins on all sides of the paper.
• Font : Use a readable font such as Times New Roman or Arial, and use a 12-point font size.
• Page numbering : Number all pages in the upper right-hand corner, beginning with the first page of text. Use Arabic numerals.
• Title page: Include a title page with the title of the paper, your name, course title and number, instructor’s name, and the date. The title should be centered on the page and in title case (capitalize the first letter of each word).
• Headings: Use headings to organize your paper. The first level of headings should be centered and in boldface or italics. The second level of headings should be left-aligned and in boldface or italics. Use as many levels of headings as necessary to organize your paper.
• In-text citations : Use footnotes or endnotes to cite sources within the text of your paper. The first citation for each source should be a full citation, and subsequent citations can be shortened. Use superscript numbers to indicate footnotes or endnotes.
• Bibliography : Include a bibliography at the end of your paper, listing all sources cited in your paper. The bibliography should be in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, and each entry should include the author’s name, title of the work, publication information, and date of publication.
• Formatting of quotations: Use block quotations for quotations that are longer than four lines. Indent the entire quotation one inch from the left margin, and do not use quotation marks. Single-space the quotation, and double-space between paragraphs.
• Tables and figures: Use tables and figures to present data and illustrations. Number each table and figure sequentially, and provide a brief title for each. Place tables and figures as close as possible to the text that refers to them.
• Spelling and grammar : Use correct spelling and grammar throughout your paper. Proofread carefully for errors.

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Template

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Template is as folows:

Title of Paper

Name of Student

Professor’s Name

I. Introduction

A. Background Information

B. Research Question

C. Thesis Statement

II. Literature Review

A. Overview of Existing Literature

B. Analysis of Key Literature

C. Identification of Gaps in Literature

III. Methodology

A. Research Design

B. Data Collection

C. Data Analysis

IV. Results

A. Presentation of Findings

B. Analysis of Findings

C. Discussion of Implications

V. Conclusion

A. Summary of Findings

B. Implications for Future Research

C. Conclusion

VI. References

A. Bibliography

B. In-Text Citations

VII. Appendices (if necessary)

A. Data Tables

C. Additional Supporting Materials

Chicago/Turabian Research Paper Example

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Political Engagement

Name: John Smith

Class: POLS 101

Professor: Dr. Jane Doe

Date: April 8, 2023

I. Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of our daily lives. People use social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram to connect with friends and family, share their opinions, and stay informed about current events. With the rise of social media, there has been a growing interest in understanding its impact on various aspects of society, including political engagement. In this paper, I will examine the relationship between social media use and political engagement, specifically focusing on how social media influences political participation and political attitudes.

II. Literature Review:

There is a growing body of literature on the impact of social media on political engagement. Some scholars argue that social media has a positive effect on political participation by providing new channels for political communication and mobilization (Delli Carpini & Keeter, 1996; Putnam, 2000). Others, however, suggest that social media can have a negative impact on political engagement by creating filter bubbles that reinforce existing beliefs and discourage political dialogue (Pariser, 2011; Sunstein, 2001).

III. Methodology:

To examine the relationship between social media use and political engagement, I conducted a survey of 500 college students. The survey included questions about social media use, political participation, and political attitudes. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Iv. Results:

The results of the survey indicate that social media use is positively associated with political participation. Specifically, respondents who reported using social media to discuss politics were more likely to have participated in a political campaign, attended a political rally, or contacted a political representative. Additionally, social media use was found to be associated with more positive attitudes towards political engagement, such as increased trust in government and belief in the effectiveness of political action.

V. Conclusion:

The findings of this study suggest that social media has a positive impact on political engagement, by providing new opportunities for political communication and mobilization. However, there is also a need for caution, as social media can also create filter bubbles that reinforce existing beliefs and discourage political dialogue. Future research should continue to explore the complex relationship between social media and political engagement, and develop strategies to harness the potential benefits of social media while mitigating its potential negative effects.

Vii. References:

• Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. Yale University Press.
• Pariser, E. (2011). The filter bubble: What the Internet is hiding from you. Penguin.
• Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Simon & Schuster.
• Sunstein, C. R. (2001). Republic.com. Princeton University Press.

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Format

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) Research Paper Format is as follows:

• Title : A concise and informative title that accurately reflects the content of the paper.
• Abstract : A brief summary of the paper, typically no more than 250 words, that includes the purpose of the study, the methods used, the key findings, and the main conclusions.
• Introduction : An overview of the background, context, and motivation for the research, including a clear statement of the problem being addressed and the objectives of the study.
• Literature review: A critical analysis of the relevant research and scholarship on the topic, including a discussion of any gaps or limitations in the existing literature.
• Methodology : A detailed description of the methods used to collect and analyze data, including any experiments or simulations, data collection instruments or procedures, and statistical analyses.
• Results : A clear and concise presentation of the findings, including any relevant tables, graphs, or figures.
• Discussion : A detailed interpretation of the results, including a comparison of the findings with previous research, a discussion of the implications of the results, and any recommendations for future research.
• Conclusion : A summary of the key findings and main conclusions of the study.
• References : A list of all sources cited in the paper, formatted according to IEEE guidelines.

In addition to these elements, an IEEE research paper should also follow certain formatting guidelines, including using 12-point font, double-spaced text, and numbered headings and subheadings. Additionally, any tables, figures, or equations should be clearly labeled and referenced in the text.

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

AMA (American Medical Association) Style Research Paper Format:

• Title Page: This page includes the title of the paper, the author’s name, institutional affiliation, and any acknowledgments or disclaimers.
• Abstract: The abstract is a brief summary of the paper that outlines the purpose, methods, results, and conclusions of the study. It is typically limited to 250 words or less.
• Introduction: The introduction provides a background of the research problem, defines the research question, and outlines the objectives and hypotheses of the study.
• Methods: The methods section describes the research design, participants, procedures, and instruments used to collect and analyze data.
• Results: The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and concise manner, using graphs, tables, and charts where appropriate.
• Discussion: The discussion section interprets the results, explains their significance, and relates them to previous research in the field.
• Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main points of the paper, discusses the implications of the findings, and suggests future research directions.
• References: The reference list includes all sources cited in the paper, listed in alphabetical order by author’s last name.

In addition to these sections, the AMA format requires that authors follow specific guidelines for citing sources in the text and formatting their references. The AMA style uses a superscript number system for in-text citations and provides specific formats for different types of sources, such as books, journal articles, and websites.

Harvard Style

Harvard Style Research Paper format is as follows:

• Title page: This should include the title of your paper, your name, the name of your institution, and the date of submission.
• Abstract : This is a brief summary of your paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should outline the main points of your research and highlight your findings.
• Introduction : This section should introduce your research topic, provide background information, and outline your research question or thesis statement.
• Literature review: This section should review the relevant literature on your topic, including previous research studies, academic articles, and other sources.
• Methodology : This section should describe the methods you used to conduct your research, including any data collection methods, research instruments, and sampling techniques.
• Results : This section should present your findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables, graphs, and other visual aids if necessary.
• Discussion : This section should interpret your findings and relate them to the broader research question or thesis statement. You should also discuss the implications of your research and suggest areas for future study.
• Conclusion : This section should summarize your main findings and provide a final statement on the significance of your research.
• References : This is a list of all the sources you cited in your paper, presented in alphabetical order by author name. Each citation should include the author’s name, the title of the source, the publication date, and other relevant information.

In addition to these sections, a Harvard Style research paper may also include a table of contents, appendices, and other supplementary materials as needed. It is important to follow the specific formatting guidelines provided by your instructor or academic institution when preparing your research paper in Harvard Style.

Vancouver Style

Vancouver Style Research Paper format is as follows:

The Vancouver citation style is commonly used in the biomedical sciences and is known for its use of numbered references. Here is a basic format for a research paper using the Vancouver citation style:

• Title page: Include the title of your paper, your name, the name of your institution, and the date.
• Abstract : This is a brief summary of your research paper, usually no more than 250 words.
• Introduction : Provide some background information on your topic and state the purpose of your research.
• Methods : Describe the methods you used to conduct your research, including the study design, data collection, and statistical analysis.
• Results : Present your findings in a clear and concise manner, using tables and figures as needed.
• Discussion : Interpret your results and explain their significance. Also, discuss any limitations of your study and suggest directions for future research.
• References : List all of the sources you cited in your paper in numerical order. Each reference should include the author’s name, the title of the article or book, the name of the journal or publisher, the year of publication, and the page numbers.

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style

ACS (American Chemical Society) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

The American Chemical Society (ACS) Style is a citation style commonly used in chemistry and related fields. When formatting a research paper in ACS Style, here are some guidelines to follow:

• Paper Size and Margins : Use standard 8.5″ x 11″ paper with 1-inch margins on all sides.
• Font: Use a 12-point serif font (such as Times New Roman) for the main text. The title should be in bold and a larger font size.
• Title Page : The title page should include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and affiliations, and the date of submission. The title should be centered on the page and written in bold font. The authors’ names should be centered below the title, followed by their affiliations and the date.
• Abstract : The abstract should be a brief summary of the paper, no more than 250 words. It should be on a separate page and include the title of the paper, the authors’ names and affiliations, and the text of the abstract.
• Main Text : The main text should be organized into sections with headings that clearly indicate the content of each section. The introduction should provide background information and state the research question or hypothesis. The methods section should describe the procedures used in the study. The results section should present the findings of the study, and the discussion section should interpret the results and provide conclusions.
• References: Use the ACS Style guide to format the references cited in the paper. In-text citations should be numbered sequentially throughout the text and listed in numerical order at the end of the paper.
• Figures and Tables: Figures and tables should be numbered sequentially and referenced in the text. Each should have a descriptive caption that explains its content. Figures should be submitted in a high-quality electronic format.
• Supporting Information: Additional information such as data, graphs, and videos may be included as supporting information. This should be included in a separate file and referenced in the main text.
• Acknowledgments : Acknowledge any funding sources or individuals who contributed to the research.

ASA (American Sociological Association) Style

ASA (American Sociological Association) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

• Title Page: The title page of an ASA style research paper should include the title of the paper, the author’s name, and the institutional affiliation. The title should be centered and should be in title case (the first letter of each major word should be capitalized).
• Abstract: An abstract is a brief summary of the paper that should appear on a separate page immediately following the title page. The abstract should be no more than 200 words in length and should summarize the main points of the paper.
• Main Body: The main body of the paper should begin on a new page following the abstract page. The paper should be double-spaced, with 1-inch margins on all sides, and should be written in 12-point Times New Roman font. The main body of the paper should include an introduction, a literature review, a methodology section, results, and a discussion.
• References : The reference section should appear on a separate page at the end of the paper. All sources cited in the paper should be listed in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. Each reference should include the author’s name, the title of the work, the publication information, and the date of publication.
• Appendices : Appendices are optional and should only be included if they contain information that is relevant to the study but too lengthy to be included in the main body of the paper. If you include appendices, each one should be labeled with a letter (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B, etc.) and should be referenced in the main body of the paper.

APSA (American Political Science Association) Style

APSA (American Political Science Association) Style Research Paper format is as follows:

• Title Page: The title page should include the title of the paper, the author’s name, the name of the course or instructor, and the date.
• Abstract : An abstract is typically not required in APSA style papers, but if one is included, it should be brief and summarize the main points of the paper.
• Introduction : The introduction should provide an overview of the research topic, the research question, and the main argument or thesis of the paper.
• Literature Review : The literature review should summarize the existing research on the topic and provide a context for the research question.
• Methods : The methods section should describe the research methods used in the paper, including data collection and analysis.
• Results : The results section should present the findings of the research.
• Discussion : The discussion section should interpret the results and connect them back to the research question and argument.
• Conclusion : The conclusion should summarize the main findings and implications of the research.
• References : The reference list should include all sources cited in the paper, formatted according to APSA style guidelines.

In-text citations in APSA style use parenthetical citation, which includes the author’s last name, publication year, and page number(s) if applicable. For example, (Smith 2010, 25).

About the author

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Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Creating a captivating research paper title page – ultimate guide with examples.

August 29, 2019

A reader can become engaged or irritated after seeing your research paper title page. Th at is why you need to put in the effort to make sure that it is done properly, and it compels the reader to continue reading the content. Creating the title page for research paper is sometimes more difficult for students than writing a research paper.

How To Make A Title Page For Research Paper

The first thing you need to know is that there are primarily three formats for your title page – APA, Chicago style, and MLA. Your instructor will most likely tell you which format is ideal for the paper. The title page has to contain some precise information about the research in a few words. So, what should be contained in a research paper title page?

The front page of your research paper should contain your full name as it is stated on all your educational certificates. That should be on the same page where you put the topic.

Title Of The Research Paper

Make sure you come up with a good title for research paper and put it on the cover page along with your name. Make sure that the title is interesting. Also, it should not be misleading in any way but should provide a glimpse into the entire content. Typically, the title of the research paper title is expected to be written in capital letters and bold fonts.

Supervisor’s Name

Another important detail to add is the full name of the research supervisor. If you go through the research paper title page examples, you’ll see that adding the supervisor’s name is a must.

Course Information

You need to provide some information about the course, including the course code, academic year, and semester.

Now you know what your research paper title page is expected to contain, it’s time to dive into how to make a title page like a professional. Below are some useful tips for creating the perfect paper title page:

Use The Right Format

As stated earlier, there are three main research paper formats. The one you use will depend on what you’ve been instructed to use. However, you need to make sure you stick to one format from the title to the conclusion.

If you’ve been instructed to use the Chicago format, you have to make sure all the content on the cover page is aligned to the center. Your paper title should be halfway into the page. After the page title, write your full name followed by the name of your instructor and then the course title. There is no need to number the cover page when you’re using the Chicago style.

When you’re instructed to use the APA style, you have to number the title page at the top right corner. Use Times New Roman as your page font and keep one-inch margins on every side of the cover page. You may not need to write everything in capital letters.

For the MLA format, you need to start a third way into the paper, but it should not be as low as the Chicago style. You can add a subtitle to your original title. Just after that, add your name, the name of your school, the course title, your instructor’s name.

Writing A Research Paper – Quick Overview

After you’ve determined what you want your title page to look like, you need to find out how to start a research paper. It is important to note that each institution may have specific guidelines on how to write a research paper. So, make sure you read these guidelines thoroughly before you start. However, some general rules are as follows:

Don’t Joke With The Research

The research part of the research paper writing is crucial. Before you start writing anything, research the topic thoroughly, and get updated information about every fact you’re going to list. As soon as you understand the topic, you need to gather resources, formulate the idea, develop your thesis statement. Your research should be backed by empirical data. If possible, conduct first-hand research on the subject. Otherwise, look for reliable research on Google Scholar, government publications, encyclopedias, newspapers, and almanacs.

About Your Thesis Statement

Your thesis statement tells your reader what the main point of your essay is and what your supporting points are. It can be one or two sentences that prepare the minds of the readers for what is to come. Make sure that everything in the body of your paper is in line with the thesis statement, not opposite. Your thesis statement should appear at the end of your introduction and or should match the topic.

Work With An Outline

Your work would flow better if you use an outline from the beginning to the end. Your outline should be made up of all the points you intend to cover in the content. It can also include the research paper format. Make sure that you put down all the subheadings you intend to cover in the content as well as the details of the materials you want to use in each subheading.

Write A Draft First

To increase your chances of creating high-quality work, try writing a draft first. When you’ve completed the draft, you can start writing the content you will submit. Writing a draft first allows you to brainstorm ideas and find the perfect voice for the content.

Progress From Weakest To Strongest Point

For your content to have a logical flow, start with the weakest point, and slowly progress to the strongest. That doesn’t mean you need to start with a point that isn’t backed empirically. It just means the point you start with should not be your strongest. Each point should have a supporting argument as a backup. It makes your content better.

Restate Your Thesis Statement In Your Conclusion

When it’s time to conclude your paper after listing all the relevant points, you can restate your thesis statement as is common in research paper writing examples. That doesn’t mean you should copy and paste your thesis. Just find new words to say it and link all your points to it. Draw the reader’s attention to why all the points you’ve made support your thesis. That applies when you’re research is conclusive. If it is not, make sure you state that in the research is inconclusive.

Review Before Submission

So, you’ve completed your research paper successfully. That’s cool. However, you should not rush into submitting. Revise the work, make edits, and ask someone else to help you read it. Make sure that your work is as flawless as possible. There should be no inaccurate information, grammatical, or typographical errors. The last thing you want to do is submit a compelling research paper with bad grammar or typographical errors.

Let Our Writers Create Best Title Page For You

Writing a research paper, especially its title page, is like writing any other paper. However, it requires more precision and use of facts. Depending on the topic, make sure that everything you state is factual. These tips above will help when you’re creating a title page for your research paper and when you’re creating the paper. Also, should you feel stuck with crafting a research paper – feel free to hire our experts to help you get exciting results!

Take a break from writing.

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This document originally came from the Journal of Mammalogy courtesy of Dr. Ronald Barry, a former editor of the journal.

Free Cover Page templates

Create impressive cover pages for your assignments and projects online in just a click. choose from hundreds of free templates and customize them with edit.org..

Create impressive cover pages in a few minutes with Edit.org, and give your projects and assignments a professional and unique touch. A well-designed title page or project front page can positively impact your professor's opinion of your homework, which can improve your final grade!

Create a personalized report cover page

After writing the whole report, dissertation, or paper, which is the hardest part, you should now create a cover page that suits the rest of the project. Part of the grade for your work depends on the first impression of the teacher who corrects it.

We know not everyone is a professional designer, and that's why Edit.org wants to help you. Having a professional title page can give the impression you've put a great deal of time and effort into your assignment, as well as the impression you take the subject very seriously. Thanks to Edit.org, everyone can become a professional designer. This way, you'll only have to worry about doing a great job on your assignment.

On the editor, you will also find free resume templates  and other educational and professional designs.

Customize an essay cover page with Edit.org

• Go to formats on the home page and choose Cover pages.
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Free editable templates for title pages

As you can see, it's simple to create cover pages for schoolwork and it won’t take much time. We recommend using the same colors on the cover as the ones you used for your essay titles to create a cohesive design. It’s also crucial to add the name and logo of the institution for which you are doing the essay. A visually attractive project is likely to be graded very well, so taking care of the small details will make your work look professional.

On Edit.org, you can also reuse all your designs and adapt them to different projects. Thanks to the users' internal memory, you can access and edit old templates anytime and anywhere.

Take a look at other options we propose on the site. Edit.org helps design flyers, business cards, and other designs useful in the workplace. The platform was created so you don't need to have previous design knowledge to achieve a spectacular cover page! Start your cover page design now.

Create online Cover Pages for printing

You can enter our free graphic editor from your phone, tablet or computer. The process is 100% online, fun and intuitive. Just click on what you want to modify. Customize your cover page quickly and easily. You don't need any design skills. No Photoshop skills. Just choose a template from this article or from the final waterfall and customize it to your liking. Writing first and last names, numbers, additional information or texts will be as easy as writing in a Word document.

Free templates for assignment cover page design

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10+ Free Cover Page Templates for Research Papers in MS Word – (Pro Formats)

#1 – general design.

#2 – For Analytical Research Paper

#3 – Format for Argumentative Research Paper

#4 – Best for Case and Effect Research

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#6 – Design for Definition Research Paper

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#10 – Template for Survey Research Paper

• Name of student
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• Name of professor
• Due date of the paper.

Essentials of a research cover paper

Importance of good research paper cover page.

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• Jan 17, 2022

Best scientific journal covers from 2021

It’s no secret that 2021 was full of amazing scientific breakthroughs that deserved to be featured on the front page of your local newspaper. Or better yet, featured as a scientific journal cover — right there on PAGE ONE 📰👈

But before we turn a new leaf for the year, let’s take a step back to appreciate the incredible scientific feats from the Nobel Prize winners of 2021.

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine : For discovering the precise molecular mechanisms by which the body senses hot or cold touch. — David Julius & Ardem Patapoutian

The Nobel Prize in Physics : For massive contributions to the modelling of Earth’s evolving climate and reliably predicting the progression of global warming. — Syukuro Manabe, Klaus Hasselmann & Giorgio Parisi

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry : For developing a new tool for constructing molecules, called ‘organocatalysis’, which now hugely benefits the pharmaceutical industry. — Benjamin List & David MacMillan

Of course, there are only but a limited number of Nobel Prizes to go around. But does that mean that the rest of science is less deserving of the spotlight? Of course not!

There are different kinds of spotlights.

One of them is having your study featured on the front cover of a scientific journal. As much as we won’t want to admit it, a lot of people tend to judge a book by its cover. Who’s to say that a wonderfully illustrated journal cover doesn’t speak volumes about the quality of the science inside?

In this blog, the team at Animate Your Science voted for our favourite scientific journal covers that were published in 2021. As we’re huge fans of illustration, we’ve excluded photographed covers but we totally agree there’s some amazing photo covers out there too. Our list is presented in no particular order, so enjoy them bias-free!

We’ll also be giving our thoughts on:

The messages they evoke

Style of illustration

Use of colour

Great science needs powerful visuals. Let’s have a look at some, shall we?

Volume 184, Number 2, January 21 2021

Illustrator: Jason Ooi (Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University)

There’s something truly mystifying about a lone hot air balloon making its way through a rainstorm.

But of course, there’s some context involved here.

You’ll see that the balloon is actually holding onto a pill for a drug called “baricitinib”, which is an experimental therapeutic for SARS-CoV-2 a.k.a. the virus which causes COVID-19. In a study published in this issue , researchers treated infected rhesus macaques (the ape in the basket!) with the drug and found it can help prevent lung damage by reducing inflammation. What’s super neat is that the balloon itself is made of alveoli, which are air sacs in your lungs, where the viruses are simply bouncing off of them since they can’t infect the lungs while the drug is around. There’s so much beauty (and science) packed into one image!

Illustration

This illustration appears to have been drawn by hand either using traditional mediums on paper or canvas, or expertly rendered on a digital illustration software . Drawing that many detailed viruses definitely takes some time, so we’d think that this part would have been done digitally.

We’re all about preaching how a thought-out colour scheme really lends itself to an eye-catching graphic. Warm colours have been used for the balloon, giving it a softer and more positive tone. The storm and viruses around it have been dyed in cooler colours like blue and green for some top grade contrast! This simple colour palette is perfect for the children’s storybook feel of the artwork.

Nature Neuroscience

Volume 24, Number 4, April 2021

Illustrator: Ella Marushchenko and Kate Zvorykina (Ella Maru Studio)

Remember going to Geography class at school and opening up an atlas? No? Me neither, to be honest, but this journal cover sure is reminiscent of one!

The “globe” in the centre is actually a cross-section of the spinal cord, which according to this featured study , is made up of many types of motor neurons. The authors specifically wanted to point out two types of motor neurons: skeletal (in blue) and autonomic (in green). On top of that, they even look like continents on the map.

Stemming out of the globe, we can see how the spinal cord and neurons are connected to many different tissues and organs, including muscles and even the heart! In reality, the spinal cord extends from the central nervous system towards different parts of the body. The metaphorical image of a map perfectly evokes this scientific concept. Metaphors are extremely handy for explaining complex ideas, which we’ve recently listened to a SciComm podcast about.

This journal cover appears to be hand-drawn either on traditional paper and canvas, though it was likely made on a digital canvas. Illustration software nowadays, like Photoshop, is powerful enough to completely mimic traditional art to the point we can barely tell the difference!

Books tend to get yellowed over time, giving them a classic or vintage aura. This cover in particular utilises a sepia colour tone, with multiple shades of brown and less saturated hues of red, blue and green. It truly captures the look of books you’d find in an old library.

Science Advances

Volume 7, Number 21, May 21 2021

Illustrator: Ella Maru Studio

One look at this cover and your eyes just want to say “wow, it’s like the light’s popping out of the screen”. Well let me tell you, that’s exactly what it aims to show.

In the featured study , researchers combined two different types of photons to make a new kind of photon. This was done using extreme ultraviolet light at a wavelength of 33 nanometers (represented by the yellow and blue “waves” in the middle). We can’t see this sort of light with our own eyes (and neither would we want to), but the image perfectly represents this phenomenon. The techniques the researchers developed would then be used to study the physical properties of titanium, which is shown as a lattice in the image. Physical sciences are on a whole other level of mind blowing!

This journal cover was made in Autodesk 3DS Max , which is Ella Maru Studio’s favourite 3D art rendering software. Given that lattices are three-dimensional in reality, making it in 3D is a no-brainer indeed. You’ll find that these kinds of renders are becoming increasingly popular for journal covers these days.

Would you believe me if I said there were only two main colours used in this illustration? That’s right, by manipulating the brightness and saturation of just blue and yellow, you can produce highlights and shadows to make things look metallic. On the flip side, keeping the colours subdued and pale provides some textural contrast between the subject of the image (the lattice) and the background to create depth of field.

Volume 372, Number 6546, June 4 2021

Illustrator: Unlisted

Did you know that we’ve got tiny machines in our cells called enzymes? Every cell in our body contains enzymes and there’s a special one, called a polymerase (the multi-coloured spaghetti situation you see above), that reads and copies our DNA (shown in yellow). And this is happening ALL the time.

But how does it begin?

You can read it straight off the journal (requires a Science subscription, boo-hoo), but as a molecular biologist I’ll summarise it in an… abridged nutshell:

In order to read DNA, you’ll first need DNA to open up to you. First date sort of situation 😉. An enzyme called helicase gives the DNA some much-needed TLC, causing DNA to unwind its double-helix to reveal the genetic code underneath. This change in shape means that polymerase can bind to the DNA and read its code and copy it. The polymerase “transcribes” this code, and makes messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA). You’ve likely heard this acronym uttered around in the recent COVID-19 vaccine rollouts, so it’s good to be informed!

This journal cover was most definitely made in a 3D rendering software, though it’s actually possible that it was actually made using a research tool. In molecular biology, researchers use modelling software ( like this one ) to predict how DNA and proteins interact. In this case, it shows how snug the polymerase fits onto the DNA.

In this particular illustration, different colours must be used for different molecules or components of larger molecules. This is common practice in the field, otherwise we wouldn’t be able to tell one strand of spaghetti from another! What’s consistent however is the use of warmer colours for the molecules, which contrasts with the blue background.

Advanced Functional Materials

Volume 31, Number 45, November 3 2021

Is this… a kitchen? Well, yes… but also no? It’s actually a depiction of a 3D printer!

In the featured article , researchers extracted a protein from peas that has very adhesive properties. Yes, you heard right, peas. This pea protein (seen in green specks) can then be used to glue oil droplets together (seen as yellow spheres). Who knew you could glue together oil?!

Put together, these pea-oil mixtures, called emulsions, can be used as a material for 3D printing. This material could then be used to make highly elastic products with a defined structure (seen as hexagons on the kitchen bench). It’s stretchy — kind of like the meshes used to package fruits and vegetables at the market. This is yet another brilliant metaphorical representation of science for communicating equally brilliant work!

The artists at Ella Maru Studio are experts of 3D rendering, likely through Autodesk 3DS Max, which produced this stunning journal cover. You can actually follow Ella’s process of making this particular journal cover on Twitter , where you can see her initial concept vs. the final product.

A contrast between bright colours for the subjects (yellow, green) and dull colours for the background (white, grey) ensure that your eyes go to where they need to go. Especially for the pea proteins and oil, having them be represented by their real-life colours helps the viewer to recognise what they are.

ACS Catalysis

Volume 11, Number 12, June 18 2021

Illustrator: Hassan Tahini (ScienceBrush)

At first I thought I was looking at an epic-looking Christmas tree decoration, but I soon realised that I was mistaken! 🎄

What we see is iron, depicted as a metallic ball with the symbol Fe, undergoing two different types of chemical reactions. Iron reacts differently with chemicals called aldehydes to produce different products. This depends on the conditions in the reaction. The authors in the featured study call this a ‘divergent reaction pathway’, and is represented by the two coloured liquids (the aldehyde) splashing over the iron ball. On the left side, the reaction produces amides (in red), and on the right side the other reaction produces nitriles (in indigo blue). Iron sure is a versatile element! 🧪🤔

Hassan Tahini from ScienceBrush is a master of 3D rendering in Autodesk 3DS Max, and polishes his work in Adobe Photoshop. The splash effect over the iron ball is especially impressive, requiring some very precise modelling in order to mimic how liquids naturally glaze over objects.

Contrast between various elements of the image is achieved with effective colour and texture contrast. The red and the indigo serve as bright eye-catching colours, with a glossy texture, which “decorate” the otherwise pale grey, scratched-up, iron ball. The background echoes the same colour scheme of the iron ball to ensure that no attention is taken away from the main object.

Are you looking to outsource a great journal cover?

A stunning scientific journal cover will no doubt promote the readership of research articles. They do this by appealing to the human eye — just one look is enough to make a solid impression for new readers. This ultimately leads to increased research visibility , more generated citations and also expands readership from multiple demographics, both within and outside the scope of the journal’s area of study.

High-quality journal covers tell a compelling and thought-provoking story.

Our PhD-trained creative team at Animate Your Science designs scientific journal covers to tell the story of your groundbreaking research. Click here or the button below to explore your creative options!

Until next time!

Dr Juan Miguel Balbin

Dr Tullio Rossi

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This essay was originally published in the Current Contents print editions October 10, 1994, when Clarivate Analytics was known as the Institute for Scientific Information.

Each year, Clarivate Analytics sorts its massive file of bibliographic records created for the Science Citation Index (SCI) and the Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI). Over 1,000,000 source papers are indexed each year, and the average paper cites approximately 15 references. Two of the search strategies for accessing those indexes in print form, on CD-ROM, or on-line are the Source Index, which is the alphabetic all-author index to what has been published that year, and the  Citation Index , which is compiled from the 15,000,000 cited references of which approximately 7,000,000 will be unique. Each of the uniquely cited papers or books will be cited from 1 to 8,000 times.

The first step in identifying research fronts is to create the alphabetic first-author  Citation Index.  This is then sorted by citation frequency. The most-cited—or core—100,000 papers and books are selected and used as the input for the dictionary of research fronts. These connote areas of significant activity for the year. The next step in the procedure will, in turn, identify several million pairs of co-cited papers. This dictionary of co-cited core papers constitutes the main working file for research front identification. The clustering system developed by Henry Small is used. 1  Pairs of documents that have been cited by the same source paper (co-cited) are extracted and then aggregated into clusters that have at least one document in common. We identify approximately 10,000 clusters or research fronts each year. Each cluster is randomly assigned a unique serial number.

All of these procedures have been described in Current Contents many times before. 2    A detailed understanding of clustering, however, is not necessary for the practical use of research fronts in  SciSearch —Clarivate Analytics on-line system available on Dialog, DataStar, DIMDI, and STN. In the following pages, we describe ways to make use of the research fronts searching capability—whether for science policy or information retrieval.

Research fronts are subspecialties—complex keywords, if you will—that are identified by co-citation clustering. The breadth of the subspecialty can vary widely. Its size depends upon the frequency thresholds used. Research front clustering by co-citation or by co-word is a dynamic, self-generating, objective classification system.

Basis of Research Fronts

As explained above, a research front consists of a cluster of co-cited core papers as well as the group of current source papers that cite one or more of these core papers.

Elements of Clarivate Analytics Research Fronts

Each research front is uniquely labeled with a serial number which consists of the year, a four-digit random number, and a name [e.g., 92-3056 (Uptake of surfactant protein-B; casein kinase-II; catalytic subunits)].  

Year.  The last two numbers of the data year from which the front was generated are the first two digits of the research front serial number. Therefore, all research fronts generated from the combined 1992 SCI / SSCI would be labeled with an initial “92-.”

Serial Number.  The second part of the research front number is a randomly assigned four-digit number. Each of the one million papers indexed each year will be assigned to one or more research fronts, provided it has cited one of the core papers mentioned above. The computer checks each reference to determine whether it is one of the 100,000 core papers in the dictionary. It then assigns the research front labels, which are essentially indexing tags, to each. The labels facilitate calculation of the weight.  

Weight.  For each paper, a weight is calculated that indicates the number of core papers for that research front cited in that paper (e.g., if three of these are core to a particular research front, then the weight is expressed as “003” and is shown in the on-line identifier listing). In the listing in Figure 1, the weight appears in the fourth column, just after the research front number. This list is an excerpt from the list of 8,375 research fronts for 1992.

Figure 1. Excerpt from 1994 SciSearch® file.

In case of a small cluster like 92-4811, it is not necessary to use the weighting factor. Instead, one would proceed to look at the 20 retrieved papers on poly(butyl terephthalate). However, to conduct a more focused search for a highly active research front, as in the case of 92-4812, the weight makes it possible to focus the search. Thus, for research front #4812, line E8 indicates that there are only 4 papers that have cited 5 of the core papers for that research front, 55 papers have cited 4, 366 have cited 3 core papers, and 1,519 have cited 2 core papers. The 6,200 other papers are “relevant” to the search, but normally such a large set would be combined with other search parameters to reduce retrieval to manageable proportions. Those parameters could include another research front tag, a keyword, country, or even a single cited reference.

A low number for weight could indicate the presence of tangential works, while a high number could indicate either highly relevant research or a review article. Knowing the article type allows appropriate interpretation of the weight.

Name.  The research front’s name is shown in the last column in Figure 1. It is derived from the most frequently occurring words and phrases used in titles of the citing (source) papers. This naming procedure is similar in concept to the process of creating KeyWords Plus for   Current Contents on Diskette  3  , SciSearch, Social SciSearch, Current Contents Search, and Arts & Humanities Search.

Co-Citation Clustering

Bibliographic coupling occurs when two publications cite one or several other publications in common  4 .  In contrast, co-citation occurs when two publications are cited by a third, later publication  1 . The greater the frequency of co-citation of a given pair, the greater the likelihood that it defines an established or emerging topic or subspecialty. The citation pair can be used in a citation index search to retrieve related publications. One pair can usually identify a small research front, but active research fronts generally involve several interrelated co-citation pairs  5 .  The larger the number of pairs included in a cluster, the broader the scope.

Single-link clustering, for which the computer selects a single document and searches for all the other items that are linked to it, is used to form clusters of co-cited papers. With the papers that cite them, research fronts are identified  6 .  Frequency thresholds are used to modulate clustering by controlling the relative number of pairs selected. With either co-citation or co-word analysis, the scope can be adjusted by increasing or decreasing the threshold. In other words, the larger the number of pairs included in the cluster, the broader the scope. This concept is important when trying to create maps of the literature at different levels of detail. Threshold strength refers to the degree of association between co-cited pairs in terms of the proportion of their total citations that are co-citations  2 .  

Co-Word Clustering

An alternative to co-citation clustering is co-word clustering, which focuses on analysis of the title or keywords used by authors  7 . Clarivate Analytics uses co-word clustering in its Permuterm Subject Index section of the SCI or SSCI  8 .  Co-citation and co-word methods can be combined in an analysis. This helps to overcome the limitations of co-citation clustering in certain forms of literature, especially where referencing is limited  9 . Tony van Raan and his colleagues have used a combination of these techniques in many of their scientometric studies, such as their study of literature on atomic and molecular biology, and have found that the combination of methods allowed them to gain a clearer picture of the cognitive content of publications  10 .

In a review of Callon’s work on co-word analysis, Small points out that “if co-word links are viewed as translations between problems, co-citation links have been viewed as statements relating concepts.  11 ”  Each offers an interesting perspective on analysis of literature and helps in the identification of research fronts. Combining the aspect of cognitive content with the broader view of co-cited publications affords this enhanced insight.

The “Invisible College” Connection

While research fronts are essentially a posteriori constructs that provide both highly specific and broad access to subject matter, they can be combined with a priori classification systems if desired. However, the term “invisible college” is generally used to characterize dynamic research areas involving groups of researchers as, for example, the invisible college on “chaos in life sciences.  12 ”  The authors are its faculty, and both core and citing authors may or may not be members of these research communities  13 .  

Using Clarivate Analytics on-line SCISEARCHsystem, data can be ranked to reveal interesting facts about performance and trends. Among the fields available on-line for ranking analysis are:

• most cited author
• most prolific author
• most active institution or lab
• most active research front.

Journalists, among others, often want to know the key people or labs working in a given area. For large institutions or regions, one may want to learn the types of research emphasized there. In many of my lectures, I have presented a list of the most active research fronts for that country. These insights can be of value for planning purposes.  

Conclusions

From a scientific management perspective, it is interesting to observe changes in research front activity over a multiyear period. A new field could be associated with a small group of key papers. As that literature grows and the field grows, new branches are created. Using the Clarivate Analytics research fronts files, one can then trace the evolution of the field through its many stages of growth and decline. It is interesting to see what has happened in the past (which strong research fronts have persevered), what is happening now, and what might happen in the future. The relationship to research evaluation should be apparent. Kostoff, for example, predicts that federal use of co-occurrence techniques (research front analyses) will increase in the near future as these systems become better understood and easier to use  14 .

Graphic presentation of research front information in the form of co-citation maps is an important by-product of the system involved here. That topic will be the subject of the next essay  15 .

Dr. Eugene Garfield  Founder and Chairman Emeritus, ISI

• Small H S. Co-citation in the scientific literature: a new measure of the relationship between two documents. J. Amer. Soc. Inform. Sci. 24:265-9, 1973.
• ——————. The ABCs of cluster mapping. Part 1. Most active fields in the life sciences in 1978. Essays of an Information Scientist. Philadelphia: ISI Press®, 1980, Vol. 4. p. 634-41.
• Garfield E G. KeyWords Plus®: ISI®’s breakthrough retrieval method. Part 1. Expanding your searching power on Current Contents on Diskette®. Essays of an Information Scientist. Philadelphia: ISI Press, 1990, Vol. 13. p. 295-9.
• Kessler M M. Bibliographic coupling between scientific papers. Amer. Doc. 1410-25, 1963.
• Garfield E G. New tools for studying the history of science. Essays of an Information Scientist. Philadelphia: ISI Press, 1988, Vol. 11. p. 20-1.
• ——————. History of citation indexes for chemistry: a brief review. Essays of an Information Scientist. Philadelphia: ISI Press, 1985, Vol. 9. p. 42-7.
• Zitt M, Bassecoulard E. Development of a method for detection and trend analysis of research fronts built by lexical or co-citation analysis. Scientometrics 30(1):333-51, 1994.
• Garfield E G. How to use Science Citation Index® (SCI®). Essays of an Information Scientist. Philadelphia: ISI Press, 1983, Vol. 6. p. 53-60.
• Callon M, Law J, Rip A  (eds). Mapping the Dynamics of Science and Technology. London: MacMillan. 1986.
• Braam R R, Moed A F, Van Raan A F J. Mapping of science by combined co-citation and word analysis, part II: Structural aspects. J. Amer. Soc. Inform. Sci. 42:233-51, 1991.
• Small H S. Book review of Callon et al. Scientometrics 14(1-2):165-8, 1988.
• Sankaran N. Chaos theory finding new applications in life sciences. The Scientist 8(16):3,9, 1994.
• Crane D. Invisible Colleges: Diffusion of Knowledge in Scientific Communities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972.
• Kostoff R N. Federal research impact assessment: State-of-the-art. J. Amer. Soc. Inform. Sci. 45(6):428-40, 1994.
• Small H, Garfield E. The geography of science: Disciplinary and national mappings. J. Inform. Sci. 11:147-59, 1985.