critical argumentative essay

How to Write a Critical Essay

Hill Street Studios / Getty Images

• An Introduction to Punctuation

Olivia Valdes was the Associate Editorial Director for ThoughtCo. She worked with Dotdash Meredith from 2017 to 2021.

• B.A., American Studies, Yale University

A critical essay is a form of academic writing that analyzes, interprets, and/or evaluates a text. In a critical essay, an author makes a claim about how particular ideas or themes are conveyed in a text, then supports that claim with evidence from primary and/or secondary sources.

In casual conversation, we often associate the word "critical" with a negative perspective. However, in the context of a critical essay, the word "critical" simply means discerning and analytical. Critical essays analyze and evaluate the meaning and significance of a text, rather than making a judgment about its content or quality.

What Makes an Essay "Critical"? 

Imagine you've just watched the movie "Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory." If you were chatting with friends in the movie theater lobby, you might say something like, "Charlie was so lucky to find a Golden Ticket. That ticket changed his life." A friend might reply, "Yeah, but Willy Wonka shouldn't have let those raucous kids into his chocolate factory in the first place. They caused a big mess."

These comments make for an enjoyable conversation, but they do not belong in a critical essay. Why? Because they respond to (and pass judgment on) the raw content of the movie, rather than analyzing its themes or how the director conveyed those themes.

On the other hand, a critical essay about "Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory" might take the following topic as its thesis: "In 'Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory,' director Mel Stuart intertwines money and morality through his depiction of children: the angelic appearance of Charlie Bucket, a good-hearted boy of modest means, is sharply contrasted against the physically grotesque portrayal of the wealthy, and thus immoral, children."

This thesis includes a claim about the themes of the film, what the director seems to be saying about those themes, and what techniques the director employs in order to communicate his message. In addition, this thesis is both supportable  and  disputable using evidence from the film itself, which means it's a strong central argument for a critical essay .

Characteristics of a Critical Essay

Critical essays are written across many academic disciplines and can have wide-ranging textual subjects: films, novels, poetry, video games, visual art, and more. However, despite their diverse subject matter, all critical essays share the following characteristics.

• Central claim . All critical essays contain a central claim about the text. This argument is typically expressed at the beginning of the essay in a thesis statement , then supported with evidence in each body paragraph. Some critical essays bolster their argument even further by including potential counterarguments, then using evidence to dispute them.
• Evidence . The central claim of a critical essay must be supported by evidence. In many critical essays, most of the evidence comes in the form of textual support: particular details from the text (dialogue, descriptions, word choice, structure, imagery, et cetera) that bolster the argument. Critical essays may also include evidence from secondary sources, often scholarly works that support or strengthen the main argument.
• Conclusion . After making a claim and supporting it with evidence, critical essays offer a succinct conclusion. The conclusion summarizes the trajectory of the essay's argument and emphasizes the essays' most important insights.

Tips for Writing a Critical Essay

Writing a critical essay requires rigorous analysis and a meticulous argument-building process. If you're struggling with a critical essay assignment, these tips will help you get started.

• Practice active reading strategies . These strategies for staying focused and retaining information will help you identify specific details in the text that will serve as evidence for your main argument. Active reading is an essential skill, especially if you're writing a critical essay for a literature class.
• Read example essays . If you're unfamiliar with critical essays as a form, writing one is going to be extremely challenging. Before you dive into the writing process, read a variety of published critical essays, paying careful attention to their structure and writing style. (As always, remember that paraphrasing an author's ideas without proper attribution is a form of plagiarism .)
• Resist the urge to summarize . Critical essays should consist of your own analysis and interpretation of a text, not a summary of the text in general. If you find yourself writing lengthy plot or character descriptions, pause and consider whether these summaries are in the service of your main argument or whether they are simply taking up space.
• 100 Persuasive Essay Topics
• Null Hypothesis Examples
• An Introduction to Academic Writing
• Definition and Examples of Analysis in Composition
• How to Write a Good Thesis Statement
• The Ultimate Guide to the 5-Paragraph Essay
• How To Write an Essay
• Critical Analysis in Composition
• Tips on How to Write an Argumentative Essay
• What an Essay Is and How to Write One
• How to Write and Format an MBA Essay
• Higher Level Thinking: Synthesis in Bloom's Taxonomy
• How To Write a Top-Scoring ACT Essay for the Enhanced Writing Test
• What Is a Critique in Composition?
• How to Structure an Essay
• How to Write a Solid Thesis Statement

8 Effective Strategies to Write Argumentative Essays

In a bustling university town, there lived a student named Alex. Popular for creativity and wit, one challenge seemed insurmountable for Alex– the dreaded argumentative essay!

One gloomy afternoon, as the rain tapped against the window pane, Alex sat at his cluttered desk, staring at a blank document on the computer screen. The assignment loomed large: a 350-600-word argumentative essay on a topic of their choice . With a sigh, he decided to seek help of mentor, Professor Mitchell, who was known for his passion for writing.

Entering Professor Mitchell’s office was like stepping into a treasure of knowledge. Bookshelves lined every wall, faint aroma of old manuscripts in the air and sticky notes over the wall. Alex took a deep breath and knocked on his door.

“Ah, Alex,” Professor Mitchell greeted with a warm smile. “What brings you here today?”

Alex confessed his struggles with the argumentative essay. After hearing his concerns, Professor Mitchell said, “Ah, the argumentative essay! Don’t worry, Let’s take a look at it together.” As he guided Alex to the corner shelf, Alex asked,

Table of Contents

“What is an Argumentative Essay?”

The professor replied, “An argumentative essay is a type of academic writing that presents a clear argument or a firm position on a contentious issue. Unlike other forms of essays, such as descriptive or narrative essays, these essays require you to take a stance, present evidence, and convince your audience of the validity of your viewpoint with supporting evidence. A well-crafted argumentative essay relies on concrete facts and supporting evidence rather than merely expressing the author’s personal opinions . Furthermore, these essays demand comprehensive research on the chosen topic and typically follows a structured format consisting of three primary sections: an introductory paragraph, three body paragraphs, and a concluding paragraph.”

He continued, “Argumentative essays are written in a wide range of subject areas, reflecting their applicability across disciplines. They are written in different subject areas like literature and philosophy, history, science and technology, political science, psychology, economics and so on.

Alex asked,

“When is an Argumentative Essay Written?”

The professor answered, “Argumentative essays are often assigned in academic settings, but they can also be written for various other purposes, such as editorials, opinion pieces, or blog posts. Some situations to write argumentative essays include:

1. Academic assignments

In school or college, teachers may assign argumentative essays as part of coursework. It help students to develop critical thinking and persuasive writing skills .

2. Debates and discussions

Argumentative essays can serve as the basis for debates or discussions in academic or competitive settings. Moreover, they provide a structured way to present and defend your viewpoint.

3. Opinion pieces

Newspapers, magazines, and online publications often feature opinion pieces that present an argument on a current issue or topic to influence public opinion.

4. Policy proposals

In government and policy-related fields, argumentative essays are used to propose and defend specific policy changes or solutions to societal problems.

5. Persuasive speeches

Before delivering a persuasive speech, it’s common to prepare an argumentative essay as a foundation for your presentation.

Regardless of the context, an argumentative essay should present a clear thesis statement , provide evidence and reasoning to support your position, address counterarguments, and conclude with a compelling summary of your main points. The goal is to persuade readers or listeners to accept your viewpoint or at least consider it seriously.”

Handing over a book, the professor continued, “Take a look on the elements or structure of an argumentative essay.”

Elements of an Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay comprises five essential components:

Claim in argumentative writing is the central argument or viewpoint that the writer aims to establish and defend throughout the essay. A claim must assert your position on an issue and must be arguable. It can guide the entire argument.

2. Evidence

Evidence must consist of factual information, data, examples, or expert opinions that support the claim. Also, it lends credibility by strengthening the writer’s position.

3. Counterarguments

Presenting a counterclaim demonstrates fairness and awareness of alternative perspectives.

4. Rebuttal

After presenting the counterclaim, the writer refutes it by offering counterarguments or providing evidence that weakens the opposing viewpoint. It shows that the writer has considered multiple perspectives and is prepared to defend their position.

The format of an argumentative essay typically follows the structure to ensure clarity and effectiveness in presenting an argument.

How to Write An Argumentative Essay

Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to write an argumentative essay:

1. Introduction

• Begin with a compelling sentence or question to grab the reader’s attention.
• Provide context for the issue, including relevant facts, statistics, or historical background.
• Provide a concise thesis statement to present your position on the topic.

2. Body Paragraphs (usually three or more)

• Start each paragraph with a clear and focused topic sentence that relates to your thesis statement.
• Furthermore, provide evidence and explain the facts, statistics, examples, expert opinions, and quotations from credible sources that supports your thesis.
• Use transition sentences to smoothly move from one point to the next.

3. Counterargument and Rebuttal

• Acknowledge opposing viewpoints or potential objections to your argument.
• Also, address these counterarguments with evidence and explain why they do not weaken your position.

4. Conclusion

• Restate your thesis statement and summarize the key points you’ve made in the body of the essay.
• Leave the reader with a final thought, call to action, or broader implication related to the topic.

5. Citations and References

• Properly cite all the sources you use in your essay using a consistent citation style.
• Also, include a bibliography or works cited at the end of your essay.

6. Formatting and Style

• Follow any specific formatting guidelines provided by your instructor or institution.
• Use a professional and academic tone in your writing and edit your essay to avoid content, spelling and grammar mistakes .

Remember that the specific requirements for formatting an argumentative essay may vary depending on your instructor’s guidelines or the citation style you’re using (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). Always check the assignment instructions or style guide for any additional requirements or variations in formatting.

Did you understand what Prof. Mitchell explained Alex? Check it now!

Fill the Details to Check Your Score

Prof. Mitchell continued, “An argumentative essay can adopt various approaches when dealing with opposing perspectives. It may offer a balanced presentation of both sides, providing equal weight to each, or it may advocate more strongly for one side while still acknowledging the existence of opposing views.” As Alex listened carefully to the Professor’s thoughts, his eyes fell on a page with examples of argumentative essay.

Example of an Argumentative Essay

Alex picked the book and read the example. It helped him to understand the concept. Furthermore, he could now connect better to the elements and steps of the essay which Prof. Mitchell had mentioned earlier. Aren’t you keen to know how an argumentative essay should be like? Here is an example of a well-crafted argumentative essay , which was read by Alex. After Alex finished reading the example, the professor turned the page and continued, “Check this page to know the importance of writing an argumentative essay in developing skills of an individual.”

Importance of an Argumentative Essay

After understanding the benefits, Alex was convinced by the ability of the argumentative essays in advocating one’s beliefs and favor the author’s position. Alex asked,

“How are argumentative essays different from the other types?”

Prof. Mitchell answered, “Argumentative essays differ from other types of essays primarily in their purpose, structure, and approach in presenting information. Unlike expository essays, argumentative essays persuade the reader to adopt a particular point of view or take a specific action on a controversial issue. Furthermore, they differ from descriptive essays by not focusing vividly on describing a topic. Also, they are less engaging through storytelling as compared to the narrative essays.

Alex said, “Given the direct and persuasive nature of argumentative essays, can you suggest some strategies to write an effective argumentative essay?

Turning the pages of the book, Prof. Mitchell replied, “Sure! You can check this infographic to get some tips for writing an argumentative essay.”

Effective Strategies to Write an Argumentative Essay

As days turned into weeks, Alex diligently worked on his essay. He researched, gathered evidence, and refined his thesis. It was a long and challenging journey, filled with countless drafts and revisions.

Finally, the day arrived when Alex submitted their essay. As he clicked the “Submit” button, a sense of accomplishment washed over him. He realized that the argumentative essay, while challenging, had improved his critical thinking and transformed him into a more confident writer. Furthermore, Alex received feedback from his professor, a mix of praise and constructive criticism. It was a humbling experience, a reminder that every journey has its obstacles and opportunities for growth.

Frequently Asked Questions

An argumentative essay can be written as follows- 1. Choose a Topic 2. Research and Collect Evidences 3. Develop a Clear Thesis Statement 4. Outline Your Essay- Introduction, Body Paragraphs and Conclusion 5. Revise and Edit 6. Format and Cite Sources 7. Final Review

One must choose a clear, concise and specific statement as a claim. It must be debatable and establish your position. Avoid using ambiguous or unclear while making a claim. To strengthen your claim, address potential counterarguments or opposing viewpoints. Additionally, use persuasive language and rhetoric to make your claim more compelling

Starting an argument essay effectively is crucial to engage your readers and establish the context for your argument. Here’s how you can start an argument essay are: 1. Begin With an Engaging Hook 2. Provide Background Information 3. Present Your Thesis Statement 4. Briefly Outline Your Main 5. Establish Your Credibility

The key features of an argumentative essay are: 1. Clear and Specific Thesis Statement 2. Credible Evidence 3. Counterarguments 4. Structured Body Paragraph 5. Logical Flow 6. Use of Persuasive Techniques 7. Formal Language

An argumentative essay typically consists of the following main parts or sections: 1. Introduction 2. Body Paragraphs 3. Counterargument and Rebuttal 4. Conclusion 5. References (if applicable)

The main purpose of an argumentative essay is to persuade the reader to accept or agree with a particular viewpoint or position on a controversial or debatable topic. In other words, the primary goal of an argumentative essay is to convince the audience that the author's argument or thesis statement is valid, logical, and well-supported by evidence and reasoning.

Great article! The topic is simplified well! Keep up the good work

Rate this article Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published.

Enago Academy's Most Popular Articles

• Diversity and Inclusion
• Industry News

6 Reasons Why There is a Decline in Higher Education Enrollment: Action plan to overcome this crisis

Over the past decade, colleges and universities across the globe have witnessed a concerning trend…

• Reporting Research

Academic Essay Writing Made Simple: 4 types and tips

The pen is mightier than the sword, they say, and nowhere is this more evident…

Ensuring Academic Integrity and Transparency in Academic Research: A comprehensive checklist for researchers

Academic integrity is the foundation upon which the credibility and value of scientific findings are…

• AI in Academia

AI vs. AI: How to detect image manipulation and avoid academic misconduct

The scientific community is facing a new frontier of controversy as artificial intelligence (AI) is…

• Publishing News

Unified AI Guidelines Crucial as Academic Writing Embraces Generative Tools

As generative artificial intelligence (AI) tools like ChatGPT are advancing at an accelerating pace, their…

How to Effectively Cite a PDF (APA, MLA, AMA, and Chicago Style)

How to Optimize Your Research Process: A step-by-step guide

How to Improve Lab Report Writing: Best practices to follow with and without…

Sign-up to read more

Subscribe for free to get unrestricted access to all our resources on research writing and academic publishing including:

• 2000+ blog articles
• 50+ Webinars
• 10+ Expert podcasts
• 50+ Infographics
• 10+ Checklists
• Research Guides

We hate spam too. We promise to protect your privacy and never spam you.

I am looking for Editing/ Proofreading services for my manuscript Tentative date of next journal submission:

As a researcher, what do you consider most when choosing an image manipulation detector?

Argumentative Essay Examples to Inspire You (+ Free Formula)

Table of contents

Meredith Sell

Have you ever been asked to explain your opinion on a controversial issue? 

• Maybe your family got into a discussion about chemical pesticides
• Someone at work argues against investing resources into your project
• Your partner thinks intermittent fasting is the best way to lose weight and you disagree

Proving your point in an argumentative essay can be challenging, unless you are using a proven formula.

Argumentative essay formula & example

In the image below, you can see a recommended structure for argumentative essays. It starts with the topic sentence, which establishes the main idea of the essay. Next, this hypothesis is developed in the development stage. Then, the rebuttal, or the refutal of the main counter argument or arguments. Then, again, development of the rebuttal. This is followed by an example, and ends with a summary. This is a very basic structure, but it gives you a bird-eye-view of how a proper argumentative essay can be built.

Writing an argumentative essay (for a class, a news outlet, or just for fun) can help you improve your understanding of an issue and sharpen your thinking on the matter. Using researched facts and data, you can explain why you or others think the way you do, even while other reasonable people disagree.

Free AI argumentative essay generator > Free AI argumentative essay generator >

What Is an Argumentative Essay?

An argumentative essay is an explanatory essay that takes a side.

Instead of appealing to emotion and personal experience to change the reader’s mind, an argumentative essay uses logic and well-researched factual information to explain why the thesis in question is the most reasonable opinion on the matter.  

Over several paragraphs or pages, the author systematically walks through:

• The opposition (and supporting evidence)
• The chosen thesis (and its supporting evidence)

At the end, the author leaves the decision up to the reader, trusting that the case they’ve made will do the work of changing the reader’s mind. Even if the reader’s opinion doesn’t change, they come away from the essay with a greater understanding of the perspective presented — and perhaps a better understanding of their original opinion.

All of that might make it seem like writing an argumentative essay is way harder than an emotionally-driven persuasive essay — but if you’re like me and much more comfortable spouting facts and figures than making impassioned pleas, you may find that an argumentative essay is easier to write. 

Plus, the process of researching an argumentative essay means you can check your assumptions and develop an opinion that’s more based in reality than what you originally thought. I know for sure that my opinions need to be fact checked — don’t yours?

So how exactly do we write the argumentative essay?

How do you start an argumentative essay

First, gain a clear understanding of what exactly an argumentative essay is. To formulate a proper topic sentence, you have to be clear on your topic, and to explore it through research.

Students have difficulty starting an essay because the whole task seems intimidating, and they are afraid of spending too much time on the topic sentence. Experienced writers, however, know that there is no set time to spend on figuring out your topic. It's a real exploration that is based to a large extent on intuition.

6 Steps to Write an Argumentative Essay (Persuasion Formula)

Use this checklist to tackle your essay one step at a time:

1. Research an issue with an arguable question

To start, you need to identify an issue that well-informed people have varying opinions on. Here, it’s helpful to think of one core topic and how it intersects with another (or several other) issues. That intersection is where hot takes and reasonable (or unreasonable) opinions abound. 

I find it helpful to stage the issue as a question.

For example: 

Is it better to legislate the minimum size of chicken enclosures or to outlaw the sale of eggs from chickens who don’t have enough space?

Should snow removal policies focus more on effectively keeping roads clear for traffic or the environmental impacts of snow removal methods?

Once you have your arguable question ready, start researching the basic facts and specific opinions and arguments on the issue. Do your best to stay focused on gathering information that is directly relevant to your topic. Depending on what your essay is for, you may reference academic studies, government reports, or newspaper articles.

‍ Research your opposition and the facts that support their viewpoint as much as you research your own position . You’ll need to address your opposition in your essay, so you’ll want to know their argument from the inside out.

2. Choose a side based on your research

You likely started with an inclination toward one side or the other, but your research should ultimately shape your perspective. So once you’ve completed the research, nail down your opinion and start articulating the what and why of your take. 

What: I think it’s better to outlaw selling eggs from chickens whose enclosures are too small.

Why: Because if you regulate the enclosure size directly, egg producers outside of the government’s jurisdiction could ship eggs into your territory and put nearby egg producers out of business by offering better prices because they don’t have the added cost of larger enclosures.

This is an early form of your thesis and the basic logic of your argument. You’ll want to iterate on this a few times and develop a one-sentence statement that sums up the thesis of your essay.

Thesis: Outlawing the sale of eggs from chickens with cramped living spaces is better for business than regulating the size of chicken enclosures.

Now that you’ve articulated your thesis , spell out the counterargument(s) as well. Putting your opposition’s take into words will help you throughout the rest of the essay-writing process. (You can start by choosing the counter argument option with Wordtune Spices .)

Counterargument: Outlawing the sale of eggs from chickens with too small enclosures will immediately drive up egg prices for consumers, making the low-cost protein source harder to afford — especially for low-income consumers.

There may be one main counterargument to articulate, or several. Write them all out and start thinking about how you’ll use evidence to address each of them or show why your argument is still the best option.

3. Organize the evidence — for your side and the opposition

You did all of that research for a reason. Now’s the time to use it. 

Hopefully, you kept detailed notes in a document, complete with links and titles of all your source material. Go through your research document and copy the evidence for your argument and your opposition’s into another document.

List the main points of your argument. Then, below each point, paste the evidence that backs them up.

If you’re writing about chicken enclosures, maybe you found evidence that shows the spread of disease among birds kept in close quarters is worse than among birds who have more space. Or maybe you found information that says eggs from free-range chickens are more flavorful or nutritious. Put that information next to the appropriate part of your argument. 

Repeat the process with your opposition’s argument: What information did you find that supports your opposition? Paste it beside your opposition’s argument.

You could also put information here that refutes your opposition, but organize it in a way that clearly tells you — at a glance — that the information disproves their point.

Counterargument: Outlawing the sale of eggs from chickens with too small enclosures will immediately drive up egg prices for consumers.

BUT: Sicknesses like avian flu spread more easily through small enclosures and could cause a shortage that would drive up egg prices naturally, so ensuring larger enclosures is still a better policy for consumers over the long term.

As you organize your research and see the evidence all together, start thinking through the best way to order your points.  

Will it be better to present your argument all at once or to break it up with opposition claims you can quickly refute? Would some points set up other points well? Does a more complicated point require that the reader understands a simpler point first?

Play around and rearrange your notes to see how your essay might flow one way or another.

4. Freewrite or outline to think through your argument

Is your brain buzzing yet? At this point in the process, it can be helpful to take out a notebook or open a fresh document and dump whatever you’re thinking on the page.

Where should your essay start? What ground-level information do you need to provide your readers before you can dive into the issue?

Use your organized evidence document from step 3 to think through your argument from beginning to end, and determine the structure of your essay.

There are three typical structures for argumentative essays:

• Make your argument and tackle opposition claims one by one, as they come up in relation to the points of your argument - In this approach, the whole essay — from beginning to end — focuses on your argument, but as you make each point, you address the relevant opposition claims individually. This approach works well if your opposition’s views can be quickly explained and refuted and if they directly relate to specific points in your argument.
• Make the bulk of your argument, and then address the opposition all at once in a paragraph (or a few) - This approach puts the opposition in its own section, separate from your main argument. After you’ve made your case, with ample evidence to convince your readers, you write about the opposition, explaining their viewpoint and supporting evidence — and showing readers why the opposition’s argument is unconvincing. Once you’ve addressed the opposition, you write a conclusion that sums up why your argument is the better one.
• Open your essay by talking about the opposition and where it falls short. Build your entire argument to show how it is superior to that opposition - With this structure, you’re showing your readers “a better way” to address the issue. After opening your piece by showing how your opposition’s approaches fail, you launch into your argument, providing readers with ample evidence that backs you up.

As you think through your argument and examine your evidence document, consider which structure will serve your argument best. Sketch out an outline to give yourself a map to follow in the writing process. You could also rearrange your evidence document again to match your outline, so it will be easy to find what you need when you start writing.

5. Write your first draft

You have an outline and an organized document with all your points and evidence lined up and ready. Now you just have to write your essay.

In your first draft, focus on getting your ideas on the page. Your wording may not be perfect (whose is?), but you know what you’re trying to say — so even if you’re overly wordy and taking too much space to say what you need to say, put those words on the page.

Follow your outline, and draw from that evidence document to flesh out each point of your argument. Explain what the evidence means for your argument and your opposition. Connect the dots for your readers so they can follow you, point by point, and understand what you’re trying to say.

As you write, be sure to include:

1. Any background information your reader needs in order to understand the issue in question.

2. Evidence for both your argument and the counterargument(s). This shows that you’ve done your homework and builds trust with your reader, while also setting you up to make a more convincing argument. (If you find gaps in your research while you’re writing, Wordtune Spices can source statistics or historical facts on the fly!)

Get Wordtune for free > Get Wordtune for free >

3. A conclusion that sums up your overall argument and evidence — and leaves the reader with an understanding of the issue and its significance. This sort of conclusion brings your essay to a strong ending that doesn’t waste readers’ time, but actually adds value to your case.

6. Revise (with Wordtune)

The hard work is done: you have a first draft. Now, let’s fine tune your writing.

I like to step away from what I’ve written for a day (or at least a night of sleep) before attempting to revise. It helps me approach clunky phrases and rough transitions with fresh eyes. If you don’t have that luxury, just get away from your computer for a few minutes — use the bathroom, do some jumping jacks, eat an apple — and then come back and read through your piece.

As you revise, make sure you …

• Get the facts right. An argument with false evidence falls apart pretty quickly, so check your facts to make yours rock solid.
• Don’t misrepresent the opposition or their evidence. If someone who holds the opposing view reads your essay, they should affirm how you explain their side — even if they disagree with your rebuttal.
• Present a case that builds over the course of your essay, makes sense, and ends on a strong note. One point should naturally lead to the next. Your readers shouldn’t feel like you’re constantly changing subjects. You’re making a variety of points, but your argument should feel like a cohesive whole.
• Paraphrase sources and cite them appropriately. Did you skip citations when writing your first draft? No worries — you can add them now. And check that you don’t overly rely on quotations. (Need help paraphrasing? Wordtune can help. Simply highlight the sentence or phrase you want to adjust and sort through Wordtune’s suggestions.)
• Tighten up overly wordy explanations and sharpen any convoluted ideas. Wordtune makes a great sidekick for this too 😉

Words to start an argumentative essay

The best way to introduce a convincing argument is to provide a strong thesis statement . These are the words I usually use to start an argumentative essay:

• It is indisputable that the world today is facing a multitude of issues
• With the rise of ____, the potential to make a positive difference has never been more accessible
• It is essential that we take action now and tackle these issues head-on
• it is critical to understand the underlying causes of the problems standing before us
• Opponents of this idea claim
• Those who are against these ideas may say
• Some people may disagree with this idea
• Some people may say that ____, however

When refuting an opposing concept, use:

• These researchers have a point in thinking
• To a certain extent they are right
• After seeing this evidence, there is no way one can agree with this idea
• This argument is irrelevant to the topic

Are you convinced by your own argument yet? Ready to brave the next get-together where everyone’s talking like they know something about intermittent fasting , chicken enclosures , or snow removal policies? 

Now if someone asks you to explain your evidence-based but controversial opinion, you can hand them your essay and ask them to report back after they’ve read it.

Share This Article:

8 Key Elements of a Research Paper Structure + Free Template (2024)

How to Craft Your Ideal Thesis Research Topic

How to Craft an Engaging Elevator Pitch that Gets Results

Looking for fresh content, thank you your submission has been received.

• Subject Guides

Academic writing: a practical guide

Criticality in academic writing.

• Academic writing
• The writing process
• Academic writing style
• Structure & cohesion
• Working with evidence
• Referencing
• Assessment & feedback
• Dissertations
• Reflective writing
• Examination writing
• Academic posters
• Feedback on Structure and Organisation
• Feedback on Argument, Analysis, and Critical Thinking
• Feedback on Writing Style and Clarity
• Feedback on Referencing and Research
• Feedback on Presentation and Proofreading

Being critical is at the heart of academic writing, but what is it and how can you incorporate it into your work?

What is criticality?

What is critical thinking.

Have you ever received feedback in a piece of work saying 'be more critical' or 'not enough critical analysis' but found yourself scratching your head, wondering what that means? Dive into this bitesize workshop to discover what it is and how to do it:

Critical Thinking: What it is and how to do it (bitesize workshop)[YouTube]

University-level work requires both descriptive and critical elements. But what's the difference?

Descriptive

Being descriptive shows what you know about a topic and provides the evidence to support your arguments. It uses simpler processes like  remembering , understanding and applying . You might summarise previous research, explain concepts or describe processes.

Being critical pulls evidence together to build your arguments; what does it all mean together? It uses more complex processes: analysing ,  evaluating and creating . You might make comparisons, consider reasons and implications, justify choices or consider strengths and weaknesses.

Bloom's Taxonomy  is a useful tool to consider descriptive and critical processes:

Bloom's Taxonomy [YouTube]  |  Bloom's Taxonomy [Google Doc]

Find out more about critical thinking:

What is critical writing?

Academic writing requires criticality; it's not enough to just describe or summarise evidence, you also need to analyse and evaluate information and use it to build your own arguments. This is where you show your own thoughts based on the evidence available, so critical writing is really important for higher grades.

Explore the key features of critical writing and see it in practice in some examples:

Introduction to critical writing [Google Slides]

While we need criticality in our writing, it's definitely possible to go further than needed. We’re aiming for that Goldilocks ‘just right’ point between not critical enough and too critical. Find out more:

Critical reading

Criticality isn't just for writing, it is also important to read critically. Reading critically helps you:

• evaluative whether sources are suitable for your assignments.
• know what you're looking for when reading.
• find the information you need quickly.

Critical reading [Interactive tutorial]  |  Critical reading [Google Doc]

Find out more on our dedicated guides:

Using evidence critically

Academic writing integrates evidence from sources to create your own critical arguments.

We're not looking for a list of summaries of individual sources; ideally, the important evidence should be integrated into a cohesive whole.  What does the evidence mean altogether?  Of course, a critical argument also needs some critical analysis of this evidence.  What does it all mean in terms of your argument?

Find out more about using evidence to build critical arguments in our guide to working with evidence:

Critical language

Critical writing is going to require critical language. Different terms will give different nuance to your argument. Others will just keep things interesting! In the document below we go through some examples to help you out:

Assignment titles: critical or descriptive?

Assignment titles contain various words that show where you need to be descriptive and where you need to be critical. Explore some of the most common instructional words: 

Descriptive instructional words

define : give the precise meaning

examine : look at carefully; consider different aspects

explain : clearly describe how a process works, why a decision was made, or give other information needed to understand the topic

illustrate : explain and describe using examples

outline : give an overview of the key information, leaving out minor details

Critical instructional words

analyse : break down the information into parts, consider how parts work together

discuss : explain a topic, make comparisons, consider strengths & weaknesses, give reasons, consider implications

evaluate : assess something's worth, value or suitability for a purpose - this often leads to making a choice afterwards

justify : show the reasoning behind a choice, argument or standpoint

synthesise : bring together evidence and information to create a cohesive whole, integrate ideas or issues

CC BY-NC-SA Learnhigher

More guidance on breaking down assignment titles:

• << Previous: Structure & cohesion
• Next: Working with evidence >>
• Last Updated: Jun 4, 2024 10:44 AM
• URL: https://subjectguides.york.ac.uk/academic-writing

Library Guides

Essay writing: argument and criticality.

• Argument and criticality

What is an argument?

Essays are generally structured as arguments . 

After you analyse the essay question, you read (or re-read) texts from your reading list and texts found through your own research. On the basis of your reading, you develop a general view, or answer, to the essay question, which you then defend with the evidence found in your reading. 

The view that you defend in your essay is called a thesis statement . 

Thesis statements

What is a thesis statement ?

Your thesis statement states your position on the essay question, which you will defend with one or more arguments in the body of the essay. Your thesis statement is essentially your answer to the essay question, expressed in a single sentence, and will be based on your reading.

Your thesis statement is:

• Is developed through reading. What does the literature say about the issue referred to in the essay question?
• Provided in the introduction 
• Usually follows a brief outline of the problem, or issue, addressed by the essay question 
• Is specific and relevant to the essay question

Examples of thesis statements

Essay question:  ‘Discuss the claim that mass public schooling provides equal access to high quality education.’

Thesis:   This essay will argue  that  while the introduction of mass public schooling was a great advancement in ensuring equal access to education, the influence of socio-economic status on educational attainment has not yet been overcome.  

"This essay will argue"  → Signposting phrase to introduce your argument             

 "while mass public schooling was a great advancement in ensuring equal access to education, the influence of socio-economic status on educational attainment has not yet been overcome"  → Clearly indicates your position on the issue   

Example 2: 

Essay question:  To what extent is there a 'participation crisis' in UK politics?

Thesis:  If we define 'participation' as xyz, it can be argued that there is not in fact a participation crisis in UK politics. 

A note on thesis statements : 

It can feel scary to commit yourself to a thesis statement because thesis statements seem to speak with tremendous certainty! But..."The influence of socio-economic status on educational attainment has not yet been overcome" simply indicates the general destination that the essay will be moving toward. It does not have to be a highly developed statement of how things are. Try to develop a general, 'working' thesis to give your writing direction. You can make it more precise and nuanced as you work through various drafts of your essay. 

Additional help with thesis statements

Effective argumentation

To write an effective argument, you will need to provide the following:

• Thesis statement
• Evidence in the form of literature, data, research findings etc.
• Logic: the thesis statement must be supported logically by the evidence.
• Consideration of counter-arguments
• You can present concessions to counter-arguments, but should reject their key points with your evidence/reasoning.
• Confident whenever possible
• Cautious, qualifying, hedging, when there are uncertainties and limitations

Writing effective arguments

In defending your thesis statement, you will likely have to break it down into separate issues, or aspects, which are dealt with separately.

In discussing these separate aspects, you might develop smaller thesis statements, which are related to your larger thesis statement . 

This means that your essay will have a "tree structure". 

Essay tree structure

An example of a more developed tree structure:

Thesis: Digital technology will lead to greater social mistrust and dysfunctionality rather than greater social cohesion

The handout below looks at the difference between everyday arguments and arguments in academic writing:

• Academic vs. Everyday Arguments An analysis of the similarities and differences between academic arguments and everyday arguments

Argument structure

• The order and structure of an argument can vary

Claim: We should go to the cinema today.

Argument structure A:

1. Counter arguments/concessions:

It is true that…

Cinema is costly (topic 1)

It is hard to agree on a movie (topic 2)

Tomorrow we have lectures in the morning (topic 3)

2. Rebuttals with evidence:

              But

                             We have saved money by working… (topic 1)

There is a new sci-fi movie that you should like and I’m finding quite intriguing... (topic 2) 

                             We haven’t been out in a while and I need some

                              inspiration to study more efficiently... (topic 3) 

Argument structure B:

1. Counterargument/concession plus rebuttal of topic 1

Cinema is costly, at £10 per ticket, but we have saved money by working…

2. Counterargument/concession plus rebuttal of t opic 2 

It is hard to agree on a movie, but there is a new sci-fi movie that you should like and I’m finding quite intriguing..

3. Counterargument/concession plus rebuttal of t opic 3

Tomorrow we have lectures in the morning, but we haven’t been out in a while and I need some inspiration to study more efficiently

Obviously your academic writing will be more complex, will deal with more serious questions, will use evidence and will refer to the relevant academic literature!

Critical thinking and writing

Your essay needs to demonstrate some degree of analysis and critical thinking. The more you progress in higher education, the more you are expected to  use  and  apply  knowledge. This is reflected  in critical writing , whereby  you move from mere description to analysis and evaluation .

Critical thinking entails:

• Being objective
• Looking for weaknesses in arguments
• Checking arguments are logical
• Checking arguments are accurate
• Looking at an idea or data from different perspectives

It also involves asking questions about your own work as well as the work of others such as:

• Is this true?
• How reliable is this information?
• Can I support the arguments and claims I am making?

If you have ever been told that your writing is ‘too descriptive’ and not ‘critical’ enough then consider the differences between analytical writing and descriptive writing:

• Descriptive writing summarises, reports, lists and outlines information, theories and sources.
• Critical writing looks for links between sources, identifies issues, challenges established ideas and considers alternatives.

Check the guide on  Critical Thinking and Writing  for more information on writing critically. 

• << Previous: Research
• Next: Structure >>
• Last Updated: Dec 12, 2023 2:36 PM
• URL: https://libguides.westminster.ac.uk/essaywriting

CONNECT WITH US

Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 3 strong argumentative essay examples, analyzed.

General Education

Need to defend your opinion on an issue? Argumentative essays are one of the most popular types of essays you’ll write in school. They combine persuasive arguments with fact-based research, and, when done well, can be powerful tools for making someone agree with your point of view. If you’re struggling to write an argumentative essay or just want to learn more about them, seeing examples can be a big help.

After giving an overview of this type of essay, we provide three argumentative essay examples. After each essay, we explain in-depth how the essay was structured, what worked, and where the essay could be improved. We end with tips for making your own argumentative essay as strong as possible.

What Is an Argumentative Essay?

An argumentative essay is an essay that uses evidence and facts to support the claim it’s making. Its purpose is to persuade the reader to agree with the argument being made.

A good argumentative essay will use facts and evidence to support the argument, rather than just the author’s thoughts and opinions. For example, say you wanted to write an argumentative essay stating that Charleston, SC is a great destination for families. You couldn’t just say that it’s a great place because you took your family there and enjoyed it. For it to be an argumentative essay, you need to have facts and data to support your argument, such as the number of child-friendly attractions in Charleston, special deals you can get with kids, and surveys of people who visited Charleston as a family and enjoyed it. The first argument is based entirely on feelings, whereas the second is based on evidence that can be proven.

The standard five paragraph format is common, but not required, for argumentative essays. These essays typically follow one of two formats: the Toulmin model or the Rogerian model.

• The Toulmin model is the most common. It begins with an introduction, follows with a thesis/claim, and gives data and evidence to support that claim. This style of essay also includes rebuttals of counterarguments.
• The Rogerian model analyzes two sides of an argument and reaches a conclusion after weighing the strengths and weaknesses of each.

3 Good Argumentative Essay Examples + Analysis

Below are three examples of argumentative essays, written by yours truly in my school days, as well as analysis of what each did well and where it could be improved.

Argumentative Essay Example 1

Proponents of this idea state that it will save local cities and towns money because libraries are expensive to maintain. They also believe it will encourage more people to read because they won’t have to travel to a library to get a book; they can simply click on what they want to read and read it from wherever they are. They could also access more materials because libraries won’t have to buy physical copies of books; they can simply rent out as many digital copies as they need.

However, it would be a serious mistake to replace libraries with tablets. First, digital books and resources are associated with less learning and more problems than print resources. A study done on tablet vs book reading found that people read 20-30% slower on tablets, retain 20% less information, and understand 10% less of what they read compared to people who read the same information in print. Additionally, staring too long at a screen has been shown to cause numerous health problems, including blurred vision, dizziness, dry eyes, headaches, and eye strain, at much higher instances than reading print does. People who use tablets and mobile devices excessively also have a higher incidence of more serious health issues such as fibromyalgia, shoulder and back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and muscle strain. I know that whenever I read from my e-reader for too long, my eyes begin to feel tired and my neck hurts. We should not add to these problems by giving people, especially young people, more reasons to look at screens.

Second, it is incredibly narrow-minded to assume that the only service libraries offer is book lending. Libraries have a multitude of benefits, and many are only available if the library has a physical location. Some of these benefits include acting as a quiet study space, giving people a way to converse with their neighbors, holding classes on a variety of topics, providing jobs, answering patron questions, and keeping the community connected. One neighborhood found that, after a local library instituted community events such as play times for toddlers and parents, job fairs for teenagers, and meeting spaces for senior citizens, over a third of residents reported feeling more connected to their community. Similarly, a Pew survey conducted in 2015 found that nearly two-thirds of American adults feel that closing their local library would have a major impact on their community. People see libraries as a way to connect with others and get their questions answered, benefits tablets can’t offer nearly as well or as easily.

While replacing libraries with tablets may seem like a simple solution, it would encourage people to spend even more time looking at digital screens, despite the myriad issues surrounding them. It would also end access to many of the benefits of libraries that people have come to rely on. In many areas, libraries are such an important part of the community network that they could never be replaced by a simple object.

The author begins by giving an overview of the counter-argument, then the thesis appears as the first sentence in the third paragraph. The essay then spends the rest of the paper dismantling the counter argument and showing why readers should believe the other side.

What this essay does well:

• Although it’s a bit unusual to have the thesis appear fairly far into the essay, it works because, once the thesis is stated, the rest of the essay focuses on supporting it since the counter-argument has already been discussed earlier in the paper.
• This essay includes numerous facts and cites studies to support its case. By having specific data to rely on, the author’s argument is stronger and readers will be more inclined to agree with it.
• For every argument the other side makes, the author makes sure to refute it and follow up with why her opinion is the stronger one. In order to make a strong argument, it’s important to dismantle the other side, which this essay does this by making the author's view appear stronger.
• This is a shorter paper, and if it needed to be expanded to meet length requirements, it could include more examples and go more into depth with them, such as by explaining specific cases where people benefited from local libraries.
• Additionally, while the paper uses lots of data, the author also mentions their own experience with using tablets. This should be removed since argumentative essays focus on facts and data to support an argument, not the author’s own opinion or experiences. Replacing that with more data on health issues associated with screen time would strengthen the essay.
• Some of the points made aren't completely accurate , particularly the one about digital books being cheaper. It actually often costs a library more money to rent out numerous digital copies of a book compared to buying a single physical copy. Make sure in your own essay you thoroughly research each of the points and rebuttals you make, otherwise you'll look like you don't know the issue that well.

Argumentative Essay Example 2

There are multiple drugs available to treat malaria, and many of them work well and save lives, but malaria eradication programs that focus too much on them and not enough on prevention haven’t seen long-term success in Sub-Saharan Africa. A major program to combat malaria was WHO’s Global Malaria Eradication Programme. Started in 1955, it had a goal of eliminating malaria in Africa within the next ten years. Based upon previously successful programs in Brazil and the United States, the program focused mainly on vector control. This included widely distributing chloroquine and spraying large amounts of DDT. More than one billion dollars was spent trying to abolish malaria. However, the program suffered from many problems and in 1969, WHO was forced to admit that the program had not succeeded in eradicating malaria. The number of people in Sub-Saharan Africa who contracted malaria as well as the number of malaria deaths had actually increased over 10% during the time the program was active.

One of the major reasons for the failure of the project was that it set uniform strategies and policies. By failing to consider variations between governments, geography, and infrastructure, the program was not nearly as successful as it could have been. Sub-Saharan Africa has neither the money nor the infrastructure to support such an elaborate program, and it couldn’t be run the way it was meant to. Most African countries don't have the resources to send all their people to doctors and get shots, nor can they afford to clear wetlands or other malaria prone areas. The continent’s spending per person for eradicating malaria was just a quarter of what Brazil spent. Sub-Saharan Africa simply can’t rely on a plan that requires more money, infrastructure, and expertise than they have to spare.

Additionally, the widespread use of chloroquine has created drug resistant parasites which are now plaguing Sub-Saharan Africa. Because chloroquine was used widely but inconsistently, mosquitoes developed resistance, and chloroquine is now nearly completely ineffective in Sub-Saharan Africa, with over 95% of mosquitoes resistant to it. As a result, newer, more expensive drugs need to be used to prevent and treat malaria, which further drives up the cost of malaria treatment for a region that can ill afford it.

Instead of developing plans to treat malaria after the infection has incurred, programs should focus on preventing infection from occurring in the first place. Not only is this plan cheaper and more effective, reducing the number of people who contract malaria also reduces loss of work/school days which can further bring down the productivity of the region.

One of the cheapest and most effective ways of preventing malaria is to implement insecticide-treated bed nets (ITNs).  These nets provide a protective barrier around the person or people using them. While untreated bed nets are still helpful, those treated with insecticides are much more useful because they stop mosquitoes from biting people through the nets, and they help reduce mosquito populations in a community, thus helping people who don’t even own bed nets.  Bed nets are also very effective because most mosquito bites occur while the person is sleeping, so bed nets would be able to drastically reduce the number of transmissions during the night. In fact, transmission of malaria can be reduced by as much as 90% in areas where the use of ITNs is widespread. Because money is so scarce in Sub-Saharan Africa, the low cost is a great benefit and a major reason why the program is so successful. Bed nets cost roughly 2 USD to make, last several years, and can protect two adults. Studies have shown that, for every 100-1000 more nets are being used, one less child dies of malaria. With an estimated 300 million people in Africa not being protected by mosquito nets, there’s the potential to save three million lives by spending just a few dollars per person.

Reducing the number of people who contract malaria would also reduce poverty levels in Africa significantly, thus improving other aspects of society like education levels and the economy. Vector control is more effective than treatment strategies because it means fewer people are getting sick. When fewer people get sick, the working population is stronger as a whole because people are not put out of work from malaria, nor are they caring for sick relatives. Malaria-afflicted families can typically only harvest 40% of the crops that healthy families can harvest. Additionally, a family with members who have malaria spends roughly a quarter of its income treatment, not including the loss of work they also must deal with due to the illness. It’s estimated that malaria costs Africa 12 billion USD in lost income every year. A strong working population creates a stronger economy, which Sub-Saharan Africa is in desperate need of.  

This essay begins with an introduction, which ends with the thesis (that malaria eradication plans in Sub-Saharan Africa should focus on prevention rather than treatment). The first part of the essay lays out why the counter argument (treatment rather than prevention) is not as effective, and the second part of the essay focuses on why prevention of malaria is the better path to take.

• The thesis appears early, is stated clearly, and is supported throughout the rest of the essay. This makes the argument clear for readers to understand and follow throughout the essay.
• There’s lots of solid research in this essay, including specific programs that were conducted and how successful they were, as well as specific data mentioned throughout. This evidence helps strengthen the author’s argument.
• The author makes a case for using expanding bed net use over waiting until malaria occurs and beginning treatment, but not much of a plan is given for how the bed nets would be distributed or how to ensure they’re being used properly. By going more into detail of what she believes should be done, the author would be making a stronger argument.
• The introduction of the essay does a good job of laying out the seriousness of the problem, but the conclusion is short and abrupt. Expanding it into its own paragraph would give the author a final way to convince readers of her side of the argument.

Argumentative Essay Example 3

There are many ways payments could work. They could be in the form of a free-market approach, where athletes are able to earn whatever the market is willing to pay them, it could be a set amount of money per athlete, or student athletes could earn income from endorsements, autographs, and control of their likeness, similar to the way top Olympians earn money.

Proponents of the idea believe that, because college athletes are the ones who are training, participating in games, and bringing in audiences, they should receive some sort of compensation for their work. If there were no college athletes, the NCAA wouldn’t exist, college coaches wouldn’t receive there (sometimes very high) salaries, and brands like Nike couldn’t profit from college sports. In fact, the NCAA brings in roughly $1 billion in revenue a year, but college athletes don’t receive any of that money in the form of a paycheck. Additionally, people who believe college athletes should be paid state that paying college athletes will actually encourage them to remain in college longer and not turn pro as quickly, either by giving them a way to begin earning money in college or requiring them to sign a contract stating they’ll stay at the university for a certain number of years while making an agreed-upon salary.  

Supporters of this idea point to Zion Williamson, the Duke basketball superstar, who, during his freshman year, sustained a serious knee injury. Many argued that, even if he enjoyed playing for Duke, it wasn’t worth risking another injury and ending his professional career before it even began for a program that wasn’t paying him. Williamson seems to have agreed with them and declared his eligibility for the NCAA draft later that year. If he was being paid, he may have stayed at Duke longer. In fact, roughly a third of student athletes surveyed stated that receiving a salary while in college would make them “strongly consider” remaining collegiate athletes longer before turning pro.

Paying athletes could also stop the recruitment scandals that have plagued the NCAA. In 2018, the NCAA stripped the University of Louisville's men's basketball team of its 2013 national championship title because it was discovered coaches were using sex workers to entice recruits to join the team. There have been dozens of other recruitment scandals where college athletes and recruits have been bribed with anything from having their grades changed, to getting free cars, to being straight out bribed. By paying college athletes and putting their salaries out in the open, the NCAA could end the illegal and underhanded ways some schools and coaches try to entice athletes to join.

People who argue against the idea of paying college athletes believe the practice could be disastrous for college sports. By paying athletes, they argue, they’d turn college sports into a bidding war, where only the richest schools could afford top athletes, and the majority of schools would be shut out from developing a talented team (though some argue this already happens because the best players often go to the most established college sports programs, who typically pay their coaches millions of dollars per year). It could also ruin the tight camaraderie of many college teams if players become jealous that certain teammates are making more money than they are.

They also argue that paying college athletes actually means only a small fraction would make significant money. Out of the 350 Division I athletic departments, fewer than a dozen earn any money. Nearly all the money the NCAA makes comes from men’s football and basketball, so paying college athletes would make a small group of men--who likely will be signed to pro teams and begin making millions immediately out of college--rich at the expense of other players.

Those against paying college athletes also believe that the athletes are receiving enough benefits already. The top athletes already receive scholarships that are worth tens of thousands per year, they receive free food/housing/textbooks, have access to top medical care if they are injured, receive top coaching, get travel perks and free gear, and can use their time in college as a way to capture the attention of professional recruiters. No other college students receive anywhere near as much from their schools.

People on this side also point out that, while the NCAA brings in a massive amount of money each year, it is still a non-profit organization. How? Because over 95% of those profits are redistributed to its members’ institutions in the form of scholarships, grants, conferences, support for Division II and Division III teams, and educational programs. Taking away a significant part of that revenue would hurt smaller programs that rely on that money to keep running.

While both sides have good points, it’s clear that the negatives of paying college athletes far outweigh the positives. College athletes spend a significant amount of time and energy playing for their school, but they are compensated for it by the scholarships and perks they receive. Adding a salary to that would result in a college athletic system where only a small handful of athletes (those likely to become millionaires in the professional leagues) are paid by a handful of schools who enter bidding wars to recruit them, while the majority of student athletics and college athletic programs suffer or even shut down for lack of money. Continuing to offer the current level of benefits to student athletes makes it possible for as many people to benefit from and enjoy college sports as possible.

This argumentative essay follows the Rogerian model. It discusses each side, first laying out multiple reasons people believe student athletes should be paid, then discussing reasons why the athletes shouldn’t be paid. It ends by stating that college athletes shouldn’t be paid by arguing that paying them would destroy college athletics programs and cause them to have many of the issues professional sports leagues have.

• Both sides of the argument are well developed, with multiple reasons why people agree with each side. It allows readers to get a full view of the argument and its nuances.
• Certain statements on both sides are directly rebuffed in order to show where the strengths and weaknesses of each side lie and give a more complete and sophisticated look at the argument.
• Using the Rogerian model can be tricky because oftentimes you don’t explicitly state your argument until the end of the paper. Here, the thesis doesn’t appear until the first sentence of the final paragraph. That doesn’t give readers a lot of time to be convinced that your argument is the right one, compared to a paper where the thesis is stated in the beginning and then supported throughout the paper. This paper could be strengthened if the final paragraph was expanded to more fully explain why the author supports the view, or if the paper had made it clearer that paying athletes was the weaker argument throughout.

3 Tips for Writing a Good Argumentative Essay

Now that you’ve seen examples of what good argumentative essay samples look like, follow these three tips when crafting your own essay.

#1: Make Your Thesis Crystal Clear

The thesis is the key to your argumentative essay; if it isn’t clear or readers can’t find it easily, your entire essay will be weak as a result. Always make sure that your thesis statement is easy to find. The typical spot for it is the final sentence of the introduction paragraph, but if it doesn’t fit in that spot for your essay, try to at least put it as the first or last sentence of a different paragraph so it stands out more.

Also make sure that your thesis makes clear what side of the argument you’re on. After you’ve written it, it’s a great idea to show your thesis to a couple different people--classmates are great for this. Just by reading your thesis they should be able to understand what point you’ll be trying to make with the rest of your essay.

#2: Show Why the Other Side Is Weak

When writing your essay, you may be tempted to ignore the other side of the argument and just focus on your side, but don’t do this. The best argumentative essays really tear apart the other side to show why readers shouldn’t believe it. Before you begin writing your essay, research what the other side believes, and what their strongest points are. Then, in your essay, be sure to mention each of these and use evidence to explain why they’re incorrect/weak arguments. That’ll make your essay much more effective than if you only focused on your side of the argument.

#3: Use Evidence to Support Your Side

Remember, an essay can’t be an argumentative essay if it doesn’t support its argument with evidence. For every point you make, make sure you have facts to back it up. Some examples are previous studies done on the topic, surveys of large groups of people, data points, etc. There should be lots of numbers in your argumentative essay that support your side of the argument. This will make your essay much stronger compared to only relying on your own opinions to support your argument.

Summary: Argumentative Essay Sample

Argumentative essays are persuasive essays that use facts and evidence to support their side of the argument. Most argumentative essays follow either the Toulmin model or the Rogerian model. By reading good argumentative essay examples, you can learn how to develop your essay and provide enough support to make readers agree with your opinion. When writing your essay, remember to always make your thesis clear, show where the other side is weak, and back up your opinion with data and evidence.

What's Next?

Do you need to write an argumentative essay as well? Check out our guide on the best argumentative essay topics for ideas!

You'll probably also need to write research papers for school. We've got you covered with 113 potential topics for research papers.

Your college admissions essay may end up being one of the most important essays you write. Follow our step-by-step guide on writing a personal statement to have an essay that'll impress colleges.

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

Ask a Question Below

Have any questions about this article or other topics? Ask below and we'll reply!

Improve With Our Famous Guides

• For All Students

The 5 Strategies You Must Be Using to Improve 160+ SAT Points

How to Get a Perfect 1600, by a Perfect Scorer

Series: How to Get 800 on Each SAT Section:

Score 800 on SAT Math

Score 800 on SAT Reading

Score 800 on SAT Writing

Series: How to Get to 600 on Each SAT Section:

Score 600 on SAT Math

Score 600 on SAT Reading

Score 600 on SAT Writing

Free Complete Official SAT Practice Tests

What SAT Target Score Should You Be Aiming For?

15 Strategies to Improve Your SAT Essay

The 5 Strategies You Must Be Using to Improve 4+ ACT Points

How to Get a Perfect 36 ACT, by a Perfect Scorer

Series: How to Get 36 on Each ACT Section:

36 on ACT English

36 on ACT Math

36 on ACT Reading

36 on ACT Science

Series: How to Get to 24 on Each ACT Section:

24 on ACT English

24 on ACT Math

24 on ACT Reading

24 on ACT Science

What ACT target score should you be aiming for?

ACT Vocabulary You Must Know

ACT Writing: 15 Tips to Raise Your Essay Score

How to Get Into Harvard and the Ivy League

How to Get a Perfect 4.0 GPA

How to Write an Amazing College Essay

What Exactly Are Colleges Looking For?

Is the ACT easier than the SAT? A Comprehensive Guide

Should you retake your SAT or ACT?

When should you take the SAT or ACT?

Stay Informed

Get the latest articles and test prep tips!

Looking for Graduate School Test Prep?

Check out our top-rated graduate blogs here:

GRE Online Prep Blog

GMAT Online Prep Blog

TOEFL Online Prep Blog

Holly R. "I am absolutely overjoyed and cannot thank you enough for helping me!”

BibGuru Blog

Be more productive in school

• Citation Styles

How to write an argumentative essay

The argumentative essay is a staple in university courses, and writing this style of essay is a key skill for students across multiple disciplines. Here’s what you need to know to write an effective and compelling argumentative essay.

What is an argumentative essay?

An argumentative essay takes a stance on an issue and presents an argument to defend that stance with the intent of persuading the reader to agree. It generally requires extensive research into a topic so that you have a deep grasp of its subtleties and nuances, are able to take a position on the issue, and can make a detailed and logical case for one side or the other.

It’s not enough to merely have an opinion on an issue—you have to present points to justify your opinion, often using data and other supporting evidence.

When you are assigned an argumentative essay, you will typically be asked to take a position, usually in response to a question, and mount an argument for it. The question can be two-sided or open-ended, as in the examples provided below.

Examples of argumentative essay prompts:

Two-sided Question

Should completing a certain number of volunteer hours be a requirement to graduate from high school? Support your argument with evidence.

Open-ended Question

What is the most significant impact that social media has had on this generation of young people?

Once again, it’s important to remember that you’re not just conveying facts or information in an argumentative essay. In the course of researching your topic, you should develop a stance on the issue. Your essay will then express that stance and attempt to persuade the reader of its legitimacy and correctness through discussion, assessment, and evaluation.

The main types of argumentative essays

Although you are advancing a particular viewpoint, your argumentative essay must flow from a position of objectivity. Your argument should evolve thoughtfully and rationally from evidence and logic rather than emotion.

There are two main models that provide a good starting point for crafting your essay: the Toulmin model and the Rogerian model.

The Toulmin Model

This model is commonly used in academic essays. It mounts an argument through the following four steps:

• Make a claim.
• Present the evidence, or grounds, for the claim.
• Explain how the grounds support the claim.
• Address potential objections to the claim, demonstrating that you’ve given thought to the opposing side and identified its limitations and deficiencies.

As an example of how to put the Toulmin model into practice, here’s how you might structure an argument about the impact of devoting public funding to building low-income housing.

• Make your claim that low-income housing effectively solves several social issues that drain a city’s resources, providing a significant return on investment.
• Cite data that shows how an increase in low-income housing is related to a reduction in crime rates, homelessness, etc.
• Explain how this data proves the beneficial impact of funding low-income housing.
• Preemptively counter objections to your claim and use data to demonstrate whether these objections are valid or not.

The Rogerian Model

This model is also frequently used within academia, and it also builds an argument using four steps, although in a slightly different fashion:

• Acknowledge the merits of the opposing position and what might compel people to agree with it.
• Draw attention to the problems with this position.
• Lay out your own position and identify how it resolves those problems.
• Proffer some middle ground between the two viewpoints and make the case that proponents of the opposing position might benefit from adopting at least some elements of your view.

The persuasiveness of this model owes to the fact that it offers a balanced view of the issue and attempts to find a compromise. For this reason, it works especially well for topics that are polarizing and where it’s important to demonstrate that you’re arguing in good faith.

To illustrate, here’s how you could argue that smartphones should be permitted in classrooms.

• Concede that smartphones can be a distraction for students.
• Argue that what teachers view as disruptions are actually opportunities for learning.
• Offer the view that smartphones, and students’ interest in them, can be harnessed as teaching tools.
• Suggest teaching activities that involve smartphones as a potential resource for teachers who are not convinced of their value.

It’s not essential to adhere strictly to one model or the other—you can borrow elements from both models to structure your essay. However, no matter which model of argumentation you choose, your essay will need to have an outline that effectively presents and develops your position.

How to outline and write an argumentative essay

A clear and straightforward structure works best for argumentative essays since you want to make it easy for your reader to understand your position and follow your arguments. The traditional essay outline comprises an introductory paragraph that announces your thesis statement, body paragraphs that unfold your argument point by point, and a concluding paragraph that summarizes your thesis and supporting points.

Introductory paragraph

This paragraph provides an overview of your topic and any background information that your readers will need in order to understand the context and your position. It generally concludes with an explicit statement of your position on the topic, which is known as your thesis statement.

Over the last decade, smartphones have transformed nearly every aspect of our lives, socially, culturally, and personally. They are now incorporated into almost every facet of daily life, and this includes making their way into classrooms. There are many educators who view smartphones with suspicion and see them as a threat to the sanctity of the classroom. Although there are reasons to regard smartphones with caution, there are ways to use them responsibly to teach and educate the next generation of young minds. Indeed, the value they hold as teaching tools is nearly unlimited: as a way to teach digital literacy, to reach students through a medium that is familiar and fun for them, and to provide a nimble and adaptable learning environment.

Body paragraphs

Most argumentative essays have at least three body paragraphs that lay out the supporting points in favor of your argument. Each paragraph should open with a topic sentence that presents a separate point that is then fleshed out and backed up by research, facts, figures, data, and other evidence. Remember that your aim in writing an argumentative essay is to convince or persuade your reader, and your body paragraphs are where you present your most compelling pieces of information in order to do just that.

The body of your essay is also where you should address any opposing arguments and make your case against them, either disproving them or stating the reasons why you disagree. Responding to potential rebuttals strengthens your argument and builds your credibility with your readers.

A frequent objection that teachers have to smartphones in the classroom is that students use them to socialize when they should be learning. This view overlooks the fact that students are using smartphones to connect with each other and this is a valuable skill that should be encouraged, not discouraged, in the classroom. A 2014 study demonstrated the benefits of providing students with individual smartphones. Sanctioned smartphone use in the classroom proved to be of particular importance in improving educational outcomes for low-income and at-risk students. What’s more, learning apps have been developed specifically to take advantage of the potential of smartphones to reach learners of various levels and backgrounds, and many offer the ability to customize the method and delivery of lessons to individual learner preferences. This shows that the untapped potential of smartphones is huge, and many teachers would do well to consider incorporating them into their classrooms.

Your concluding paragraph wraps up your essay by restating your thesis and recapping the arguments you presented in your body paragraphs. No new information should be introduced in your conclusion, however, you may consider shifting the lens of your argument to make a comment on how this issue affects the world at large or you personally, always keeping in mind that objectivity and relevance are your guiding principles.

Smartphones have a growing place in the world of education, and despite the presence of legitimate concerns about their use, their value as teaching tools has been clearly established. With more and more of our lives going digital and with the growing emphasis on offering distance learning as an option, educators with an eye to the future won't wait to embrace smartphones and find ways to use them to their fullest effect. As much time and space as we could devote to weighing the pros and cons of smartphones, the fact is that they are not going to disappear from our lives, and our best bet is to develop their, and our students', potential.

Frequently Asked Questions about argumentative essays

Your argumentative essay starts with an introductory paragraph. This paragraph provides an overview of your topic and any background information that your readers will need in order to understand the context and your position.

Like any traditional essay, the argumentative essay consists of three parts:

• Introduction

There are do's and don'ts in argumentative writing. This article summarizes some of them well - you should, for example, avoid coming to an argument based on feelings, without any evidence. Everything you say needs to be backed up by evidence, unless you are the renowned expert in the field.

Yes, you can start your argumentative essay with a question or with a thesis statement. Or you can do both - ask a question and then immediately answer it with a statement.

There are contrasting views on that. In some situations it can make sense to end your argumentative essay with a question - for example, when you want to create room for further discussions or want the reader to leave thinking about the question.

Make your life easier with our productivity and writing resources.

For students and teachers.

Are you seeking one-on-one college counseling and/or essay support? Limited spots are now available. Click here to learn more.

160 Good Argumentative Essay Topics for Students in 2024

April 3, 2024

The skill of writing an excellent argumentative essay is a crucial one for every high school or college student to master. In sum, argumentative essays teach students how to organize their thoughts logically and present them in a convincing way. This skill is helpful not only for those pursuing degrees in law , international relations , or public policy , but for any student who wishes to develop their critical thinking faculties. In this article, we’ll cover what makes a good argument essay and offer several argumentative essay topics for high school and college students. Let’s begin!

What is an Argumentative Essay?

An argumentative essay is an essay that uses research to present a reasoned argument on a particular subject . As with the persuasive essay , the purpose of an argumentative essay is to sway the reader to the writer’s position. However, a strong persuasive essay makes its point through diligent research and emotion while a strong argumentative essay should be based solely on facts, not feelings.

Moreover, each fact should be supported by clear evidence from credible sources . Furthermore, a good argumentative essay will have an easy-to-follow structure. When organizing your argumentative essay, use this format as a guide:

• Introduction
• Supporting body paragraphs
• Paragraph(s) addressing common counterarguments

Argumentative Essay Format

In the introduction , the writer presents their position and thesis statement —a sentence that summarizes the paper’s main points. The body paragraphs then draw upon supporting evidence to back up this initial statement, with each paragraph focusing on its own point. The length of your paper will determine the amount of examples you need. In general, you’ll likely need at least two to three. Additionally, your examples should be as detailed as possible, citing specific research, case studies, statistics, or anecdotes.

In the counterargument paragraph , the writer acknowledges and refutes opposing viewpoints. Finally, in the conclusion , the writer restates the main argument made in the thesis statement and summarizes the points of the essay. Additionally, the conclusion may offer a final proposal to persuade the reader of the essay’s position.

How to Write an Effective Argumentative Essay, Step by Step

• Choose your topic. Use the list below to help you pick a topic. Ideally, a good argumentative essay topic will be meaningful to you—writing is always stronger when you are interested in the subject matter. In addition, the topic should be complex with plenty of “pro” and “con” arguments. Avoid choosing a topic that is either widely accepted as fact or too narrow. For example, “Is the earth round?” would not be a solid choice.
• Research. Use the library, the web, and any other resources to gather information about your argumentative essay topic. Research widely but smartly. As you go, take organized notes, marking the source of every quote and where it may fit in the scheme of your larger essay. Moreover, remember to look for (and research) possible counterarguments.
• Outline . Using the argument essay format above, create an outline for your essay. Then, brainstorm a thesis statement covering your argument’s main points, and begin to put your examples in order, focusing on logical flow. It’s often best to place your strongest example last.
• Write . Draw on your research and outline to create a first draft. Remember, your first draft doesn’t need to be perfect. (As Voltaire says, “Perfect is the enemy of good.”) Accordingly, just focus on getting the words down on paper.
• Does my thesis statement need to be adjusted?
• Which examples feel strongest? Weakest?
• Do the transitions flow smoothly?
• Do I have a strong opening paragraph?
• Does the conclusion reinforce my argument?

Tips for Revising an Argument Essay

Evaluating your own work can be difficult, so you might consider the following strategies:

• Read your work aloud to yourself.
• Record yourself reading your paper, and listen to the recording.
• Reverse outline your paper. Firstly, next to each paragraph, write a short summary of that paragraph’s main points/idea. Then, read through your reverse outline. Does it have a logical flow? If not, where should you adjust?
• Print out your paper and cut it into paragraphs. What happens when you rearrange the paragraphs?

Good Argumentative Essay Topics for Middle School, High School, and College Students

Family argumentative essay topics.

• Should the government provide financial incentives for families to have children to address the declining birth rate?
• Should we require parents to provide their children with a certain level of nutrition and physical activity to prevent childhood obesity?
• Should parents implement limits on how much time their children spend playing video games?
• Should cell phones be banned from family/holiday gatherings?
• Should we hold parents legally responsible for their children’s actions?
• Should children have the right to sue their parents for neglect?
• Should parents have the right to choose their child’s religion?
• Are spanking and other forms of physical punishment an effective method of discipline?
• Should courts allow children to choose where they live in cases of divorce?
• Should parents have the right to monitor teens’ activity on social media?
• Should parents control their child’s medical treatment, even if it goes against the child’s wishes?
• Should parents be allowed to post pictures of their children on social media without their consent?
• Should fathers have a legal say in whether their partners do or do not receive an abortion?
• Can television have positive developmental benefits on children?
• Should the driving age be raised to prevent teen car accidents?
• Should adult children be legally required to care for their aging parents?

Education Argument Essay Topics

• Should schools ban the use of technology like ChatGPT?
• Are zoos unethical, or necessary for conservation and education?
• To what degree should we hold parents responsible in the event of a school shooting?
• Should schools offer students a set number of mental health days?
• Should school science curriculums offer a course on combating climate change?
• Should public libraries be allowed to ban certain books? If so, what types?
• What role, if any, should prayer play in public schools?
• Should schools push to abolish homework?
• Are gifted and talented programs in schools more harmful than beneficial due to their exclusionary nature?
• Should universities do away with Greek life?
• Should schools remove artwork, such as murals, that some perceive as offensive?
• Should the government grant parents the right to choose alternative education options for their children and use taxpayer funds to support these options?
• Is homeschooling better than traditional schooling for children’s academic and social development?
• Should we require schools to teach sex education to reduce teen pregnancy rates?
• Should we require schools to provide sex education that includes information about both homosexual and heterosexual relationships?
• Should colleges use affirmative action and other race-conscious policies to address diversity on campus?
• Should public schools remove the line “under God” from the Pledge of Allegiance?
• Should college admissions officers be allowed to look at students’ social media accounts?
• Should schools abolish their dress codes, many of which unfairly target girls, LGBTQ students, and students of color?
• Should schools be required to stock free period products in bathrooms?
• Should legacy students receive preferential treatment during the college admissions process?
• Are school “voluntourism” trips ethical?

Government Argumentative Essay Topics

• Should the U.S. decriminalize prostitution?
• Should the U.S. issue migration visas to all eligible applicants?
• Should the federal government cancel all student loan debt?
• Should we lower the minimum voting age? If so, to what?
• Should the federal government abolish all laws penalizing drug production and use?
• Should the U.S. use its military power to deter a Chinese invasion of Taiwan?
• Should the U.S. supply Ukraine with further military intelligence and supplies?
• Should the North and South of the U.S. split up into two regions?
• Should Americans hold up nationalism as a critical value?
• Should we permit Supreme Court justices to hold their positions indefinitely?
• Should Supreme Court justices be democratically elected?
• Is the Electoral College still a productive approach to electing the U.S. president?
• Should the U.S. implement a national firearm registry?
• Is it ethical for countries like China and Israel to mandate compulsory military service for all citizens?
• Should the U.S. government implement a ranked-choice voting system?
• Should institutions that benefited from slavery be required to provide reparations?
• Based on the 1619 project, should history classes change how they teach about the founding of the U.S.?
• Should term limits be imposed on Senators and Representatives? If so, how long?
• Should women be allowed into special forces units?
• Should the federal government implement stronger, universal firearm licensing laws?
• Do public sex offender registries help prevent future sex crimes?
• Should the government be allowed to regulate family size?
• Should all adults legally be considered mandated reporters?
• Should the government fund public universities to make higher education more accessible to low-income students?
• Should the government fund universal preschool to improve children’s readiness for kindergarten?

Health/Bioethics Argumentative Essay Topics

• Should the U.S. government offer its own healthcare plan?
• In the case of highly infectious pandemics, should we focus on individual freedoms or public safety when implementing policies to control the spread?
• Should we legally require parents to vaccinate their children to protect public health?
• Is it ethical for parents to use genetic engineering to create “designer babies” with specific physical and intellectual traits?
• Should the government fund research on embryonic stem cells for medical treatments?
• Should the government legalize assisted suicide for terminally ill patients?
• Should organ donation be mandatory?
• Is cloning animals ethical?
• Should cancer screenings start earlier? If so, what age?
• Is surrogacy ethical?
• Should birth control require a prescription?
• Should minors have access to emergency contraception?
• Should hospitals be for-profit or nonprofit institutions?

Good Argumentative Essay Topics — Continued

Social media argumentative essay topics.

• Should the federal government increase its efforts to minimize the negative impact of social media?
• Do social media and smartphones strengthen one’s relationships?
• Should antitrust regulators take action to limit the size of big tech companies?
• Should social media platforms ban political advertisements?
• Should the federal government hold social media companies accountable for instances of hate speech discovered on their platforms?
• Do apps such as TikTok and Instagram ultimately worsen the mental well-being of teenagers?
• Should governments oversee how social media platforms manage their users’ data?
• Should social media platforms like Facebook enforce a minimum age requirement for users?
• Should social media companies be held responsible for cases of cyberbullying?
• Should the United States ban TikTok?
• Is social media harmful to children?
• Should employers screen applicants’ social media accounts during the hiring process?

Religion Argument Essay Topics

• Should religious institutions be tax-exempt?
• Should religious symbols such as the hijab or crucifix be allowed in public spaces?
• Should religious freedoms be protected, even when they conflict with secular laws?
• Should the government regulate religious practices?
• Should we allow churches to engage in political activities?
• Religion: a force for good or evil in the world?
• Should the government provide funding for religious schools?
• Is it ethical for healthcare providers to deny abortions based on religious beliefs?
• Should religious organizations be allowed to discriminate in their hiring practices?
• Should we allow people to opt out of medical treatments based on their religious beliefs?
• Should the U.S. government hold religious organizations accountable for cases of sexual abuse within their community?
• Should religious beliefs be exempt from anti-discrimination laws?
• Should religious individuals be allowed to refuse services to others based on their beliefs or lifestyles? (As in this famous case .)
• Should the US ban religion-based federal holidays?
• Should public schools be allowed to teach children about religious holidays?

Science Argument Essay Topics

• Would the world be safer if we eliminated nuclear weapons?
• Should scientists bring back extinct animals? If so, which ones?
• Should we hold companies fiscally responsible for their carbon footprint?
• Should we ban pesticides in favor of organic farming methods?
• Should the federal government ban all fossil fuels, despite the potential economic impact on specific industries and communities?
• What renewable energy source should the U.S. invest more money in?
• Should the FDA outlaw GMOs?
• Should we worry about artificial intelligence surpassing human intelligence?
• Should the alternative medicine industry be more stringently regulated?
• Is colonizing Mars a viable option?
• Is the animal testing worth the potential to save human lives?

Sports Argument Essay Topics

• Should colleges compensate student-athletes?
• How should sports teams and leagues address the gender pay gap?
• Should youth sports teams do away with scorekeeping?
• Should we ban aggressive contact sports like boxing and MMA?
• Should professional sports associations mandate that athletes stand during the national anthem?
• Should high schools require their student-athletes to maintain a certain GPA?
• Should transgender athletes compete in sports according to their gender identity?
• Should schools ban football due to the inherent danger it poses to players?
• Should performance-enhancing drugs be allowed in sports?
• Do participation trophies foster entitlement and unrealistic expectations?
• Should sports teams be divided by gender?
• Should professional athletes be allowed to compete in the Olympics?
• Should women be allowed on NFL teams?

Technology Argumentative Essay Topics

• Should sites like DALL-E compensate the artists whose work it was trained on?
• Should the federal government make human exploration of space a more significant priority?
• Is it ethical for the government to use surveillance technology to monitor citizens?
• Should websites require proof of age from their users? If so, what age?
• Should we consider A.I.-generated images and text pieces of art?
• Does the use of facial recognition technology violate individuals’ privacy?
• Is online learning as effective as in-person learning?
• Does computing harm the environment?
• Should buying, sharing, and selling collected personal data be illegal?
• Are electric cars really better for the environment?
• Should car companies be held responsible for self-driving car accidents?
• Should private jets be banned?
• Do violent video games contribute to real-life violence?

Business Argument Essay Topics

• Should the U.S. government phase out the use of paper money in favor of a fully digital currency system?
• Should the federal government abolish its patent and copyright laws?
• Should we replace the Federal Reserve with free-market institutions?
• Is free-market ideology responsible for the U.S. economy’s poor performance over the past decade?
• Will cryptocurrencies overtake natural resources like gold and silver?
• Is capitalism the best economic system? What system would be better?
• Should the U.S. government enact a universal basic income?
• Should we require companies to provide paid parental leave to their employees?
• Should the government raise the minimum wage? If so, to what?
• Should antitrust regulators break up large companies to promote competition?
• Is it ethical for companies to prioritize profits over social responsibility?
• Should gig-economy workers like Uber and Lyft drivers be considered employees or independent contractors?
• Should the federal government regulate the gig economy to ensure fair treatment of workers?
• Should the government require companies to disclose the environmental impact of their products?
• Should companies be allowed to fire employees based on political views or activities?
• Should tipping practices be phased out?
• Should employees who choose not to have children be given the same amount of paid leave as parents?
• Should MLMs (multi-level marketing companies) be illegal?
• Should employers be allowed to factor tattoos and personal appearance into hiring decisions?

In Conclusion – Argument Essay Topics

Using the tips above, you can effectively structure and pen a compelling argumentative essay that will wow your instructor and classmates. Remember to craft a thesis statement that offers readers a roadmap through your essay, draw on your sources wisely to back up any claims, and read through your paper several times before it’s due to catch any last-minute proofreading errors. With time, diligence, and patience, your essay will be the most outstanding assignment you’ve ever turned in…until the next one rolls around.

Looking for more fresh and engaging topics for use in the classroom? You might consider checking out the following:

• 125 Good Debate Topics for High School Students
• 150 Good Persuasive Speech Topics
• 7 Best Places to Study
• Guide to the IB Extended Essay
• How to Write the AP Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay
• AP Lit Reading List
• How to Write the AP Lang Synthesis Essay
• 49 Most Interesting Biology Research Topics
• High School Success

Lauren Green

With a Bachelor of Arts in Creative Writing from Columbia University and an MFA in Fiction from the Michener Center for Writers at the University of Texas at Austin, Lauren has been a professional writer for over a decade. She is the author of the chapbook  A Great Dark House  (Poetry Society of America, 2023) and a forthcoming novel (Viking/Penguin).

• 2-Year Colleges
• Application Strategies
• Best Colleges by Major
• Best Colleges by State
• Big Picture
• Career & Personality Assessment
• College Essay
• College Search/Knowledge
• College Success
• Costs & Financial Aid
• Data Visualizations
• Dental School Admissions
• Extracurricular Activities
• Graduate School Admissions
• High Schools
• Homeschool Resources
• Law School Admissions
• Medical School Admissions
• Navigating the Admissions Process
• Online Learning
• Outdoor Adventure
• Private High School Spotlight
• Research Programs
• Summer Program Spotlight
• Summer Programs
• Teacher Tools
• Test Prep Provider Spotlight

“Innovative and invaluable…use this book as your college lifeline.”

— Lynn O'Shaughnessy

Nationally Recognized College Expert

College Planning in Your Inbox

Join our information-packed monthly newsletter.

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Welcome to the Purdue Online Writing Lab

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

The Online Writing Lab at Purdue University houses writing resources and instructional material, and we provide these as a free service of the Writing Lab at Purdue. Students, members of the community, and users worldwide will find information to assist with many writing projects. Teachers and trainers may use this material for in-class and out-of-class instruction.

The Purdue On-Campus Writing Lab and Purdue Online Writing Lab assist clients in their development as writers—no matter what their skill level—with on-campus consultations, online participation, and community engagement. The Purdue Writing Lab serves the Purdue, West Lafayette, campus and coordinates with local literacy initiatives. The Purdue OWL offers global support through online reference materials and services.

A Message From the Assistant Director of Content Development 

The Purdue OWL® is committed to supporting  students, instructors, and writers by offering a wide range of resources that are developed and revised with them in mind. To do this, the OWL team is always exploring possibilties for a better design, allowing accessibility and user experience to guide our process. As the OWL undergoes some changes, we welcome your feedback and suggestions by email at any time.

Please don't hesitate to contact us via our contact page  if you have any questions or comments.

All the best,

Social Media

Facebook twitter.

Exploring Students’ Generative AI-Assisted Writing Processes: Perceptions and Experiences from Native and Nonnative English Speakers

• Original research
• Open access
• Published: 30 May 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Chaoran Wang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4140-2757 1  

505 Accesses

Explore all metrics

Generative artificial intelligence (AI) can create sophisticated textual and multimodal content readily available to students. Writing intensive courses and disciplines that use writing as a major form of assessment are significantly impacted by advancements in generative AI, as the technology has the potential to revolutionize how students write and how they perceive writing as a fundamental literacy skill. However, educators are still at the beginning stage of understanding students’ integration of generative AI in their actual writing process. This study addresses the urgent need to uncover how students engage with ChatGPT throughout different components of their writing processes and their perceptions of the opportunities and challenges of generative AI. Adopting a phenomenological research design, the study explored the writing practices of six students, including both native and nonnative English speakers, in a first-year writing class at a higher education institution in the US. Thematic analysis of students’ written products, self-reflections, and interviews suggests that students utilized ChatGPT for brainstorming and organizing ideas as well as assisting with both global (e.g., argument, structure, coherence) and local issues of writing (e.g., syntax, diction, grammar), while they also had various ethical and practical concerns about the use of ChatGPT. The study brought to front two dilemmas encountered by students in their generative AI-assisted writing: (1) the challenging balance between incorporating AI to enhance writing and maintaining their authentic voice, and (2) the dilemma of weighing the potential loss of learning experiences against the emergence of new learning opportunities accompanying AI integration. These dilemmas highlight the need to rethink learning in an increasingly AI-mediated educational context, emphasizing the importance of fostering students’ critical AI literacy to promote their authorial voice and learning in AI-human collaboration.

Similar content being viewed by others

Students’ voices on generative AI: perceptions, benefits, and challenges in higher education

Examining science education in chatgpt: an exploratory study of generative artificial intelligence.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) Student Assistants in the Classroom: Designing Chatbots to Support Student Success

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

The rapid development of large language models such as ChatGPT and AI-powered writing tools has led to a blend of apprehension, anxiety, curiosity, and optimism among educators (Warner, 2022 ). While some are optimistic about the opportunities that generative AI brings to classrooms, various concerns arise especially in terms of academic dishonesty and the biases inherent in these AI tools (Glaser, 2023 ). Writing classes and disciplines that use writing as a major form of assessment, in particular, are significantly impacted. Generative AI has the potential to transform how students approach writing tasks and demonstrate learning through writing, thus impacting how they view writing as an essential literacy skill. Educators are concerned that when used improperly, the increasingly AI-mediated literacy practices may AI-nize students’ writing and thinking.

Despite the heated discussion among educators, there remains a notable gap in empirical research on the application of generative AI in writing classrooms (Yan, 2023 ) and minimal research that systematically examines students’ integration of AI in their writing processes (Barrot, 2023a ). Writing–an activity often undertaken outside the classroom walls–eludes comprehensive observation by educators, leaving a gap in instructors’ understandings of students’ AI-assisted writing practices. Furthermore, the widespread institutional skepticism and critical discourse surrounding the use of generative AI in academic writing may deter students from openly sharing their genuine opinions of and experiences with AI-assisted writing. These situations can cause disconnect between students’ real-life practices and instructors’ understandings. Thus, there is a critical need for in-depth investigation into students’ decision-making processes involved in their generative AI-assisted writing.

To fill this research gap, the current study explores nuanced ways students utilize ChatGPT, a generative AI tool, to support their academic writing in a college-level composition class in the US. Specifically, the study adopts a phenomenological design to examine how college students use ChatGPT throughout the various components of their writing processes such as brainstorming, revising, and editing. Using sense-making theory as the theoretical lens, the study also analyzes students’ perceived benefits, challenges, and considerations regarding AI-assisted academic writing. As writing is also a linguistic activity, this study includes both native and non-native speaking writers, since they may have distinct needs and perspectives on the support and challenges AI provides for writing.

2 Literature Review

2.1 ai-assisted writing.

Researchers have long been studying the utilization of AI technologies to support writing and language learning (Schulze, 2008 ). Three major technological innovations have revolutionized writing: (1) word processors, which represented the first major shift from manual to digital writing, replacing traditional typewriters and manual editing processes; (2) the Internet, which introduced web-based platforms, largely promoting the communication and interactivity of writing; and (3) natural language processing (NLP) and artificial intelligence, bringing about tools capable of real-time feedback and content and thinking assistance (Kruse et al., 2023 ). These technologies have changed writing from a traditionally manual and individual activity into a highly digital nature, radically transforming the writing processes, writers’ behaviors, and the teaching of writing. This evolution reflects a broader need towards a technologically sophisticated approach to writing instruction.

AI technologies have been used in writing instruction in various ways, ranging from assisting in the writing process to evaluating written works. One prominent application is automatic written evaluation (AWE), which comprises two main elements: a scoring engine producing automatic scores and a feedback engine delivering automated written corrective feedback (AWCF) (Koltovskaia, 2020 ). Adopting NLP to analyze language features, diagnose errors, and evaluate essays, AWE was first implemented in high-stakes testing and later adopted in writing classrooms (Link et al., 2022 ). Scholars have reported contrasting findings regarding the impact of AWE on student writing (Koltovskaia, 2020 ). Barrot ( 2023b ) finds that tools offering AWCF, such as Grammarly, improves students’ overall writing accuracy and metalinguistic awareness, as AWCF allows students to engage with self-directed learning about writing via personalized feedback. Thus the system can contribute to classroom instruction by reducing the burden on teachers and aiding students in writing, revision, and self-learning (Almusharraf & Alotaibi, 2023 ). However, scholars have also raised concerns regarding its accuracy and its potential misrepresentation of the social nature of writing (Shi & Aryadoust, 2023 ). Another AI application that has been used to assist student writing is intelligent tutoring system (ITS). Research shows that ITS could enhance students’ vocabulary and grammar development, offer immediate sentence- and paragraph-level suggestions, and provide insights into students’ writing behaviors (Jeon, 2021 ; Pandarova et al., 2019 ). Scholars also investigate chatbots as writing partners for scaffolding students’ argumentative writing (Guo et al., 2022 ; Lin & Chang, 2020 ) and incorporating Google’s neural machine translation system in second language (L2) writing (Cancino & Panes, 2021 ; Tsai, 2019 ).

Research suggests that adopting AI in literacy and language education has advantages such as supporting personalized learning experiences, providing differentiated and immediate feedback (Huang et al., 2022 ; Bahari, 2021 ), and reducing students’ cognitive barriers (Gayed et al., 2022 ). Researchers also note challenges such as the varied level of technological readiness among teachers and students as well as concerns regarding accuracy, biases, accountability, transparency, and ethics (e.g., Kohnke et al., 2023 ; Memarian & Doleck, 2023 ; Ranalli, 2021 ).

2.2 Integrating Generative AI into Writing

With sophisticated and multilingual language generation capabilities, the latest advancements of generative AI and large language models, such as ChatGPT, unlock new possibilities and challenges. Scholars have discussed how generative AI can be used in writing classrooms. Tseng and Warschauer ( 2023 ) point out that ChatGPT and AI-writing tools may rob language learners of essential learning experiences; however, if banning them, students will also lose essential opportunities to learn how to use AI in supporting their learning and their future work. They suggest that educators should not try to “beat” but rather “join” and “partner with” AI (p. 1). Barrot ( 2023a ) and Su et al. ( 2023 ) both review ChatGPT’s benefits and challenges for writing, pointing out that ChatGPT can offer a wide range of context-specific writing assistance such as idea generation, outlining, content improvement, organization, editing, proofreading, and post-writing reflection. Similar to Tseng and Warschauer ( 2023 ), Barrot ( 2023a ) is also concerned about students’ learning loss due to their use of generative AI in writing and their over-reliance on AI. Moreover, Su et al. ( 2023 ) specifically raise concerns about the issues of authorship and plagiarism, as well as ChatGPT’s shortcomings in logical reasoning and information accuracy.

Among the existing empirical research, studies have explored the quality of generative AI’s feedback on student essays in comparison to human feedback. Steiss et al. ( 2024 ) analyzed 400 feedback instances—half generated by human raters and half by ChatGPT—on the same essays. The findings showed that human raters provided higher-quality feedback in terms of clarity, accuracy, supportive tone, and emphasis on critical aspects for improvement. In contrast, AI feedback shone in delivering criteria-based evaluations. The study generated important implications for balancing the strengths and limitations of ChatGPT and human feedback for assessing student essays. Other research also examined the role of generative AI tools in L1 multimodal writing instruction (Tan et al., 2024 ), L1 student writers’ perceptions of ChatGPT as writing partner and AI ethics in college composition classes (Vetter et al., 2024 ), and the collaborative experience of writing instructors and students in integrating generative AI into writing (Bedington et al., 2024 ).

Specifically with regard to classroom-based research in L2 writing, Yan ( 2023 ) examined the use of ChatGPT through the design of a one-week L2 writing practicum at a Chinese university. Analyzing eight students’ classroom behaviors, learning logs, and interviews, the study showed that the use of generative AI helped L2 learners write with fewer grammatical errors and more lexical diversity. The study also found that the students’ biggest concerns were the threat to academic honesty and educational equity. This study is a pioneer in exploring students’ strategies and engagement with ChatGPT in writing; however, it was only conducted through a one-week practicum which did not involve authentic writing assignment tasks. Furthermore, students’ use of ChatGPT was limited to editing AI-generated texts instead of incorporating AI in a wider range of writing activities such as pre-writing and revising human generated texts. In another study by Han et al. ( 2023 ), the authors designed a platform that integrated ChatGPT to support L2 writers in improving writing quality in South Korea. Analyzing 213 students’ interaction data with the platform, survey results, as well as a focus group interview with six students and one instructor, the study found that the students generally held positive experiences with ChatGPT in supporting their academic writing. Although the study undertook a more extensive investigation involving a larger poll of participants with authentic writing assignments, it only explored generative AI’s role as a revision tool without examining its use across various stages of writing. Furthermore, participants in this study were tasked with engaging with a ChatGPT embedded platform of predefined prompts designed by the researchers. Consequently, how students interact with ChatGPT in natural settings remains largely unknown for researchers and educators.

2.3 Writing Process

Since the early 1980s until now, scholars have proposed various writing process models (e.g., Abdel Latif, 2021 ; Flower & Hayes, 1981 ; Hayes, 2012 ; Kellogg, 1996 ), yet they are still trying to form a complete understanding of composing processes. Despite the distinct specific aspects that different models highlight in the writing process, they all negate writing as a linear, sequential process of simply a text generation labor, but emphasize the non-linear and recursive nature of the writing process. Abdel Latif ( 2021 ) noted that various components of writing process such as ideational planning, searching for content, and revising interact with each other, and that both novice and experienced writers employ all of the components but with varying degrees and strategies. For instance, skilled writers refine and revise their ideas during writing, whereas novice writers mostly engage in sentence level changes such as fixing grammatical and lexical issues (e.g., Khuder & Harwood, 2015 ). For L2 students, writing can be very complex and cognitively daunting (Mohsen, 2021 ) due to reasons including but not limited to linguistic barriers (Johnson, 2017 ). Furthermore, writing is more than a cognitive process, it is also a social, cultural, and situated activity. For instance, the concept of plagiarism may carry different meanings and consequences across different cultural contexts. Thus, writing should be investigated in consideration of its dynamic interplay with institutional, cultural, and technological factors (Atkinson, 2003 ).

Considering the intricate nature of writing as a cognitive and social activity, it is thus important to investigate how generative AI may impact the different components of students’ writing processes. However, there is still a substantial gap in knowledge and research about students’ real-world integration of AI into their writing workflows, their decision-making processes, and the rationale behind their decision making while they interact with generative AI and utilize the technology in their writing in formal educational settings. While previous studies shed light on the impacts of generative AI on English writing, empirical classroom-based research remains limited. To further understand how students, both L1 and L2 writers, engage with generative AI in real-life classroom contexts, with authentic writing tasks, and throughout their various processes of writing, the current study thus undertook a naturalistic, exploratory direction that focused on how college students utilized ChatGPT in a first-year writing class in the US. Understanding and unpacking students’ AI-assisted writing processes could help educators better adjust their pedagogy in the face of the growing AI influences. The following research questions guided the present study:

How do students utilize ChatGPT in their writing processes?

How do student writers perceive the benefits of integrating ChatGPT into their writing?

What concerns and limitations do students experience when using ChatGPT to assist with their writing?

What considerations do students identify as important when engaging in generative AI-assisted writing?

3 Theoretical Framework

This study adopts sensemaking theory as its theoretical lens. Sensemaking has been conceptualized as the process through which individuals make meaning from ambiguous and puzzling situations that happen in their experience (Golob, 2018 ). Some scholars view sensemaking as a cognitive process of managing and processing information. This perspective focuses on the cognitive strategies employed in connecting and utilizing information to achieve the purpose of explaining the world (Klein et al., 2006 ). Alternatively, a socio-cultural orientation towards sensemaking regard it as construction of collective identity through an individual’s ongoing interactions with the educational context (Weick, 2005 ). Poquet ( 2024 ) integrates these two theoretical orientations, proposing that sensemaking encompasses both the individual and the collective, drawing attention to how learners explain the cognitive aspects of their learning as well as the social and cultural factors shape their learning experiences.

According to Poquet ( 2024 ), there are three components of the sensemaking process: (1) An individual’s understanding of the activity, available tools, and the situation is the antecedent of sensemaking. (2) Noticing and perceiving constitute the process of sensemaking per se. Noticing involves the identification of salient features of the tool(s) for the activity, while perceiving goes beyond noticing through making sense of the observed, taking into account contextual factors such as learner characteristics and the type of activity undertaken. Perceiving leads to the formulation of meaning and potential implications of what is noticed, playing a critical role in decision-making and action. (3) Outcomes of sensemaking may range from perceived affordances of tools for the activity to casual explanations for the observed phenomena. As defined by Poquet ( 2024 ), sensemaking involves learners crafting explanations for unclear situations through dynamically connecting information within the context of a specific activity. Essentially, sensemaking is both an intentional and intuitive process shaped by how learners understand their environment and their role within it.

Because sensemaking theories aim to examine people’s meaning-making, acting, and experience in “unknown,” “less deliberate,” and “more intuitive” situations (Poquet, 2024 , p. 5), it well aligns with the purpose of this study which is to form an emergent understanding of a less known situation given the relatively new phenomenon of generative AI-assisted writing practices among college students. Adopting a sensemaking lens helps to understand how students make sense of generative AI, how they perceive its affordances, what strategies they develop to use it to assist with their writing, what puzzling experiences they may have, and how they make decisions in those puzzling situations. The dual focus of the cognitive and the social is critical when examining how students engage with and perceive the AI technology and how they negotiate these perceptions and experiences within the learning communities of higher education. Sensemaking theory can also capture the range of individual experiences and shared interpretations among them, elucidating how they deal with uncertainty and make judgments generative AI usage.

4 Research Design

This qualitative study adopted a phenomenological research design, which focuses on understanding and interpreting a particular aspect of shared human experience (Moran, 2002 ; Smith, 1996 ). Phenomenology seeks to form a close and clear account of people’s perceptions and lived experiences as opposed to delivering a positivist conclusion of human encounters, as “pure experience is never accessible” (Smith et al., 2009 , p. 33). In the present study, as there is limited understanding of students’ engagement with ChatGPT in their writing process, a phenomenological lens could help capture participants’ own sense making of their AI-assisted writing experiences.

4.1 Context and Participants

The study took place in spring 2023 at a higher education institution in the US. I chose to focus on first-year writing as the study setting, as it is a required course in most colleges and universities, thus a typical writing and learning context for most college students. First-year writing serves as the foundation for cultivating academic writing skills, with the aim of developing students’ essential literacy and writing proficiency needed for their undergraduate learning experiences. The 14-week course focused on English academic reading, writing, and critical thinking and consisted of three major units.

This study focused on the last unit, which was about argumentative writing, a common type of academic essay writing (American Psychological Association, 2020 ). The final essay asked students to form an argumentative response to a research question of their own choice. The unit, lasting for three weeks, was structured as follows (see Fig.  1 ): During the first week, the instructor spent two classes, each for 75 min, introducing ChatGPT (GPT 3.5) as a large language model and inviting students to explore ChatGPT as a tool for writing. The instructor carefully chose and assigned five readings that allowed the students to grasp the ongoing academic and public debates and concerns regarding the use of ChatGPT in writing and educational settings. During the class sessions, students participated in various activities exploring the functionalities of ChatGPT, discussed ethics and academic integrity, and critiqued AI-generated writing. As part of the discussions on ethics, the instructor explicitly addressed academic integrity issues drawing upon both the writing program’s guidelines and the institution’s academic integrity policies to ensure that the students were aware of and committed to ethical use of generative AI in the writing class. During the second week, students learned various strategies for integrating sources in academic writing and practiced ways of using sources to build arguments. During the last week, students spent time peer reviewing each other’s work and met with the instructor individually to improve their drafts.

Unit design with key topics and learning tasks over the three weeks

The final essay allowed but did not mandate students to use ChatGPT. For those who used ChatGPT and AI writing tools, disclosure and transparency about how AI was used were required as part of the submission to the assignment. The instructor left using AI in their final essay as an open option to the students themselves, ensuring that students could pursue the option that works best for their individual needs. Thus the unit provided various opportunities and flexibility for planning, researching, drafting, reviewing, and editing with ChatGPT throughout students’ writing process.

There were 11 students, all freshmen, enrolled in the class. All but one reported using ChatGPT in their writing. Six students were recruited based on their willingness to participate and the diversity of their first language to ensure a balanced coverage. Table 1 shows the demographic information of the students (with pseudonyms).

4.2 Data Collection

Aligned with an interpretive phenomenological design that focuses on exploring participants’ lived experiences and how they construct meaning of their own experiences (Smith & Shinebourne, 2012 ), I collected three major types of data in order to uncover the students’ writing processes involving ChatGPT and their perceptions. First, I collected students’ written products and artifacts such as in-class writing, screenshots of students’ conversations with ChatGPT, informal short writing assignments, and the formal writing assignments for the final argumentative essay. Second, I collected students’ written self-reflections about their use of ChatGPT in writing. Finally, the participants were interviewed for around 30–40 min, and all interviews were audio-recorded. These semi-structured interviews were developed around students’ former experiences with ChatGPT, their views of the tool, and the ways they utilized ChatGPT for their writing assignments in this class.

Students’ conversational screenshots with ChatGPT and their in-class and outside class writing drafts could demonstrate their interactions with AI as well as the changes they made upon contemplating the responses from the chatbot. The interviews and students’ self-reflections could further shed light on their perceptions and decision-making. Multiple sources of data helped to understand students’ behaviors, perceptions, and engagement with AI during different stages of writing. Triangulation of the data also helped me to understand students’ rationale for and practices of integrating, discounting, and reflecting on the chatbot’s output into their writing.

It is important to note that a phenomenological qualitative research design like this aims to provide in-depth understanding and insights into participants’ experiences. The context of the study—a first year writing class—and the specific type of assignment investigated are both common scenarios in college classrooms, thereby enhancing the study’s relevance despite its limited sample size and scale. Furthermore, the incorporation of data collected from multiple and diverse sources for triangulation adds to insights into participants’ experiences, which helps strengthen the credibility of the study.

4.3 Data Analysis

Thematic analysis (Creswell, 2017 ) was used to analyze the written drafts and transcriptions of interview data as it is commonly used in qualitative studies to identify patterns across various types of data (Lapadat, 2012 ). While transcribing all the interview data verbatim into written scripts, I took notes with the research questions in mind. Then I organized and read through the various types of written data to get familiar with and form a holistic impression of participants’ perceptions and experiences of AI-assisted writing. The coding, conducted on Nvivo, a qualitative data analysis software, followed an inductive and iterative process. During the first cycle of coding, I reviewed the data line-by-line and applied in vivo coding to generate initial, descriptive codes using participants’ voices (Saldaña, 2016 ). For the second cycle, I identified patterns across the in vivo codes and synthesized them into 20 pattern codes (Saldaña, 2016 ). During the third cycle, I clustered and grouped the pattern codes into four emerging themes. To finalize and refine the themes, I double checked themes, codes, and the supporting data guided by the research questions. Table 2 shows the themes and pattern codes. To ensure the trustworthiness of the qualitative analysis, I also conducted a peer debriefing (Lincoln & Guba, 1985 ) on the codebook with an experienced qualitative researcher. Furthermore, member check was also conducted with each participant via email to minimize the possible misinterpretations of their perceptions and experiences.

5.1 How Do Students Utilize ChatGPT in Their Writing Processes?

The students reported using ChatGPT throughout different components of writing their argumentative essays including (1) brainstorming, (2) outlining, (3) revising, and (4) editing.

In terms of brainstorming, the students acknowledged the value of ChatGPT in helping them get initial ideas and inspirations prior to the research phase for their essays. For instance, Lydia was interested in writing about the cause of the low fertility rate in South Korea but she “had trouble thinking of any focus areas” (Lydia, Reflection). In order to narrow down the topic and find a good focus, she used ChatGPT for exploring possible directions she could pursue. As she noted:

It immediately gave me suggestions to approach the cause from demographic changes, economic factors, traditional gender roles, governmental policies, and cultural attitudes with detailed explanations beside each suggestion. So, I went on to pick economic reasons, which I think were the most accessible to write about. (Lydia, Reflection)

ChatGPT’s feedback facilitated a smoother decision-making process for Lydia regarding the specific topic to further investigate. Another student Kevin mentioned that running his initial research idea into ChatGPT was helpful because ChatGPT gave him “some relevant ideas that hadn’t crossed his mind when thinking about the topic” (Kevin, Written Assignment).

Considering ChatGPT’s suggestions did not mean that the students just took them for granted and incorporated them unquestioningly. For instance, Nora was interested in writing about the impact of AI on human lives. Upon putting her initial research question into ChatGPT, she found the feedback helpful and decided to do more research on the aspects highlighted by ChatGPT (see Fig.  2 ).

Screenshot of Nora’s conversation with ChatGPT

Students also reported using ChatGPT for outlining. Emma used ChatGPT extensively to help organize her outline and shared her procedure as follows:

I wrote my own outline first consisting of my own ideas and then put it into ChatGPT. I asked ChatGPT to make the outline flow better. I was surprised with the results it gave me. It made the ideas more concise and connected better off of each other...I tried it a few times, and every time it gave me a different version of the outline that I could potentially use. I ultimately compared the information from my sources and chose an outline I thought best suited my essay and my essay question. (Emma, Reflection)

Emma’s approach revolved around utilizing ChatGPT to unearth linkages among her various initial yet disorganized ideas she already had. By experimenting with diverse ways to build coherence and connection among her thoughts with the aid of AI, she shortcut the mental task of structuring her ideas from scratch.

Using ChatGPT for refining the flow of ideas was also a strategy adopted by other students, but not always during the outlining stage. For instance, after completing her first draft, Lydia “copied and pasted her entire essay into the chatbox and asked for suggestions on how to improve the structure and argument” (Lydia, Reflection). Lydia underlined that her revision process with ChatGPT was iterative, as she put her revised version back into the chatbot and went through another round of feedback and subsequent revision. Additional applications reported by students also encompassed employing ChatGPT to reduce redundancy and enhance conciseness of content (Emma) as well as to refine topic sentences for accurately summarizing the main ideas of body paragraphs (Kevin).

Apart from utilizing ChatGPT to assist with global level issues such as structure, argument, and coherence, the students also harnessed the AI tool for sentence-level issues. They unanimously agreed that ChatGPT was a valuable tool for language editing. Alex, a L1 student, commented that ChatGPT could edit essays “exceptionally well.” Alex not only used the AI tool to help improve the syntax of his writing such as “run-on sentences” but also consulted it as his dictionary for “providing academic diction” (Alex, Interview). The L2 participants particularly acknowledged ChatGPT as beneficial for enhancing the accuracy of their writing. Lydia shared that upon completing a paragraph of her essay, she would put it into ChatGPT and ask it to “revise the wording and grammar only” so she could refine her language and keep the content original (Lydia, Reflection). Another L2 student Nora noted that “when I struggle with expressing my thoughts accurately in English words, ChatGPT can help me express those ideas in a more powerful and accurate way. It removes communication barriers” (Nora, Written Assignment).

5.2 How Do Student Writers Perceive the Benefits of Integrating ChatGPT into Their Writing?

Utilizing ChatGPT in their various writing process components, the students reported that ChatGPT had the following benefits: (1) accelerating their writing process, (2) easing their cognitive load, (3) fostering new learning opportunities, (4) getting immediate feedback, and (5) promoting positive feelings about writing.

Students stated that using ChatGPT could “speed up the process of writing” (Alex, Interview) as exemplified by the following quotes: “ChatGPT really helped me to explore the essay topics that I’m interested in within a very short amount of time and identify what can be written about” (Nora, Interview); “I discovered after using it for my final essay that ChatGPT can greatly improve the efficiency of my writing” (Alex, Reflection). For L2 writers, it significantly saved the time they typically spent on editing, as mentioned by Lydia:

As an international student who is not a native English speaker, writing college essays would take me double the amount of time compared to those who write essays in their first language. Oftentimes, the biggest time I spent was on editing the grammar and trying to make my language readable and understandable. (Lydia, Reflection)

The benefits of saving the time and energy on language concerns, grammar, wording, and the organization of ideas and messy drafts, furthermore, reduced the cognitive burden among the student writers, both L1 and L2. For instance, knowing ChatGPT’s editing power, Alex felt that he was able to “focus more on the subject of the writing rather than the language itself” and “spew out thoughts freely” when drafting the essay (Alex, Interview). Likewise, the L2 students noted that ChatGPT allowed them to delay their concerns about the linguistic forms of ideas and alleviate the demanding cognitive load associated with L2 writing. As claimed by Lydia, “It freed my thoughts so that I could spend more time revising the content, but not worry about how to express my ideas for the essay” (Lydia, Interview).

The students conveyed that incorporating ChatGPT in different components of writing also fostered new learning opportunities for them to improve writing. Nora shared that “ChatGPT not only made my language more fluent and comprehensible, but it also helped me to learn new ways of expression in English” (Nora, Interview). Su remarked that although ChatGPT’s feedback was generic, it promoted her to do further research about her topic and learn more writing strategies (Su, Written Assignment).

Students particularly highlighted the “instant and personalized feedback” (Kevin, Reflection) provided by ChatGPT as a strong impetus and benefit. For instance, as a frequent visitor of the school’s writing center, Lydia mentioned she typically scheduled two to three appointments with a writing tutor for each major writing assignment she had worked. With ChatGPT, she could obtain feedback anytime: “Now I don’t have to physically go to the writing center at 11 pm, waiting for the previous visitor to finish their session” (Lydia, Interview). She used “my walking AI tutor” to describe the role of AI in her writing.

Ultimately, the students mentioned that these cognitive and practical benefits of ChatGPT not only improved their efficiency of writing, but also promoted positive feelings about writing. They used words such as “more relieved” (Emma), “sense of accomplishment” (Lydia), and “less anxious” (Nora) to describe the AI-assisted writing process. Although the students expressed different needs and utilization of ChatGPT, they all conveyed that they would like to continue using it in the future.

5.3 What Concerns and Limitations Do Students Experience When Using ChatGPT to Assist with Their Writing?

Despite the benefits and usefulness of ChatGPT for assisting with students’ writing, they also expressed many reservations and limitations regarding the AI tool. The first concern was about the false information it produced and its potential to mislead people. The students commented that ChatGPT tended to “make up information” (Emma), “make assumptions and guesses” (Su), and generate “inaccurate information” (Nora), “wrong information” (Alex), and “nonsense” (Lydia). Furthermore, the students pointed out that ChatGPT was inadequate in addressing high-level questions requiring critical thinking, as Su explained: “When I was consulting with ChatGPT, I learned that it has a very limited understanding of the topic I was talking about” (Su, Reflection). Other students also pointed out that the responses they got from ChatGPT could be “very generalized” (Kevin) and lacked “depth and complexity” (Nora).

The next shortcoming of ChatGPT, as noted by the students, is the lack of creativity and originality. Su highlighted that relying on ChatGPT’s ideas would not yield intriguing essays, as even though ChatGPT’s responses may “appear to make sense,” they usually came across as “cliched and superficial.” Su understood that it was because ChatGPT and large language models “work based on the patterns and data they have been trained on and cannot think outside of this” (Su, Reflection). Therefore, it is “not effective in generating new ideas” for an essay (Alex, Interview).

The algorithm unavoidably led to another limitation as observed by the students, which is the lack of reliable evidence and support for the content generated by ChatGPT. Su acknowledged that ChatGPT was not a good source for writing as it was impossible for a reader to trace the original information. Apart from the lack of clarity and transparency about the sources ChatGPT draws upon, Kevin pointed out an additional drawback that ChatGPT’s ideas were “not up to date,” thus not a good source for academic writing (Kevin, Written Assignment).

5.4 What Considerations Do Students Identify as Important When Engaging in Generative AI-Assisted Writing?

Presented with these limitations of ChatGPT, the students shared some important aspects they think should be considered when incorporating AI into writing, summarized as follows: (1) balanced and moderate use of AI, (2) critical use of AI, (3) ethical considerations, (4) the need for human voice, (5) the importance of authenticity, (6) seizing AI as a learning opportunity, and (7) transparency from and conversation between teachers and students.

The students worried that over-reliance on ChatGPT would undermine their writing ability, so they should use ChatGPT to a balanced and moderate extent. The students believed that ChatGPT should be used as “guidance,” “support,” “supplement,” and “assistant” (Alex, Reflection) rather than a “substitute” or “replacement” (Su, Reflection).

Furthermore, the students emphasized the importance of critical use of AI. Emma noted that AI platforms could “decline the need to think critically” as some students might want to “take the easy route and just get the answer” (Emma, Interview). They insisted keeping a critical eye on the information AI generated as it was not reliable. To do this, students shared similar strategies which was to use ChatGPT as a departure rather than a destination for writing, thinking, and research. They underscored the importance of validation and critical thinking in this process.

Another facet to consider is the ethical use of AI. The students believed that one must be very careful when using ChatGPT as it can easily walk the line of plagiarism. They deemed acts such as using ChatGPT to generate new ideas and write entire essays unethical, as these are forms of taking credit for other people’s work based on their language and ideas (Kevin, In-Class Writing). Thus students emphasized the importance of “doing research on your own” (Emma), “making sure the ideas are my own” (Lydia), and “not using everything (i.e. sentence by sentence, word by word) provided by ChatGPT” (Su).

The students also regarded the issue of retaining human voice a pivotal consideration for AI-assisted writing. They pointed out that writing should be a means to express the writer’s identity and thoughts, but AI was not able to personalize the text to their individual style and voice. Wary of the threat posed by extensive adoption of ChatGPT to individual expressions, Lydia commented, “ChatGPT tended to use similar dictions and patterns of wording and sentence structures. If everyone uses ChatGPT, our style will become more and more alike” (Lydia, Interview). Similarly, Su pointed out that ChatGPT could make the text “sound generic and impersonal,” which is a problem “when you are trying to convey your own ideas, feelings, and perspectives” (Su, Written Assignment). To “truly present a unique perspective and make writing individualized,” one must “take full control” of their writing to deliver a powerful message (Kevin, Reflection). This process requires the discernment to dismiss advice from ChatGPT to avoid generating an impersonal, blunt style of writing that lacks the writer’s distinct character.

Students also pointed out that the involvement of ChatGPT in writing may not only jeopardize how human voice is conveyed through the ideas ChatGPT generates, but also through the language it produces, thus “ruining the authenticity of an essay” (Alex, Reflection). He questioned himself for a paradoxical use of ChatGPT. On the one hand, he utilized ChatGPT for editing and better academic diction; on the other, he was perplexed and apprehended about the tipping point where the essay would start to sound “more like ChatGPT rather than yourself.” As he explained:

ChatGPT suggested some words I never would have used, and I decided not to include them. While they may obviously sound better than my own authentic words, I just did not feel honest using them. For instance, when writing this paper, ChatGPT suggested I use “judiciously” rather than “in moderation.” I never would have used “judiciously,” and it felt unauthentic to use it. (Alex, Reflection)

The students suggested cautious, strategic, and purposeful use of ChatGPT’s editing features to ensure it amplifies rather than conflicts with their own writing style.

However, boundaries like this still appeared to the students as vague. Hence, the students called for guidelines and instructions in the classroom and open conversation between teachers and students. The students expressed their confusion over the lack of clear guidelines across their classes. As Alex commented, “It’s hard to draw lines with different ways of using ChatGPT and which one would be considered cheating or not” (Alex, Interview). The students hoped that all their instructors, instead of only writing teachers, could engage in comprehensive discussions about what specific ways of using ChatGPT would be regarded as acceptable or problematic according to their disciplinary conventions and learning purposes.

Participants also expected that school policies and instructors would not shut down AI as a resource and learning opportunity for students. Emma said, “It’s tricky as there are a lot of different opinions, but technology is the world we live in. We should go with the grain as opposed to against it” (Emma, Interview). Cautious of possible missed learning opportunities that AI might bring to thinking, Lydia commented, “I am afraid of becoming lazy…But I guess it also depends on how you use it. It gives a shortcut for people who do not want to make the effort to learn and think. But it could be useful for those who really want to learn” (Lydia, Interview). Alex noted that to prevent the loss of learning opportunity, for instance, he decided that rather than taking ChatGPT’s diction suggestion immediately, he “would use those words in the next essay,” demonstrating his effort in learning and internalizing the knowledge. In general, the students were still exploring ways to use ChatGPT in critical, authentic, and ethical ways that would promote rather than harm their learning.

6 Discussion

Adopting sensemaking theory, the study investigated how students made sense of their AI-assisted writing practices, providing insights into students’ learning process and their shared practices emerging around the AI technology. Confirming previous research (e.g., Guo et al., 2022 ; Holmes et al., 2019 ; Su et al., 2023 ), this study found that the students overall had positive experiences with generative AI-assisted writing, for it could accelerate their writing process, reduce their cognitive load and anxiety, and provide prompt feedback. The students integrated ChatGPT into various components of their composing process, such as searching for content, ideational planning, language editing, and revising. Although the students acknowledged the cognitive and affective benefits (e.g., Ebadi & Amini, 2022 ; Fryer & Carpenter, 2006 ) of using ChatGPT in writing, they were very cautious about adopting its ideas and suggestions at different discourse levels (i.e., essay, paragraph, and sentence levels) due to critical, ethical, and authentic concerns. This finding extends previous research which identified that students’ primary concerns were academic dishonesty and educational inequity (Yan, 2023 ). Despite recognizing AI’s limitations such as the lack of in-depth insights (Gao et al., 2022 ), originality, creativity, and reliability—qualities essential for good academic writing—the students deemed it necessary to embrace rather than abandon the tool, with the purpose of fostering one’s critical thinking and writing skills. The results suggest that students’ sensemaking of AI-assisted writing is shaped by their prior knowledge and understanding of writing as a cognitive and sociocultural activity, their exploration of AI’s functionalities and strategies for leveraging them to achieve learning goals, and their interrogation of the appropriateness and limitations of AI in the specific context of academic writing.

The study highlights two emerging dilemmas students experienced in their generative AI-assisted writing processes. The first dilemma, as Alex put it, is the choice between sounding better or sounding like me when integrating AI into the decision making process of writing, reflecting a larger issue about academic integrity, authenticity, and voice in human-AI collaboration. The participants believed that it is crucial to prevent their writing from being AI-nized, which could lead to either plagiarism or a writing style resembling AI that overshadows their own voice—the very essence of their “identity and presentation of the self in writing” (Prince & Archer, 2014 , p. 40). The students’ beliefs align with a connectivism paradigm of AI in Education (AIEd) outlined by Ouyang and Jiao ( 2021 ), in which AI serves as a tool to augment human intelligence and capability (Yang et al., 2021 ) and learner agency is placed at the core. Reliance on AI could lead to superficial engagement with writing tasks, discouraging deeper, reflective thought processes essential for original creative expression. Furthermore, when AI suggests similar vocabulary, structures, and styles to various learners, it risks imposing a uniformity in expression that undermines the educational value of cultivating each individual’s unique and creative voice. AI may hinder students from exploring how language variation and linguistic diversity can be rich resources for meaning-making, creativity, identity formation, problem-solving (Wang et al., 2020 ). Such critical engagement with diverse language resources is crucial for developing students’ literacy skills in a digital age where multicultural awareness is an integral part of education (Sánchez-Martín et al., 2019 ). As Dixon-Román et al. ( 2020 ) noted, educators must be wary of AI’s “racializing forces,” which standardize learning processes in ways that can marginalize non-dominant forms of knowledge and communication, as well as students whose experiences and identities are either not represented or misrepresented in the system.

While the participants concurred that upholding human voice and agency entails possessing integrity and alignment not only at the ideational level but also in the linguistic expression of those ideas, the L2 writers in this study added another nuanced dimension to the impact of AI on human voice and authenticity in the context of AI-assisted writing. As the L2 students experienced, ChatGPT’s language suggestions might not pose a threat to their voice but serve as a catalyst for augmenting their voice, as AI helped overcome their language barriers and better express ideas true to themselves. In other words, generative AI afforded the L2 writers powerful language repertoires that enhanced the accuracy and efficiency of “linguistic rehearing” (Abdel Latif, 2021 ) or “translating” (Kellogg, 1996 ) component of their writing process, thus allowing L2 students to produce writing more authentic to themselves. The finding highlights how learner characteristics and individual differences play an important role in students’ sensemaking of AI-assisted writing, complicating the existing understanding of AI’s affordances for learners with diverse linguistic backgrounds and learning needs.

From earlier conceptualizations of authenticity as “ownedness” and “being one’s own” by Heidegger (1927/ 1962 ), to contemporary perceptions as the “self-congruency” of an individual, group, or symbolic identity (Ferrara, 1998 , p. 70), the notion of authenticity has been evolving and becoming more pluralistic. As Rings ( 2017 ) acknowledged, authenticity extends beyond adherent to personally endorsed commitments; it requires a comprehensive consideration of one’s self-awareness and the changing social context. Scholars should further pursue what it means by authenticity and academic integrity in an increasingly AI-mediated educational context, ways to promote students’ authorial voice and agency, as well as the complicated authorship issues (Jabotinsky & Sarel, 2022 ) involved in AI-human collaboratively generated texts. As Eaton ( 2023 ) claims, it is time to contemplate “postplagiarism” and academic integrity in a future where “hybrid human-AI writing will become normal”.

Apart from the sounding better or sounding like me dilemma experienced by students, another paradox is whether AI caused missed learning opportunities or created new learning opportunities . As noted by the previous literature, AI-writing tools may rob students of essential learning experiences (Barrot, 2023a ; Tseng & Warschauer, 2023 ). Adding to this concern from educators and scholars, the present study shows that the students themselves are also cognizant of the possible learning loss due to AI adoption. Furthermore, the study shows that rather than passively indulging themselves in the convenience of AI tools, a common concern among educators (Chan & Hu, 2023 ; Graham, 2023 ), the student writers attempted to seize new learning opportunities that emerged from AI technologies to promote their critical thinking and writing. This finding suggests a nuanced addition to sensemaking theory: the process of making sense of uncertainties in AI-infused literacy practices can also be uncertain, involving reconciling dilemmas and acknowledging perplexing experiences. While not always yielding clear-out outcomes or casual attributions for the observed phenomena and personal experience as suggested by Poquet ( 2024 ), noticing and perceiving the unpredictable impacts of generative AI on students’ own learning processes can, in itself, be empowering. The process fosters a sense of agency and critical engagement, suggesting that the outcomes of sensemaking in the context of AI-assisted writing can be open-ended yet profound.

This important finding leads scholars to reconsider the essence of learning in an era of generative AI. Hwang et al. ( 2020 ) and Southworth et al. ( 2023 ) argued that AI is likely to transform not only the learning environment, but also the learning process, and even what it means to learn. This perspective finds resonance in the experiences of the participants in this study. While AI may shortcut traditional ways of doing writing, it does not inherently imply a reduction in students’ cognitive, behavioral, and affective engagement with writing, learning, and thinking. AI does not necessarily make writing easier; on the contrary, a critical, ethical, and authentic approach to AI-assisted writing pushes students to think further and prioritize their own voice, originality, and creativity, leading to high quality writing. In this sense, when used properly, AI has the potential to introduce a new avenue for humanizing writing and education. As generative AI technologies are advancing rapidly, an expanding array of AI-powered writing assistance, intelligent tutoring systems, and feedback tools has the promise to cater to the diverse needs and learning styles of language learners and writers. These tools are not limited to mere textual assistance; the multimodal functionalities of generative AI can also allow writers to explore creative expressions and multimodal writing, enriching students’ literacy practices by integrating more visual, auditory, and interactive elements into the composition process (Kang & Yi, 2023 ; Li et al., 2024 ). As noted by Cao and Dede ( 2023 ), our educational model has long been centered around the product , directing our focus towards the outcomes and grades students achieve, often overlooking the learning process itself. The judgmental calls involved in students’ interactions with AI, as showcased in the nuances of participants’ AI-assisted writing process in this study, represent emerging learning opportunities that require students to draw upon a range of knowledge, skills, awareness of ethics and the self, criticality, and self-reflection to make informed decisions about AI in learning. The present study shows that such decision making process can play a pivotal role in cultivating students’ “AI literacy” (Ng et al., 2021 ) and promoting their responsible use of AI. Therefore, it should also be recognized as a valuable teaching opportunity that educators should not overlook.

7 Conclusion

This study explored students’ generative AI-assisted writing processes in a first-year writing class in an American college. The study found that students utilized generative AI for assisting with both global (e.g., argument, structure, coherence) and local issues of writing (e.g., syntax, diction, grammar), while they also had various ethical and practical concerns about the use of AI. Findings showed that large language models offer unique benefits for L2 writers to leverage its linguistic capabilities. The study highlights the urgency of explicit teaching of critical AI literacy and the value of (post)process-oriented writing pedagogy (e.g., Graham, 2023 ) in college writing classrooms so that students not only understand AI writing tools’ functions and limitations but also know how to utilize and evaluate them for specific communication and learning purposes.

However, writing instruction is still at the beginning stage of addressing this pressing need. Thus, pedagogical innovations, policy adjustments, new forms of writing assessments, and teacher education (Zhai, 2022 ) are needed to adapt to the potential impact of AI on desired student learning outcomes within specific writing curriculums. For instance, integrating critical digital pedagogy into writing instruction and inviting students to reflect on their relevant AI literacy practices allow writing instructors to more effectively guide students in critically engaging with AI technologies in their academic literacy development. Policy adjustments should aim to cultivate an inclusive rather than “policing” environment (Johnson, 2023 ) that encourages students to use AI responsibly and as a means of fostering self-learning. Furthermore, writing assessment methods should evolve to not just evaluate final learning outcomes such as the written products but also the learning journey itself such as the decision-making involved in their AI-assisted writing. This shift encourages students to appreciate learning processes and the productive struggles they encounter along the way, so that they can move beyond seeing AI as a shortcut but as assistance in their quest for learning and writing development. In this way, students can leverage the linguistic, multimodal, interactive, and adaptable affordances of generative AI tools for personalized learning. This facilitates greater student ownership of their learning, enhancing their learner competence through self-direction, self-assessment, and self-reflection when interacting with AI tools (Barrot, 2023c ; Fariani et al., 2023 ).

Following a phenomenological research design, the present study aims to provide in-depth understanding of college students’ use of ChatGPT in their academic writing, yet it is limited due to its small sample size and duration. Therefore, the findings may not apply to other classroom contexts and to a wide range of student populations. Future research could benefit from adopting a large scale, longitudinal design to examine generative AI’s impacts on student writing and students’ long-term engagement with generative AI tools, both in formal classroom settings and in informal learning contexts. It is also worth exploring students of diverse age groups and language proficiency levels as well as writing courses of different languages, purposes, and writing genres to examine other factors that may influence students’ generative AI assisted writing. After all, the participants in this study have already developed some proficiency and skills in academic writing, but holding learner agency (Ouyang & Jiao, 2021 ) can be more complex and challenging for younger learners. Further research is needed to understand students with varied domain knowledge, expertise, and writing abilities (Yan, 2023 ) and uncover individual differences in AI-assisted writing. Additionally, the participants in this study utilized GPT 3.5 for their AI-assisted writing practices. Given the rapid advancement of AI technologies, new AI models and applications are continuously emerging. Thus, future research should investigate how various AI models and functionalities might differently influence students, taking into account the ongoing developments and innovations in AI.

Data Availability

The data are available from the author upon reasonable request.

Abdel Latif, M. M. A. (2021). Remodeling writers’ composing processes: Implications for writing assessment. Assessing Writing, 50 , 100547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2021.100547

Article   Google Scholar  

Almusharraf, N., & Alotaibi, H. (2023). An error-analysis study from an EFL writing context: Human and automated essay scoring approaches. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 28 (3), 1015–1031. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-022-09592-z

American Psychological Association. (2020).  Publication manual of the American Psychological Association  (7th ed.).

Atkinson, D. (2003). L2 writing in the post-process era: Introduction. Journal of Second Language Writing, 12 (1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1060-3743(02)00123-6

Bahari, A. (2021). Computer-mediated feedback for L2 learners: Challenges versus affordances. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 37 (1), 24–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12481

Barrot, J. S. (2023a). Using ChatGPT for second language writing: Pitfalls and potentials. Assessing Writing, 57 , 100745. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2023.100745

Barrot, J. S. (2023b). Using automated written corrective feedback in the writing classrooms: Effects on L2 writing accuracy. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 36 (4), 584–607.

Barrot, J. S. (2023c). ChatGPT as a language learning tool: An emerging technology report. Technology, Knowledge and Learning. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-023-09711-4

Bedington, A., Halcomb, E. F., McKee, H. A., Sargent, T., & Smith, A. (2024). Writing with generative AI and human-machine teaming: Insights and recommendations from faculty and students. Computers and Composition, 71 , 102833. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compcom.2024.102833

Cancino, M., & Panes, J. (2021). The impact of google translate on L2 writing quality measures: Evidence from chilean EFL high school learners. System, 98 , 102464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102464

Cao, L., & Dede, C. (2023). Navigating a world of generative AI: Suggestions for educators . The next level lab at harvard graduate school of education. President and Fellows of Harvard College: Cambridge, MA.

Chan, C., & Hu, W. (2023). Students’ voices on generative AI: Perceptions, benefits, and challenges in higher education. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education . https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00411-8

Creswell, J. W. (2017). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among the five traditions . Sage.

Google Scholar  

Dixon-Román, E., Nichols, T. P., & Nyame-Mensah, A. (2020). The racializing forces of/in AI educational technologies. Learning, Media and Technology, 45 (3), 236–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2020.1667825

Eaton, S. (2023). Six tenets of postplagiarism: Writing in the age of artificial intelligence. University of Calgary. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/115882 .

Ebadi, S., & Amini, A. (2022). Examining the roles of social presence and human-likeness on Iranian EFL learners’ motivation using artificial intelligence technology: A case of CSIEC chatbot. Interactive Learning Environments, 32 (2), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2022.2096638

Fariani, R. I., Junus, K., & Santoso, H. B. (2023). A systematic literature review on personalised learning in the higher education context. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 28 (2), 449–476. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-022-09628-4

Ferrara, A. (1998). Reflective authenticity . Routledge.

Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing. College Composition & Communication, 32 (4), 365–387.

Fryer, L. K., & Carpenter, R. (2006). Bots as language learning tools. Language Learning & Technology, 10 , 8–14.

Gayed, J. M., Carlon, M. K. J., Oriola, A. M., & Cross, J. S. (2022). Exploring an AI-based writing Assistant’s impact on English language learners. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 3 , 100055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100055

Glaser, N. (2023). Exploring the potential of ChatGPT as an educational technology: An emerging technology report. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 28 (4), 1945–1952. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-023-09684-4

Golob, U. (2018). Sense-making. In R. L. Heath, W. Johansen, J. Falkheimer, K. Hallahan, J. J. C. Raupp, & B. Steyn (Eds.), The international encyclopedia of strategic communication (pp. 1–9). Wiley.

Graham, S. S. (2023). Post-process but not post-writing: large language models and a future for composition pedagogy. Composition Studies, 51 (1), 162–218.

Guo, K., Wang, J., & Chu, S. K. W. (2022). Using chatbots to scaffold EFL students’ argumentative writing. Assessing Writing, 54 , 100666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2022.100666

Han, J., Yoo, H., Kim, Y., Myung, J., Kim, M., Lim, H., Kim, J., Lee, T., Hong, H., Ahn, S., & Oh, A. (2023). RECIPE: How to Integrate ChatGPT into EFL writing education. arXiv:2305.11583 . https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2305.11583

Hayes, J. R. (2012). Modeling and remodeling writing. Written Communication, 29 (3), 369–388. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741088312451260

Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and time (J. Macquarrie & E. Robinson, Trans.). New York: Harper & Row (Original work published 1927).

Holmes, W., Bialik, M., & Fadel, C. (2019). Artificial intelligence in education: Promises and implications for teaching and learning . Center for Curriculum Redesign.

Huang, W., Hew, K., & Fryer, L. (2022). Chatbots for language learning—Are they really useful? A systematic review of chatbot-supported language learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 38 (1), 237–257.

Hwang, G. J., Xie, H., Wah, B. W., & Gašević, D. (2020). Vision, challenges, roles and research issues of Artificial Intelligence in Education. Computers & Education: Artificial Intelligence, 1 , Article 100001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2020.100001

Jabotinsky, H. Y., & Sarel, R. (2022). Co-authoring with an AI? Ethical dilemmas and artificial intelligence. SSRN Scholarly Paper . https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4303959

Jeon, J. (2021). Chatbot-assisted dynamic assessment (CA-DA) for L2 vocabulary learning and diagnosis. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 36 (7), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1987272

Johnson, M. D. (2017). Cognitive task complexity and L2 written syntactic complexity, accuracy, lexical complexity, and fluency: A research synthesis and meta-analysis. Journal of Second Language Writing, 37 , 13–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2017.06.001

Johnson, G. P. (2023). Don’t act like you forgot: Approaching another literacy “crisis” by (re)considering what we know about teaching writing with and through technologies. Composition Studies, 51 (1), 169–175.

Kang, J., & Yi, Y. (2023). Beyond ChatGPT: Multimodal generative AI for L2 writers. Journal of Second Language Writing, 62 , 101070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2023.101070

Kellogg, R. T. (1996). A model of working memory in writing. In C. M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences and applications (pp. 57–71). Laurence Erlbaum Associates.

Khuder, B., & Harwood, N. (2015). Writing in test and non-test situations: Process and product. Journal of Writing Research, 6 (3), 233–278.

Klein, G., Moon, B., & Hoffman, R. R. (2006). Making sense of sensemaking: A macrocognitive model. IEEE Intelligent Systems, 21 (5), 88–92.

Kohnke, L., Moorhouse, B. L., & Zou, D. (2023). Exploring generative artificial intelligence preparedness among university language instructors: A case study. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 5 , 100156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100156

Koltovskaia, S. (2020). Student engagement with automated written corrective feedback (AWCF) provided by Grammarly: A multiple case study. Assessing Writing, 44 , 100450.

Kruse, O., Rapp, C., Anson, C., Benetos, K., Cotos, E., Devitt, A., & Shibani, A. (Eds.). (2023). Digital writing technologies in higher education . Springer.

Lapadat, J. C. (2012). Thematic analysis. In A. J. Mills, G. Durepos, & E. Weibe (Eds.), The encyclopedia of case study research (pp. 926–927). Sage.

Li, B., Wang, C., Bonk, C., & Kou, X. (2024). Exploring inventions in self-directed language learning with generative AI: Implementations and perspectives of YouTube content creators. TechTrends . https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-024-00960-3

Lin, M. P. C., & Chang, D. (2020). Enhancing post-secondary writers’ writing skills with a chatbot: A mixed-method classroom study. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 23 (1), 78–92.

Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry . Sage.

Book   Google Scholar  

Link, S., Mehrzad, M., & Rahimi, M. (2022). Impact of automated writing evaluation on teacher feedback, student revision, and writing improvement. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 35 (4), 605–634. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2020.1743323

Memarian, B., & Doleck, T. (2023). Fairness, accountability, transparency, and ethics (FATE) in artificial intelligence (AI), and higher education: A systematic review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100152

Mohsen, M. A. (2021). L1 versus L2 writing processes: What insight can we obtain from a keystroke logging program? Language Teaching Research, 4 , 48–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211041292

Moran, D. (2002). Introduction to phenomenology . Routledge.

Ng, D., Leung, J., Chu, S., & Qiao, M. (2021). Conceptualizing AI literacy: An exploratory review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 2 , 100041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100041

Ouyang, F., & Jiao, P. (2021). Artificial intelligence in education: The three paradigms. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 2 , 100020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100020

Pandarova, I., Schmidt, T., Hartig, J., Boubekki, A., Jones, R. D., & Brefeld, U. (2019). Predicting the difficulty of exercise items for dynamic difficulty adaptation in adaptive language tutoring. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 29 (3), 342–367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40593-019-00180-4

Poquet, O. (2024). A shared lens around sensemaking in learning analytics: What activity theory, definition of a situation and affordances can offer. British Journal of Educational Technology . https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13435

Prince, R., & Archer, A. (2014). Exploring voice in multimodal quantitative texts. Literacy & Numeracy Studies, 22 (1), 39–57. https://doi.org/10.5130/lns.v22i1.4178

Ranalli, J. (2021). L2 student engagement with automated feedback on writing: Potential for learning and issues of trust. Journal of Second Language Writing, 52 , 100816. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2021.100816

Rings, M. (2017). Authenticity, self-fulfillment, and self-acknowledgment. The Journal of Value Inquiry, 51 (3), 475–489.

Saldaña, J. (2016). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (3rd ed.). Sage.

Sanchez-Martin, C., Hirsu, L., Gonzales, L., & Alvarez, S. P. (2019). Pedagogies of digital composing through a translingual approach. Computers and Composition, 52 , 142–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compcom.2019.02.007

Schulze, M. (2008). AI in CALL: Artificially inflated or almost imminent? CALICO Journal, 25 (3), 510–527. https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.v25i3.510-527

Shi, H., & Aryadoust, V. (2023). A systematic review of automated writing evaluation systems. Education and Information Technologies, 28 (1), 771–795. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11200-7

Smith, J. A. (1996). Beyond the divide between cognition and discourse: Using interpretative phenomenological analysis in health psychology. Psychology and Health, 11 (2), 261–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870449608400256

Smith, J. A., Flower, P., & Larkin, M. (2009). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: Theory, method and research . Sage.

Smith, J. A., & Shinebourne, P. (2012). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In H. Cooper, P. M. Camic, D. L. Long, A. T. Panter, D. Rindskopf, & K. J. Sher. (Eds.), Research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological (pp. 73–82). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13620-005 .

Southworth, J., Migliaccio, K., Glover, J., Reed, D., McCarty, C., Brendemuhl, J., & Thomas, A. (2023). Developing a model for AI Across the curriculum: Transforming the higher education landscape via innovation in AI literacy. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 4 , 100127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100127

Steiss, J., Tate, T. P., Graham, S., Cruz, J., Hebert, M., Wang, J., Moon, Y., Tseng, W., Warschauer, M., & Olson, C. (2024). Comparing the quality of human and ChatGPT feedback on students’ writing. Learning and Instruction . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.101894

Su, Y., Lin, Y., & Lai, C. (2023). Collaborating with ChatGPT in argumentative writing classrooms. Assessing Writing, 57 , 100752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2023.100752

Tan, X., Xu, W., & Wang, C. (2024). Purposeful remixing with generative AI: Constructing designer voice in multimodal composing. arXiv preprint arXiv:2403.19095.

Tsai, S. C. (2019). Using google translate in EFL drafts: A preliminary investigation. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 32 (5–6), 510–526. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1527361

Tseng, W., & Warschauer, M. (2023). AI-writing tools in education: If you can’t beat them, join them. Journal of China Computer-Assisted Language Learning, 3 (2), 258–262. https://doi.org/10.1515/jccall-2023-0008

Vetter, M. A., Lucia, B., Jiang, J., & Othman, M. (2024). Towards a framework for local interrogation of AI ethics: A case study on text generators, academic integrity, and composing with ChatGPT. Computers and Composition, 71 , 102831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compcom.2024.102831

Wang, C., Samuelson, B., & Silvester, K. (2020). Zhai nan, mai meng and filial piety: The translingual creativity of Chinese university students in an academic writing course. Journal of Global Literacies, Technologies, and Emerging Pedagogies, 6 (2), 1120–1143.

Warner, B. (2022). AI for Language Learning: ChatGPT and the Future of ELT . TESOL. http://blog.tesol.org/ai-for-language-learning-chatgpt-and-the-future-of-elt/?utm_content=buffer7d9a4&utm_medium=social&utm_source=linkedin.com&utm_campaign=buffer .

Weick, K. E., Sutcliffe, K. M., & Obstfeld, D. (2005). Organizing and the process of sensemaking. Organization Science, 16 (4), 409–421.

Yan, D. (2023). Impact of ChatGPT on learners in a L2 writing practicum: An exploratory investigation. Education and Information Technologies, 28 , 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11742-4

Yang, S. J., Ogata, H., Matsui, T., & Chen, N. S. (2021). Human-centered artificial intelligence in education: Seeing the invisible through the visible. Computers & Education: Artificial Intelligence, 2 , Article 100008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100008

Zhai, X. (2022). ChatGPT user experience: Implications for education. SSRN Scholarly Paper . https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4312418 .

Download references

The author acknowledges that the research did not receive any funding.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Colby College, Waterville, ME, USA

Chaoran Wang

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chaoran Wang .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

The author confirms that there are no conflicts of interest.

Ethical Approval

The study is conducted with permission from and following the guidelines of the university’s Institutional Review Board.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Wang, C. Exploring Students’ Generative AI-Assisted Writing Processes: Perceptions and Experiences from Native and Nonnative English Speakers. Tech Know Learn (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-024-09744-3

Download citation

Accepted : 14 May 2024

Published : 30 May 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10758-024-09744-3

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Artificial Intelligence
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Anorexia — Anorexia: A Persuasive Examination

Anorexia: a Persuasive Examination

• Categories: Anorexia Media Influence

About this sample

Words: 763 |

Published: Jun 6, 2024

Words: 763 | Pages: 2 | 4 min read

Table of contents

The prevalence and consequences, early intervention and awareness, comprehensive treatment strategies, the role of policy and research.

Cite this Essay

Let us write you an essay from scratch

• 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
• Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Get high-quality help

Dr Jacklynne

Verified writer

• Expert in: Nursing & Health Sociology

+ 120 experts online

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

Related Essays

4 pages / 2008 words

1 pages / 552 words

4 pages / 1919 words

1 pages / 2391 words

Remember! This is just a sample.

You can get your custom paper by one of our expert writers.

121 writers online

Still can’t find what you need?

Browse our vast selection of original essay samples, each expertly formatted and styled

Related Essays on Anorexia

Psychological disorders are more commonly diagnosed in today’s society. Years ago, a psychological disorder was easily overlooked. In today’s society, it is easier to tell if someone has a psychological disorder because of all [...]

The misconception that anorexia is a matter of choice is widespread, but recent research suggests a different story—one that may surprise you. Emerging studies point to the fashion industry and various media outlets as [...]

Palatability refers to observations of a food’s taste, smell, and texture. It is an important food trait because, pets must be eager to eat acceptable quantities of the food to satisfy their daily calorie and nutrient needs. [...]

Professor. Manandhar Glycolysis and Beriberi One of the important cofactors necessary for the activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP). TPP is derived from the vitamin thiamine, also called [...]

The NS3 Pro(sports drink) drink is a part of functional drinks and also driven by the emerging trend for health & wellness, along with balanced diet among the physically fit and fitness conscious people. Moreover, this [...]

Christopher WillnerProfessor Curran ENC 110227 January, 2018Lobsters: Eat Them or Leave Them? In David Foster Wallace’s essay, “Consider the Lobster”, Wallace argues that animal suffering (specifically [...]

Related Topics

By clicking “Send”, you agree to our Terms of service and Privacy statement . We will occasionally send you account related emails.

Where do you want us to send this sample?

By clicking “Continue”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy.

Be careful. This essay is not unique

This essay was donated by a student and is likely to have been used and submitted before

Download this Sample

Free samples may contain mistakes and not unique parts

Sorry, we could not paraphrase this essay. Our professional writers can rewrite it and get you a unique paper.

Please check your inbox.

We can write you a custom essay that will follow your exact instructions and meet the deadlines. Let's fix your grades together!

Get Your Personalized Essay in 3 Hours or Less!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

• Instructions Followed To The Letter
• Deadlines Met At Every Stage
• Unique And Plagiarism Free

• Newsletters
• Account Activating this button will toggle the display of additional content Account Sign out

Texas’ New Plan for Responding to the Horror of Its Abortion Ban: Blame Doctors

Last week, in a widely watched case, the Texas Supreme Court rejected the claims of Amanda Zurawski and her fellow plaintiffs that they had suffered injuries after being denied emergency access to abortion due to lack of clarity in the state’s abortion ban. Zurawski v. State of Texas has offered an important model for lawyers seeking to chip away at sweeping state bans and even eventually undermine Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization , the 2022 decision that overturned Roe v. Wade . Now the state Supreme Court’s decision offers a preview of conservatives’ response to the medical tragedies that have been all too common after Dobbs : to blame physicians and hint that the life of the fetus ultimately counts as much as or more than that of the pregnant patient.

From the beginning, Zurawski had significance for patients outside Texas. Republicans have been increasingly hostile to abortion exceptions since 2022, demanding that sexual assault victims report to law enforcement when such exemptions do exist, dropping rape and incest exemptions altogether in many other states, and going so far as to require physicians to prove their innocence rather than necessitating that prosecutors prove their guilt . Nevertheless, exceptions are critical to the post- Dobbs regime: They are popular with voters and offer the hope—in reality the illusion—that abortion bans do not operate as harshly as we may expect.

The Zurawski litigation illuminated how exceptions fail patients in the real world. Physicians, afraid of harsh sentences up to life in prison, turn away even those they feel confident will qualify under exceptions. The exemptions, by their own terms, do not apply to any number of serious medical complications or fetal conditions incompatible with life. The Zurawski plaintiffs argued that Texas’ law should cover these circumstances and that if the opposite was true, it was unconstitutional.

Although this did not succeed in Texas, Zurawski created a blueprint for litigation in other states. It also kicked off a political nightmare for Republicans. Earlier this year, when Kate Cox, a Texas woman who learned that her fetus had trisomy 18, a condition that usually proves fatal within the first year, the state’s Supreme Court denied her petition for an abortion. In the aftermath, Republicans were flummoxed about how to respond.

The Texas Supreme Court offered Republicans one way to address the emergencies Dobbs has produced. The court began by limiting physicians’ discretion about when to intervene. The plaintiffs in Zurawski argued that physicians require protection when they believe in good faith that they need to protect the life or health of their patients. The court disagreed, suggesting that the standard was whether a reasonable physician would believe a particular procedure to be lifesaving.

On the surface, this doesn’t sound so bad. Who doesn’t want doctors to have to act reasonably? But determining how sick a patient must be is never straightforward—and is all the more complicated when the wrong answer will be determined after the fact by a prosecutor and the physicians with whom they consult, and when guessing wrong will result in a penalty of up to life in prison.

The court’s message was that physicians were the problem. They had misunderstood what the court portrayed as a perfectly clear law. Doctors were the ones who had refused to act reasonably and denied help to the patients that the court thought were deserving, like Amanda Zurawski herself. Texas had stressed the same argument throughout litigation in the case.

Republicans may well borrow the same strategy. If Americans don’t like the new reality that Dobbs has brought on, the party will argue, the GOP is not to blame. It is all the doctors’ fault. This allows conservatives to have it both ways: They frighten—or, in the case of Kate Cox’s doctor, block—physicians who might be willing to offer “reasonable” care, then blame the physicians for failing to care for their patients.

The court’s interpretation of the state constitution was just as revealing. The plaintiffs had argued that Texas’ ban discriminated on the basis of sex because only some persons are capable of pregnancy. The court rejected this argument, drawing both on Dobbs and on claims that have emerged in cases about transgender youth. Regulating abortion, the court reasoned, was no different from regulating gender-affirming care—it was a rule governing a specific medical procedure, not discrimination on the basis of sex.

What about the right to life? The Dobbs case held that U.S. citizens have 14 th Amendment rights only when that liberty was deeply rooted in history and tradition. Is there a federal or state right to access abortion to avoid death or serious bodily harm? As Reva Siegel and I have written elsewhere , there seems to be historical evidence to support this argument. And the political case for such a right is strong too. If courts say that there is no constitutional limit on state abortion bans—even if patients bleed to death—that will raise yet more grave questions about what Dobbs permits.

The Texas Supreme Court did not rule out the idea that the state constitution recognizes a right to life for the patient—or deny that high courts in other conservative states had identified a right to lifesaving abortions. But if there was such a right, the court noted, it would account for “the lives of pregnant women experiencing life-threatening complications while also valuing and protecting unborn life.” In other words, the court suggested, fetuses too have rights to life, and that means that the state has every right to deny treatment to pregnant patients in an effort to prioritize the well-being of unborn ones. Texas may not yet have written fetal personhood—the idea that fetuses are rights-holding people—into its constitutional law in clear terms, but the idea of fetal rights has already affected the lives of pregnant patients in the state.

Voters don’t seem to like the idea that fetal rights trump patients’ rights. The Texas Supreme Court has suggested that judges, not voters, may be the ones who decide the question.

But even in dictating what happens to pregnant patients across the state, other Republicans will join the court in pointing the finger at the doctors charged with implementing draconian bans. “The law entrusts physicians,” the court explained, “with the profound weight of the recommendation to end the life of a child.”

The U.S. Supreme Court is likely to make things worse for pregnant patients later this month, when it hands down a ruling on whether the federal Emergency Medical Treatment and Labor Act preempts an Idaho ban with very narrow emergency exceptions . None of this makes Zurawski a waste. It may not have changed the reality on the ground for patients in Texas, but it did tell an important story about the kind of America Dobbs has created—and it delivered voters a reminder that they still have the power to change it.

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

Guest Essay

Jamie Raskin: How to Force Justices Alito and Thomas to Recuse Themselves in the Jan. 6 Cases

By Jamie Raskin

Mr. Raskin represents Maryland’s Eighth Congressional District in the House of Representatives. He taught constitutional law for more than 25 years and was the lead prosecutor in the second impeachment trial of Donald Trump.

Many people have gloomily accepted the conventional wisdom that because there is no binding Supreme Court ethics code, there is no way to force Associate Justices Samuel Alito and Clarence Thomas to recuse themselves from the Jan. 6 cases that are before the court.

Justices Alito and Thomas are probably making the same assumption.

But all of them are wrong.

It seems unfathomable that the two justices could get away with deciding for themselves whether they can be impartial in ruling on cases affecting Donald Trump’s liability for crimes he is accused of committing on Jan. 6. Justice Thomas’s wife, Ginni Thomas, was deeply involved in the Jan. 6 “stop the steal” movement. Above the Virginia home of Justice Alito and his wife, Martha-Ann Alito, flew an upside-down American flag — a strong political statement among the people who stormed the Capitol. Above the Alitos’ beach home in New Jersey flew another flag that has been adopted by groups opposed to President Biden.

Justices Alito and Thomas face a groundswell of appeals beseeching them not to participate in Trump v. United States , the case that will decide whether Mr. Trump enjoys absolute immunity from criminal prosecution, and Fischer v. United States , which will decide whether Jan. 6 insurrectionists — and Mr. Trump — can be charged under a statute that criminalizes “corruptly” obstructing an official proceeding. (Justice Alito said on Wednesday that he would not recuse himself from Jan. 6-related cases.)

Everyone assumes that nothing can be done about the recusal situation because the highest court in the land has the lowest ethical standards — no binding ethics code or process outside of personal reflection. Each justice decides for him- or herself whether he or she can be impartial.

Of course, Justices Alito and Thomas could choose to recuse themselves — wouldn’t that be nice? But begging them to do the right thing misses a far more effective course of action.

The U.S. Department of Justice — including the U.S. attorney for the District of Columbia, an appointed U.S. special counsel and the solicitor general, all of whom were involved in different ways in the criminal prosecutions underlying these cases and are opposing Mr. Trump’s constitutional and statutory claims — can petition the other seven justices to require Justices Alito and Thomas to recuse themselves not as a matter of grace but as a matter of law.

The Justice Department and Attorney General Merrick Garland can invoke two powerful textual authorities for this motion: the Constitution of the United States, specifically the due process clause, and the federal statute mandating judicial disqualification for questionable impartiality, 28 U.S.C. Section 455. The Constitution has come into play in several recent Supreme Court decisions striking down rulings by stubborn judges in lower courts whose political impartiality has been reasonably questioned but who threw caution to the wind to hear a case anyway. This statute requires potentially biased judges throughout the federal system to recuse themselves at the start of the process to avoid judicial unfairness and embarrassing controversies and reversals.

The constitutional and statutory standards apply to Supreme Court justices. The Constitution, and the federal laws under it, is the “ supreme law of the land ,” and the recusal statute explicitly treats Supreme Court justices as it does other judges: “Any justice, judge or magistrate judge of the United States shall disqualify himself in any proceeding in which his impartiality might reasonably be questioned.” The only justices in the federal judiciary are the ones on the Supreme Court.

This recusal statute, if triggered, is not a friendly suggestion. It is Congress’s command, binding on the justices, just as the due process clause is. The Supreme Court cannot disregard this law just because it directly affects one or two of its justices. Ignoring it would trespass on the constitutional separation of powers because the justices would essentially be saying that they have the power to override a congressional command.

When the arguments are properly before the court, Chief Justice John Roberts and Associate Justices Amy Coney Barrett, Neil Gorsuch, Ketanji Brown Jackson, Elena Kagan, Brett Kavanaugh and Sonia Sotomayor will have both a constitutional obligation and a statutory obligation to enforce recusal standards.

Indeed, there is even a compelling argument based on case law that Chief Justice Roberts and the other unaffected justices should raise the matter of recusal on their own, or sua sponte. Numerous circuit courts have agreed with the Eighth Circuit that this is the right course of action when members of an appellate court are aware of “ overt acts ” of a judge reflecting personal bias. Cases like this stand for the idea that appellate jurists who see something should say something instead of placing all the burden on parties in a case who would have to risk angering a judge by bringing up the awkward matter of potential bias and favoritism on the bench.

But even if no member of the court raises the issue of recusal, the urgent need to deal with it persists. Once it is raised, the court would almost surely have to find that the due process clause and Section 455 compel Justices Alito and Thomas to recuse themselves. To arrive at that substantive conclusion, the justices need only read their court’s own recusal decisions.

In one key 5-to-3 Supreme Court case from 2016, Williams v. Pennsylvania, Justice Anthony Kennedy explained why judicial bias is a defect of constitutional magnitude and offered specific objective standards for identifying it. Significantly, Justices Alito and Thomas dissented from the majority’s ruling.

The case concerned the bias of the chief justice of Pennsylvania, who had been involved as a prosecutor on the state’s side in an appellate death penalty case that was before him. Justice Kennedy found that the judge’s refusal to recuse himself when asked to do so violated due process. Justice Kennedy’s authoritative opinion on recusal illuminates three critical aspects of the current controversy.

First, Justice Kennedy found that the standard for recusal must be objective because it is impossible to rely on the affected judge’s introspection and subjective interpretations. The court’s objective standard requires recusal when the likelihood of bias on the part of the judge “is too high to be constitutionally tolerable,” citing an earlier case. “This objective risk of bias,” according to Justice Kennedy, “is reflected in the due process maxim that ‘no man can be a judge in his own case.’” A judge or justice can be convinced of his or her own impartiality but also completely missing what other people are seeing.

Second, the Williams majority endorsed the American Bar Association’s Model Code of Judicial Conduct as an appropriate articulation of the Madisonian standard that “no man can be a judge in his own cause.” Model Code Rule 2.11 on judicial disqualification says that a judge “shall disqualify himself or herself in any proceeding in which the judge’s impartiality might reasonably be questioned.” This includes, illustratively, cases in which the judge “has a personal bias or prejudice concerning a party,” a married judge knows that “the judge’s spouse” is “a person who has more than a de minimis interest that could be substantially affected by the proceeding” or the judge “has made a public statement, other than in a court proceeding, judicial decision or opinion, that commits or appears to commit the judge to reach a particular result.” These model code illustrations ring a lot of bells at this moment.

Third and most important, Justice Kennedy found for the court that the failure of an objectively biased judge to recuse him- or herself is not “harmless error” just because the biased judge’s vote is not apparently determinative in the vote of a panel of judges. A biased judge contaminates the proceeding not just by the casting and tabulation of his or her own vote but by participating in the body’s collective deliberations and affecting, even subtly, other judges’ perceptions of the case.

Justice Kennedy was emphatic on this point : “It does not matter whether the disqualified judge’s vote was necessary to the disposition of the case. The fact that the interested judge’s vote was not dispositive may mean only that the judge was successful in persuading most members of the court to accept his or her position — an outcome that does not lessen the unfairness to the affected party.”

Courts generally have found that any reasonable doubts about a judge’s partiality must be resolved in favor of recusal. A judge “shall disqualify himself in any proceeding in which his impartiality might reasonably be questioned.” While recognizing that the “challenged judge enjoys a margin of discretion,” the courts have repeatedly held that “doubts ordinarily ought to be resolved in favor of recusal.” After all, the reputation of the whole tribunal and public confidence in the judiciary are both on the line.

Judge David Tatel of the D.C. Circuit emphasized this fundamental principle in 2019 when his court issued a writ of mandamus to force recusal of a military judge who blithely ignored at least the appearance of a glaring conflict of interest. He stated : “Impartial adjudicators are the cornerstone of any system of justice worthy of the label. And because ‘deference to the judgments and rulings of courts depends upon public confidence in the integrity and independence of judges,’ jurists must avoid even the appearance of partiality.” He reminded us that to perform its high function in the best way, as Justice Felix Frankfurter stated, “justice must satisfy the appearance of justice.”

The Supreme Court has been especially disposed to favor recusal when partisan politics appear to be a prejudicial factor even when the judge’s impartiality has not been questioned. In Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co. , from 2009, the court held that a state supreme court justice was constitutionally disqualified from a case in which the president of a corporation appearing before him had helped to get him elected by spending $3 million promoting his campaign. The court, through Justice Kennedy, asked whether, quoting a 1975 decision, “under a realistic appraisal of psychological tendencies and human weakness,” the judge’s obvious political alignment with a party in a case “poses such a risk of actual bias or prejudgment that the practice must be forbidden if the guarantee of due process is to be adequately implemented.”

The federal statute on disqualification, Section 455(b) , also makes recusal analysis directly applicable to bias imputed to a spouse’s interest in the case. Ms. Thomas and Mrs. Alito (who, according to Justice Alito, is the one who put up the inverted flag outside their home) meet this standard. A judge must recuse him- or herself when a spouse “is known by the judge to have an interest in a case that could be substantially affected by the outcome of the proceeding.”

At his Senate confirmation hearing, Chief Justice Roberts assured America that “judges are like umpires.”

But professional baseball would never allow an umpire to continue to officiate the World Series after learning that the pennant of one of the two teams competing was flying in the front yard of the umpire’s home. Nor would an umpire be allowed to call balls and strikes in a World Series game after the umpire’s wife tried to get the official score of a prior game in the series overthrown and canceled out to benefit the losing team. If judges are like umpires, then they should be treated like umpires, not team owners, fans or players.

Justice Barrett has said she wants to convince people “that this court is not comprised of a bunch of partisan hacks.” Justice Alito himself declared the importance of judicial objectivity in his opinion for the majority in the Dobbs v. Jackson Women’s Health Organization decision overruling Roe v. Wade — a bit of self-praise that now rings especially hollow.

But the Constitution and Congress’s recusal statute provide the objective framework of analysis and remedy for cases of judicial bias that are apparent to the world, even if they may be invisible to the judges involved. This is not really optional for the justices.

I look forward to seeing seven members of the court act to defend the reputation and integrity of the institution.

Jamie Raskin, a Democrat, represents Maryland’s Eighth Congressional District in the House of Representatives. He taught constitutional law for more than 25 years and was the lead prosecutor in the second impeachment trial of Donald Trump.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

Follow the New York Times Opinion section on Facebook , Instagram , TikTok , WhatsApp , X and Threads .