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Alfred wallace.
When most of us think about natural selection, we attribute that theory to naturalist Charles Darwin. However, what most people do not know is that another scientist, Alfred Wallace, a naturalist, a geographer, and a socialist, also deserves some credit for the theory.
Biology, Earth Science, Geography, Physical Geography
Black and white image of a bearded Alfred Wallace.
Photograph courtesy of Biophoto Associates/Science Source
Alfred Russel Wallace was born in Wales in 1823. He has been described variously as a naturalist , a geographer , and a social critic . He even weighed in on the debate as to whether or not life could exist on Mars. However, what he is best known for is his work on the theory of natural selection .
Like fellow naturalist and colleague Charles Darwin, Wallace traveled the world, observing and collecting samples of species . He traveled to Brazil and various islands of the Malay Archipelago that make up modern-day Indonesia and the Philippines, where he collected thousands of specimens of insects, birds, and other animals. After four years in Brazil, Wallace fell ill and decided to return home to England. But 26 days into their voyage home, his ship caught fire and sank in the Atlantic. Wallace’s team and the ship’s crew spent 10 days adrift before being picked up by a passing ship, and all of Wallace’s notes and samples were lost at sea.
Despite this setback, Wallace set off on another voyage in 1854 to Southeast Asia to collect more samples. By 1855, his observations led him to the conclusion that living things change over long periods of time—they evolve . However, he could not explain how or why they evolve . Then, in 1858, while still in Southeast Asia, he became ill again. Wracked with a fever, he suffered hallucinations, but when the fever broke, the answer came to him— species evolve by adapting to their environment!
Wallace knew Darwin was working on similar research. In 1858, he sent Darwin a letter outlining his ideas about evolution . The two collaborated on a scientific paper, discussing their evidence for natural selection and evolution .
In 1859, Darwin published his book On the Origin of Species , which presented his theory of natural selection to a broader audience. The theory of evolution by natural selection became known as Darwin’s theory. Though Wallace’s contributions to the study of evolution were considerable, they are often forgotten.
Wallace spent eight years studying and collecting biological specimens in Southeast Asia. During that time, he gathered over 125,000 specimens . His research on the geographic distribution of animals provided critical support for his evolutionary theories and led him to draw a boundary line through Southeast Asia that divides Asian and Australian animal groups. Wallace’s Line, as it was later named, runs from the Indian Ocean to the Philippine Sea. It signifies the unexpected distribution of animals on either side of the line. Several mammal , bird, and fish species are found in abundance on one side of the line and only in small numbers, or not at all, on the other side.
Wallace wrote over 20 books and published more than 700 articles and letters on a wide variety of topics. He died in 1913 at the age of 90.
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- HISTORY & CULTURE
The surprising story of how chili crisp took over the world
What is now considered part of the nation’s identity was only brought to China in the 16th century, with one of the first known recipes for chili crisp appearing in a 234-year-old Chinese culinary book.
Home chefs crave it. Restaurants incorporate it into bold new recipes. It’s chili crisp, and it’s the current darling of the food world. The Chinese condiment, which incorporates chili peppers, oil, and other ingredients like garlic, onion, peppercorns, and even fermented soybeans, is a kitchen powerhouse known for its versatility and kick. But how did the must-have concoction get started? Here’s how chili crisp was born—and why it’s so beloved today.
A spicy introduction
Chilis weren’t always in China, says Brian Dott , a history professor at Whitman College and author of The Chile Pepper in China: A Cultural Biography . Originating in Central and South America, Capsicum plants were unknown in China until around the 16th century, when a boom in exploration and trade brought chilis to the Chinese mainland.
The first written record of chili in China dates from 1591—and it isn’t exactly a rave review. Gao Lian, a playwright who lived near what is now Shanghai, wasn’t “all that excited about it as a condiment or a medicine,” Dott says of his account. Instead, he used it as a decorative plant.
But while elite Chinese enjoyed chili peppers in their decorative gardens, the masses began eating—and enjoying—the pungent plants. By 1765, local historians noted that chilis were used to flavor sauces, vinegar, savory oils, and preserved vegetables in Hunan. There’s even a recipe for a condiment reminiscent of chili crisp in The Harmonious Cauldron , the earliest Chinese culinary book to include chili peppers.
Written around 1790, the recipe is short and spicy: “Start with sesame oil. Place whole chili peppers in the sesame oil and fry completely. Remove the chiles, preserving the oil for later use.”
A national symbol
Unlike other spices, chili peppers weren’t farmed and traded as commodities. Instead, they were passed from person to person and cultivated in small crops, says Dott, falling into the hands of skilled farmers who bred even better chilis over time. These peppers—and the condiment made by frying them in oil—became must-have ingredients all over China, eventually filtering to every level of society and becoming so ubiquitous that they were considered part of the nation’s identity.
Peppers even played a role in Chinese politics: Mao Zedong, the founder of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, was from Hunan and relished spicy foods. “He loved chili peppers,” says Dott, even going so far as to say that revolution was impossible without chili. Mao mocked those in his inner circle who couldn’t stand the heat, suggesting their inability to tolerate hot chili peppers meant they were cowards. That association of chili with military might and macho manhood persists to this day, Dott says.
Modern chili crisp
By the 20th century, chilis fried in oil were a staple in homes and restaurants. But though the condiment was brought to the United States and served at Chinese restaurants, it took until 1997 for chili crisp to be produced and sold on a commercial scale. That year, restaurateur Tao Huabi began selling Lao Gan Ma Spicy Chili Crisp from China’s Guizhou Province.
The condiment became an international sensation, and her fortune is now estimated at $1.05 billion thanks to the zippy sauce and over a dozen creative variations. One Lao Gan Ma chili crisp even contains beef, but isn’t available in the U.S. due to agricultural laws prohibiting imported Chinese meat.
Over time, chili crisp gained a cult following—and even courted controversy. This March, Korean American celebrity chef David Chang’s brand Momofuku attempted to stop other manufacturers from using the name “chili crunch” on their products, leading to quibbling over, among other things, the spelling of the word “chili” and the authenticity of mass-produced chili oils.
For Dott, it’s all a function of a food whose intense flavor sparks intense emotions. “You can learn a lot about a culture through food,” he says. From medicine to Momofuku, it seems the condiment won’t stop bringing the heat any time soon.
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The condiment became an international sensation, and her fortune is now estimated at $1.05 billion thanks to the zippy sauce and over a dozen creative variations.
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