secondary source short biography written by pbs

Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Sources

Locating primary sources.

Useful (and entertaining!) video about what Primary sources are and how to find them. Includes tips for searching by subject headings including your keyword plus words like "sources" and "autobiography" etc. See the Library of Congress Subdivisions below for search term ideas. 

(Video Source: Locating Primary Sources  by Ohlone College Library)

LOC Subdivisions

When searching our library book catalog adding keywords such as " sources ", " letters ", " diaries ", " narratives " help to find historical documents or first-person accounts. 

The below Chart lists subject heading subdivisions you may see on library catalog items, indicating the stage of publication in which the information may be located. For instance, if you see the subdivision, "personal narrative," the cataloged item is likely to be primary information. If the subdivision is "history," the item is likely to be secondary, because the information is digested and interpreted. If the subdivision is "bibliography," the item is likely to be tertiary because the information is a compilation of secondary materials.

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS SUBDIVISIONS INDICATING PRIMARY, SECONDARY, AND TERTIARY SOURCES

(Source:  Guide by UNCW  William Madison Randall Library )

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Learning Resources

American visions: exploring primary and secondary sources through walden and generative ai.

View Student Version

Teacher Tip : Think about what students should be able to KNOW, UNDERSTAND, and DO at the conclusion of this learning experience. A brief exit pass or other formative assessment may be used to assess student understandings. Setting specific learning targets for the appropriate grade level and content area will increase student success.  

Suggested Grade Levels : High School (9-12),  including APUSH

Suggested Timeframe : 3-4 class periods, 45 minutes in length, or 3 block periods, 90 minutes each.

Suggested Materials :  Internet access via laptop, tablet or mobile device

Key Vocabulary

Algorithms - Step-by-step instructions or sets of rules that computers use to solve problems or complete tasks, similar to the way a chef follows a recipe.

Artifact - An object made or used by humans that provides information about the past.

Artificial Intelligence - The development of computer systems capable of performing tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as speech recognition or decision-making.

Commemorate - To honor or remember an important person, event, or achievement.

Context/Contextualize - words that are used with a certain word or phrase that help to explain its meaning, ex. historians provide context or contextualize historical events and documents.

Copyright - A legal term that refers to the exclusive rights given to creators or owners of original creative works. This includes things like books, movies, songs, artwork, and software. Copyright protects the creator's right to control how their work is used, reproduced, distributed, and displayed.

Data - raw information in the form of numbers, text, or other symbols.

Data Talk - Short 5-10 minute classroom discussions to help students develop data literacy. This pedagogical strategy is similar in structure to a number talk, but instead of numbers students are shown a data visualization and asked what interests them.

Democratize - To make an organization more democratic, supporting a system in which all citizens have a voice or a vote. To make something accessible, available, or appealing to everyone.

Digital Humanities - the use of digital tools to study human culture and society with computational methods and technologies

Generative Artificial Intelligence (Generative AI) - A branch of artificial intelligence that involves the creation or generation of new and original content. This technology is designed to mimic human creativity by producing original ideas, artwork, music, or text, among other forms of content. Generative AI algorithms are typically trained on large datasets and are capable of analyzing patterns and trends to then produce new content that resembles the input it has been trained on.

Historical empathy -The ability to understand and relate to the experiences and feelings of people who lived in the past.

Hudson River School - A school of landscape painting in the mid-19th century movement in American art focused on the natural beauty of the Hudson River Valley and surrounding areas. It emerged during a time when the United States was experiencing rapid expansion and industrialization.

Infographic - A visual image such as a chart or diagram used to represent information or data

Material culture -The physical objects, such as tools, clothing, buildings, and art, that are created and used by a particular society or group of people. 

Philosophy - The study of fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, and more.

Primary source - An original document or artifact created at the time of an event or by a person directly involved, providing firsthand evidence or eyewitness accounts.

Preserve -  To protect or maintain something in its original or existing state.

Public Domain -  Works that are no longer protected by copyright and are available for anyone to use without permission.

Secondary source -  A source that interprets, analyzes, or discusses primary sources, providing an interpretation or analysis of the events or people involved.

Serene -  Calm, peaceful, and undisturbed.

Significance -  The importance or meaning of something in a particular context.

StoryMap -  A tool that combines maps with storytelling, allowing the user to visually showcase a narrative or information related to specific locations.

Travelogue -  A written or visual account of a person's experiences, thoughts, and observations while traveling to different places.

Treaty -  An official agreement or contract between two or more nations or groups, usually regarding peace, trade, or territory.

Transcendentalism - A philosophical and literary movement in the 19th century that emphasized individual, intuition, and the belief that humans can transcend their limits through spiritual insight.

Read for Understanding

This Learning Resource includes language in the body of the text to help adapt to a variety of educational settings, including remote learning environments, face-to-face instruction, and blended learning.

If you are teaching remotely, consider using videoconferencing to provide opportunities for students to work in partners or small groups. Digital tools such as Google Docs and Google  Slides may also be used for collaboration. Rewordify helps make a complex text more accessible for those reading at a lower Lexile level while still providing a greater depth of knowledge. 

American Visions: The United States, 1800-1860 by Historian Edward L. Ayers serves as the companion text, however, each component serves as a standalone Open Education Resource (OER). These include content archived in Bunkhistory.org , The Internet Archive , and an ArcGIS Online StoryMap used in this Learning Resource.  All leveled reading passages were created using generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) tools for increased accessibility. Students will compare and contrast primary and secondary sources with AI-generated content to explore how this technology may or may not enhance historical thinking as part of the inquiry process.

The First, Then, Finally strategy is used to help students summarize the reading excerpts and reflect then discuss their thinking. A Google Slides template is provided, or you may print paper copies as needed. An Infographic is provided as both an image and Google Slide for students to build background knowledge on the digital humanities, using primary and secondary sources. Additional resources are included on Public Domain Day and accessing content in the public domain in this blog post . 

Students will engage in a brief Data Talk using Bunk and Bunk Places. Data talks are short classroom discussions to help students develop data literacy. This pedagogical strategy is similar in structure to a number talk, but instead of numbers students are shown a data visualization and asked what interests them. A simple set of questions including “What do you notice?” or “What questions do you have?” can help students improve their data literacy skills across multiple content areas, including the humanities.

This Learning Resource follows a variation of the 5Es instructional model , and each section may be taught as a separate learning experience, or as part of a sequence of learning experiences. We provide each of our Learning Resources in multiple formats, including web-based and as an editable Google Doc for educators to teach and adapt selected learning experiences as they best suit the needs of your students and local curriculum. You may also wish to embed or remix them into a playlist for students working remotely or independently.

For Students:

The sixty years between 1800 and 1860 saw the politics, religion, language, literature, art, population, and economy of the young United States change with remarkable speed, forever shaping American history.  You will explore primary and secondary sources using a variety of digital humanities tools and resources to gain a better understanding of 19th-century America.

How do historians use both primary and secondary sources to interpret the past?

Historians rely on both primary and secondary sources to interpret the past. Primary sources are firsthand accounts by people, or evidence from the time period being studied, while secondary sources are interpretations or analyses of primary sources by historians or scholars.  Secondary sources can also involve the synthesis or evaluation of primary sources. They often attempt to describe or explain primary sources.

A primary source is one that was created at the time of the events or conditions being studied, by someone who directly witnessed or experienced them. Primary sources include diaries, journals, autobiographies, images, and personal letters. Historians use these to understand the thoughts, experiences, and emotions of individuals in the past. For example, reading Anne Frank's diaries provides insights into the daily life of a young Jewish girl during the Holocaust.

Official documents including government records, treaties , laws, or court cases are also primary sources.  These provide insights into political decisions, legal processes, and power struggles. The United States Declaration of Independence is a primary source that, alongside contemporary sources, helps analyze the motivations and ideals behind the American Revolution. Earlier drafts and correspondence related to the final document also give us context into the time period and mindsets of the authors.

Artifacts , objects, and other material culture such as pottery, coins, clothing, weapons, furniture, and buildings or ruins from a particular time period are primary sources that provide material evidence of the past.  These are often shared through museums and historical sites, with interpretations from public historians and museum curators.

Paintings, sculptures, photographs, and other forms of artwork represent the artistic styles, religious beliefs, and cultural values of a particular era. Exploring the works of landscape painters from the Hudson River School helps us understand the artistic techniques, cultural themes, and historical context of the period.

Henry David Thoreau's Walden is a primary source because it relates his personal experiences and observations during his two-year stay in a small cabin next to Walden Pond in the mid-19th century. Thoreau's writing provides first-hand accounts of his thoughts, reflections, and interactions with nature, society, and himself,  and deepens our understanding of his experiences and ideas during that time period.

Use the Internet Archive to access this text , now in the public domain . Take a few minutes to explore this platform, and familiarize yourself with the search tools, visual adjustments, and audio features.

Walden; or, Life in the woods : Thoreau, Henry David, 1817-1862 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive

Title vignette (Thoreau's hut at Walden Pond); the plan is a water depth chart of Walden Pond, 1846, opposite p. 307

archive.org

pp. 98-100, (Thoreau's hut at Walden Pond); the plan is a water depth chart of Walden Pond, 1846, opposite p. 307

Now navigate to page 98 and read (and/or listen to) an excerpt from Walden . Read along from pages 98-100. Your teacher may allow you to read with a partner, or independently.

• According to the text, what was Henry David Thoreau’s motivation for spending time at Walden Pond?
• What does the document suggest about progress?
• What is the role of the workers mentioned in the document?
• What are some potential benefits of living a simple life and being connected to nature, according to the text?
• How can we apply Thoreau's belief in living simply and being connected to nature in our daily lives?

Now read a modified version of the same excerpt, created by a Generative AI site, rewritten in simpler language. You may also use the Immersive Reader app located in the top right corner of the screen to access an audio version of this excerpt.

For Students: GenAI Excerpts from Walden • New American History

At New American History, we’re committed to helping students see how current events take their shape from history. Our tools and resources are free and freely available to all educators, intended to uncover new ways to teach the past in light of the present.

resources.newamericanhistory.org

Turn and talk to a partner, comparing and contrasting between the original version and the computer-generated version.  Your teacher may give you a paper copy or allow you to access this Venn diagram to record your thoughts.

NAH VennDiagram

Name: ____________________________  Use the Venn Diagram below to organize your thoughts. Label the ideas you are comparing on the blank line above each circle. Add similarities in the inner circle and differences in the outer circle. ________________ ____...

docs.google.com

• Did you or your partner have a preference between the two versions?
• Did the audio versions enhance your understanding of the excerpts? 
• Would you have preferred to have read a paper version? If so, why?
• How did the AI-generated version change the content or author’s voice?
• Which version do you think best represents the historical content? Why?

Select one or two keywords or phrases from the original text of Walden , and search for them using the “Search inside” feature located on the top left side of the Internet Archive screen. 

Take a few minutes to explore other paragraphs in the book using the keywords or phrases you and your partner selected. 

• What do you notice?
• What questions do you still have about Walden ?
• Where might you look to find the answers to these questions?

The Public Domain Project

www.thefrontispiece.com

In the United States, most works of literature, both fiction and nonfiction, enter the public domain 70 years after the author’s death. Public domain material may be accessed, reproduced, and modified without breaking any copyright laws. This varies somewhat in the United States and in other countries.

Some libraries around the world celebrate “ Public Domain Day ” each year, often on January 1st, announcing classic titles about to come into the public domain. In recent years, early versions of Winnie the Pooh, Sherlock Holmes, and The Great Gatsby have come into the public domain.

Walden has been in the public domain since 1954. For more about Walden and the public domain, read this blog about The Public Domain Project .

• What is one book you are most interested in reading from the list of books now in the public domain?
• How might releasing these into the public domain benefit readers?
• What creative ideas do you have for using literature in the public domain?

Your teacher may ask you to record your answers on an exit ticket. 

In what ways do secondary sources enhance our understanding and appreciation for the past? 

Secondary sources include a wide variety of types of sources. For academic work, these include textbooks and scholarly articles written by college professors and other trained experts. These sources compile and analyze information from multiple primary sources. For example, students might use a high school history textbook to understand the causes and consequences of World War II. Other sources could be a document or recording that talks about, or summarizes, information originally presented elsewhere. Secondary sources help us interpret primary sources, sometimes assigning value to them and/or helping us draw conclusions about what was reported in primary sources.

Biographies are books that explore the lives of individuals, drawing from primary and secondary sources. A biography of Martin Luther King Jr. can provide insight into his contributions to the Civil Rights Movement and its impact on American society.

Documentaries and historical films, while not written sources, can be considered secondary sources when they interpret events based on primary sources. For example, watching the documentary " How the Monuments Came Down " can provide a different perspective on the debates surrounding the removal of Confederate monuments and memorials in public spaces by combining interviews and archival footage.

How The Monuments Came Down

How the Monuments Came Down explores Richmond’s complex history through the lens of Confederate monuments, supported by an extensive visual record never before presented in a single work.

www.vpm.org

By combining primary and secondary sources historians gain a more comprehensive understanding of the past. Primary sources provide direct access to the time period or event, while secondary sources offer interpretations and analyses from multiple perspectives. It is by critically analyzing these sources that historians can construct a multi-layered and well-rounded interpretation of history.

An example, American Visions: The United States, 1800-1850 , examines the sixty years between 1800 and 1860 as the politics, religion, language, literature, art, population, and economy of the young United States changed with remarkable speed, forever shaping American history.  To help see the variety and depth of those changes, a collection of secondary sources includes a StoryMap collection offering a geographic and chronological map of the era, connecting to helpful websites, as well as a Travelogue series published in multiple formats that explores current places where history happened and continues to happen.  It presents portraits and images of people who confronted the challenges and opportunities of these critical decades of American history.  The stories of those people and of this time are explored in the book that inspired this project: American Visions: The United States, 1800-1860, by historian Ed Ayers.

American Visions

A StoryMap Companion

storymaps.arcgis.com

Take a few minutes to explore the StoryMap collection landing page, and select the “Get started” button.  Read the introduction, then select a chapter to explore from the menu bar across the top of the screen. Scroll down and notice how images, text, and links to both primary and secondary sources are included in the StoryMap. Select a few of these for further investigation.

• How is the StoryMap organized?
• What elements of the StoryMap did you find most interesting?
• What surprised you?
• What questions do you have about the StoryMap?

Now navigate back to the StoryMap landing page and select Chapter 9.  Take a few minutes to explore this section of the StoryMap, and locate the section focusing on author Henry David Thoreau. 

• What primary and secondary sources do you see included in this section?
• What other topics or authors are included in this section? 
• How does this content enhance your understanding of Thoreau and the excerpt of Walden you read earlier?

Historian Ed Ayers spent over two years researching, studying, and traveling to the places he writes about in American Visions , sharing his adventures and insights in the form of a Travelogue series, American Journey . Ed’s stories from the road, traveling with his wife Abby in their RV, “Bertha,” are published on multiple platforms including Medium and in Bunk . 

American Journey

A journal of my road trip to the formative decades of American history.

Read an excerpt from the series, The Book Read Round the World , as linked into the StoryMap from Bunk.

The Book Read ‘Round the World

Literary history is packed into Concord’s “Old Manse,” but the tiny abode of Walden’s author proves the highlight of our New England trip.

www.bunkhistory.org

Take some time to read the Travelogue entry again, Using the “ First, Then, Finally ” strategy to summarize your thoughts about the text.

NAH: First, Then, Finally-Walden

First, Then, Finally Framework Student Activity: read a passage and take notes using the First, Then, Finally framework. Use the copy provided by your teacher, or make a copy of the slides as directed by your teacher. Each slide is set up with text boxes for you to type in. Suggestions: Preview V...

Your teacher may provide a paper copy, or you may make a digital copy of the slides and edit them to capture your thinking. Your teacher will provide directions on how they would prefer you to complete your work.

In what ways do digital humanities projects like Bunk and the Internet Archive democratize access to primary and secondary sources?

Digital humanities projects like Bunk and the Internet Archive democratize access to primary and secondary sources in several ways. (Access this Infographic as a Google Slide.)

NAH Digital Humanities Infographic

Infographic by New American History, adapted from Digital Humanities Quarterly. VandeCreek, Drew. “‘Webs of Significance’: The Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project, New Technology, and the Democratization of History.” DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly: Webs of Significance: The Abraham...

Review the StoryMap and Travelogue excerpts again, noting examples of ways each one includes one or more of the examples included in the Infographic. 

Turn and talk to a partner about ways you might engage with public humanities resources across other content areas, including science, English, or the arts.

Using the Travelogue piece you read earlier, explore the connections to the piece in Bunk , looking for evidence of how digital humanities projects like Bunkhistory.org and the Internet Archive democratize access to primary and secondary sources by making them widely accessible, preserving historical materials, enabling easy search and discovery, fostering collaboration, promoting open access, and engaging communities in the process.

Use the image gallery above to help you navigate Bunk. The blue arrows on the sides of each image allow you to scroll through these slides. Share one or more connections you found illustrating one of these concepts using the “Share Connection” button below each connection.  Note : New content is added to Bunk daily, causing these connections to change and update. The results of a search may not match from day to day.

Return to the original excerpt on Walden from the Travelogue series. Try changing the type of connection to another icon, such as Idea, Place, etc., and explore the related tags. What topics do you notice related to the digital humanities?

Lastly, examine the Travelogue piece and see how it is further linked geographically using the Places feature in Bunk

Select the map icon in the top right corner, and type in “ Walden .”

Note your search choices, including Walden the book, and Walden Woods, a place in Massachusetts. 

Explore both the book and the location in Massachusetts to see other related content connected in Bunk.

Turn and talk to an elbow partner. Each of you will have 3-5 minutes to engage in a brief Data Talk , about the way data is visualized on Bunk to enhance your understanding of what you have read and learned so far about Walden .

• What do you notice? 
• What questions do you have?
• How is Walden , the text, related to Walden Woods, the geographic location?
• What was the most interesting or surprising connection you observed between these using Bunk or Bunk Places?

What lessons might we learn by studying Thoreau and other writers, artists, or thinkers from this era?

Quotes provide an opportunity for us to analyze Thoreau's perspective on the historical context of his time and consider the relevance of his ideas in the present day. Select one of the following quotes from Walden to analyze and annotate using SketchQuotes . 

NAH Sketchquotes/Sketchnotes

“SketchQuotes” and Sketchnotes-One of our favorite notetaking strategies is using SketchNotes. SketchNotes is a visual notetaking strategy combining elements of handwritten fonts (word art) and iconography (doodles meet emojis!), organizing your ideas as you learn new information.

"I went to the woods because I wished to live deliberately, to front only the essential facts of life, and see if I could not learn what it had to teach, and not, when I came to die discover that I had not lived.”

“ I wanted to live deep and suck out all the marrow of life, to live so sturdily and Spartan-like as to put to rout all that was not life, to cut a broad swath and shave close, to drive life into a corner, and reduce it to its lowest terms.”

“ Our life is frittered away by detail. An honest man has hardly need to count more than his ten fingers, or in extreme cases, he may add his ten toes, and lump the rest. Simplicity, simplicity, simplicity!”

Publicly share your work, either on display at school or at a community event, or perhaps allow a teacher or trusted adult to share via social media without any identifying information included.  Please email your finished piece to: [email protected] ! We’d love to see your work!  

Where and how is local history interpreted in your community?

In his Travelogue series American Journey , historian Ed Ayers emphasizes the significance of visiting public spaces like museums and historical sites. Ayers argues that these spaces are not only repositories of artifacts and information, but they serve as essential platforms for engaging with history and understanding the complexities of the American experience.

Throughout his writings, Ayers emphasizes the power of encountering physical locations where significant events occurred. He argues that sites like battlefields, plantations, and museums provide a tangible connection to the past, allowing visitors to develop a deeper understanding and appreciation for the historical context of these places.

The Travelogue series highlights the educational value of museums and historical sites. Ayers suggests that they offer a unique opportunity for individuals to expand their knowledge beyond what textbooks or lectures can provide. Through immersive experiences, visitors can engage with interactive exhibits, view authentic artifacts, and even participate in reenactments, thus creating a more meaningful and memorable learning experience.

Ayers also stresses the importance of public spaces as democratizing forces. He contends that these spaces provide access to history for people from all walks of life, fostering a sense of collective memory and shared understanding. By visiting museums and historical sites, individuals are encouraged to explore diverse perspectives and challenge existing narratives, ultimately contributing to a more inclusive and comprehensive understanding of American history.

Using the Travelogue series as a model, create your own travel essay for a historic site in your own community or one you have recently visited or remembered. Think about the ways Professor Ayers described not only the physical landscape but also the cultural landscape of each location he visited in his travels: people, cultures, ideas, art, languages, etc. Add images, hyperlinks, and text as needed. Consider sharing your essays aloud in class in pairs, small groups, or as a whole-class discussion or read-aloud. Your teacher may decide to publish your essay along with others from your classmates into a digital or printed Travelogue project of your own. We would welcome a chance to read what you created. Your teacher may post a link to social media and tag us, or email us at: [email protected] .

Citations: 

Avery, Kevin J. “The Hudson River School: Essay: The Metropolitan Museum of Art: Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History.” The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, October 1, 2004. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/hurs/hd_hurs.htm .

Ayers, Ed. “American Journey.” Bunk, May 17, 2022. https://www.bunkhistory.org/resources/the-discovery-of-america .

Ayers, Ed. “American Journey.” Medium, May 17, 2022. https://medium.com/new-american-history/the-discovery-of-america-c5e4f4dfa867 .

Ayers, Ed. “History on the Road.” Bunk, May 17, 2022. https://www.bunkhistory.org/resources/history-on-the-road .

Ayers, Ed. “The Book Read ’Round the World.” Bunk, June 23, 2023. https://www.bunkhistory.org/resources/the-book-read-round-the-world . 

ChatGPT, response to “Rewrite the text provided for an 8th-grade reading level and young adult audience,” OpenAI, September 4, 2023.

“Data Talks Archives.” YouCubed, 2023. https://www.youcubed.org/resource/data-talks/#:~:text=Data%20talks%20are%20short%205,and%20asked%20what%20interests%20them .

Lawton, George. “What Is Generative AI? Everything You Need to Know.” Enterprise AI, October 3, 2023. https://www.techtarget.com/searchenterpriseai/definition/generative-AI .

“Places.” Bunk, 2023. https://www.bunkhistory.org/places/ .

Shrum, Rebecca. “Material Culture .” The Inclusive Historian’s Handbook, June 3, 2019. https://inclusivehistorian.com/material-culture/ .

Thoreau, Henry David. “Walden; or, Life in the Woods : Thoreau, Henry David, 1817-1862 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming.” Internet Archive, January 1854. https://archive.org/details/waldenorlifeinwo1854thor/page/98/mode/2up .

Thoreau, Henry  David. “Walden, Chapter 1: Economy : Henry David Thoreau : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming.” Internet Archive, May 30, 2015. https://archive.org/details/podcast_grade-10-summer-audiobook-samp_walden-chapter-1-economy_1000343546016 .

“United States History 1 (OS Collection).” Lumen. Accessed September 22, 2023. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-tc3-ushistory1os/chapter/primary-source-henry-david-thoreau-reflects-on-nature-1854/ .

VandeCreek, Drew. “‘Webs of Significance’: The Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project, New Technology, and the Democratization of History.” DHQ: Digital Humanities Quarterly: Webs of Significance: The Abraham Lincoln Historical Digitization Project, New Technology, and the Democratization of History, 2007. https://www.digitalhumanities.org/dhq/vol/1/1/000003/000003.html .

The writings of Henry D. Thoreau. Accessed September 22, 2023. https://thoreau.library.ucsb.edu/thoreau_walden.html .

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This work by New American History is licensed under a Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0) International License . Permissions beyond the scope of this license may be available at newamericanhistory.org.

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Primary vs. Secondary Sources: Primary vs. Secondary Sources

Primary sources.

Primary sources are materials that are eyewitness accounts or as close to the original source as possible.

Qualitative data:

• What people say. They are usually Speeches , Interviews and Conversations, and they may be captured in Videos, Audio Recordings, or transcribed into text.
• What people write.  These include Autobiographies, Memoirs, Personal Journals and Diaries, Letters, Emails, Blogs, Twitter Feeds and other forms of Social Media.
• Images and Videos.
• Government Documents-- U.S . and rest of the world.
• Laws, Court Cases and Decisions, Treaties.
• Newspapers.

Quantitative data:

• Statistics and Data .
• Polls and Public Opinions .

Please note that a book is simply a format.  You can find both primary and secondary sources published in book form.

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are interpretations and analyses based on primary sources.

For example, an autobiography is a primary source while a biography is a secondary source.

Typical secondary sources include:

• Scholarly Journal Articles.  Use these and books exclusively for writing Literature Reviews.
• Encyclopedias.
• Dictionaries.
• Documentaries.

Please note that a book is simply a format.  You can find primary and secondary sources published in book form.

When Secondary Sources Become Primary Sources

Often secondary and primary sources are relative concepts.  Typical secondary sources may be primary sources depending on the research topic.

• Intellectual history topics. For example, although scholarly journal articles are usually considered secondary sources, if one's topic is the history of human rights, then journal articles on human rights will be primary sources in this instance.  Similarly, research on the thinking of a scholar will include her published journal articles as primary sources.  
• Historical topics. Magazine articles are secondary sources, but for someone researching the view of judicial punishment in the 1920s, magazines from that time period are primary sources.  Indeed, any older publication, such as those prior to the 20th century, is very often automatically considered a primary source.  
• Newspapers may be either primary or secondary. Most articles in newspapers are secondary, but reporters may be considered as witnesses to an event.  Any topic on the media coverage of an event or phenomenon would treat newspapers as a primary source.  There are so many articles and types of articles in newspapers that newspapers can often be considered either primary or secondary.
• Last Updated: Aug 11, 2023 3:44 PM
• URL: https://subjectguides.library.american.edu/primary

HIS 1140 1160 World History and Historical Methods: Primary & Secondary Sources

• Primary & Secondary Sources
• What is a Scholarly Journal?
• Book Sections

Primary Sources on the Internet

• History Net Produced by "World History Group, the world's largest publisher of history magazines. HistoryNet.com contains daily features, photo galleries and over 5,000 articles originally published in our various magazines."
• Indiana State Libary Digital Collections
• Major Collections of Primary Sources This list was compliled by the Reference and User Services Association.
• Morgan LIbrary Archives Explore the online collections of the Morgan Library and Grace College
• Primary Sources at Yale

Full-text news articles from more than 40 U.S. and international newspapers, and some full-text from over 300 regional newspapers. Also features full-text transcripts from CBS News, CNN, CNN International, FOX News, and NPR.

News, law cases and reviews, and company financial information. Includes The New York Times .

Primary - Secondary Sources

Primary and secondary sources (CC) from PALNI on Vimeo .

Primary and Secondary Sources

Streaming video access to over 80,000 films across a variety of subjects. Most films include public performance rights.

Documentary films and series from the history of the Public Broadcasting Service. Includes history, science and technology, diversity studies, business, and current events.

Biography sources

A resource for brief biographical information about a wide variety of people.

Biographical information found in books, articles, and reference materials.

Subject Guide

• << Previous: Home
• Next: What is a Scholarly Journal? >>
• Last Updated: Oct 19, 2023 10:50 AM
• URL: https://libguides.grace.edu/WorldHistory

Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources: A Quick Guide: Secondary Sources

• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tertiary Sources

What is a Secondary Source?

Secondary sources are books, periodicals, web sites, etc. that people write using the information from primary sources. They are not written by eyewitnesses to events, for instance, but use eyewitness accounts, photographs, diaries and other primary sources to reconstruct events or to support a writer's thesis about the events and their meaning. Many books you find in the Cornell Library Catalog are secondary sources.

Reference Help

• << Previous: Primary Sources
• Next: Tertiary Sources >>
• Last Updated: Apr 12, 2024 4:30 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.cornell.edu/sources

Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources: Home

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Here, to support your college research efforts, you learn to identify and differentiate between primary ,  secondary  and tertiary sources of information. You will find explanations and examples of each type of source, with helpful links often provided.

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Resource Guide: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources

This guide explains different research source types (primary, secondary and tertiary) and presents NYIT Library and Internet resources exemplifying each. Often, links to  illustrations and examples supportive of learning are provided.

In this guide, topic sections, each with its own tab above , are as follows:

• Primary , Secondary and Tertiary Sources : A Quick Look (Definitions and Differences) ( This may be all you need! )
• Primary Sources In Depth (print, online/electronic) / With examples
• Secondary Sources In Depth (print, online/electronic) / With examples
• Tertiary Sources In Depth (print, online/electronic / With examples
• Discipline Grid : How Source Categories Differ among Academic Discplines
• MORE on Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources
• Frequently Asked Questions ( FAQs ) about the Library

IMPORTANT NOTE : What is considered a primary, secondary or tertiary  source can vary, depending on the discipline. Examples and further explanation follow.

KwikTake by Example:

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• Last Updated: Jan 13, 2021 8:21 AM
• URL: https://libguides.nyit.edu/sources

• Harvard Library
• Research Guides
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Library Research Guide for the History of Science: Introduction

• What is a Secondary Source?
• Senior Theses 2023
• Background and Context/Biography
• Exploring Your Topic
• Using HOLLIS

Page Contents

Recognizing secondary sources, find secondary sources, finding bibliographies.

• What is a Primary Source?
• Exploring the Special Collections at Harvard
• Citing Sources & Organizing Research
• Recognizing Secondary Sources
• Finding Secondary Sources

Secondary sources were created by someone who did not experience first-hand or participate in the events or conditions you’re researching. For a historical research project, secondary sources are generally scholarly books and articles.

A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources are one or more steps removed from the event. Secondary sources may contain pictures, quotes or graphics of primary sources.

Some types of secondary source include:  Textbooks; journal articles; histories; criticisms; commentaries; encyclopedias 

Examples of secondary sources include:

• A scholarly article about water and bathing in Mexico City, 1850-1920
• A book about the psychological effects of WWI
• A 2019 U.S. government document examining the work of African Americans at two Manhattan Project sites
• An NPR piece on race and vaccine skepticism

For a historical research project, secondary sources are usually scholarly books and articles, but as you can see from this list there are other possibilties.

History of Science, Technology and Medicine (Harvard Login)  (1975- ) is an index of books, book chapters, and journal articles. Some social sciences material is included. 

• HSTM is an amalgamation of four separate indexes with four different subject term systems; study the results of keyword searches to be sure that you know the proper subject terms for your topic in each of the, possibly four, relevant component databases. For example, the Wellcome Bibliography uses "Contraception" but the Isis Current Bibliography uses "Birth control".
• If you want to limit the coverage of your sources to a particular era, put one of these terms in a search box:  Antiquity or Ancient - “Greek and Roman” - “Middle Ages” or medieval - 13th  century - 14th century - 15 th  century - 16 th  century - 17th century - 18th century - 19th century - 20th century
• More detailed information about the use of this complex database.

ISISCB Bibliographic Resources in the History of Science, Technology and Medicine  indexes the Isis Current Bibliography.  Search results extend back to 1970.  It also offers a browse of the  Isis Cumulative Bibliographies  (1913-1975).  Search ISISCB Explore

PubMed (Harvard Login for full text access)  (1947- ) is the National Library of Medicine's index to biomedical journal articles.

• To limit to historical sources, attach the phrase (in"") "historical article" to your search. Example: "Psychology, clinical" and "historical article".
• Be sure to look for MeSH (Medical Subject Headings) on pertinent records by scrolling down past the abstracts. (Not all records in PubMed have MeSH terms.) Subject headings can help you get to more relevant records and/or can be helpful keyword suggestions.

America: History and Life (Harvard login)  is the primary bibliographic reference to the history of the United States and Canada from prehistory to the present.

Historical Abstracts (Harvard Login)  is a reference guide to the history of the world from 1450 to the present (excluding the United States and Canada, which are covered in America: History and Life, above).

• Both allow coverage date limitations as well as publication date limitations, Can usually use LC terms, not always 

Bibliography of British and Irish History (Harvard Login)  provides bibliographic data on historical writing dealing with the British Isles, and with the British empire and commonwealth, during all periods for which written documentation is available - from 55BC to the present.

• At the link above, choose BBIH from the top row of options.

The Forest History Society Research Portal  offers over 45,000 citations to published items on environmental history, over 30,000 photographs, and other material.

Web of Science Citation Indexes (Harvard Login)  (for historical articles1956- ) includes articles in all areas of science. You can use the Cited Reference Search in Web of Science to find secondary source articles that cite a specified secondary or primary source article or book. More information .

Library Guide to the History of Science Your guide to the History of Science at Harvard. It has more extensive lists of resources and tools than this introductory guide does.

There may already be a detailed list of sources, a bibliography, for your topic. Bibliographies don't always come at the end of a paper- many are independent works of their own, full of recommended sources on any given topic.

For example:

• Microbes and Minie Balls: An Annotated Bibliography of Civil War Medicine (Print Only) , by F. R. Freemon. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1993, 253 pp.                          
• Annotated Bibliography on Medical Research in the South Pacific (Harvard login for HathiTrust full text), by Norman-Taylor, William, South Pacific Commission, 1963. 371pp.

Look for specialized subject bibliographies: search, e.g., <"science and state" AND China AND bibliography>   in HOLLIS  and WorldCat (advanced search). Note:The word Bibliography must be searched as a Subject keyword.

If you find an older article or book in a bibliography, you can use the Cited Reference Search in Web of Science to find more recent articles by seeing who has cited it.   If you have a bibliography of primary sources, then the Web of Science can be used to find secondary sources that cite a specified primary source. See Searching the Citation Indexes (Web of Science) .

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• Last Updated: Apr 14, 2024 9:25 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.harvard.edu/HistSciInfo

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• Primary & Secondary Sources
• What's a Secondary Source?
• Getting Started
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What is a Secondary Source?

Secondary sources put primary sources in context. They summarize, interpret, analyze, or comment on information found in primary sources. Secondary sources are usually written by individuals who did not experience firsthand the events about which they are writing.

Common Examples of SECONDARY Sources: Biographies, monographs, journal articles, dissertations, theses, essays and encyclopedia articles.

Primary vs. Secondary sources

Table courtesy of http://www.bgsu.edu/colleges/library/assistance/page41012.html

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Primary and Secondary Sources

Primary sources.

Primary sources are the most direct kind of information. They are original, firsthand sources created or written by persons directly involved in an activity or event. Different fields of study have different types of primary sources, but all of them are unanalyzed and uninterpreted. Examples of primary sources are autobiographies, diaries, notes, letters, emails, interviews, photographs, paintings, speeches, works of literature.

Secondary Sources

Secondary sources are one step removed from primary sources. They are opinions, commentaries, summaries, interpretations or evalautions of primary sources. Examples of secondary sources are biographies, interpretations of scientific discoveries, literature criticism, reviews of works of art, book reports, annotations and commentaries in anthologies, etc.

The distinction between primary sources and secondary sources can be ambiguous. A source maybe primary for one research paper and a secondary for another. It depends on the relationship of the sources to the research question. For example, the book, Abe Lincoln Grows Up by Carl Sandburg would be a primary source in a paper on the literary style of Carl Sandburg but a secondary sources in a paper on Abraham Lincoln. Time is often a defining element. A recent newspaper article is usually not a primary source, but it becomes a primary source when it is an article from the 1860s on the Civil War.

Below are more examples of primary and secondary sources in different fields of study.

Selected websites with primary resources

The library of congress american memory collection.

The American Memory historical collection is a digital record of American history and creativity. It provides free and open access to a rich database of written and spoken words, sound recordings, still and moving images, prints, maps, and sheet music that document the American experience.

Topics in Chronicling America

Chronicling America provides free access to more than a million historic American newspaper pages. Listed are topics widely covered in the American press of the time.

An image database of over 7,000 U.S. and Canadian advertisements covering five product categories - Beauty and Hygiene, Radio, Television, Transportation, and World War II propaganda - dated between 1911 and 1955.

NYPL Digital Gallery

Provides free and open access to over 700,000 images digitized from the The New York Public Library's vast collections, including illuminated manuscripts, historical maps, vintage posters, rare prints, photographs and more. 

JNUL Ketubbot Database

The ketubbot digitization project aims to create a worldwide registry of ketubbot in public and private collections throughout the world. Based on the collection of the Jewish National and University Library with over 1600 items, the project contains ketubbot originating from dozens of different countries, and covering a time period of over 900 years.  It is a major resource for research in Jewish history, law and art.

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• Getting Started with Research
• Explore Primary Sources

Explore Secondary Sources

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Exploring Secondary Sources

The function of secondary sources is to interpret, analyze, critique and comment on primary sources. Thus, they can be described as at least one step removed from the event or original work. Secondary source materials are usually in the form of published works such as journal articles or books, but may include radio or television documentaries, or conference proceedings.

    Examples of Secondary Sources: 

• Articles critiquing or reviewing a performance, piece of art, or literature
• Critiques of research
• Literature reviews
• Biographies
• Articles or books about a topic, especially when written by people not directly involved.
• Essay on a treaty or topic of history
• Documentaries (though they often include photos or video portions that can be considered primary sources).

A source can be primary or secondary depending on how it is being used. Often newspapers are considered secondary sources as journalists report, analyze, and interpret events and the experience of others. Newspapers can also be used as primary sources. If you are researching how American attitudes on welfare spending have changed during the past twenty years, newspaper editorials can serve as primary sources of public opinion.

Librarians and your instructor can help you identify primary and secondary sources for your projects.

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Primary Sources: Home

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What is a Primary Source?

Primary sources are those which were either created during the time period being studied or were created at a later date by a participant in the events being studied (memoirs, for example).  They reflect the individual viewpoint of a participant or observer.  Primary sources enable the researcher to get as close as possible to what actually happened during an historical event or time period.

• Original documents and records (e.g. governmental records and certificates)
• Data sets and statistics
• Original correspondence, including email
• Empirical studies (research based on scientific and experimental results)
• Technical reports
• Dissertations and theses (when based on original research)
• Learning objects
• Autobiographies and diaries
• Original works of art and literature
• Interviews, surveys and fieldwork documentation
• Photographs
• Tests, scales
• Course materials and syllabi
• Medical charts
• Student records (i.e., report cards)

In the sciences , primary sources are original materials that have not been filtered through interpretation or evaluation by a second party.  Examples include conference papers, dissertations, interviews, laboratory notebooks, patents, a study reported in a journal article, a survey reported in a journal article, and technical reports.

What is a Secondary Source?

A secondary source is a work that interprets or analyzes an historical event or phenomenon. It is generally at least one step removed from the event and is often based on primary sources.

• Bibliographies
• Biographies and historical accounts
• Commentaries
• Dictionaries and encyclopedias
• Journal articles (sometimes primary)
• Monographs (other than fiction, poetry, autobiography)
• Works of criticism and interpretation
• Chronologies
• Almanacs and fact books
• Directories
• Review articles and editorials
• Digests and summaries
• Data tables and summaries

In the sciences, a secondary source would be a book or an article  that analyzes or comments on the results of original research.

Evaluating Web Sources

When using primary sources from the web, make sure that you have found a trustworthy website.

• American Library Association Guide to Using Primary Sources on the Web

What If I'm Not Sure About My Source?

Disciplines vary when distinguishing between primary and secondary sources. Definitions that pertain to the Humanities and Social Sciences are quite different from those that apply to the Sciences.

If you're not sure whether something is a primary source, check with your instructor and/or consult a librarian.

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• Last Updated: May 13, 2024 11:09 AM
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