ppt presentation of respiratory system

Respiratory Physiology

Lecture Outline

• Basics of the Respiratory System
• Functions & functional anatomy

Ventilation

• Diffusion & Solubility
• Gas Exchange
• Gas Transport in Blood
• Regulation of Ventilation & Impacts on
• Gas levels, pH

Basics of the Respiratory System� General Functions

• Exchange of gases
• Directionality depends on gradients!
• Atmosphere to blood
• Blood to tissues
• Regulation of pH
• Dependent on rate of CO 2 release
• Vocalization

Basics of the Respiratory System� Respiration

• What is respiration?
• Respiration = the series of exchanges that leads to the uptake of oxygen by the cells, and the release of carbon dioxide to the lungs

Step 1 = ventilation

• Inspiration & expiration

Step 2 = exchange between alveoli (lungs) and pulmonary capillaries (blood)

• Referred to as External Respiration

Step 3 = transport of gases in blood

Step 4 = exchange between blood and cells

• Referred to as Internal Respiration
• Cellular respiration = use of oxygen in ATP synthesis

External Respiration

Internal Respiration

Schematic View of Respiration

Basics of the Respiratory System� Functional Anatomy

• What structural aspects must be considered in the process of respiration?
• The conduction portion
• The exchange portion
• The structures involved with �ventilation
• Skeletal & musculature
• Pleural membranes
• Neural pathways
• All divided into
• Upper respiratory tract
• Entrance to larynx
• Lower respiratory tract
• Larynx to alveoli (trachea �to lungs)
• Bones, Muscles & Membranes
• Function of these Bones, Muscles & Membranes
• Create and transmit a pressure gradient
• the attachments of the �muscles to the ribs �(and overlying tissues)
• The attachment of the �diaphragm to the base �of the lungs and associated �pleural membranes
• The cohesion of the parietal �pleural membrane to the �visceral pleural membrane
• Expansion & recoil of the lung �and therefore alveoli with the� movement of the overlying �structures
• Pleural Membrane Detail
• Cohesion between parietal and visceral layers is due to serous fluid in the pleural cavity
• Fluid (30 ml of fluid) creates an attraction between the two sheets of membrane
• As the parietal membrane expands due to expansion of the thoracic cavity it “pulls” the visceral membrane with it
• And then pulls the underlying structures which expand as well
• Disruption of the integrity of the pleural membrane will result in a rapid equalization of pressure and loss of ventilation function = collapsed lung or pneumothorax
• The Respiratory Tree
• connecting the external environment to the exchange portion of the lungs
• similar to the vascular component
• larger airway = higher flow & velocity
• small cross-sectional area
• smaller airway = lower flow & velocity
• large cross-sectional area
• Upper respiratory tract is for all intensive purposes a single large conductive tube
• The lower respiratory tract starts after the larynx and divides again and again…and again to eventually get to the smallest regions which form the exchange membranes
• Primary bronchi
• Secondary bronchi
• Tertiary bronchi
• Bronchioles
• Terminal bronchioles
• Respiratory bronchioles with �start of alveoli outpouches
• Alveolar ducts with outpouchings �of alveoli

conductive portion

exchange portion

• What is the function of the upper respiratory tract?

Raises incoming air to 37 Celsius

Raises incoming air to 100% humidity

Forms mucociliary escalator

• What is the function of the lower respiratory tract?
• Exchange of gases …. Due to
• Huge surface area = 1x10 5 m 2 of type I alveolar cells (simple squamous epithelium)
• Associated network of pulmonary capillaries
• 80-90% of the space between alveoli is filled with blood in pulmonary capillary networks
• Exchange distance is approx 1 um from alveoli to blood!
• Free alveolar macrophages (dust cells)
• Surfactant produced by type II alveolar cells (septal cells)
• Characteristics of exchange membrane
• High volume of blood through huge capillary network results in
• Fast circulation through lungs
• Pulmonary circulation = 5L/min through lungs….
• Systemic circulation = 5L/min through entire body!
• Blood pressure is low…
• Filtration is not a main theme here, we do not want a net loss of fluid into the lungs as rapidly as the systemic tissues
• Any excess fluid is still returned via lymphatic system
• Sum-up of functional anatomy
• Ventilation?
• Vocalization?
• Protection?

Respiratory Physiology� Gas Laws

• Basic Atmospheric conditions
• Pressure is typically measured in mm Hg
• Atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg
• Atmospheric components
• Nitrogen = 78% of our atmosphere
• Oxygen = 21% of our atmosphere
• Carbon Dioxide = .033% of our atmosphere
• Water vapor, krypton, argon, …. Make up the rest
• A few laws to remember
• Dalton’s law
• Fick’s Laws of Diffusion
• Boyle’s Law
• Ideal Gas Law
• Dalton’s Law
• Law of Partial Pressures
• “each gas in a mixture of gases will exert a pressure independent of other gases present”
• The total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the individual gas pressures.
• What does this mean in practical application?
• If we know the total atmospheric pressure (760 mm Hg) and the relative abundances of gases (% of gases)
• We can calculate individual gas effects!
• P atm x % of gas in atmosphere = Partial pressure of any atmospheric gas
• P O2 = 760mmHg x 21% (.21) = 160 mm Hg
• Now that we know the partial pressures we know the gradients that will drive diffusion!
• Things that affect rates of diffusion
• Distance to diffuse
• Gradient sizes
• Diffusing molecule sizes
• Temperature
• What is constant & therefore out of our realm of concern?
• So it all comes down to partial pressure gradients of gases… determined by Dalton’s Law!
• Describes the relationship between pressure and volume
• “the pressure and volume of a gas in a system are inversely related”
• P 1 V 1 = P 2 V 2
• How does Boyle’s Law work in us?
• As the thoracic cavity (container) expands the volume must up and pressure goes down
• If it goes below 760 mm Hg what happens?
• As the thoracic cavity shrinks the volume must go down and pressure goes up
• If it goes above 760 mm Hg what happens
• Ideal Gas law
• The pressure and volume of a container of gas is directly related to the temperature of the gas and the number of molecules in the container
• n = moles of gas
• T = absolute temp
• R = universal gas constant @ 8.3145 J/K·mol
• Do we care?
• Can’t forget about poor Charles and his law or Henry and his law
• Aptly named … Charles’s Law & Henry’s Law

As the temp goes up in a volume of gas the volume rises proportionately

At a constant temperature, the amount of a given gas dissolved in a given type and volume of liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas in equilibrium with that liquid.�OR�the solubility of a gas in a liquid at a particular temperature is proportional to the pressure of that gas above the liquid.

*also has a constant which is different for each gas

• Terminology
• Inspiration = the movement of air into the respiratory tracts (upper & lower)
• Expiration = movement of air out of the respiratory tracts
• Respiratory cycle is one inspiration followed by an expiration
• Cause of Inspiration?
• Biological answer
• Contraction of the inspiratory muscles causes an increase in the thoracic cavity size, thus allowing air to enter the respiratory tract
• Physics answer
• As the volume in the thoracic cavity increases (due to inspiratory muscle action) the pressure within the respiratory tract drops below atmospheric pressure, creating a pressure gradient which causes molecular movement to favor moving into the respiratory tract
• Cause of Expiration?

Besides the diaphragm (only creates about 60-75% of the volume change) what are the muscles of inspiration & expiration?

What is the relationship between alveolar pressure and intrapleural pressure and the volume of air moved?

• What are the different respiratory patterns?
• Quiet breathing (relaxed)
• Forced inspirations & expirations
• Respiratory volumes follow these respiratory patterns…
• Inspiration
• Occurs as alveolar pressure drops below atmospheric pressure
• For convenience atmospheric pressure = 0 mm Hg
• A (-) value then indicates pressure below atmospheric P
• A (+) value indicates pressure above atmospheric P
• At the start of inspiration (time = 0),
• atmospheric pressure = alveolar pressure
• No net movement of gases!
• At time 0 to 2 seconds
• Expansion of thoracic cage and corresponding pleural membranes and lung tissue causes alveolar pressure to drop to -1 mm Hg
• Air enters the lungs down the partial pressure gradient
• Occurs as alveolar pressure elevates above atmospheric pressure due to a shrinking thoracic cage
• At time 2-4 seconds
• Inspiratory muscles relax, elastic tissue of corresponding structures initiates a recoil back to resting state
• This decreases volume and correspondingly increases alveolar pressure to 1 mm Hg
• This is above atmospheric pressure, causing…?
• At time 4 seconds
• Atmospheric pressure once again equals alveolar pressure and there is no net movement
• Both inspiration and expiration can be modified
• Forced or active inspiration
• Forced or active expiration
• The larger and quicker the expansion of the thoracic cavity, the larger the gradient and
• The faster air moves down its pressure gradient
• Things to consider
• surfactant effect
• airway diameter
• Minute volume respiration (ventilation rate times tidal volume) & anatomical dead space
• Leading to a more accurate idea of alveolar ventilation rates
• Changes in ventilation patterns
• Surfactant is produced by the septal cells
• Disrupts the surface tension & cohesion of water molecules
• prevents alveoli from sticking together during expiration

Airway diameter & other factors that affect airway resistance?

The relationship between minute volume (total pulmonary ventilation) and alveolar ventilation & the subsequent “mixing” of air

• Diffusion and Solubility
• Gas composition in the alveoli
• Gas exchange
• Gas transport in blood
• Regulation of pulmonary function

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Human Respiratory System

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The Respiratory System

Apr 07, 2019

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The Respiratory System. Chapter 21. Introduction. The trillions of cells making up the body require a continuous supply of oxygen to carry out vita functions We can survive only a few minutes without oxygen

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• actual site
• passage way
• terminal air sacs
• walled capillaries underlies
• mucous cells secrete mucus

Presentation Transcript

The Respiratory System Chapter 21

Introduction • The trillions of cells making up the body require a continuous supply of oxygen to carry out vita functions • We can survive only a few minutes without oxygen • As cells use oxygen, they give off carbon dioxide a waste product of cellular respiration which the body must eliminate

Introduction • The major function of the respiratory system is to supply the body with oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide • To achieve this function four distinct processes, collectively called respiration occur • Pulmonary ventilation • External respiration • Transport of respiratory gases • Internal respiration (cellular respiration)

Introduction • Pulmonary ventilation • Air must be moved in and out of the lungs so that the gases in the air sacs (alveoli) of the lungs are continually changed and refreshed • This air movement is commonly called ventilation or breathing

Introduction • External respiration • Gas exchange (oxygen loading and carbon dioxide unloading) must occur between the blood and the air-filled alveoli of the lungs

Introduction • Transport of respiratory gases • Oxygen and carbon dioxide must be transported between the lungs and tissue cells of the body • This is accomplished by the cardiovascular system, which uses blood as the transporting fluid

Introduction • Internal respiration • At the systemic capillaries, gas exchanges (oxygen unloading and carbon dioxide loading) must be made between the blood and tissue cells

Respiratory System • The organs of the respiratory system include the nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and the lungs which contain the terminal air sacs or alveoli

Respiratory System • Functionally, the respiratory structures are divided into respiratory and conducting zones • Visible structures represent the conducting zone • Respiratory zone structures are small and lie deep within the lungs

Respiratory System • Functionally, the respiratory system consists of the respiratory and the conducting zones • The respiratory zone, the actual site of gas exchange, is composed of the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli • The conducting zone includes all other respiratory passageways, which provide fairly rigid conduits for air to reach the sites of gas exchange

Respiratory System • Organs of the conducting zone clean, warm and humidify the incoming air • Thus, the air reaching the lungs contain must less dust than what entered the nose and is warm and damp

The Nose • The nose is the only externally visible part of the respiratory system • The external framework of the nose

The functions of the nose include Providing an airway for respiration Moistening and warming entering air Filtering inspired air and cleansing it of foreign matter Serving as a resonating chamber for speech Housing the olfactory (smell) receptors The Nose

The Nose • The structures of the nose are divided into the • External nose • Nasal cavity • Surface features • Root (between eyes) • Bridge • Dorsum nasi • Apex • Philtrum • External nares • Alae

The Nose - Nasal Cavity • The nasal cavity lies in and posterior to the external nose • During breathing air enters the external cavity by passing through the external nares or nostrils • The nasal cavity is divided by a midline nasal septum • The nasal cavity is continuous posteriorly with the nasal portion of the pharynx through the internal nares

The Nose - Nasal Cavity • The roof of the nasal cavity is formed by the ethmoid and sphenoid bones of the skull • The floor is formed by the palate which separates it from the oral cavity below • Anteriorly, where the palate is supported by the maxillary processes and the palatine bones is considered the hard palate • The unsupported posterior portion is the muscular soft palate

The Nose - Nasal Cavity • The vestibule is lined with skin containing sebaceous and sweat glands and numerous hair follicles • The hair, or vibrissae, filter coarse particles from inspired air

The Nose - Nasal Cavity • The nasal cavity is lined with two types of mucous membrane • The olfactory mucosa, lining the slitlike superior region of the nasal cavity, contain the receptors for the sense of smell • The balance of the nasal cavity is lined with respiratory mucosa

The Nose - Respiratory Mucosa • The respiratory mucosa is made up of pseudostratified columnar epithelium, containing scattered goblet cells, that rests on a lamina propria • This lamina propria is richly supplied with compound tubuloalveolar glands that contain mucous and serous cells • Mucous cells secrete mucus, whereas serous cells in glands secrete a watery fluid containing digestive enzymes

The Nose - Respiratory Mucosa • Each day the mucous glands secrete about a quart of sticky mucous containing lysozyme, an antibacterial enzyme • The mucous traps inspired dust, bacteria and other debris, while lysozyme attacks and destroys bacteria chemically • The epithelial cells of the respiratory mucosa also secrete defensins, natural antibotics that help to get rid of invading microbes

The Nose - Respiratory Mucosa • The ciliated cells of the respiratory mucosa create a gentle current that moves the sheet of contaminated mucus posteriorly toward the throat where it is swallowed and digested by stomach juices • These ciliated cells become sluggish in cold weather allowing mucus to accumulate in the nasal cavity where it “runs” on a cold day when you come inside

The Nose - Respiratory Mucosa • The nasal mucosa is richly supplied with sensory nerve endings • A sneeze reflex is stimulated when irritating particles (dust, pollen) contact this sensitive mucosa • The sneezing propels air outward in a violent burst, expelling the irritant from the nose

The Nose - Respiratory Mucosa • A rich plexus of thin walled capillaries underlies the lamina propria of the nasal mucosa and warms the incoming air as it flows across the mucosal surface • Blood flow increases when the temperature decreases • Because of its superficial location and the extent of vessels, nosebleeds are common and often profuse

The Nose - Nasal Conchae • Protruding medially from each lateral wall of the nasal cavity are three mucosa-covered projections, the superior, middle of the ethmoid bone and inferior conchae which is a separate bone

The Nose - Nasal Conchae • The groove inferior to each concha is a meatus • As inhaled air moves over the concha the turbulance created increases the amount of contact between the nasal mucosa and this inspired air • This acts to trap particulates in mucus

The Nose - Nasal Conchae • The conchae and nasal mucosa not only function during inhalation to filter, heat, and moisten air, but also act during exhalation to reclaim this heat and moisture • This reclamation mechanism minimizes the amount of moisture and heat lost from the body through breathing, helping us to survive in dry and cold climates

The Nose - Paranasal Sinuses • The nasal cavity is surround by sinuses located in the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid and maxillary bones • They function to • Produce mucus • Lighten the skull • Warm the air • Voice resonance

The Pharynx • The pharynx is the funnel shaped passage way than connects the nasal cavity and mouth superiorly to the larynx and the esophagus inferiorly • Nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

The Pharynx • The pharynx serves as a common pathway for food and air • The pharynx extends for about 5 inches from the base of the skull to the level of the sixth cervical vertebrae • In the context of the digestive tract, the pharynx is commonly called the throat

The Pharynx • On the basis of location and function, the pharynx is divided into nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx • The muscular wall of the pharynx consists of skeletal muscle throughout its length, but the nature of the mucosal lining varies among the three pharyngeal regions

The Nasopharynx • The nasopharynx lies above the point of food entry, it serves only as an air passageway • During swallowing the uvula reflects posteriorly to close off the nasopharynx and prevent food from entering the nasal cavity

The Nasopharynx • The nasopharynx is continuous with the nasal cavity through the internal nares • It ciliated pseudo- stratified epithelium produces mucus • Mucosa high on the posterior wall contains masses of lymphatic tissue, the pharyngeal tonsils or adenoids

The Oropharynx • The oropharynx lies posterior to the oral cavity and is continuous with it through an archway called the fauces • Both swallowed food and air pass through • Lined with stratified squamous epithelium for protection from food abrasion and chemical trauma

The Oropharynx • Two tonsils lie embedded in the oropharyngeal mucosa • Paired palatine tonsils • Lingual tonsil (posterior surface of the tongue)

The Laryngopharynx • The laryngopharynx serves as a common pathway for food and air and is lined with stratified squamous epithelium • It lies directly posterior to the upright epiglottis and extends to the larynx where the digestive and respiratory pathways diverge

The Laryngopharynx • The esophagus conducts food to the stomach while air enters the larynx anteriorly • During swallowing food has the “right of way” and air passage temporarily stops

The Larynx • The larynx attaches to the hyoid bone superiorly and opens into the laryngopharynx • Inferiorly is is continuous with the trachea

The Larynx • The larynx has three important functions • It provides an airway for respiration • Act as a switching mechanism to route air and food into the proper channels • Vocal cords housed in larynx are used in voice production

The Larynx • The framework of the larynx is an arrangement of nine cartilages connected by membranes and ligaments • Except for the epiglottis, all laryngeal cartilages are made of hyaline

The Larynx • The large, shield shaped thyroid cartilage is formed by the fusion of two cartilage plates • The laryngeal prominence marks the midline fusion point • The cricoid cartilage is anchored to the trachea inferiorly

The Larynx • Three pairs of small cartilages, the arytenoid, cuneiform and corniculate form part of the lateral and posterior walls of the larynx • The arytenoid anchors the vocal cords

The Larynx • The ninth cartilage the flexible, spoon shaped epiglottis is composed of elastic cartilage • It is almost entirely covered by mucosa • The epiglottis extends from the posterior aspect of the tongue to its anchoring point on the thyroid cartilage

The Larynx • When only air is flowing into the larynx, the inlet to the larynx is open wide and the free edge of the epiglottis projects upward • During swallowing the larynx is pulled superiorly and the epiglottis tips to cover the laryngeal inlet

The Vocal Folds • The vocal ligaments attach the arytenoid and thyroid cartilages • These ligaments are composed of elastic fibers • The vocal cords vibrate, producing sound as air rushes up from lungs

The Vocal Folds • The opening through which air passes is the glottis • Superior to the vocal cords are the vestibular cords which play no part in voice production

Vocal Folds • Stratified squamous epithelium lines the superior portion of the larynx, an area subject to food contact • Below the vocal folds the epithelium is pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium • Cilia move the mucus away from our lungs

Voice Production • Speech involves the intermittent release of expired air and opening and closing of the glottis • The length of the true vocal cords and the size of the glottis are altered by the action of the intrinsic laryngeal muscles most of which move the arytenoid cartilages • As the length and tension of the vocal folds change, the pitch of the sound is altered

Voice Production • The glottis is wide when we produce deep tones and narrows to a slit for high pitched sounds • Length and thickness of the vocal folds changes for males during puberty • Loudness of the voice depends on the force with which the airstream rushes across the vocal cords • The greater the force, the stronger the vibration and the louder the sound

Sphincter Functions of Larynx • The vestibular folds can perform a sphincter function under certain conditions • In abdominal straining associated with defecation and urination, inhaled air is held temporarily in the lower respiratory tract by closing the epiglottis • The abdominal muscle then contract and the interabdominal pressure rises • The action know as the Valsalva manuever can also stabilize the trunk when one lifts a heavy load

Innervation of the Larynx • The larynx receives its sensory and motor innervation through the superior laryngeal branch of each vagus nerve and from the recurrent laryngeal nerves, which branch off the vagus in the superior thorax and loop superiorly to ascend through the neck • The backtracking course these nerves is unusual

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Respiratory System Workshop for Medical Students

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