research questions term paper

200 Term Paper Topics in Different Fields

Table of contents

• Writing Metier

Welcome to a treasure trove of term paper topics thoughtfully crafted by the expert team of term paper writers  at Writing Metier. 

As a co-founder of this dynamic company, I’ve witnessed the struggles many students face when choosing the right topic for their term paper. That’s why we’ve rolled up our sleeves to provide you with an arsenal of ideas that are not only academically enriching but also incredibly engaging.

In this article, you’ll find a rich array of topics to start with while writing your term paper , handpicked to ignite your curiosity and fuel your academic pursuits. 

From the persuasive depth required in argumentative papers to the innovative angles needed for experimental research, our collection is a kaleidoscope of possibilities. 

Whether you’re in search of easy term paper topics to get you over the line or you’re hunting for something more challenging to showcase your analytical prowess, this list is your starting point on the path to academic success.

I’ll break our term paper topic suggestions list into such types:

• Argumentative Papers – c ommon in many disciplines, they develop critical thinking and persuasion skills.
• Analytical Papers –  widely assigned, these papers help students develop analytical and interpretive skills.
• Compare and Contrast Papers –  regularly used across subjects, they teach students to identify similarities and differences in concepts, theories, or works.
• Cause and Effect Papers –  often found in social sciences, they help students understand the relationship between different events or phenomena.
• Definition Papers –  useful in explaining complex concepts or terms, especially in technical or specialized fields.
• Interpretive Papers –  common in literature, history, and arts, these papers require a deep understanding of the material and the ability to interpret underlying meanings.
• Reports –  these are fundamental in many scientific and technical courses, focusing on clear, structured presentation of information.
• Survey Research Papers –  particularly common in social sciences, they involve data collection and analysis skills.
• Experimental Research Papers –  a staple in natural and applied sciences, these papers are crucial for understanding scientific methodologies and processes.
• Review Papers –  often found in graduate studies, they require a comprehensive understanding of existing research in a particular field.

Term Paper Topic and Question Ideas

Let’s begin with what you all have been waiting for – topic suggestions!

Argumentative Term Paper Topics

When it comes to crafting a compelling argumentative term paper, the choice of topic is crucial. In this section, we present some of the best topics for term papers that challenge you to take a stand, defend your viewpoint, and persuade your audience. 

These topics are not just good term paper topics; they are gateways to exploring contemporary issues with depth and clarity.

• Social Media Influence : Does social media do more harm than good in shaping young people’s worldviews?
• Climate Change Policies : Should governments enforce stricter regulations to combat climate change?
• Artificial Intelligence Ethics : Is the rapid development of AI technology a threat to human employment?
• Vaccination Mandates : Should vaccinations be mandatory for public health safety?
• Online Education vs Traditional : Is online education as effective as traditional classroom learning?
• Animal Testing in Research : Should animal testing be banned in scientific research?
• Genetic Engineering : Are the benefits of genetic engineering worth the ethical concerns?
• Privacy in the Digital Age : Is government surveillance a necessary tool for national security or an invasion of privacy?
• Renewable Energy : Should governments invest more in renewable energy sources over fossil fuels?
• Minimum Wage Increase : Does increasing the minimum wage help or hurt the economy?
• Gun Control Laws : Do stricter gun control laws reduce gun violence?
• Legalization of Marijuana : Should marijuana be legalized for recreational use?
• Death Penalty : Is the death penalty an effective deterrent for major crimes?
• School Uniforms : Do school uniforms contribute to a better learning environment?
• Universal Basic Income : Can a universal basic income solve economic inequality?
• Space Exploration Funding : Should space exploration be prioritized over addressing Earth’s issues?
• Plastic Ban : Would a global ban on single-use plastics be environmentally beneficial?
• Affirmative Action in Education : Is affirmative action still necessary in education admissions?
• Euthanasia : Should euthanasia be legalized to allow people with terminal illnesses to die with dignity?
• Censorship in Media : Is censorship necessary to protect society, or does it infringe on freedom of expression?

While argumentative papers test your persuasive skills, the realm of analytical papers requires a different approach. Let’s shift our focus to topics that demand a detailed examination and critical analysis .

Analytical Term Paper Topics

If dissecting complex topics and examining them from multiple angles excites you, our list of analytical term paper topics is tailor-made for you. 

Ranging from easy term paper topics to more intricate ones, these themes allow you to showcase your analytical prowess and turn a critical eye on a variety of subjects.

• Impact of COVID-19 on Global Economy : Analyze the long-term economic effects of the COVID-19 pandemic globally.
• Social Impacts of Remote Work : Examine how remote work has changed social interactions and workplace dynamics.
• Cryptocurrency’s Role in Finance : Analyze the potential impacts of cryptocurrency on traditional banking systems.
• Psychological Effects of Social Media : Evaluate how social media platforms impact mental health and self-esteem.
• Climate Change and Migration : Investigate the relationship between climate change and patterns of human migration.
• Rise of Streaming Services : Analyze the impact of streaming services on the traditional television and movie industries.
• Gender Pay Gap : Examine the factors contributing to the gender pay gap in different industries.
• Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare : Analyze the benefits and challenges of implementing AI in healthcare systems.
• Cybersecurity in the Digital Age : Evaluate the effectiveness of current cybersecurity measures in protecting data privacy.
• Impact of Electric Vehicles on the Auto Industry : Investigate how electric vehicles are reshaping the future of the automotive industry.
• Effects of Urbanization on Environment : Analyze the environmental consequences of rapid urbanization.
• Mental Health in the Workplace : Examine the role of workplace culture in employee mental health and wellbeing.
• Renewable Energy’s Economic Feasibility : Analyze the economic sustainability of transitioning to renewable energy sources.
• Influence of Advertising on Consumer Behavior : Evaluate how advertising strategies affect consumer choices and spending habits.
• Gentrification and Community Displacement : Investigate the social and economic impacts of gentrification on local communities.
• Sustainable Fashion Industry : Analyze the challenges and opportunities in making the fashion industry more sustainable.
• Impact of Globalization on Local Cultures : Examine how globalization affects the preservation and evolution of local cultural identities.
• E-Sports and Gaming Culture : Analyze the rise of e-sports and its impact on mainstream sports and entertainment.
• Food Security and Climate Change : Investigate the relationship between climate change and global food security challenges.
• Technology and Education Reform : Analyze how technological advancements are shaping modern education methods and accessibility.

From the precision of analysis, we now move to the art of comparison and contrast, where you will juxtapose differing views or phenomena to shed new light on your subject.

Compare and Contrast Term Paper Topics

Finding the perfect balance between two subjects is at the heart of a great compare and contrast term paper . 

This section offers a range of topics that serve as excellent examples of term paper topics, inviting you to explore and contrast diverse ideas, theories, or events, enriching your understanding of both.

• Online Learning vs. Traditional Classroom : Compare and contrast the effectiveness of online learning with traditional classroom settings.
• Capitalism vs. Socialism : Analyze the advantages and disadvantages of capitalism compared to socialism.
• Renewable Energy vs. Fossil Fuels : Compare the environmental impacts and sustainability of renewable energy sources versus fossil fuels.
• Modern Art vs. Classical Art : Contrast the themes and techniques of modern art with those of classical art.
• Public Healthcare vs. Private Healthcare : Compare the efficiency and quality of public healthcare systems to private healthcare systems.
• E-books vs. Printed Books : Analyze the differences in user experience and environmental impact between e-books and traditional printed books.
• Western Diet vs. Mediterranean Diet : Contrast the health impacts of a typical Western diet with the Mediterranean diet.
• Android vs. iOS : Compare the functionality, user interface, and customization options of Android and iOS platforms.
• Traditional Marketing vs. Digital Marketing : Analyze the effectiveness and reach of traditional marketing methods compared to digital marketing strategies.
• Democracy vs. Authoritarianism : Contrast the political, social, and economic outcomes in democratic versus authoritarian regimes.
• Organic Farming vs. Conventional Farming : Compare the environmental impact and productivity of organic farming methods to conventional farming practices.
• Freudian Psychoanalysis vs. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy : Analyze the methodologies and effectiveness of Freudian psychoanalysis compared to cognitive behavioral therapy.
• Remote Work vs. Office Work : Contrast the impacts on productivity and work-life balance between remote work and traditional office settings.
• Vegetarian Diet vs. Meat-Inclusive Diet : Compare the health benefits and environmental impacts of a vegetarian diet versus a diet that includes meat.
• Classical Music vs. Pop Music : Analyze the differences in structure, audience, and cultural impact between classical music and contemporary pop music.
• Electric Cars vs. Gasoline Cars : Contrast the environmental impact, cost, and performance of electric cars with traditional gasoline cars.
• Public Schools vs. Private Schools : Compare the educational outcomes and resources available in public schools versus private schools.
• Social Networking vs. Traditional Networking : Analyze the effectiveness and depth of connections made through social networking sites compared to traditional networking methods.
• Modern Architecture vs. Gothic Architecture : Contrast the design principles, materials, and cultural significance of modern architecture with that of Gothic architecture.
• Globalization vs. Nationalism : Compare the economic, cultural, and political impacts of globalization against the principles of nationalism.

As we transition from the balance of comparison to the cause and effect dynamics, prepare to delve into topics that explore the relationship between various factors and their consequences.

Cause and Effect Term Paper Topics

Understanding the intricate relationship between cause and effect is essential for any academic exploration. 

This list provides a range of interesting term paper topics that will help you unravel the connections between causes and their subsequent effects, offering a fascinating journey into the why and how of various phenomena.

• Technology Advancements and Job Market : Analyze the effect of technological advancements on the job market and employment trends.
• Global Warming and Weather Patterns : Examine the causal relationship between global warming and extreme weather patterns.
• Social Media and Youth Mental Health : Investigate the effects of social media usage on the mental health of young people.
• Economic Recession and Small Businesses : Analyze the impact of economic recessions on the survival and growth of small businesses.
• Urbanization and Wildlife Habitats : Explore the effects of urbanization on local wildlife habitats and biodiversity.
• Education System Reforms and Student Performance : Examine how recent reforms in the education system have impacted student performance and learning outcomes.
• Parenting Styles and Child Development : Investigate the effect of different parenting styles on the emotional and psychological development of children.
• Air Pollution and Respiratory Health : Analyze the causal relationship between air pollution levels and respiratory health issues in urban areas.
• Diet and Physical Health : Examine the effects of different dietary habits on physical health and wellness.
• Political Policies and Economic Growth : Investigate the impact of various political policies on a country’s economic growth and stability.
• Stress and Workplace Productivity : Analyze the effects of workplace stress on employee productivity and job satisfaction.
• Deforestation and Climate Change : Explore the causal relationship between deforestation and climate change.
• Exercise and Mental Wellbeing : Examine the effect of regular physical exercise on mental health and mood stability.
• Consumer Behavior and Marketing Strategies : Investigate how marketing strategies cause shifts in consumer buying behavior.
• Immigration Policies and Labor Markets : Analyze the impact of immigration policies on the labor market and workforce demographics.
• Mobile Technology and Social Interaction : Examine the effects of mobile technology on face-to-face social interactions and communication.
• Sleep Patterns and Academic Performance : Investigate the causal relationship between sleep patterns and academic performance in students.
• Cultural Globalization and National Identities : Analyze the effect of cultural globalization on the preservation of national identities and traditions.
• Government Regulations and Entrepreneurship : Examine the impact of government regulations on entrepreneurship and business innovation.
• Online Retail and Brick-and-Mortar Stores : Explore the effects of the rise of online retail on traditional brick-and-mortar stores.

Moving from the causality of events, let’s turn our attention to the essence of specific concepts and ideas, where definition term papers allow you to articulate and explore in-depth.

Definition Term Paper Topics

The art of defining a concept or a term goes beyond mere description. 

In this section, you’ll find term paper topics for students that revolve around defining and explicating complex ideas or phenomena, challenging you to crystallize your understanding into clear, concise language.

• Defining Artificial Intelligence : Explore the various dimensions and implications of artificial intelligence in the modern world.
• Understanding Blockchain Technology : Provide a comprehensive definition and examine the potential impacts of blockchain technology.
• Concept of Sustainability : Define sustainability in the context of environmental, economic, and social dimensions.
• Defining Modern Feminism : Explore the evolution and current meaning of feminism in contemporary society.
• Understanding Cultural Appropriation : Define cultural appropriation and discuss its implications in arts, fashion, and media.
• The Gig Economy : Provide a detailed definition and explore the rise and impact of the gig economy on traditional work structures.
• Defining Cybersecurity : Examine the scope and importance of cybersecurity in the digital age.
• Understanding Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) : Define GMOs and discuss their role and controversy in food production.
• Concept of Globalization : Offer a comprehensive definition and explore the multifaceted impacts of globalization.
• Mental Health Awareness : Define mental health and discuss the importance of awareness and de-stigmatization in society.
• Defining Renewable Energy : Explore the concept of renewable energy and its role in combating climate change.
• The Digital Divide : Define the digital divide and examine its implications in various socio-economic contexts.
• Understanding Euthanasia : Provide a comprehensive definition and discuss the ethical implications of euthanasia.
• Concept of Social Justice : Define social justice and explore its significance in modern societal structures.
• Understanding Quantum Computing : Define quantum computing and discuss its potential impacts on the future of technology.
• Defining Urbanization : Explore the process of urbanization and its impacts on societies and environments.
• Concept of Virtual Reality : Provide a comprehensive definition and explore the applications and implications of virtual reality.
• Understanding Nutrigenomics : Define nutrigenomics and discuss its role in personalized nutrition and health.
• Defining Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) : Examine the concept of CSR and its importance in the modern business world.
• Understanding Telemedicine : Define telemedicine and discuss its growing role in the healthcare system.

With definitions well in hand, we now venture into the territory of interpretive term papers, where your insight and personal perspective bring unique interpretations to the forefront.

Interpretive Term Paper Topics

Interpretive term papers provide a canvas for your thoughts and analyses, allowing you to delve into texts, artworks, or phenomena with a subjective lens. 

Here, we offer term paper topics easy for engagement yet rich in potential for deep, personal interpretation, perfect for those looking to add their unique voice to academic discourse .

• Interpreting Shakespeare’s Hamlet : Explore the themes of madness, revenge, and morality in Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”.
• The Great Gatsby and the American Dream : Interpret F. Scott Fitzgerald’s representation of the American Dream in “The Great Gatsby”.
• Picasso’s Guernica : Analyze the symbolism and political commentary in Picasso’s masterpiece “Guernica”.
• Orwell’s 1984 and Modern Surveillance : Interpret the relevance of George Orwell’s “1984” in the context of today’s digital surveillance society.
• Symbolism in Dante’s Inferno : Explore the use of symbolism in Dante Alighieri’s “Inferno” and its representation of sin and redemption.
• Jane Austen’s Critique of Social Class : Interpret the social class critique in Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice”.
• Van Gogh’s Starry Night and Emotional Expression : Analyze the expression of emotion and meaning in Vincent van Gogh’s “Starry Night”.
• To Kill a Mockingbird and Racial Injustice : Interpret Harper Lee’s depiction of racial injustice and moral growth in “To Kill a Mockingbird”.
• Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9 and Its Historical Context : Analyze the historical context and musical innovation of Beethoven’s Symphony No. 9.
• Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis and Alienation : Explore themes of alienation and identity in Franz Kafka’s “The Metamorphosis”.
• The Symbolism in Salvador Dali’s Surrealist Art : Interpret the symbolism and psychological depth in Salvador Dali’s surrealist paintings.
• Homer’s Odyssey and the Hero’s Journey : Analyze the elements of the hero’s journey in Homer’s “Odyssey”.
• Frida Kahlo’s Self-Portraits and Personal Struggle : Interpret the expression of personal struggle and identity in Frida Kahlo’s self-portraits.
• Mark Twain’s Satire in Huckleberry Finn : Analyze Mark Twain’s use of satire in “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” to critique society.
• The Tragic Hero in Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex : Interpret the concept of the tragic hero in Sophocles’ “Oedipus Rex”.
• Joyce’s Ulysses and Stream of Consciousness : Explore the use of stream of consciousness in James Joyce’s “Ulysses”.
• Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings and Mythology : Analyze J.R.R. Tolkien’s use of mythology and folklore in “The Lord of the Rings”.
• Michelangelo’s David and Renaissance Ideals : Interpret the representation of Renaissance ideals in Michelangelo’s statue of David.
• Emily Dickinson’s Poetry and Themes of Death : Explore the recurring themes of death and immortality in Emily Dickinson’s poetry.
• The Matrix and Philosophical Symbolism : Analyze the philosophical themes and symbolism in the film “The Matrix”.

From the subjective nuances of interpretation, we shift gears to the objective and structured world of report papers, focusing on presenting information in a clear, organized manner.

Report Term Paper Topics

Report term papers demand precision, structure, and clarity in presenting information and analysis. 

This section provides you with a range of term paper research topics that are ideal for crafting detailed and informative reports, covering a spectrum of subjects that are both current and engaging.

• COVID-19’s Impact on Global Health Systems : Report on how different health systems worldwide have responded to the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Renewable Energy Progress Report : Analyze the current state and future prospects of renewable energy technologies globally.
• Urbanization and Its Environmental Impact : Report on the environmental consequences of rapid urbanization in major cities.
• Technological Advancements in Education : Explore the integration and impact of technology in modern educational systems.
• Climate Change and Agricultural Practices : Analyze how climate change is affecting agricultural practices and food production.
• Mental Health Services Accessibility : Report on the accessibility and quality of mental health services in various countries.
• Consumer Trends in E-commerce : Analyze the evolving consumer behavior trends in the e-commerce industry.
• Public Transportation Systems Comparison : Compare and evaluate public transportation systems across major global cities.
• Plastic Pollution and Marine Life : Report on the impact of plastic pollution on marine ecosystems and biodiversity.
• Digital Divide and Internet Access : Explore the current state of the digital divide and its impact on internet access globally.
• Advancements in Cancer Research : Report on the latest developments and challenges in cancer research and treatment.
• Impact of Social Media on Politics : Analyze how social media platforms are influencing political discourse and elections.
• Sustainable Tourism Practices : Report on the adoption and effectiveness of sustainable practices in the tourism industry.
• Artificial Intelligence in Business : Explore the use and impact of AI technologies in various business sectors.
• Effects of Urban Green Spaces : Analyze the social and environmental effects of green spaces in urban areas.
• Childhood Obesity Trends and Policies : Report on the trends and public health policies addressing childhood obesity.
• Gender Equality in the Workforce : Analyze the progress and challenges of achieving gender equality in the workplace.
• Impact of GMOs on Agriculture and Environment : Report on the benefits and risks associated with the use of GMOs in agriculture.
• Cybersecurity Threats and Prevention Measures : Explore current cybersecurity threats and the effectiveness of various prevention strategies.
• Affordable Housing Crisis Analysis : Report on the state of the affordable housing crisis and the effectiveness of measures taken to address it.

As we move from structured reports to the dynamic world of survey research, prepare to engage with topics that require you to gather and analyze data from real-world sources.

Survey Research Term Paper Topics

Survey research term papers are your gateway to exploring the opinions, behaviors, and trends that shape our world. 

This list of term paper topics help you design, conduct, and analyze surveys, providing valuable insights into various aspects of human behavior and societal trends.

• Student Perceptions of Online Learning : Conduct a survey to understand student experiences and perceptions of online learning environments.
• Consumer Attitudes Towards Green Products : Survey consumer attitudes and purchasing behaviors regarding environmentally friendly products.
• Impact of Work-from-Home on Productivity : Survey employees across different sectors to analyze the impact of remote work on productivity.
• Social Media’s Role in Mental Health : Conduct a survey to explore the relationship between social media use and mental health among adolescents.
• Public Opinion on Climate Change Policies : Survey public opinion on various climate change policies and their perceived effectiveness.
• Healthcare Accessibility and Satisfaction : Conduct a survey to assess public satisfaction with healthcare services and accessibility.
• Attitudes Toward Vaccination in Different Communities : Survey different communities to understand attitudes towards vaccinations and their reasons.
• Consumer Behavior in the Fashion Industry : Conduct a survey to analyze consumer buying patterns and trends in the fashion industry.
• Employee Satisfaction and Workplace Culture : Survey employees in various organizations to assess the impact of workplace culture on job satisfaction.
• Dietary Habits and Health Outcomes : Conduct a survey to explore the relationship between dietary habits and health outcomes.
• Public Perception of Police and Law Enforcement : Survey the public’s perception and trust in police and law enforcement agencies.
• Influence of Influencer Marketing on Purchasing Decisions : Survey consumers to analyze the impact of influencer marketing on their purchasing decisions.
• Attitudes Towards Renewable Energy Adoption : Conduct a survey to understand public attitudes and barriers to adopting renewable energy sources.
• Effects of Music on Concentration and Productivity : Survey a group of individuals to assess how different genres of music affect their concentration and productivity.
• Cultural Participation and Its Social Impact : Conduct a survey to explore the impact of cultural participation on social cohesion and community engagement.
• Perceptions of Online Privacy and Data Security : Survey internet users to understand their concerns and perceptions about online privacy and data security.
• Trends in Fitness and Exercise Habits : Conduct a survey to analyze current trends and attitudes towards fitness and exercise routines.
• Reading Habits and Preferences : Survey a demographic to understand their reading habits and preferences in the digital age.
• Public Attitudes Towards Space Exploration : Conduct a survey to gauge public interest and opinions on space exploration and its funding.
• Consumer Attitudes Towards Sustainable Packaging : Survey consumer opinions and behaviors related to sustainable packaging and its importance.

From the practical applications of survey research, we now dive into the experimental realm, where hypotheses and scientific methods lead the way.

Experimental Research Term Paper Topics

For those fascinated by the scientific method, this collection of experimental research term paper topics offers a playground of inquiry and discovery. 

These topics encourage you to design experiments, test hypotheses, and explore the intricacies of scientific phenomena, making them some of the best topics for term paper in English for aspiring scientists.

• Effect of Light on Plant Growth : Conduct an experiment to determine how different light conditions affect the growth rate of plants.
• Memory Recall in Different Environments : Investigate how environmental factors influence memory recall in individuals.
• Water Quality and Plant Health : Experiment to analyze the effects of various water qualities on the health of a specific plant species.
• Caffeine’s Effect on Cognitive Performance : Conduct a study to assess how caffeine consumption impacts cognitive tasks and reaction times.
• Behavioral Changes in Animals Due to Environmental Stimuli : Observe and record behavioral changes in animals in response to different environmental stimuli.
• Impact of Diet on Athletic Performance : Experiment to evaluate how different diets affect the physical performance of athletes.
• Air Pollution’s Effect on Respiratory Health : Conduct an experiment to explore the impacts of air pollution on respiratory health indicators.
• Sound Frequencies and Plant Growth : Investigate the effect of different sound frequencies on the growth rate of plants.
• Sleep Patterns and Academic Performance : Study the correlation between varying sleep patterns and academic performance in students.
• Effectiveness of Natural vs. Chemical Fertilizers : Experiment to compare the effectiveness of natural and chemical fertilizers on plant growth.
• Temperature Effects on Battery Performance : Assess how different temperatures affect the performance and efficiency of various types of batteries.
• Social Media Use and Attention Span : Conduct a study to explore the relationship between social media usage and attention span in individuals.
• Impact of Exercise on Mental Health : Experiment to analyze the effects of regular physical exercise on mental health and stress levels.
• Plastic Degradation in Different Environments : Investigate the rate of plastic degradation in various environmental conditions.
• Influence of Music on Cognitive Task Performance : Study how listening to different genres of music affects performance on cognitive tasks.
• Effects of Urban Noise on Bird Behavior : Observe and record changes in bird behavior and communication in urban environments with high noise levels.
• Antibacterial Properties of Natural Substances : Experiment to evaluate the antibacterial properties of various natural substances.
• Color Psychology and Consumer Behavior : Study how different colors influence consumer behavior and decision-making in marketing.
• Effect of Video Games on Reflexes and Decision Making : Assess the impact of playing video games on the reflexes and decision-making skills of individuals.
• Microplastics’ Impact on Marine Life : Conduct an experiment to observe the effects of microplastics on the health and behavior of marine organisms.

Finally, we arrive at review papers, where synthesizing and critiquing existing literature becomes your path to academic exploration.

Review Term Paper Topics

Review term papers are an opportunity to engage with and reflect upon existing literature in a meaningful way. 

This list offers a variety of term paper title ideas, inviting you to synthesize, critique, and discuss existing research and literature, placing you at the heart of the academic conversation.

• Literature Review on Climate Change Mitigation Strategies : Review and synthesize current research on various strategies to mitigate climate change.
• Technological Advancements in Renewable Energy : A review of the latest technological innovations in renewable energy and their potential impacts.
• Review of Mental Health Interventions in Schools : Evaluate the effectiveness of different mental health interventions implemented in educational settings.
• Impact of Social Media on Society : A comprehensive review of research examining the social, psychological, and cultural impacts of social media.
• Economic Consequences of Global Pandemics : Review the economic impacts of global pandemics, with a focus on COVID-19.
• Advancements in Artificial Intelligence and Ethics : Analyze current literature on the advancements in AI and the surrounding ethical considerations.
• Sustainable Urban Planning Practices : Review of sustainable urban planning strategies and their effectiveness in various global cities.
• Trends in Global Obesity and Public Health Strategies : Synthesize research on the trends in global obesity and evaluate public health strategies.
• Evolution of Cybersecurity Threats and Defenses : A review of how cybersecurity threats have evolved over time and the responses developed.
• Nutritional Science and Chronic Disease Prevention : Review current research on the role of nutrition in preventing chronic diseases.
• The Psychology of Advertising : Analyze literature on how advertising tactics psychologically influence consumer behavior.
• Innovations in Water Purification Technology : Review recent advancements in water purification technologies and their global implications.
• Impact of Autonomous Vehicles on Transportation : Evaluate research on the potential impacts of autonomous vehicles on transportation systems.
• The Role of Microfinance in Poverty Reduction : Review the effectiveness of microfinance initiatives in reducing poverty in various regions.
• Developments in Cancer Treatment : Synthesize recent developments in cancer treatment, including breakthrough therapies and drugs.
• The Effectiveness of Renewable Energy Subsidies : Review the economic and environmental impacts of subsidies for renewable energy sources.
• Mental Health Effects of Climate Change : Analyze literature on the psychological effects of climate change on different populations.
• Blockchain Technology and Financial Services : Review the implications of blockchain technology in reshaping financial services.
• Genetic Engineering in Agriculture : Evaluate the benefits and risks associated with the use of genetic engineering in agriculture.
• Telemedicine and Healthcare Accessibility : Review the impact of telemedicine on improving healthcare accessibility and efficiency.

As you reach the end of this list, remember that choosing the right topic is the first step in the dance of academic writing. Each topic here is a window into a new world of ideas and discoveries, waiting for you to open it. 

Your term paper is an opportunity to not just meet academic expectations, but to express your thoughts, analyze critically , and contribute to a broader conversation in your field. 

If you need assistance with more specific topic suggestions from our experts, you can fill out our “Free topic suggestions” form. Moreover, our term paper writers are at your service if you need writing or editing assistance.

So, pick a topic that resonates with you, let your curiosity guide your research, and create a term paper that stands out. At Writing Metier , we’re excited to see where your choice will take you, and we’re here to support you every step of the way.

Free topic suggestions

Vasy kafidoff.

Vasyl Kafidoff is a co-founder and CEO at WritingMetier. He is interested in education and how modern technology makes it more accessible. He wants to bring awareness about new learning possibilities as an educational specialist. When Vasy is not working, he’s found behind a drum kit.

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Home » Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Questions

Definition:

Research questions are the specific questions that guide a research study or inquiry. These questions help to define the scope of the research and provide a clear focus for the study. Research questions are usually developed at the beginning of a research project and are designed to address a particular research problem or objective.

Types of Research Questions

Types of Research Questions are as follows:

Descriptive Research Questions

These aim to describe a particular phenomenon, group, or situation. For example:

• What are the characteristics of the target population?
• What is the prevalence of a particular disease in a specific region?

Exploratory Research Questions

These aim to explore a new area of research or generate new ideas or hypotheses. For example:

• What are the potential causes of a particular phenomenon?
• What are the possible outcomes of a specific intervention?

Explanatory Research Questions

These aim to understand the relationship between two or more variables or to explain why a particular phenomenon occurs. For example:

• What is the effect of a specific drug on the symptoms of a particular disease?
• What are the factors that contribute to employee turnover in a particular industry?

Predictive Research Questions

These aim to predict a future outcome or trend based on existing data or trends. For example :

• What will be the future demand for a particular product or service?
• What will be the future prevalence of a particular disease?

Evaluative Research Questions

These aim to evaluate the effectiveness of a particular intervention or program. For example:

• What is the impact of a specific educational program on student learning outcomes?
• What is the effectiveness of a particular policy or program in achieving its intended goals?

How to Choose Research Questions

Choosing research questions is an essential part of the research process and involves careful consideration of the research problem, objectives, and design. Here are some steps to consider when choosing research questions:

• Identify the research problem: Start by identifying the problem or issue that you want to study. This could be a gap in the literature, a social or economic issue, or a practical problem that needs to be addressed.
• Conduct a literature review: Conducting a literature review can help you identify existing research in your area of interest and can help you formulate research questions that address gaps or limitations in the existing literature.
• Define the research objectives : Clearly define the objectives of your research. What do you want to achieve with your study? What specific questions do you want to answer?
• Consider the research design : Consider the research design that you plan to use. This will help you determine the appropriate types of research questions to ask. For example, if you plan to use a qualitative approach, you may want to focus on exploratory or descriptive research questions.
• Ensure that the research questions are clear and answerable: Your research questions should be clear and specific, and should be answerable with the data that you plan to collect. Avoid asking questions that are too broad or vague.
• Get feedback : Get feedback from your supervisor, colleagues, or peers to ensure that your research questions are relevant, feasible, and meaningful.

How to Write Research Questions

Guide for Writing Research Questions:

• Start with a clear statement of the research problem: Begin by stating the problem or issue that your research aims to address. This will help you to formulate focused research questions.
• Use clear language : Write your research questions in clear and concise language that is easy to understand. Avoid using jargon or technical terms that may be unfamiliar to your readers.
• Be specific: Your research questions should be specific and focused. Avoid broad questions that are difficult to answer. For example, instead of asking “What is the impact of climate change on the environment?” ask “What are the effects of rising sea levels on coastal ecosystems?”
• Use appropriate question types: Choose the appropriate question types based on the research design and objectives. For example, if you are conducting a qualitative study, you may want to use open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed responses.
• Consider the feasibility of your questions : Ensure that your research questions are feasible and can be answered with the resources available. Consider the data sources and methods of data collection when writing your questions.
• Seek feedback: Get feedback from your supervisor, colleagues, or peers to ensure that your research questions are relevant, appropriate, and meaningful.

Examples of Research Questions

Some Examples of Research Questions with Research Titles:

Research Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health

• Research Question : What is the relationship between social media use and mental health, and how does this impact individuals’ well-being?

Research Title: Factors Influencing Academic Success in High School

• Research Question: What are the primary factors that influence academic success in high school, and how do they contribute to student achievement?

Research Title: The Effects of Exercise on Physical and Mental Health

• Research Question: What is the relationship between exercise and physical and mental health, and how can exercise be used as a tool to improve overall well-being?

Research Title: Understanding the Factors that Influence Consumer Purchasing Decisions

• Research Question : What are the key factors that influence consumer purchasing decisions, and how do these factors vary across different demographics and products?

Research Title: The Impact of Technology on Communication

• Research Question : How has technology impacted communication patterns, and what are the effects of these changes on interpersonal relationships and society as a whole?

Research Title: Investigating the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Child Development

• Research Question: What is the relationship between different parenting styles and child development outcomes, and how do these outcomes vary across different ages and developmental stages?

Research Title: The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in Treating Anxiety Disorders

• Research Question: How effective is cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders, and what factors contribute to its success or failure in different patients?

Research Title: The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity

• Research Question : How is climate change affecting global biodiversity, and what can be done to mitigate the negative effects on natural ecosystems?

Research Title: Exploring the Relationship between Cultural Diversity and Workplace Productivity

• Research Question : How does cultural diversity impact workplace productivity, and what strategies can be employed to maximize the benefits of a diverse workforce?

Research Title: The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare

• Research Question: How can artificial intelligence be leveraged to improve healthcare outcomes, and what are the potential risks and ethical concerns associated with its use?

Applications of Research Questions

Here are some of the key applications of research questions:

• Defining the scope of the study : Research questions help researchers to narrow down the scope of their study and identify the specific issues they want to investigate.
• Developing hypotheses: Research questions often lead to the development of hypotheses, which are testable predictions about the relationship between variables. Hypotheses provide a clear and focused direction for the study.
• Designing the study : Research questions guide the design of the study, including the selection of participants, the collection of data, and the analysis of results.
• Collecting data : Research questions inform the selection of appropriate methods for collecting data, such as surveys, interviews, or experiments.
• Analyzing data : Research questions guide the analysis of data, including the selection of appropriate statistical tests and the interpretation of results.
• Communicating results : Research questions help researchers to communicate the results of their study in a clear and concise manner. The research questions provide a framework for discussing the findings and drawing conclusions.

Characteristics of Research Questions

Characteristics of Research Questions are as follows:

• Clear and Specific : A good research question should be clear and specific. It should clearly state what the research is trying to investigate and what kind of data is required.
• Relevant : The research question should be relevant to the study and should address a current issue or problem in the field of research.
• Testable : The research question should be testable through empirical evidence. It should be possible to collect data to answer the research question.
• Concise : The research question should be concise and focused. It should not be too broad or too narrow.
• Feasible : The research question should be feasible to answer within the constraints of the research design, time frame, and available resources.
• Original : The research question should be original and should contribute to the existing knowledge in the field of research.
• Significant : The research question should have significance and importance to the field of research. It should have the potential to provide new insights and knowledge to the field.
• Ethical : The research question should be ethical and should not cause harm to any individuals or groups involved in the study.

Purpose of Research Questions

Research questions are the foundation of any research study as they guide the research process and provide a clear direction to the researcher. The purpose of research questions is to identify the scope and boundaries of the study, and to establish the goals and objectives of the research.

The main purpose of research questions is to help the researcher to focus on the specific area or problem that needs to be investigated. They enable the researcher to develop a research design, select the appropriate methods and tools for data collection and analysis, and to organize the results in a meaningful way.

Research questions also help to establish the relevance and significance of the study. They define the research problem, and determine the research methodology that will be used to address the problem. Research questions also help to determine the type of data that will be collected, and how it will be analyzed and interpreted.

Finally, research questions provide a framework for evaluating the results of the research. They help to establish the validity and reliability of the data, and provide a basis for drawing conclusions and making recommendations based on the findings of the study.

Advantages of Research Questions

There are several advantages of research questions in the research process, including:

• Focus : Research questions help to focus the research by providing a clear direction for the study. They define the specific area of investigation and provide a framework for the research design.
• Clarity : Research questions help to clarify the purpose and objectives of the study, which can make it easier for the researcher to communicate the research aims to others.
• Relevance : Research questions help to ensure that the study is relevant and meaningful. By asking relevant and important questions, the researcher can ensure that the study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge and address important issues.
• Consistency : Research questions help to ensure consistency in the research process by providing a framework for the development of the research design, data collection, and analysis.
• Measurability : Research questions help to ensure that the study is measurable by defining the specific variables and outcomes that will be measured.
• Replication : Research questions help to ensure that the study can be replicated by providing a clear and detailed description of the research aims, methods, and outcomes. This makes it easier for other researchers to replicate the study and verify the results.

Limitations of Research Questions

Limitations of Research Questions are as follows:

• Subjectivity : Research questions are often subjective and can be influenced by personal biases and perspectives of the researcher. This can lead to a limited understanding of the research problem and may affect the validity and reliability of the study.
• Inadequate scope : Research questions that are too narrow in scope may limit the breadth of the study, while questions that are too broad may make it difficult to focus on specific research objectives.
• Unanswerable questions : Some research questions may not be answerable due to the lack of available data or limitations in research methods. In such cases, the research question may need to be rephrased or modified to make it more answerable.
• Lack of clarity : Research questions that are poorly worded or ambiguous can lead to confusion and misinterpretation. This can result in incomplete or inaccurate data, which may compromise the validity of the study.
• Difficulty in measuring variables : Some research questions may involve variables that are difficult to measure or quantify, making it challenging to draw meaningful conclusions from the data.
• Lack of generalizability: Research questions that are too specific or limited in scope may not be generalizable to other contexts or populations. This can limit the applicability of the study’s findings and restrict its broader implications.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How to Research a Term Paper

#scribendiinc

The term paper researching process

So, you wrote a great college admissions essay and were accepted at the university or college of your dreams. Now, you've been assigned your first term paper, and you don't know where to start!

The research process is an exploratory quest, a hunt for information that can be both exciting and rewarding. The word itself is derived from the French rechercher, which literally means "to investigate thoroughly." So, when embarking on writing a term paper or research paper, think of yourself as a detective. You will not only search for information but also delve into the whys and wherefores behind the subject material, seeking to provide elucidation through your term paper.

Select a topic for your term paper

Let's start at the beginning. The first step in the essay writing process is to decide on a worthy topic, choosing one that is interesting to you. Make a list of keywords—these are important words or phrases that encapsulate the essence of your topic. Good keywords will specifically describe your topic, but consider using closely related words, as well.  Use these keywords when searching print or electronic sources that you can use in your term paper.

Research your term paper topic

General-purpose reference books, such as encyclopedias and fact books, provide comprehensive summaries and suggestions for sub-topics, as well as related terminology. Although these books are not generally considered suitable sources to cite in a term paper, the bibliographies they contain can be very helpful. This initial reading may help you to narrow your interest, stimulate additional questions, and focus your research. We recommend the following general resources, as they are more global in scope:   The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World , CQ Researcher , the Political Handbook of the World, the Index to International Public Opinion, and World Opinion Update . These publications deal with particular topics, give summaries of various governments, or take other specialized approaches, which are generally considered acceptable sources to cite in a term paper.

The next step is to either narrow your topic (so you can deal with the amount of information) or to broaden it so you have enough to write about. You might have to pick a particular sub-topic and make that your area of interest, or combine certain aspects of a topic to create a narrower one. Decide the direction you want the research for your term paper to take. What are the most interesting aspects of the topic, and what do you want to learn? Be careful not to be too general. This term paper researching process will keep you from getting lost or sidetracked when searching for information.

Find suitable sources for your term paper

At this point, decide on the most likely sources of information—books, journal articles, newspapers, online databases, CD-ROM databases, interviews, etc. Dig around in the library and locate sources for your term paper. Use your library's computer access system to find books on your subject. Some topics may be so current that few, if any, books are available. If this is the case, research scholarly journals for up-to-date information and analyses. You should consult journals even for non-contemporary topics, since scholars may have unearthed new information or produced new analyses. You may also find valuable information published in the reports of a government agency, in hearings or reports of a government committee, or in the transcripts of the proceedings of a government body. The United Nations and a number of other international organizations also publish proceedings and reports.

Don't forget that when you locate the sources you want to use for your term paper, you should be trying to find answers to the questions you posed previously. Also, don't forget to make use of the reference librarian, who can help you to locate and use sources efficiently.

Get organized early! Keep track of your sources

It is very helpful to make notes about your sources on index cards or in an Excel spreadsheet . Such notes should include bibliographic information, page numbers for quotations, and source locations. This way, you can easily find the source of an idea, quote, reference, etc. Number these cards so you can link them to your term paper notes: this will make the references section of your report a snap to complete.

Remember—thoroughly peruse all the information you have gathered, making copious notes as you go. This preliminary research should answer basic factual questions, as well as interpretive ones, and should help you to refocus. Give yourself a reasonable amount of time to absorb all the information you've read.

Writing a research or term paper

In our follow-up article about writing a research paper , we explain the next steps in the term paper writing process. The article discusses your thesis statement, body of your paper, and your reference page. If you would like to learn more about essay writing, check out Scribendi's article   12 Ways to Quickly Improve Your Academic Essay Writing Skills .

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How to Write a Term Paper

How to Write a Term Paper - Getting to the Basics

A term paper is generally structured with an opening introduction, followed by several body paragraphs, and culminates with a conclusion. It articulates a central thesis statement, bolstered by corroborative evidence and critical analysis. The writing is formal in nature, adheres to a designated formatting style like APA or MLA, and is complemented by accurate citations and a comprehensive bibliography.

Writing a term paper is a structured process that demands careful planning and execution. Here’s a step-by-step approach to guide you:

• Understand the Assignment : Ensure you grasp the requirements, the topic's scope, and the deadline.
• Choose a Topic : Select a topic that is interesting to you and meets the assignment's criteria. It should be narrow enough to explore fully within the paper's constraints.
• Conduct Preliminary Research : Gather background information to further refine your topic, develop a thesis, and create a research question.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : This is the central argument or claim of your paper. It should be clear, concise, and arguable.
• Create an Outline : Organize your main points and supporting details into an outline. This will serve as a roadmap for your term paper.
• Conduct Detailed Research : Use credible sources to collect evidence and information that support your thesis. Take careful notes and keep track of your sources for citations.
• Write the Introduction : Start with a hook to grab the reader's interest, provide background information, and present your thesis statement.
• Write the Body : Each paragraph should focus on a single point that supports your thesis. Use evidence and analysis to back up each point.
• Write the Conclusion : Summarize your main points and restate the thesis in the context of the evidence you provided. Discuss the implications of your findings or future directions for research.
• Revise and Edit : Look for any gaps in logic or content, check for clarity and flow, and ensure each part of the paper supports your thesis. Edit for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.
• Format Your Paper : Follow the required citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) for your discipline, and ensure your paper adheres to all formatting guidelines.
• Final Review : Give your paper a final read-through, checking for coherence, structure, and formatting.
• Submit : Turn in your paper by the deadline, and ensure you have a copy saved for your records.

You always hear the word “term paper,” and in the most basic sense, it is the paper that sums up everything you have learned in a term or semester. Think of it as the ‘gate pass’ for a checkpoint in a game: you need to secure one by finishing one important challenge.

As every game requires, that particular challenge is not similar to other challenges you have encountered. Thus, you must conserve every remaining energy and time to prepare for the challenge.

Going back to our topic, term papers require your knowledge, effort, and time. You can only produce a faultless and astounding term paper once you have mastered the fundamental things you will continuously see in every paper you will be crafting in the coming semesters.

Research-Based

In a term paper, you may not want to ditch your personal experiences or observations when integrating what you have learned in a single term or semester. Most of the time, integrating salient findings and concepts from literature and other scholarly sources may be required depending on the type of paper you are asked to write.

A topic, especially if it is purely theoretical or academic, may warrant you to do a literature review and background research. Fret not, though, as this blog will guide you through making your term paper a work of research.

Since a term paper is research-based, it is almost always impossible not to involve critical thinking and analysis on a certain topic. After all, the best way to discuss a topic, especially if it is complex, is to break it down into pieces. Once disassembled, you can evaluate the evidence, examine its validity, and draw reasoned conclusions based on your findings.

Thesis Statement

You might be able to equate a term paper to an essay. They seem to get along, especially with the structure and purpose of writing. However, you can never go wrong with formulating a good thesis statement for your term paper.

As it is more similar to a research paper, a term paper can be quite long, so having a good thesis statement reinstates the main argument or purpose of your writing. It guides the entire direction of your paper and helps your reader grasp its focus– no matter how long and winding his or her experience will be.

Logical Flow

We may love a fun, creative, and often chaotic way of writing, especially when reading a narrative essay as a coursework assignment. Sorry to burst your bubbles, but a term paper may not follow the same route.

As a standard term paper is full of concepts, terms, arguments, and ideas, it deserves great attention to logic and organization. This means that each section of the paper must build up from the previous one, and transitions between paragraphs and sections should observe smoothness and coherence.

What is a Term Paper In Terms of Its Various Types and Forms

Writing a term paper entails preparation. You can only wish that you have a ton of brain cells and resources to help you finalize your paper that is good for submission– and a stellar score.

However, preparation is only one thing in the long-lasting process of term paper writing.

The term paper structure will still depend on the scope of analysis, as well as the categories of the term paper. Yes, you saw it correctly: types or categories of term papers may have different structures or, in most cases, purposes.

This part of your journey in term paper writing will acquaint you with different types of term papers according to purpose and structure. 

Analytical Paper

From the word itself, an analytical paper requires you to break down a concept, theory, or phenomenon into several parts. These parts may come in the form of elements, experiences, principles, and many other related components.

An analytical paper aims to examine these parts critically and evaluate them accordingly. Analytical papers are often found in social sciences and humanities, and they are mostly requested for a term paper writing service .

Possible topics that resemble your future topic under the mentioned fields are critiquing a philosophical theory or analyzing globalization's impact on a specific country's pop culture.

Argumentative Paper

What is a term paper without presenting a stance? In an argumentative term paper, your professor might give you a debatable or controversial topic that requires your critical thinking and persuasive skills to be utilized.

In this type of term paper, you must integrate a literature review and empirical evidence to support your stance and counter several opposing views. Argumentations are often found in several branches of the social sciences, such as law, ethics, and literature.

You may stumble upon topics like augmenting a controversial public policy or defending a particular interpretation of a literary piece.

Descriptive Paper

Fulfilling this type of term paper entails more than injecting fancy adjectives, imageries, and vivid narrations. When dealing with descriptive term papers, you must provide a detailed overview of a particular topic, event, phenomenon, or concept.

If you ask me how to format a term paper of this kind, the descriptive language used must be realistic and accurate, not just merely ornamental. This orientation would provide a seamless and truthful picture for the reader of your paper.

Although your term paper may be descriptive, objectivity should not be taken away. Descriptive term papers are mostly required in the natural sciences, such as physics, chemistry, Earth science, and biology. A perfect example is the description of the geological features of a national park. 

Comparative Papers

True to its name, this type of term paper compares and contrasts two or more theories, subjects, schools of thought, and approaches.

Upon taking the two major steps, you will need to analyze the similarities and differences between the elements, and you may formulate conclusions regarding their significance or implications. Comparative term papers are commonly seen in economics, political science, literature, sociology, and history.

A prime example might be comparing two distinct economic systems or analyzing the similarities and differences between political theories, such as Republicanism and Democracy.

Expository Papers

How to start a term paper of this type? We just have to take a hint at its name: it ‘exposes’ a piece of information. Elaborating on this, term papers adhering to this type explain or inform the prospective audience about a specific topic, concept, process, or phenomenon.

Since we are dealing with information, it has to be ensured that the latter must be accurate, truthful, and sufficient. Writing expository papers may also entail a handful of related writing tasks, such as defining key terms and organizing information according to related themes.

The fields that most likely require expository term papers are education, communication arts, journalism, and several liberal arts areas.

Grasping each type of term paper above may be quite a handful. Apart from preparing a term paper, you are confronted with a big challenge to choose a type or, in some cases, integrate one type into another.

Regardless of your writing decisions, you are always in for a treat: your term paper proposal will not be a failure if you are more than familiar with your purpose of writing one.

In addition, writing services like Studyfy let you access term paper help like no other. From your term paper outline to the final touches, an array of professional writers are present to provide personalized writing services for negotiable pricing.

What’s The Proper Term Paper Format? From the Ground Up

I am fully aware that you have been wired up with all the information you need to know about term papers, but do not falter yet, as we are just in the most needed part of this blog: formatting your term paper.

Writing a term paper will not be as polished and organized if you do not prepare your format ahead of your writing preparations. So, from conceptualizing your title to proofreading your paper, our tips and tricks will propel you to the towering heights of marks you have always aimed for.

Start Strong with Your Title Page

A well-established term paper will not be realized without a strong facade through a title page. Many students are seen as not focusing on this part of the paper, thinking that it does not hold as much importance as other parts, but if you are thinking the same, you need to change your mind.

Some instructors and professors look at the title page to check if you adhere to the formatting guidelines. If you are less likely to notice such inconsistencies, your professor might think you are not keen enough to eye important details in the rest of your paper.

Pro-Tip: As early as creating your title page, be sure to follow any specific formatting guidelines provided by your professor or academic institution, such as font size, spacing, and margin specifications.

Abstract– Concise Yet Complete

An abstract is likewise an important component of a term paper, just as in a research paper. It encapsulates the crucial pieces of information that the reader must know. It includes the background of the paper, methods, results, and implications of the findings.

While the abstract may require a specific word count that differs from one academic institution to another, it is generally preferred to keep everything short yet complete. Remember: the term paper itself will likely become wordy and extensive, so let us spare space for urgency on the paper’s abstract.

Pro-Tip : Keep everything concise and elaborate on the findings more than the background. The usual word count for an abstract is 150-200 words.

Term Paper’s Background: Where the Thesis Statement is Cleared Its Way

Term paper writing will get as fired up at this point since this part introduces the rationale or context of the paper, asking the question, “What is the topic all about?” In presenting the background, the introduction of the paper's main argument is given– the thesis statement.

This crucial part of the paper is often written as a declarative sentence or a question. To make everything clear and articulated, the paper’s background must provide an extensive exploration of the topic that could lead to formulating the thesis statement. There should be a profound connection between the rationale of the paper and its main purpose.

Pro-Tip : Term papers are more flexible than research papers and journal articles in terms of structuring their introduction. You may hook the reader's attention by putting an engaging opening sentence or anecdote.

Arranging Lit Review: To Each Its Own

Regardless of whether the literature review section of a term paper is separated or integrated into the introduction, this part must provide an extensive overview of existing research and scholarship relevant to the topic.

While one can put empirical and observational studies into the review, it is important to put a premium on reputable articles and research reports that are peer-reviewed and published in indexed journals. When no single guideline talks about a window period for acceptable literature, you may set one for yourself as a guide. 

Pro-Tip: Arrange the literature review thematically, chronologically, or topically, depending on the ways that you desire to highlight some aspects of your term paper.

To an Extensive Results and Discussion Section

Term papers will not be complete without the discussion section. This part seals the deal and is an important piece of a complex puzzle. It interprets the results in conjunction with the questions at hand and assesses their value by comparing them with previous studies according to their agreement or disagreement. 

Pro-Tip: When sourcing previous studies as points of reference for the results, always strive to find ones that both agree or disagree with them. This ensures the polarity and absence of bias in the reporting of the results.

Closing the Curtains with the Paper’s Conclusion

When concluding your term paper writing, always restate the thesis statement. It always feels right and justifiable if the main purpose of the entire term paper is reiterated in the last part of the paper. Apart from that, recommendations and final thoughts may be included in this section.

The conclusion section, deemed shorter than other key sections in the term paper, may come in a short paragraph or bullet format, depending on your guidelines.

Pro-Tip: New information that is not previously included in the paper is not welcome in the conclusion. You might need to write my term paper again if I committed a mistake. You may instead synthesize the key points and results and leave a lasting impression on your reader by either providing a strong closing statement or a reinforcement of the main argument of the term paper.

References and Appendices: Two Pieces That Complete

One may argue that writing term papers may not need references and appendices sections, but the material they provide may prove otherwise. Without the references, sources will not be identified nor assessed, leaving no room for integrity on the writer's part. 

Having no appendices section, on the other hand, does not provide enough context or additional information about the important plans that were executed during the creation of the paper. It is in these sections that small things matter.

Pro-Tip: Double-check the veracity of the references and appendices section. This may entail using the proper citation style for the reference titles and labeling the materials under the appendices section.

What’s a term paper? How to write a successful term paper?

A: A term paper is a type of academic paper that a student, typically from a higher academic institution such as a university, completes at the end of a semester or a term. Since it is considered a terminal requirement, writing a term paper requires one to conduct research, utilize higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, and present findings on a topic or subject by incorporating the knowledge and skills throughout the entirety of the term. 

Since a term paper qualifies as an academic paper, writing services offer custom term paper assistance whenever needed. It is only through tailor-fit writing assistance and professional guidance from seasoned writers that you can achieve a stellar grade without getting down a rough route, thanks to Studyfy.

How to write a term paper if there is a word count?

A word count may be a bummer for some, but it can motivate you to budget how you will use your words efficiently. Make sure to allocate several words strategically. It is recommended that the discussion section gets the highest allocation among all the term paper sections.

Your research and writing process can be influenced by the term paper format and word count. As academic papers often have a specific set of rules, make sure to follow them to the dot.

What is the general structure of a term paper? Is it the same as a research paper?

The universally accepted structure of a term paper is quite similar to a research report: title page, rationale/background, literature review, methodology, results and discussion, and references. An appendices section is optional but necessary for other fields of interest.

A good term paper is like a good research paper. Research papers, like other academic papers, follow the named predictable pattern; just make sure to present your own research through engaging body paragraphs and state primary and secondary sources, including other research papers you used while writing.

Are term papers similar to research papers? How similar and different is the writing process?

Term paper writing is similar to research writing in terms of structure and purpose. However, they differ in scope, audience, and length. While a term paper has a broader scope and is meant to be seen by the course instructor, a research paper has a narrower scope and is written for a wider academic audience. However, what's crucial is the thorough research process.

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Everything You Need to Know to Write an A+ Term Paper

Last Updated: March 4, 2024 Fact Checked

Sample Term Papers

Researching & outlining.

• Drafting Your Paper
• Revising Your Paper

Expert Q&A

This article was co-authored by Matthew Snipp, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Raven Minyard, BA . C. Matthew Snipp is the Burnet C. and Mildred Finley Wohlford Professor of Humanities and Sciences in the Department of Sociology at Stanford University. He is also the Director for the Institute for Research in the Social Science’s Secure Data Center. He has been a Research Fellow at the U.S. Bureau of the Census and a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He has published 3 books and over 70 articles and book chapters on demography, economic development, poverty and unemployment. He is also currently serving on the National Institute of Child Health and Development’s Population Science Subcommittee. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin—Madison. There are 13 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,233,930 times.

A term paper is a written assignment given to students at the end of a course to gauge their understanding of the material. Term papers typically count for a good percentage of your overall grade, so of course, you’ll want to write the best paper possible. Luckily, we’ve got you covered. In this article, we’ll teach you everything you need to know to write an A+ term paper, from researching and outlining to drafting and revising.

Quick Steps to Write a Term Paper

• Hook your readers with an interesting and informative intro paragraph. State your thesis and your main points.
• Support your thesis by providing quotes and evidence that back your claim in your body paragraphs.
• Summarize your main points and leave your readers with a thought-provoking question in your conclusion.

• Think of your term paper as the bridge between what you’ve learned in class and how you apply that knowledge to real-world topics.
• For example, a history term paper may require you to explore the consequences of a significant historical event, like the Civil War. An environmental science class, on the other hand, may have you examine the effects of climate change on a certain region.
• Your guidelines should tell you the paper’s word count and formatting style, like whether to use in-text citations or footnotes and whether to use single- or double-spacing. If these things aren’t specified, be sure to reach out to your instructor.

• Make sure your topic isn’t too broad. For example, if you want to write about Shakespeare’s work, first narrow it down to a specific play, like Macbeth , then choose something even more specific like Lady Macbeth’s role in the plot.
• If the topic is already chosen for you, explore unique angles that can set your content and information apart from the more obvious approaches many others will probably take. [3] X Research source
• Try not to have a specific outcome in mind, as this will close you off to new ideas and avenues of thinking. Rather than trying to mold your research to fit your desired outcome, allow the outcome to reflect a genuine analysis of the discoveries you made. Ask yourself questions throughout the process and be open to having your beliefs challenged.
• Reading other people's comments, opinions, and entries on a topic can often help you to refine your own, especially where they comment that "further research" is required or where they posit challenging questions but leave them unanswered.

• For example, if you’re writing a term paper about Macbeth , your primary source would be the play itself. Then, look for other research papers and analyses written by academics and scholars to understand how they interpret the text.

• For example, if you’re writing a paper about Lady Macbeth, your thesis could be something like “Shakespeare’s characterization of Lady Macbeth reveals how desire for power can control someone’s life.”
• Remember, your research and thesis development doesn’t stop here. As you continue working through both the research and writing, you may want to make changes that align with the ideas forming in your mind and the discoveries you continue to unearth.
• On the other hand, don’t keep looking for new ideas and angles for fear of feeling confined. At some point, you’re going to have to say enough is enough and make your point. You may have other opportunities to explore these questions in future studies, but for now, remember your term paper has a finite word length and an approaching due date!

• Abstract: An abstract is a concise summary of your paper that informs readers of your topic, its significance, and the key points you’ll explore. It must stand on its own and make sense without referencing outside sources or your actual paper.
• Introduction: The introduction establishes the main idea of your paper and directly states the thesis. Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing sentence to intrigue your readers, and provide any necessary background information to establish your paper’s purpose and direction.
• Body paragraphs: Each body paragraph focuses on a different argument supporting your thesis. List specific evidence from your sources to back up your arguments. Provide detailed information about your topic to enhance your readers’ understanding. In your outline, write down the main ideas for each body paragraph and any outstanding questions or points you’re not yet sure about.
• Results: Depending on the type of term paper you’re writing, your results may be incorporated into your body paragraphs or conclusion. These are the insights that your research led you to. Here you can discuss how your perspective and understanding of your topic shifted throughout your writing process.
• Conclusion: Your conclusion summarizes your argument and findings. You may restate your thesis and major points as you wrap up your paper.

Drafting Your Term Paper

• Writing an introduction can be challenging, but don’t get too caught up on it. As you write the rest of your paper, your arguments might change and develop, so you’ll likely need to rewrite your intro at the end, anyway. Writing your intro is simply a means of getting started and you can always revise it later. [10] X Trustworthy Source PubMed Central Journal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of Health Go to source
• Be sure to define any words your readers might not understand. For example, words like “globalization” have many different meanings depending on context, and it’s important to state which ones you’ll be using as part of your introductory paragraph.

• Try to relate the subject of the essay (say, Plato’s Symposium ) to a tangentially related issue you happen to know something about (say, the growing trend of free-wheeling hookups in frat parties). Slowly bring the paragraph around to your actual subject and make a few generalizations about why this aspect of the book/subject is so fascinating and worthy of study (such as how different the expectations for physical intimacy were then compared to now).

• You can also reflect on your own experience of researching and writing your term paper. Discuss how your understanding of your topic evolved and any unexpected findings you came across.

• While peppering quotes throughout your text is a good way to help make your point, don’t overdo it. If you use too many quotes, you’re basically allowing other authors to make the point and write the paper for you. When you do use a quote, be sure to explain why it is relevant in your own words.
• Try to sort out your bibliography at the beginning of your writing process to avoid having a last-minute scramble. When you have all the information beforehand (like the source’s title, author, publication date, etc.), it’s easier to plug them into the correct format.

Revising & Finalizing Your Term Paper

• Trade in weak “to-be” verbs for stronger “action” verbs. For example: “I was writing my term paper” becomes “I wrote my term paper.”

• It’s extremely important to proofread your term paper. If your writing is full of mistakes, your instructor will assume you didn’t put much effort into your paper. If you have too many errors, your message will be lost in the confusion of trying to understand what you’ve written.

• If you add or change information to make things clearer for your readers, it’s a good idea to look over your paper one more time to catch any new typos that may have come up in the process.

• The best essays are like grass court tennis—the argument should flow in a "rally" style, building persuasively to the conclusion. Thanks Helpful 1 Not Helpful 0
• If you get stuck, consider giving your professor a visit. Whether you're still struggling for a thesis or you want to go over your conclusion, most instructors are delighted to help and they'll remember your initiative when grading time rolls around. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 1
• At least 2 hours for 3-5 pages.
• At least 4 hours for 8-10 pages.
• At least 6 hours for 12-15 pages.
• Double those hours if you haven't done any homework and you haven't attended class.
• For papers that are primarily research-based, add about two hours to those times (although you'll need to know how to research quickly and effectively, beyond the purview of this brief guide).

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://www.binghamton.edu/counseling/self-help/term-paper.html
• ↑ Matthew Snipp, PhD. Research Fellow, U.S. Bureau of the Census. Expert Interview. 26 March 2020.
• ↑ https://emory.libanswers.com/faq/44525
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/planresearchpaper/
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/thesis_statement_tips.html
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/outline
• ↑ https://gallaudet.edu/student-success/tutorial-center/english-center/writing/guide-to-writing-introductions-and-conclusions/
• ↑ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26731827
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/writing-an-abstract-for-your-research-paper/
• ↑ https://www.ivcc.edu/stylesite/Essay_Title.pdf
• ↑ https://www.uni-flensburg.de/fileadmin/content/institute/anglistik/dokumente/downloads/how-to-write-a-term-paper-daewes.pdf
• ↑ https://library.sacredheart.edu/c.php?g=29803&p=185937
• ↑ https://www.cornerstone.edu/blog-post/six-steps-to-really-edit-your-paper/

About This Article

If you need to write a term paper, choose your topic, then start researching that topic. Use your research to craft a thesis statement which states the main idea of your paper, then organize all of your facts into an outline that supports your thesis. Once you start writing, state your thesis in the first paragraph, then use the body of the paper to present the points that support your argument. End the paper with a strong conclusion that restates your thesis. For tips on improving your term paper through active voice, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Sat / act prep online guides and tips, 113 great research paper topics.

General Education

One of the hardest parts of writing a research paper can be just finding a good topic to write about. Fortunately we've done the hard work for you and have compiled a list of 113 interesting research paper topics. They've been organized into ten categories and cover a wide range of subjects so you can easily find the best topic for you.

In addition to the list of good research topics, we've included advice on what makes a good research paper topic and how you can use your topic to start writing a great paper.

What Makes a Good Research Paper Topic?

Not all research paper topics are created equal, and you want to make sure you choose a great topic before you start writing. Below are the three most important factors to consider to make sure you choose the best research paper topics.

#1: It's Something You're Interested In

A paper is always easier to write if you're interested in the topic, and you'll be more motivated to do in-depth research and write a paper that really covers the entire subject. Even if a certain research paper topic is getting a lot of buzz right now or other people seem interested in writing about it, don't feel tempted to make it your topic unless you genuinely have some sort of interest in it as well.

#2: There's Enough Information to Write a Paper

Even if you come up with the absolute best research paper topic and you're so excited to write about it, you won't be able to produce a good paper if there isn't enough research about the topic. This can happen for very specific or specialized topics, as well as topics that are too new to have enough research done on them at the moment. Easy research paper topics will always be topics with enough information to write a full-length paper.

Trying to write a research paper on a topic that doesn't have much research on it is incredibly hard, so before you decide on a topic, do a bit of preliminary searching and make sure you'll have all the information you need to write your paper.

#3: It Fits Your Teacher's Guidelines

Don't get so carried away looking at lists of research paper topics that you forget any requirements or restrictions your teacher may have put on research topic ideas. If you're writing a research paper on a health-related topic, deciding to write about the impact of rap on the music scene probably won't be allowed, but there may be some sort of leeway. For example, if you're really interested in current events but your teacher wants you to write a research paper on a history topic, you may be able to choose a topic that fits both categories, like exploring the relationship between the US and North Korea. No matter what, always get your research paper topic approved by your teacher first before you begin writing.

113 Good Research Paper Topics

Below are 113 good research topics to help you get you started on your paper. We've organized them into ten categories to make it easier to find the type of research paper topics you're looking for.

Arts/Culture

• Discuss the main differences in art from the Italian Renaissance and the Northern Renaissance .
• Analyze the impact a famous artist had on the world.
• How is sexism portrayed in different types of media (music, film, video games, etc.)? Has the amount/type of sexism changed over the years?
• How has the music of slaves brought over from Africa shaped modern American music?
• How has rap music evolved in the past decade?
• How has the portrayal of minorities in the media changed?

Current Events

• What have been the impacts of China's one child policy?
• How have the goals of feminists changed over the decades?
• How has the Trump presidency changed international relations?
• Analyze the history of the relationship between the United States and North Korea.
• What factors contributed to the current decline in the rate of unemployment?
• What have been the impacts of states which have increased their minimum wage?
• How do US immigration laws compare to immigration laws of other countries?
• How have the US's immigration laws changed in the past few years/decades?
• How has the Black Lives Matter movement affected discussions and view about racism in the US?
• What impact has the Affordable Care Act had on healthcare in the US?
• What factors contributed to the UK deciding to leave the EU (Brexit)?
• What factors contributed to China becoming an economic power?
• Discuss the history of Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies  (some of which tokenize the S&P 500 Index on the blockchain) .
• Do students in schools that eliminate grades do better in college and their careers?
• Do students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests?
• Do students who receive free meals at school get higher grades compared to when they weren't receiving a free meal?
• Do students who attend charter schools score higher on standardized tests than students in public schools?
• Do students learn better in same-sex classrooms?
• How does giving each student access to an iPad or laptop affect their studies?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Montessori Method ?
• Do children who attend preschool do better in school later on?
• What was the impact of the No Child Left Behind act?
• How does the US education system compare to education systems in other countries?
• What impact does mandatory physical education classes have on students' health?
• Which methods are most effective at reducing bullying in schools?
• Do homeschoolers who attend college do as well as students who attended traditional schools?
• Does offering tenure increase or decrease quality of teaching?
• How does college debt affect future life choices of students?
• Should graduate students be able to form unions?

• What are different ways to lower gun-related deaths in the US?
• How and why have divorce rates changed over time?
• Is affirmative action still necessary in education and/or the workplace?
• Should physician-assisted suicide be legal?
• How has stem cell research impacted the medical field?
• How can human trafficking be reduced in the United States/world?
• Should people be able to donate organs in exchange for money?
• Which types of juvenile punishment have proven most effective at preventing future crimes?
• Has the increase in US airport security made passengers safer?
• Analyze the immigration policies of certain countries and how they are similar and different from one another.
• Several states have legalized recreational marijuana. What positive and negative impacts have they experienced as a result?
• Do tariffs increase the number of domestic jobs?
• Which prison reforms have proven most effective?
• Should governments be able to censor certain information on the internet?
• Which methods/programs have been most effective at reducing teen pregnancy?
• What are the benefits and drawbacks of the Keto diet?
• How effective are different exercise regimes for losing weight and maintaining weight loss?
• How do the healthcare plans of various countries differ from each other?
• What are the most effective ways to treat depression ?
• What are the pros and cons of genetically modified foods?
• Which methods are most effective for improving memory?
• What can be done to lower healthcare costs in the US?
• What factors contributed to the current opioid crisis?
• Analyze the history and impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic .
• Are low-carbohydrate or low-fat diets more effective for weight loss?
• How much exercise should the average adult be getting each week?
• Which methods are most effective to get parents to vaccinate their children?
• What are the pros and cons of clean needle programs?
• How does stress affect the body?
• Discuss the history of the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians.
• What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
• Who was responsible for the Iran-Contra situation?
• How has New Orleans and the government's response to natural disasters changed since Hurricane Katrina?
• What events led to the fall of the Roman Empire?
• What were the impacts of British rule in India ?
• Was the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki necessary?
• What were the successes and failures of the women's suffrage movement in the United States?
• What were the causes of the Civil War?
• How did Abraham Lincoln's assassination impact the country and reconstruction after the Civil War?
• Which factors contributed to the colonies winning the American Revolution?
• What caused Hitler's rise to power?
• Discuss how a specific invention impacted history.
• What led to Cleopatra's fall as ruler of Egypt?
• How has Japan changed and evolved over the centuries?
• What were the causes of the Rwandan genocide ?

• Why did Martin Luther decide to split with the Catholic Church?
• Analyze the history and impact of a well-known cult (Jonestown, Manson family, etc.)
• How did the sexual abuse scandal impact how people view the Catholic Church?
• How has the Catholic church's power changed over the past decades/centuries?
• What are the causes behind the rise in atheism/ agnosticism in the United States?
• What were the influences in Siddhartha's life resulted in him becoming the Buddha?
• How has media portrayal of Islam/Muslims changed since September 11th?

Science/Environment

• How has the earth's climate changed in the past few decades?
• How has the use and elimination of DDT affected bird populations in the US?
• Analyze how the number and severity of natural disasters have increased in the past few decades.
• Analyze deforestation rates in a certain area or globally over a period of time.
• How have past oil spills changed regulations and cleanup methods?
• How has the Flint water crisis changed water regulation safety?
• What are the pros and cons of fracking?
• What impact has the Paris Climate Agreement had so far?
• What have NASA's biggest successes and failures been?
• How can we improve access to clean water around the world?
• Does ecotourism actually have a positive impact on the environment?
• Should the US rely on nuclear energy more?
• What can be done to save amphibian species currently at risk of extinction?
• What impact has climate change had on coral reefs?
• How are black holes created?
• Are teens who spend more time on social media more likely to suffer anxiety and/or depression?
• How will the loss of net neutrality affect internet users?
• Analyze the history and progress of self-driving vehicles.
• How has the use of drones changed surveillance and warfare methods?
• Has social media made people more or less connected?
• What progress has currently been made with artificial intelligence ?
• Do smartphones increase or decrease workplace productivity?
• What are the most effective ways to use technology in the classroom?
• How is Google search affecting our intelligence?
• When is the best age for a child to begin owning a smartphone?
• Has frequent texting reduced teen literacy rates?

How to Write a Great Research Paper

Even great research paper topics won't give you a great research paper if you don't hone your topic before and during the writing process. Follow these three tips to turn good research paper topics into great papers.

#1: Figure Out Your Thesis Early

Before you start writing a single word of your paper, you first need to know what your thesis will be. Your thesis is a statement that explains what you intend to prove/show in your paper. Every sentence in your research paper will relate back to your thesis, so you don't want to start writing without it!

As some examples, if you're writing a research paper on if students learn better in same-sex classrooms, your thesis might be "Research has shown that elementary-age students in same-sex classrooms score higher on standardized tests and report feeling more comfortable in the classroom."

If you're writing a paper on the causes of the Civil War, your thesis might be "While the dispute between the North and South over slavery is the most well-known cause of the Civil War, other key causes include differences in the economies of the North and South, states' rights, and territorial expansion."

#2: Back Every Statement Up With Research

Remember, this is a research paper you're writing, so you'll need to use lots of research to make your points. Every statement you give must be backed up with research, properly cited the way your teacher requested. You're allowed to include opinions of your own, but they must also be supported by the research you give.

#3: Do Your Research Before You Begin Writing

You don't want to start writing your research paper and then learn that there isn't enough research to back up the points you're making, or, even worse, that the research contradicts the points you're trying to make!

Get most of your research on your good research topics done before you begin writing. Then use the research you've collected to create a rough outline of what your paper will cover and the key points you're going to make. This will help keep your paper clear and organized, and it'll ensure you have enough research to produce a strong paper.

What's Next?

Are you also learning about dynamic equilibrium in your science class? We break this sometimes tricky concept down so it's easy to understand in our complete guide to dynamic equilibrium .

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These recommendations are based solely on our knowledge and experience. If you purchase an item through one of our links, PrepScholar may receive a commission.

Christine graduated from Michigan State University with degrees in Environmental Biology and Geography and received her Master's from Duke University. In high school she scored in the 99th percentile on the SAT and was named a National Merit Finalist. She has taught English and biology in several countries.

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50+ Research Topics for Psychology Papers

How to Find Psychology Research Topics for Your Student Paper

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

• Specific Branches of Psychology
• Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy
• Human Cognition
• Human Development
• Critique of Publications
• Famous Experiments
• Historical Figures
• Specific Careers
• Case Studies
• Literature Reviews
• Your Own Study/Experiment

Are you searching for a great topic for your psychology paper ? Sometimes it seems like coming up with topics of psychology research is more challenging than the actual research and writing. Fortunately, there are plenty of great places to find inspiration and the following list contains just a few ideas to help get you started.

Finding a solid topic is one of the most important steps when writing any type of paper. It can be particularly important when you are writing a psychology research paper or essay. Psychology is such a broad topic, so you want to find a topic that allows you to adequately cover the subject without becoming overwhelmed with information.

I can always tell when a student really cares about the topic they chose; it comes through in the writing. My advice is to choose a topic that genuinely interests you, so you’ll be more motivated to do thorough research.

In some cases, such as in a general psychology class, you might have the option to select any topic from within psychology's broad reach. Other instances, such as in an  abnormal psychology  course, might require you to write your paper on a specific subject such as a psychological disorder.

As you begin your search for a topic for your psychology paper, it is first important to consider the guidelines established by your instructor.

Research Topics Within Specific Branches of Psychology

The key to selecting a good topic for your psychology paper is to select something that is narrow enough to allow you to really focus on the subject, but not so narrow that it is difficult to find sources or information to write about.

One approach is to narrow your focus down to a subject within a specific branch of psychology. For example, you might start by deciding that you want to write a paper on some sort of social psychology topic. Next, you might narrow your focus down to how persuasion can be used to influence behavior .

Other social psychology topics you might consider include:

• Prejudice and discrimination (i.e., homophobia, sexism, racism)
• Social cognition
• Person perception
• Social control and cults
• Persuasion, propaganda, and marketing
• Attraction, romance, and love
• Nonverbal communication
• Prosocial behavior

Psychology Research Topics Involving a Disorder or Type of Therapy

Exploring a psychological disorder or a specific treatment modality can also be a good topic for a psychology paper. Some potential abnormal psychology topics include specific psychological disorders or particular treatment modalities, including:

• Eating disorders
• Borderline personality disorder
• Seasonal affective disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Antisocial personality disorder
• Profile a  type of therapy  (i.e., cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy, psychoanalytic therapy)

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Cognition

Some of the possible topics you might explore in this area include thinking, language, intelligence, and decision-making. Other ideas might include:

• False memories
• Speech disorders
• Problem-solving

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Human Development

In this area, you might opt to focus on issues pertinent to  early childhood  such as language development, social learning, or childhood attachment or you might instead opt to concentrate on issues that affect older adults such as dementia or Alzheimer's disease.

Some other topics you might consider include:

• Language acquisition
• Media violence and children
• Learning disabilities
• Gender roles
• Child abuse
• Prenatal development
• Parenting styles
• Aspects of the aging process

Do a Critique of Publications Involving Psychology Research Topics

One option is to consider writing a critique paper of a published psychology book or academic journal article. For example, you might write a critical analysis of Sigmund Freud's Interpretation of Dreams or you might evaluate a more recent book such as Philip Zimbardo's  The Lucifer Effect: Understanding How Good People Turn Evil .

Professional and academic journals are also great places to find materials for a critique paper. Browse through the collection at your university library to find titles devoted to the subject that you are most interested in, then look through recent articles until you find one that grabs your attention.

Topics of Psychology Research Related to Famous Experiments

There have been many fascinating and groundbreaking experiments throughout the history of psychology, providing ample material for students looking for an interesting term paper topic. In your paper, you might choose to summarize the experiment, analyze the ethics of the research, or evaluate the implications of the study. Possible experiments that you might consider include:

• The Milgram Obedience Experiment
• The Stanford Prison Experiment
• The Little Albert Experiment
• Pavlov's Conditioning Experiments
• The Asch Conformity Experiment
• Harlow's Rhesus Monkey Experiments

Topics of Psychology Research About Historical Figures

One of the simplest ways to find a great topic is to choose an interesting person in the  history of psychology  and write a paper about them. Your paper might focus on many different elements of the individual's life, such as their biography, professional history, theories, or influence on psychology.

While this type of paper may be historical in nature, there is no need for this assignment to be dry or boring. Psychology is full of fascinating figures rife with intriguing stories and anecdotes. Consider such famous individuals as Sigmund Freud, B.F. Skinner, Harry Harlow, or one of the many other  eminent psychologists .

Psychology Research Topics About a Specific Career

​Another possible topic, depending on the course in which you are enrolled, is to write about specific career paths within the  field of psychology . This type of paper is especially appropriate if you are exploring different subtopics or considering which area interests you the most.

In your paper, you might opt to explore the typical duties of a psychologist, how much people working in these fields typically earn, and the different employment options that are available.

Topics of Psychology Research Involving Case Studies

One potentially interesting idea is to write a  psychology case study  of a particular individual or group of people. In this type of paper, you will provide an in-depth analysis of your subject, including a thorough biography.

Generally, you will also assess the person, often using a major psychological theory such as  Piaget's stages of cognitive development  or  Erikson's eight-stage theory of human development . It is also important to note that your paper doesn't necessarily have to be about someone you know personally.

In fact, many professors encourage students to write case studies on historical figures or fictional characters from books, television programs, or films.

Psychology Research Topics Involving Literature Reviews

Another possibility that would work well for a number of psychology courses is to do a literature review of a specific topic within psychology. A literature review involves finding a variety of sources on a particular subject, then summarizing and reporting on what these sources have to say about the topic.

Literature reviews are generally found in the  introduction  of journal articles and other  psychology papers , but this type of analysis also works well for a full-scale psychology term paper.

Topics of Psychology Research Based on Your Own Study or Experiment

Many psychology courses require students to design an actual psychological study or perform some type of experiment. In some cases, students simply devise the study and then imagine the possible results that might occur. In other situations, you may actually have the opportunity to collect data, analyze your findings, and write up your results.

Finding a topic for your study can be difficult, but there are plenty of great ways to come up with intriguing ideas. Start by considering your own interests as well as subjects you have studied in the past.

Online sources, newspaper articles, books , journal articles, and even your own class textbook are all great places to start searching for topics for your experiments and psychology term papers. Before you begin, learn more about  how to conduct a psychology experiment .

What This Means For You

After looking at this brief list of possible topics for psychology papers, it is easy to see that psychology is a very broad and diverse subject. While this variety makes it possible to find a topic that really catches your interest, it can sometimes make it very difficult for some students to select a good topic.

If you are still stumped by your assignment, ask your instructor for suggestions and consider a few from this list for inspiration.

• Hockenbury, SE & Nolan, SA. Psychology. New York: Worth Publishers; 2014.
• Santrock, JW. A Topical Approach to Lifespan Development. New York: McGraw-Hill Education; 2016.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Term Paper Topics: 150 Ideas for Academic Excellence

Upon entering university, the multitude of responsibilities that accompany your studies may catch you off guard. The pressure to write and submit research papers on time can be overwhelming, leading to feelings of exhaustion and anxiety.

Many students find themselves stressed and unsure of how to navigate assignments and exams, particularly when it comes to selecting the best term paper topics that align with their writing style. The process can leave individuals feeling lost and in need of guidance or an essay service .

In this article, you will find a collection of 150 excellent topic ideas in Philosophy, Sociology, Micro and Macroeconomics, History, Ethics, Medicine, Chemistry, Biology, Education, as well as Media and Communication.

From History to Biology: Intriguing Term Paper Topics to Spark Your Creativity

The provided topic suggestions are organized based on subject areas, offering a diverse range of options. Our goal is to provide a balanced scope and complexity, catering to various academic levels, courses, and interests. Feel free to tailor these research topic ideas to align with your specific educational needs when learning how to write a term paper .

Whether you choose to narrow down the topics or approach them from a different perspective, the list is designed to be adaptable to your unique requirements and preferences. Should you lack time to explore any of these topics, go for custom research paper writing at any time on our website.

Still Can’t Find a Great Term Paper Topic?

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Philosophy Term Paper Topics

Embark on a philosophical exploration with these compelling topics in Philosophy that delve into the fundamental questions of existence, ethics, and knowledge. From classical philosophical inquiries to contemporary debates, this curated list offers diverse avenues for contemplation and intellectual discourse.

• The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence: Examining the Moral Implications of AI Development.
• Nietzsche's Ubermensch: A Critical Analysis of the Concept of the Overman.
• The Trolley Problem: Ethical Dilemmas in Utilitarianism.
• The Philosophy of Mind-Body Dualism: Descartes vs. Contemporary Perspectives.
• Existentialism in Literature: Analyzing the Existential Themes in Kafka's Works.
• The Epistemology of Fake News: Truth, Trust, and Information in the Digital Age.
• Eastern Philosophy: Comparing Taoism and Confucianism on Ethics and Society.
• Feminist Ethics: Deconstructing Gender Bias and Inequality through a Philosophical Lens.
• Environmental Ethics: The Moral Obligations in the Face of Climate Change.
• The Philosophy of Language: Wittgenstein's Linguistic Investigations and its Impact on Analytic Philosophy.

Sociology Term Paper Topics

Dive into the complexities of societal structures and human interactions with these thought-provoking topics in Sociology. This curated list explores a diverse range of issues, from the impact of technology on social dynamics to the examination of cultural norms and their influence on individual behavior. If Sociology isn't your jam, buy term paper from professional writers to keep up with the workload.

• The Digital Divide: Analyzing Socioeconomic Disparities in Access to Technology.
• Social Media and Identity: Exploring the Impact of Online Platforms on Self-Perception.
• The Influence of Gender Roles on Career Choices: A Sociological Perspective.
• Urbanization and Social Change: Examining the Effects of Urban Development on Communities.
• The Sociology of Deviance: Understanding the Social Construction of Criminality.
• Intersectionality in Feminist Theory: Addressing the Interconnectedness of Social Categories.
• The Role of Family Structure in Shaping Educational Attainment.
• Globalization and Cultural Homogenization: Assessing the Impact on Local Cultures.
• Social Movements and Political Change: A Comparative Analysis of Historical Cases.
• The Sociology of Health Inequalities: Investigating the Link Between Social Factors and Health Disparities.

Microeconomics Term Paper Topics

Explore the intricate world of economic decision-making and market dynamics with these engaging topics in Microeconomics. This curated list offers a diverse array of subjects, from analyzing consumer behavior to exploring the implications of market structures on resource allocation.

• Behavioral Economics: Investigating the Psychological Factors Influencing Consumer Choices.
• Market Failures and Externalities: Assessing the Role of Government Intervention.
• The Economics of Information: Examining the Impact of Asymmetric Information on Markets.
• Game Theory in Business Strategy: A Microeconomic Perspective.
• Labor Market Dynamics: Analyzing Wage Determinants and Unemployment Trends.
• The Elasticity of Demand: A Comprehensive Study of Price Sensitivity.
• Monopolistic Competition: Understanding the Characteristics and Implications for Industries.
• Environmental Economics: Evaluating the Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation.
• The Role of Microfinance in Alleviating Poverty: A Microeconomic Analysis.
• Health Economics: Exploring the Economic Factors Influencing Healthcare Access and Outcomes.

Macroeconomics Term Paper Topics

Study the broader economic landscape with these compelling topics in Macroeconomics. This curated list delves into key issues such as fiscal policy, monetary systems, and global economic trends, offering diverse avenues for in-depth analysis and critical inquiry.

• The Impact of Inflation on Income Distribution: A Macroeconomic Perspective.
• Keynesian vs. Monetarist Approaches to Economic Stabilization.
• Globalization and Income Inequality: Analyzing the Macro-Level Effects on Nations.
• The Phillips Curve: Examining the Relationship Between Inflation and Unemployment.
• The Role of Central Banks in Monetary Policy: A Comparative Analysis.
• Economic Growth and Sustainable Development: Balancing Progress with Environmental Concerns.
• Fiscal Policy and Economic Stimulus: Assessing the Effectiveness of Government Intervention.
• Exchange Rate Determinants: Understanding Factors Influencing Currency Values.
• The Business Cycle: Analyzing Phases and Implications for Economic Policies.
• The Macroeconomics of Public Debt: Evaluating the Impact on National Economies.

Economics Term Paper Topics

Discover a curated selection of topics in Economics designed to foster a deep understanding of economic principles and their real-world applications. From exploring market dynamics to evaluating the global impacts of economic policies, this collection provides a valuable foundation for in-depth research, allowing students to delve into critical economic issues and enhance their analytical skills.

• The Role of Entrepreneurship in Economic Development: A Comparative Analysis.
• Behavioral Economics and Nudging: Understanding the Intersection of Psychology and Economic Decision-Making.
• The Economics of Renewable Energy: Assessing the Viability and Impact on Energy Markets.
• Economic Consequences of Technological Innovation: A Historical Perspective.
• The Circular Economy: Exploring Sustainable Business Models and Resource Management.
• Income Mobility and Economic Equality: Analyzing Trends and Policy Implications.
• Trade Liberalization and Global Economic Integration: Challenges and Opportunities.
• The Economics of Healthcare Systems: A Comparative Study of Models Around the World.
• The Impact of Economic Policies on Income Distribution: A Case Study Approach.
• Financial Crises and Regulatory Responses: Lessons from Historical and Contemporary Perspectives.

History Term Paper Topics

To maximize your historical research experience, consider selecting a good research paper topic in History that aligns with your interests and offers ample primary and secondary sources, ensuring a rich and nuanced exploration of the past.

• The Silk Road: Cultural Exchange and Economic Impact.
• The Renaissance and its Influence on European Art and Science.
• The Berlin Wall: Origins, Division, and Fall.
• The Role of Women in Ancient Civilizations: A Comparative Study.
• The Cold War Space Race: USA vs. USSR.
• The Crusades: Causes, Consequences, and Historical Impact.
• The Age of Enlightenment: Intellectual Movements and Social Change.
• The Partition of India: Examining the Aftermath and Legacy.
• The Harlem Renaissance: Cultural Flourishing in African American History.
• The Industrial Revolution: Transformations in Society, Economy, and Technology.

Ethics Term Paper Topics

When tackling interesting research topics in Ethics, ensure to thoroughly define the ethical issue at hand and provide a clear rationale for your chosen stance. Engage with relevant ethical theories, present counterarguments thoughtfully, and strive for a balanced analysis to demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the complexities involved.

• Ethical Implications of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare.
• Environmental Ethics: Balancing Human Needs and Ecological Responsibility.
• The Ethics of Genetic Engineering: Navigating Moral Boundaries.
• Corporate Social Responsibility: Evaluating Business Ethics in the Modern Era.
• Bioethics and Human Cloning: Moral Considerations in Scientific Advancements.
• Ethical Issues in Animal Testing: Balancing Scientific Progress and Animal Welfare.
• The Morality of Capital Punishment: A Critical Analysis.
• Cyberethics: Addressing Moral Challenges in the Digital Age.
• Ethical Considerations in Medical Research: Lessons from Historical Controversies.
• Ethical Dimensions of Globalization: Examining Fair Trade and Social Justice.

World History Term Paper Topics

When working on topics in World History, focus on developing a clear thesis that addresses a specific aspect of global history, ensuring it is both compelling and well-defined. Support your arguments with a thorough examination of primary and secondary sources, offering a nuanced perspective on historical events and fostering a deeper understanding of their global impact.

• The Impact of the Silk Road on Global Trade and Cultural Exchange.
• The Age of Exploration: European Expansion and Its Consequences.
• The Industrial Revolution's Global Impact on Societies and Economies.
• The Ottoman Empire: Rise, Peak, and Decline.
• Decolonization Movements in Africa: Struggles for Independence.
• The Renaissance in Italy and Its Influence on European Art and Thought.
• The Haitian Revolution: A Landmark in the Fight Against Slavery.
• The Boxer Rebellion in China: Resistance to Western Influence.
• The Berlin Airlift: Cold War Tensions and Humanitarian Efforts.
• The Cuban Missile Crisis: A Critical Moment in Cold War History.

Medicine Term Paper Topics

Contemplating interesting research paper topics in Medicine, prioritize selecting a specific and relevant subject to explore, ensuring it aligns with your interests and academic goals. Additionally, integrate critical analysis of current research, consider ethical implications, and emphasize the practical applications of medical advancements to enhance the depth and breadth of your research paper. Since writing about health research paper topics is often challenging, consider learning how to write a nursing essay to be better prepared for such a task.

• Precision Medicine: Tailoring Treatment to Individual Genetic Profiles.
• The Ethics of Organ Transplants: Balancing Supply and Demand.
• Pandemics Throughout History: Lessons from the Black Death to COVID-19.
• Mental Health Stigma: Addressing Barriers to Care and Understanding.
• Advances in CRISPR Technology: Implications for Genetic Editing in Medicine.
• The Impact of Vaccination Programs on Public Health.
• Global Health Disparities: Analyzing the Root Causes and Solutions.
• Telemedicine: Revolutionizing Healthcare Delivery.
• Alternative Medicine: Examining Efficacy and Integration into Mainstream Healthcare.
• Medical Ethics in End-of-Life Care: Balancing Autonomy and Compassion.

Tackling topics in Philosophy, carefully define your thesis statement and ensure it reflects a clear and specific argument, providing a roadmap for your exploration. Engage deeply with primary philosophical texts, critically analyze different perspectives, and construct a well-structured argument to demonstrate a nuanced understanding of the philosophical concepts under consideration.

• Existentialism in Literature: Analyzing the Themes in Kafka's Works.
• The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence: Examining Moral Implications in AI Development.
• Nietzsche's Ubermensch: A Critical Analysis of the Overman Concept.
• Eastern Philosophy: A Comparative Study of Taoism and Confucianism.
• Feminist Ethics: Deconstructing Gender Bias and Inequality Philosophically.
• Environmental Ethics: Moral Obligations in the Face of Climate Change.
• Theories of Truth: A Comparative Analysis in Analytic Philosophy.

Chemistry Term Paper Topics

When approaching topics in Chemistry, focus on clearly defining the research question and highlighting its significance within the broader context of chemical science. Integrate recent advancements, experimental methodologies, and real-world applications to showcase the practical implications of your chosen topic and engage your readers with the dynamic and evolving nature of the field. If any topic is too difficult or doesn't resonate with you, try term paper writing services for better results.

• Green Chemistry: Sustainable Practices in the Chemical Industry.
• The Chemistry of Drug Design: From Molecules to Medicines.
• Nanotechnology in Chemistry: Applications and Future Implications.
• Environmental Chemistry: Analyzing the Impact of Human Activities on Ecosystems.
• The Role of Catalysts in Chemical Reactions: Mechanisms and Applications.
• Supramolecular Chemistry: Exploring Molecular Assemblies and Interactions.
• Quantum Chemistry: Understanding Molecular Behavior at the Quantum Level.
• Chemistry of Food Additives: Safety, Functionality, and Regulations.
• The Chemistry of Brewing: From Raw Ingredients to the Perfect Pint.
• Bioinorganic Chemistry: Investigating the Role of Metals in Biological Systems.

Biology Term Paper Topics

With topics in Biology, carefully define your research question, ensuring it addresses a specific aspect of biological science with relevance and significance. Utilize a combination of current research, empirical evidence, and critical analysis to construct a well-supported argument that contributes to the broader understanding of biological phenomena.

• CRISPR Technology: Revolutionary Advances in Genetic Editing.
• The Microbiome and Human Health: Exploring the Gut-Brain Connection.
• Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Behavior: Insights from Darwinian Theory.
• Climate Change and Biodiversity: Impact on Ecosystems and Conservation.
• Stem Cell Research: Applications in Medicine and Ethical Considerations.
• Epigenetics: Understanding Gene Expression Beyond DNA Sequences.
• Conservation Biology: Strategies to Protect Endangered Species.
• Neurobiology of Addiction: Unraveling the Molecular Mechanisms.
• Synthetic Biology: Engineering Life for Biotechnological Applications.
• The Ecology of Infectious Diseases: Interactions between Pathogens and Hosts.

Political Science Term Paper Topics

Approaching Political Science topics involves clearly articulating your research question and its relevance to political theory or contemporary issues. Thoroughly engage with diverse perspectives, incorporate relevant case studies, and critically analyze empirical evidence to construct a nuanced argument that contributes to the field's ongoing discourse.

• The Impact of Social Media on Political Campaigns: Analyzing Communication Strategies.
• The Role of International Organizations in Global Governance: A Case Study Approach.
• Populism in Contemporary Politics: Causes, Characteristics, and Consequences.
• The Evolution of Political Parties: A Comparative Analysis of Party Systems.
• Human Rights and International Law: Addressing Challenges and Controversies.
• The Influence of Political Economy on Policy Decision-Making.
• The Arab Spring: Examining Political Change in the Middle East.
• Environmental Politics: Policy Approaches to Address Climate Change.
• Electoral Systems: Comparing Proportional Representation and First-Past-the-Post.
• Nationalism and Identity Politics: Impact on Statehood and International Relations.

Term Paper Topics About Education

Ensure your Education research paper topics are specific and relevant, focusing on an aspect of education that aligns with your academic interests. Support your arguments with a blend of empirical evidence, educational theories, and practical examples to offer a comprehensive analysis and contribute meaningfully to the discourse surrounding educational practices.

• The Impact of Technology on Classroom Learning: Opportunities and Challenges.
• Inclusive Education: Addressing Diversity in the Classroom.
• The Role of Standardized Testing in Education: Pros and Cons.
• Early Childhood Education: The Foundation for Lifelong Learning.
• Online Learning: Exploring Effectiveness and College Students Engagement.
• Education Policy Analysis: A Comparative Study of Global Approaches.
• Special Education: Meeting the Needs of Diverse Learners.
• Teacher Professional Development: Strategies for Continuous Improvement.
• The Influence of Socioeconomic Status on Educational Attainment.
• Education and Social Justice: Bridging Gaps for Equitable Opportunities.

Media and Communication Term Paper Topics

Meticulously define your research question, emphasizing its significance within the realm of Media and Communication studies. Employ a critical analysis of media theories, incorporate real-world examples, and consider the social implications to construct a well-rounded argument that reflects an in-depth understanding of communication dynamics.

• Media Influence on Public Opinion: Analyzing the Power of Mass Media.
• Social Media and Political Discourse: Impacts on Democratic Processes.
• The Evolution of Print Journalism in the Digital Age: Challenges and Opportunities.
• Media Ethics: Balancing Freedom of Speech and Responsible Reporting.
• The Role of Advertising in Shaping Consumer Behavior: A Critical Examination.
• Media Convergence: Integration of Platforms and its Effects on Content.
• The Representation of Gender in Media: Examining Stereotypes and Progress.
• Fake News and Misinformation: Challenges in the Era of Information Overload.
• The Impact of Streaming Services on Traditional Media: A Market Analysis.
• Media Literacy Education: Enhancing Critical Thinking in the Digital Age.

It's always crucial to begin researching term paper topics by thoroughly understanding the assigned subject matter or selecting one that aligns with your interests and experiences. Engage in thoughtful brainstorming to identify key themes or personal anecdotes that can add depth to your essay. Establish a clear and compelling thesis statement that guides the reader through your narrative or argument, providing a roadmap for the essay's structure.

For those looking to expedite their academic journey, exploring term papers for sale online could be a strategic move. Be sure to strike a balance between personal reflection and broader implications, showcasing both your individual perspective and an awareness of the topic's significance. Finally, revise and edit your essay diligently, seeking feedback from peers or mentors to ensure clarity, coherence, and an impactful presentation of your research paper ideas. If you ever happen to require any help with finding the best research paper topics, simply say, ' write my paper ,' and college curriculum helpers will give you a hand. 

Found a Great Topic? Awesome!

Then it’s time to start doing your research. Wait a sec… Got no time for it? Deadlines burning too hot? Well, we’ve got a solution for you! 

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

is an expert in nursing and healthcare, with a strong background in history, law, and literature. Holding advanced degrees in nursing and public health, his analytical approach and comprehensive knowledge help students navigate complex topics. On EssayPro blog, Adam provides insightful articles on everything from historical analysis to the intricacies of healthcare policies. In his downtime, he enjoys historical documentaries and volunteering at local clinics.

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How To Write a Term Paper: A Guide That Works

30 June, 2020

16 minutes read

Author:  Mathieu Johnson

Once you’ve started your university career, you are going to be asked to present a term paper. What’s the difference between a term paper and a research paper? How can you write a good term? What’s the best way to structure it? Where can you find some tips to make the writing process faster? In this article, we’ll discuss a few tips to help you prepare a term paper quickly and professionally.

What Is a Term Paper… And What Is The First Step?

A term paper is a critical and analytical report on the topic or subject that you covered within the course of studies. It usually consists of two separate but equally important aspects: your own thoughts about the topic and a demonstration of your understanding of the existing literature. The main goal of this assignment is to summarize the material you learned and showcase your understanding of the topic. This aspect makes the term paper a universal instrument for assessing a student’s proficiency. It also explains why term papers cost so many points of your course grade.

We usually associate a term paper with a research paper , but although the concepts are quite similar, a research paper requires a more academic approach and a deeper investigation into the literature of your field of study.

To write an outstanding college term paper, you must understand that your professor has requested it in order to test your analytical thinking skills. You must collect relevant data, analyze it, and then make a summary or solve a particular problem. Such skills are highly relevant to the business world, so this type of the task is as practical as it is educational.

So, let’s start the preparation!

Before you begin writing

Unfortunately, there is no magical recipe that allows you to get everything done fast. You will need to choose the best way forward in whatever situation you find yourself, but here are some tips to help you prepare for the assignment.

To begin with, take the research stage seriously . Sometimes, when students are really interested in a topic, they only want to present their personal ideas about the problem. Unfortunately, if you’re not completely familiar with all the data from the various sources, you will need to reinvent the bicycle.

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In the initial stages of your research, investigate everything you can find on the topic . This may sound like a tall order, but you’ll find that it doesn’t actually entail that much reading. At this point you are only compiling the research, so you will be skimming through numerous prospects rather than reading them completely. Bear in mind that your aim is to get acquainted with the various aspects of your problem. The term paper summarizes the knowledge you gained within a course and requires to familiarize yourself with the research that other people have already made on your topic.

Thinking that your opinions are completely original and unique is quite egocentric, and it can get you into trouble. So, “your” thoughts about the problem are usually just somebody else’s statements that you have rephrased (or even a well-established academic concept!). Remember that your professor will be familiar with all the literature surrounding the issue: if you merely rewrite someone else’s thoughts and present them as your own (even if you don’t realize doing it), be prepared for criticism!

Applying a Structure To Your Term Paper

Once you have read all the leading authors and their approaches to your problem, it’s time to create a structure for your work. This is not yet an outline; you just need to decide what to write about. Sketch out the topic for the theoretical portion of your work and think about practical aspects and how you can approach the research in the best possible way.

At this point, you really need to call or email your supervisor . Your professor will have seen hundreds of term papers like yours (i.e., they have not yet been written, but a definite idea exists!) and will be prepared to give you feedback and advice. He or she will tell you what literature you have omitted, offer suggestions about what you should read, and give you feedback about your paper. It may well be that your approach has already occurred to somebody else, in which case there is no need to repeat it.

Choosing a Topic: Easy as Riding a Bike?

When you choose your topic, make sure you choose something that you are interested in . That’s our advice if you want a painless term paper. If you prefer to investigate a field that you’ve never really explored before, you can challenge yourself to do that, too. That might be sophisticated, but why not?

If you decide to investigate a topic or a problem that you are pretty familiar with, your writing will be more fluid. You will focus your attention on a specific aspect of the chosen field and expand your knowledge within that scope. On the contrary, choosing an unfamiliar subject matter can wash out your expertise.

Be prepared to change the topic if you find out that your research isn’t going anywhere. It might occur that you presuppose that your topic has a potential but somewhere at the stage of initial research, you find that it just won’t work. It’s always a good idea to consider two or three topics when you kick off the term paper writing – even if they are just different ways of examining the same problem. By doing this, you will be able to choose the best version, which may not be the one you started with at all!

Related Post: 100 Persuasive essay topics

Formulating a Thesis statement

Writing a proper thesis statement can also be challenging. To begin with, write down a couple of prominent ideas or concepts, then try to make rough drafts of them to see how they’ll work in the structural framework. You will probably find that one idea fits your style, interests, and knowledge base: you can choose that one as your thesis statement.

Remember that the thesis statement is the skeleton, the central concept of your paper. It is the elemental attribute of almost any academic paper – from master’s thesis to a simple five paragraph essay. If you do a thorough job on it, you will find that writing (and defending!) your argument is much easier.

Be aware that all of these stages are parts of a procedure – one leads to another. When writing a term paper, you should collect the material and wrap it up at the same time.

Planning – The Key To Success

Some people claim that they can write a term paper without any planning. In our opinion, this is impossible. If you don’t have a postgraduate degree and you aren’t a certified genius, you need to prepare an outline for your project. It may come as a surprise, but even people who claim otherwise actually prepare outlines – in their heads. But if you don’t have that much experience, use a pencil and your notebook to ensure that you don’t forget anything.

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That’s when we get to preparing your first draft . There’s only one thing to add here: do as many drafts as you need in order to achieve your goal. Understand that your aim is to create an excellent term paper and keep working at it until you are satisfied.

Term Paper Outline: Write Everything In The Proper Section!

In the Introduction , state the topic that you are going to investigate and the context of your work. This is the critical ‘selling’ moment of your work. In a nutshell, your introduction combined with a conclusion should give a sneak peek into what the whole paper is about. If your introduction is well-prepared, it will be quite complacent about the body of your project. The introduction must include an abstract that presents your thesis statement . You should explain your motivation (why should the reader be concerned about this problem?) , your methods (what scientific tools did you use?) , and the results (what you achieved) .

The Literature Review totally corresponds to its name – it is here to review the literature you compiled. Your professor will double check it to make sure that you understand the context of your argument. One more thing to add is: collect all the information you can! Ideally, you should read or at least glance through every book and author that you can find on the topic. Think of your task as a fascinating journey: if you approach it like that, reading hundreds of pages won’t seem like that much of a challenge.

In the Discussion , you must present the interpretations of the problem. Be honest, explain what you pieces of data you don’t agree with and what ideas and concepts you support. This section connects the dots between theory and practice when writing a term paper. Wherever possible, provide several interpretations of the subject matter, then choose the one(s) that are most relevant to the case you are presenting.

In the Body , focus on those arguments that prove your thesis statement. This section must be absolutely logical. If you have chosen a more complicated topic, use heading and sub-headings to improve the appearance of this section. While writing the body, keep your target audience (your professors) in mind. In other words, don’t just record the obvious causes/effects/solutions but also showcase your own findings – what you have discovered and how that proves your thesis statement. Demonstrate that you are familiar with the details and you will stun your readers with the prolific mastery of the topic.

Now, the Conclusion   is her to summarize both the content and the purpose of the paper. The most challenging part is not to make it too dry. Reiterate your thesis statement and briefly show how your results justified your proposition. At the very end, you can suggest a call to action or pose a rhetorical question or statement that leaves your reader wanting more.

What to do next?

When you have finished, reread your work a couple of times. You will almost certainly find a few faults, whether they are contextual, factual, syntactical, grammatical, or even simple spelling mistakes. A very useful tip is to wait for two or three days after writing your final draft to proofread it afterward. Your brain will have time to process the information, and you’ll be able to look at it with a fresh view.

When proofreading, take care to polish the structural problems. The skeleton (the logic and the thesis statement) should make sense. If they don’t, try to approach the problem from another perspective. The changes may take some time, but bear in mind that your objective is to produce professional work. Be patient!

After that, print the term paper. The human eye processes information differently on the paper than on a computer screen; that’s why you need to print it and take one final look for any possible mistakes. Even if you don’t see any serious defects, pay attention to formatting, punctuation, and synonyms. It’s an academic text, so make it shine!

Term Paper Sample

Be sure to check the sample of a term paper, completed by our writers. Use it as an example to perfect your own writing. Link:  Term Paper Sample: Consumer Buying Behavior .

The Do’s and Don’ts of Term Paper Writing

There you have the most important tips to help you succeed in writing a term paper. Now it’s up to you to stop reading and start writing!

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Ethical Research Paper Topics

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• Chess (Gr. 1-4)
• TV (Gr. 1-4)
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• Tetris (Gr. 2-6)
• Seat Belts (Gr. 2-6)
• The Coliseum (Gr. 2-6)
• The Pony Express (Gr. 2-6)
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• Worst Game Ever? (Gr. 4-8)
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• Author's Purpose Practice 1
• Author's Purpose Practice 2
• Author's Purpose Practice 3
• Fact and Opinion Practice 1
• Fact and Opinion Practice 2
• Fact and Opinion Practice 3
• Idioms Practice Test 1
• Idioms Practice Test 2
• Figurative Language Practice 1
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• Figurative Language Practice 3
• Figurative Language Practice 4
• Figurative Language Practice 5
• Figurative Language Practice 6
• Figurative Language Practice 7
• Figurative Language Practice 8
• Figurative Language Practice 9
• Figurative Language of Edgar Allan Poe
• Figurative Language of O. Henry
• Figurative Language of Shakespeare
• Genre Practice 1
• Genre Practice 2
• Genre Practice 3
• Genre Practice 4
• Genre Practice 5
• Genre Practice 6
• Genre Practice 7
• Genre Practice 8
• Genre Practice 9
• Genre Practice 10
• Irony Practice 1
• Irony Practice 2
• Irony Practice 3
• Making Inferences Practice 1
• Making Inferences Practice 2
• Making Inferences Practice 3
• Making Inferences Practice 4
• Making Inferences Practice 5
• Main Idea Practice 1
• Main Idea Practice 2
• Point of View Practice 1
• Point of View Practice 2
• Text Structure Practice 1
• Text Structure Practice 2
• Text Structure Practice 3
• Text Structure Practice 4
• Text Structure Practice 5
• Story Structure Practice 1
• Story Structure Practice 2
• Story Structure Practice 3
• Author's Purpose
• Characterizations
• Context Clues
• Fact and Opinion
• Figurative Language
• Grammar and Language Arts
• Poetic Devices
• Point of View
• Predictions
• Reading Comprehension
• Story Structure
• Summarizing
• Text Structure
• Character Traits
• Common Core Aligned Unit Plans
• Teacher Point of View
• Teaching Theme
• Patterns of Organization
• Project Ideas
• Reading Activities
• How to Write Narrative Essays
• How to Write Persuasive Essays
• Narrative Essay Assignments
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101 research paper topics.

• Why do we sleep ?
• How do GPS systems work?
• Who was the first person to reach the North Pole ?
• Did anybody ever escape Alcatraz ?
• What was life like for a gladiator ?
• What are the effects of prolonged steroid use on the human body?
• What happened during the Salem witch trials ?
• Are there any effective means of repelling insects ?
• How did trains and railroads change life in America?
• What may have occurred during the Roswell  UFO incident of 1947?
• How is bulletproof clothing made?
• What Olympic events were practiced in ancient Greece?
• What are the major theories explaining the disappearance of the dinosaurs ?
• How was the skateboard invented and how has it changed over the years?
• How did the long bow contribute to English military dominance?
• What caused the stock market crash of 2008?
• How did Cleopatra come to power in Egypt what did she do during her reign?
• How has airport security intensified since September 11 th , 2001?
• What is life like inside of a beehive ?
• Where did hip hop originate and who were its founders?
• What makes the platypus a unique and interesting mammal?
• How does tobacco use affect the human body?
• How do computer viruses spread and in what ways do they affect computers?
• What is daily life like for a Buddhist monk ?
• What are the origins of the conflict in Darfur ?
• How did gunpowder change warfare?
• In what ways do Wal-Mart stores affect local economies?
• How were cats and dogs domesticated and for what purposes?
• What do historians know about ninjas ?
• How has the music industry been affected by the internet and digital downloading?
• What were the circumstances surrounding the death of Osama Bin Laden ?
• What was the women’s suffrage movement and how did it change America?
• What efforts are being taken to protect endangered wildlife ?
• How much does the war on drugs cost Americans each year?
• How is text messaging affecting teen literacy?
• Are humans still evolving ?
• What technologies are available to home owners to help them conserve energy ?
• How have oil spills affected the planet and what steps are being taken to prevent them?
• What was the Magna Carta and how did it change England?
• What is the curse of the pharaohs?
• Why was Socrates executed?
• What nonlethal weapons are used by police to subdue rioters?
• How does the prison population in America compare to other nations?
• How did ancient sailors navigate the globe?
• Can gamblers ever acquire a statistical advantage over the house in casino games?
• What is alchemy and how has it been attempted?
• How are black holes formed?
• How was the assassination of Abraham Lincoln plotted and executed?
• Do the benefits of vaccination outweigh the risks?
• How do submarines work?
• Do lie detector tests accurately determine truthful statements?
• How did Cold War tension affect the US and the world?
• What happened to the lost settlers at Roanoke ?
• How does a hybrid car save energy?
• What ingredients can be found inside of a hotdog ?
• How did Julius Caesar affect Rome?
• What are some common sleep disorders and how are they treated?
• How did the Freedom Riders change society?
• How is internet censorship used in China and around the world?
• What was the code of the Bushido and how did it affect samurai warriors ?
• What are the risks of artificial tanning or prolonged exposure to the sun?
• What programs are available to help war veterans get back into society?
• What steps are involved in creating a movie or television show?
• How have the film and music industries dealt with piracy ?
• How did Joan of Arc change history?
• What responsibilities do secret service agents have?
• How does a shark hunt?
• What dangers and hardships did Lewis and Clark face when exploring the Midwest?
• Has the Patriot Act prevented or stopped terrorist acts in America?
• Do states that allow citizens to carry guns have higher or lower crime rates?
• How are the Great Depression and the Great Recession similar and different?
• What are the dangers of scuba diving and underwater exploration?
• How does the human brain store and retrieve memories ?
• What was the Manhattan Project and what impact did it have on the world?
• How does stealth technology shield aircraft from radar?
• What causes tornadoes ?
• Why did Martin Luther protest against the Catholic Church?
• How does a search engine work?
• What are the current capabilities and future goals of genetic engineers ?
• How did the Roman Empire fall?
• What obstacles faced scientists in breaking the sound barrier ?
• How did the black plague affect Europe?
• What happened to Amelia Earhart ?
• What are the dangers and hazards of using nuclear power ?
• How did Genghis Khan conquer Persia?
• What architectural marvels were found in Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec Empire ?
• From where does spam email come and can we stop it?
• How does night vision work?
• How did journalists influence US war efforts in Vietnam ?
• What are the benefits and hazards of medical marijuana ?
• What causes desert mirages and how do they affect wanderers?
• What was the cultural significance of the first moon landing ?
• What are sinkholes and how are they formed?
• Have any psychics ever solved crimes or prevented them from occurring?
• Who is Vlad the Impaler and what is his connection to Count Dracula ?
• What are the risks of climate change and global warming ?
• What treatments are available to people infected with HIV and are they effective?
• Who was a greater inventor, Leonardo di Vinci or Thomas Edison ?
• How are the Chinese and American economies similar and different?
• Why was communism unsuccessful in so many countries?
• In what ways do video games affect children and teenagers?

923 Comments

I like using this website when I assist kids with learning as a lot of these topics are quickly covered in the school systems. Thankyou

Mackenah Nicole Molina

Wow! I always have trouble deiciding what to do a research project on but this list has totally solved that. Now my only problem is choosing what idea on this list I should do first!

Most of these my teacher rejected because apparently ‘these aren’t grade level topics, and I doubt they interest you”

I’m sorry to hear that. Sounds like you will have a potentially valuable character-building experience in the short-term.

Edwin Augusto Galindo Cuba

THIS SITE IS AWESOME, THERE ARE LOTS OF TOPICS TO LEARN AND MASTER OUR SKILLS!

research kid

I need one about animals, please. I have been challenged to a animal research project, Due Friday. I have no clue what to research! somebody help, thanks for reading!

You can do one on bats

For international studies you can do Defense and Security.

This was very helpful.

Research on Ben Franklin? I think THAT will get a real charge out of everyone (hehehehegetit)

Mandy Maher

“Is it possible to colonize Mars?”

maddy burney

these are silly topics

thx for making this real.

more gaming questions!!!!!!

Is it still considered stealing if you don’t get caught?

Yes, yes it is still considered stealing.

I need topics on memes

Mary Nnamani

Please I need project topics on Language Literature

Marcella Vallarino

I would appreciate a list of survey questions for middle school grades 6-8

I need a research topics about public sector management

I NEED FIVE EXAMPLES EACH ON QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH (EDUCATION, HEALTH, TECHNOLOGY, ECONOMY AND ENGINEERING)

publish research that are interesting please……

hey can you do one on the burmiueda triangle

Anybody know video games effect kids,and,teens. There Fun!!

they’re

I need a topic about woman history if any of u can find 1 please that would be great!

You could research about the history of the astronauts, and of human past (WWI, WWII, etc.)

so about women? Manitoba Women Win the Right to Vote in Municipal Elections, The First Women, January 23, 1849: Elizabeth Blackwell becomes the first woman to graduate from medical school and become a doctor in the United States, Rosa Parks Civil Rights Equal Pay. I have way more. so if you need more just ask.

communism is good

what are you a communist?!?!

Did FDR know about the upcoming attack on Pearl Harbor on 07 DEC 1941.

do you know how babies are born

Christine Singu

kindly assist with a research topic in the field of accounting or auditing

need more about US army

Please can yiu give me a topic in education

I think one should be how can music/Video games can affect the life for people

or How Do Video Games Affect Teenagers?

zimbabwe leader

I think a good topic is supporting the confederate flag!

Need a research topic within the context of students union government and dues payments

do more weird ones plz

joyce alcantara

Hi pls po can you give me a topic relate for humanities pls thank u.

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Econometrics Research Topics and Term Paper Ideas

Impress Your Economics Professor

• U.S. Economy
• Supply & Demand
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• Ph.D., Business Administration, Richard Ivey School of Business
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• B.A., Economics and Political Science, University of Western Ontario

One of the most difficult things about being an undergraduate student  in economics is that most schools require that students write an econometrics paper at some point in their studies. Econometrics is essentially the application of statistical and mathematical theories and perhaps some computer science to economic data. The objective is to develop empirical evidence for economics hypotheses and to predict future trends by testing economics models through statistical trials.

Econometrics assists economists in analyzing large sets of data to unveil meaningful relationships among them. For instance, an econometrics scholar might attempt to find statistical evidence for answers to real-world economics questions like, "does increased education spending lead to higher economic growth?" with the help of econometrics methods.

The Difficulty Behind Econometrics Projects

While certainly important to the subject of economics, many students (and particularly those who do not particularly enjoy statistics ) find econometrics a necessary evil in their education. So when the moment arrives to find an econometrics research topic for a university term paper or project, they are at a loss. In my time as an economics professor, I have seen students spend 90% of their time simply trying to come up with an econometrics research topic and then searching for the necessary data. But these steps need not be such a challenge.

Econometrics Research Topic Ideas

When it comes to your next econometrics project, I have you covered. I've come up with a few ideas for suitable undergraduate econometrics term papers and projects. All the data you will need to get started on your project is included, though you may choose to supplement with additional data. The data is available for download in Microsoft Excel format, but it can easily be converted to whatever format your course requires you to use.

Here are two econometrics research topic ideas to consider. Within these links are paper topic prompts, research resources, important questions to consider, and data sets to work with.

Okun's Law

Use your econometrics term paper to test Okun's Law in the United States. Okun's Law is named for American economist Arthur Melvin Okun, who was the first to propose the existence of the relationship back in 1962. The relationship described by Okun's Law is between that of a country's unemployment rate and that country's production or gross national product (GNP).

Spending on Imports and Disposable Income

Use your econometrics term paper as an opportunity to answer questions about American spending behaviors. As incomes rise, how do households spend their new wealth and disposable income? Do they spend it on imported goods or domestic goods? 

• Your Comprehensive Guide to a Painless Undergrad Econometrics Project
• Ace Your Econometrics Test
• Learn the Definition What Is Okun's Law in Economics
• Definition and Example of a Markov Transition Matrix
• What You Should Know About Econometrics
• Choosing a Strong Research Topic
• What Is Disposable Income? Definition and Examples
• What Is Panel Data?
• 7 Law School Personal Statement Topic Ideas
• Definition and Use of Instrumental Variables in Econometrics
• An Introduction to Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC)
• What Is a Market?
• A Guide to the Term "Reduced Form" in Econometrics
• Books to Study Before Going to Graduate School in Economics
• Graduate School Papers and You
• 12 Best Economics Schools for Undergraduates

Research Paper Topics

Choose your Topic Smart

What starts well, ends well, so you need to be really careful with research paper topics. The topic of a research paper defines the whole piece of writing. How often have you chosen the book by its title? First impression is often influential, so make sure your topic will attract the reader instantly. By choosing your topic smart, the half of your job is done. That is why we have singled out several secrets on how to pick the best topic for you. Also see the list of 1000 thesis topics .

Browse Research Paper Topics by Category:

• Anthropology
• Argumentative
• Communication
• Criminal Justice
• Environmental
• Political Science

What is the Key to a Perfect Topic for a Research Paper?

The key to a perfect topic includes three main secrets: interest, precision, and innovation.

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It is impossible to do something great if you have no interest in what you are doing. For this reason, make sure you choose the topic that drives you. If you are bored by what you investigate, do not expect that your paper will be exciting. Right now, spend some minutes or even hours thinking about what interests you. Jot down all your preferences in life, science, politics, social issues etc. It will help you get the idea what you can write about.

After realizing what drives you, narrow this general idea to a more specific one. A research paper is not about beating around the bush. You will need clear facts and data. You will have to provide evidence to your ideas. You will need to be precise, specific and convincing.

Finally, the idea of any research is that it should be surprising and distinctive. Think what makes your perspective and approach special. What is the novelty of your research?

Use Technology

If you are still stuck, use technology. Today we have an opportunity to make our lives easier with a bit of technology used. You can find paper topic generators online. This software will examine the category you want to investigate and the keywords from your research. Within several seconds, this program generates paper topics, so you can try it yourself. It can help you get started with your assignment.

100% Effective Advice

We will now give you advice that is 100% effective when picking the topic. Firstly, forget about what others may think about your topic. This is your topic and this is your perception of the world. Stay personal and let your personal style get you the top grades. Secondly, never decide on the topic before analyzing the background for your research. By this we mean, investigate the topic before you start the research proper. It happens quite often that students choose the topic and later they realize there is no data or information to use. That is why conduct some research beforehand. Thirdly, read other researchers’ papers on the topic you want to write about. It will help you get the idea of the investigation. Moreover, it will help you understand whether you truly want to write a paper on this topic. Finally, when you have picked the topic, started your research, make sure you dedicate your time and energy. If you want to get high results, you need to study every little details of your research.

Examine Different Ideas

People often come up with genius ideas after analyzing thousands of other people’s ideas. This is how our brain works. That is why you can analyze other people’s ideas for research paper topics and think up your own. If you have never written any paper of that kind, it will help you understand the gist of this assignment, the style and the requirements. By comparing different topics, you can motivate yourself and get inspired with these ideas. Luckily, you have come to the right place. Here is our list of top 100 research paper topics.

Top 10 Argumentative Research Paper Topics:

Argumentative research papers examine some controversial issues. Your task is to provide your point of view, your argument, and support your idea with the evidence. This academic assignment requires appropriate structuring and formatting.

• Does a College Education Pay?
• Dual Career Families and Working Mothers
• Electronic Copyright and Piracy
• Drinking on Campus
• Education for Homeless Children
• Glass ceiling
• Honor System at Colleges
• Sex and Violence on TV
• Word Population and Hunger
• World Trade and Globalization

Top 10 Economics Research Paper Topics:

If you are studying economics, you can find various topics at our site. Check out topics of micro- and macroeconomics. See ideas for urgent economic problems, economic models and strategies. Get inspired and come up with your perfect topic.

• Beyond Make-or-Buy: Advances in Transaction Cost Economics
• Economic Aspects of Cultural Heritage
• Economics of Energy Markets
• Globalization and Inequality
• International Trade and Trade Restrictions
• Aggregate Expenditures Model and Equilibrium Output
• Taxes Versus Standards
• Predatory Pricing and Strategic Entry Barriers
• Marxian and Institutional Industrial Relations in the United States
• Twentieth-Century Economic Methodology

Top 10 Education Research Paper Topics:

Education has so many questions, and yet few answers. The list of education topic is endless. We have chosen the top 10 topics on the urgent issues in education. You can find ideas related to different approaches, methodology, classroom management, etc.

• Teachers Thinking About Their Practice
• Cognitive Approaches to Motivation in Education
• Responsive Classroom Management
• Ten Steps to Complex Learning
• Economics and School-to-Work
• Reading and Literacy in Adolescence
• Diversifying the Teaching Force
• Teacher-Student Relationships
• Preparing for College and Graduate School
• Role of Professional Learning

Top 10 History Research Paper Topics:

Choose your topic regarding cultural, economic, environmental, military, political or social history. See what other researchers investigated, compare their ideas and pick the topic that interests you.

• European Expansion
• Orientalism
• Current trends in Historiography
• Green Revolution
• Religion and War
• Women’s Emancipation Movements
• History of Civilization

Top 10 Psychology Research Paper Topics:

The list of psychology categories and topics is enormous. We have singled out the most popular topics on psychology in 2019. It is mostly topics on modern psychology. Choose the topic the appeals to you the most or ask our professionals to help you come up with some original idea.

• Imaging Techniques for the Localization of Brain Function
• Memory and Eyewitness Testimony
• Traditional Neuroscience Research Methods
• Meditation and the Relaxation Response
• Assessment of Mental Health in Older Adults
• Cross-Cultural Psychology and Research
• Industrial and Organizational Psychology
• Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
• Prejudice and Stereotyping
• Nature Versus Nurture

Top 10 Biology Research Paper Topics:

Here you can find topics related to the science of all forms of life. Examine the topics from different fields in biology and choose the best one for you.

• Biological Warfare
• Clone and Cloning
• Genetic Disorders
• Genetic Engineering
• Kangaroos and Wallabies
• Mendelian Laws of Inheritance
• Molecular Biology
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Top 10 Chemistry Research Paper Topics:

The best way to understand chemistry is to write a paper on chemistry topic. Below you can see the topics from different fields of chemistry: organic, inorganic, physical, analytical and others.

• Acids and Bases
• Alkaline Earth Metals
• Dyes and Pigments
• Chemical Warfare
• Industrial Minerals
• Photochemistry
• Soaps and Detergents
• Transition Elements

Top 10 Physics Research Paper Topics:

Check out the topics on classical and modern physics. Find ideas for writing about interrelationships of physics to other sciences.

• Aerodynamics
• Atomic Theory
• Celestial Mechanics
• Fluid Dynamics
• Magnetic recording
• Microwave Communication
• Quantum mechanics
• Subatomic particles

Top 10 Sociology Research Paper Topics:

Find ideas related to different sociological theories, research and methodologies.

• Feminist Methodologies and Epistemology
• Quality-of-Life Research
• Sociology of Men and Masculinity
• Sociology of Leisure and Recreation
• Environmental Sociology
• Teaching and Learning in Sociology
• The History of Sociology: The North American Perspective
• The Sociology of Voluntary Associations
• Marriage and Divorce in the United States
• Urban Sociology in the 21 st Century

Top 10 Technology Research Paper Topics:

See topics related to the cutting-edge technology or dive into history of electronics, or even early advances in agriculture.

• Food Preservation: Freeze Drying, Irradiation, and Vacuum Packing
• Tissue Culturing
• Digital Telephony
• Computer-Aided Control Technology
• Minerals Prospecting
• Prefabricated Buildings
• Timber Engineering
• Quantum Electronic Devices
• Thermal Water Moderated Nuclear Reactors
• Long Range Radars and Early Warning Systems

What Makes a Good Topic for a Research Paper?

A good research paper topic is the one that is successful and manageable in your particular case. A successful research paper poses an interesting question you can actually answer. Just as important, it poses a question you can answer within the time available. The question should be one that interests you and deserves exploration. It might be an empirical question or a theoretical puzzle. In some fields, it might be a practical problem or policy issue. Whatever the question is, you need to mark off its boundaries clearly and intelligently so you can complete the research paper and not get lost in the woods. That means your topic should be manageable as well as interesting and important.

A topic is  manageable  if you can:

• Master the relevant literature
• Collect and analyze the necessary data
• Answer the key questions you have posed
• Do it all within the time available, with the skills you have

A topic is  important  if it:

• Touches directly on major theoretical issues and debates, or
• Addresses substantive topics of great interest in your field

Ideally, your topic can do both, engaging theoretical and substantive issues. In elementary education, for example, parents, teachers, scholars, and public officials all debate the effectiveness of charter schools, the impact of vouchers, and the value of different reading programs. A research paper on any of these would resonate within the university and well beyond it. Still, as you approach such topics, you need to limit the scope of your investigation so you can finish your research and writing on time. After all, to be a good research paper, it first has to be a completed one. A successful research paper poses an interesting question you can actually answer within the time available for the project. Some problems are simply too grand, too sweeping to master within the time limits. Some are too minor to interest you or anybody else.

The solution, however, is not to find a lukewarm bowl of porridge, a bland compromise. Nor is it to abandon your interest in larger, more profound issues such as the relationship between school organization and educational achievement or between immigration and poverty. Rather, the solution is to select a well-defined topic that is closely linked to some larger issue and then explore that link. Your research paper will succeed if you nail a well-defined topic. It will rise to excellence if you probe that topic deeply and show how it illuminates wider issues.The best theses deal with important issues, framed in manageable ways. The goal is to select a well-defined topic that is closely linked to some larger issue and can illuminate it.

You can begin your project with either a large issue or a narrowly defined topic, depending on your interests and the ideas you have generated. Whichever way you start, the goals are the same: to connect the two in meaningful ways and to explore your specific topic in depth.

Of course, the choice of a particular research paper topic depends on the course you’re taking. Our site can offer you the following research paper topics and example research papers:

Moving from a Research Paper Idea to a Research Paper Topic

Let’s begin as most students actually do, by going from a “big issue” to a more manageable research paper topic. Suppose you start with a big question such as, “Why has the United States fought so many wars since 1945?” That’s certainly a big, important question. Unfortunately, it’s too complex and sprawling to cover well in a research paper. Working with your professor or instructor, you could zero in on a related but feasible research topic, such as “Why did the Johnson administration choose to escalate the U.S. war in Vietnam?” By choosing this topic, your research paper can focus on a specific war and, within that, on a few crucial years in the mid-1960s.

You can draw on major works covering all aspects of the Vietnam War and the Johnson administration’s decision making. You have access to policy memos that were once stamped top secret. These primary documents have now been declassified, published by the State Department, and made available to research libraries. Many are readily available on the Web. You can also take advantage of top-quality secondary sources (that is, books and articles based on primary documents, interviews, and other research data).

Drawing on these primary and secondary sources, you can uncover and critique the reasons behind U.S. military escalation. As you answer this well-defined question about Vietnam, you can (and you should) return to the larger themes that interest you, namely, “What does the escalation in Southeast Asia tell us about the global projection of U.S. military power since 1945?” As one of America’s largest military engagements since World War II, the war in Vietnam should tell us a great deal about the more general question.

The goal here is to pick a good case to study, one that is compelling in its own right and speaks to the larger issue. It need not be a typical example, but it does need to illuminate the larger question. Some cases are better than others precisely because they illuminate larger issues. That’s why choosing the best cases makes such a difference in your research paper.

Since you are interested in why the United States has fought so often since 1945, you probably shouldn’t focus on U.S. invasions of Grenada, Haiti, or Panama in the past two decades. Why? Because the United States has launched numerous military actions against small, weak states in the Caribbean for more than a century. That is important in its own right, but it doesn’t say much about what has changed so dramatically since 1945. The real change since 1945 is the projection of U.S. power far beyond the Western Hemisphere, to Europe and Asia. You cannot explain this change—or any change, for that matter—by looking at something that remains constant.

In this case, to analyze the larger pattern of U.S. war fighting and the shift it represents, you need to pick examples of distant conflicts, such as Korea, Vietnam, Kosovo, Afghanistan, or Iraq. That’s the noteworthy change since 1945: U.S. military intervention outside the Western Hemisphere. The United States has fought frequently in such areas since World War II but rarely before then. Alternatively, you could use statistics covering many cases of U.S. intervention around the world, perhaps supplemented with some telling cases studies.

Students in the humanities want to explore their own big ideas, and they, too, need to focus their research. In English literature, their big issue might be “masculinity” or, to narrow the range a bit, “masculinity in Jewish American literature.” Important as these issues are, they are too vast for anyone to read all the major novels plus all the relevant criticism and then frame a comprehensive research paper.

If you don’t narrow these sprawling topics and focus your work, you can only skim the surface. Skimming the surface is not what you want to do in a research paper. You want to understand your subject in depth and convey that understanding to your readers.

That does not mean you have to abandon your interest in major themes. It means you have to restrict their scope in sensible ways. To do that, you need to think about which aspects of masculinity really interest you and then find works that deal with them.

You may realize your central concern is how masculinity is defined in response to strong women. That focus would still leave you considerable flexibility, depending on your academic background and what you love to read. That might be anything from a reconsideration of Macbeth to an analysis of early twentieth-century American novels, where men must cope with women in assertive new roles. Perhaps you are interested in another aspect of masculinity: the different ways it is defined within the same culture at the same moment. That would lead you to novelists who explore these differences in their characters, perhaps contrasting men who come from different backgrounds, work in different jobs, or simply differ emotionally. Again, you would have considerable flexibility in choosing specific writers.

Connecting a Specific Research Paper Topic to a Bigger Idea

Not all students begin their research paper concerned with big issues such as masculinity or American wars over the past half century. Some start with very specific topics in mind. One example might be the decision to create NAFTA, the North American Free Trade Agreement encompassing Canada, the United States, and Mexico. Perhaps you are interested in NAFTA because you discussed it in a course, heard about it in a political campaign, or saw its effects firsthand on local workers, companies, and consumers. It intrigues you, and you would like to study it in a research paper. The challenge is to go from this clear-cut subject to a larger theme that will frame your paper.

Why do you even need to figure out a larger theme? Because NAFTA bears on several major topics, and you cannot explore all of them. Your challenge—and your opportunity—is to figure out which one captures your imagination.

One way to think about that is to finish this sentence: “For me, NAFTA is a case of ___________.” If you are mainly interested in negotiations between big and small countries, then your answer is, “For me, NAFTA is a case of a large country like the United States bargaining with a smaller neighbor.” Your answer would be different if you are mainly interested in decision making within the United States, Mexico, or Canada. In that case, you might say, “NAFTA seems to be a case where a strong U.S. president pushed a trade policy through Congress.” Perhaps you are more concerned with the role played by business lobbies. “For me, NAFTA is a case of undue corporate influence over foreign economic policy.” Or you could be interested in the role of trade unions, environmental groups, or public opinion.

The NAFTA decision is related to all these big issues and more. You cannot cover them all. There is not enough time, and even if there were, the resulting paper would be too diffuse, too scattershot. To make an impact, throw a rock, not a handful of pebbles.

Choosing one of these large issues will shape your research paper on NAFTA. If you are interested in U.S. decision making, for example, you might study the lobbying process or perhaps the differences between Democrats and Republicans. If you are interested in diplomacy, you would focus on negotiations between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Either would make an interesting research paper, but they are different topics.

Although the subject matter and analysis are decidedly different in the humanities, many of the same considerations still apply to topic selection. In English or comparative literature, for example, you may be attracted to a very specific topic such as several poems by William Wordsworth. You are not trying, as a social scientist would, to test some generalizations that apply across time or space. Rather, you want to analyze these specific poems, uncover their multiple meanings, trace their allusions, and understand their form and beauty.

As part of the research paper, however, you may wish to say something bigger, something that goes beyond these particular poems. That might be about Wordsworth’s larger body of work. Are these poems representative or unusual? Do they break with his previous work or anticipate work yet to come? You may wish to comment on Wordsworth’s close ties to his fellow “Lake Poets,” Coleridge and Southey, underscoring some similarities in their work. Do they use language in shared ways? Do they use similar metaphors or explore similar themes? You may even wish to show how these particular poems are properly understood as part of the wider Romantic movement in literature and the arts. Any of these would connect the specific poems to larger themes.

How to Refine Your Research Paper Topic

One of your professor’s or instructor’s most valuable contributions to the success of your research paper is to help you refine your topic. She can help you select the best cases for detailed study or the best data and statistical techniques. S/he can help you find cases that shed light on larger questions, have good data available, and are discussed in a rich secondary literature. She may know valuable troves of documents to explore. That’s why it is so important to bring these issues up in early meetings. These discussions with your instructor are crucial in moving from a big but ill-defined idea to a smart, feasible topic.Some colleges supplement this advising process by offering special workshops and tutorial support for students. These are great resources, and you should take full advantage of them. They can improve your project in at least two ways.

First, tutors and workshop leaders are usually quite adept at helping you focus and shape your topic. That’s what they do best. Even if they are relatively new teachers, they have been writing research papers themselves for many years. They know how to do it well and how to avoid common mistakes. To craft their own papers, they have learned how to narrow their topics, gather data, interpret sources, and evaluate conjectures. They know how to use appropriate methods and how to mine the academic literature. In all these ways, they can assist you with their own hard-won experience. To avoid any confusion, just make sure your instructor knows what advice you are getting from workshop leaders and tutors. You want everyone to be pulling in the same direction.

Second, you will benefit enormously from batting around your research paper in workshops. The more you speak about your subject, the better you will understand it yourself. The better you understand it, the clearer your research and writing will be. You will learn about your project as you present your ideas; you will learn more as you listen to others discuss your work; and you will learn still more as you respond to their suggestions. Although you should do that in sessions with your instructor, you will also profit from doing it in workshops and tutorial sessions.

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As a bonus, we have prepared several secrets for you to make your paper perfect. Firstly, always write your paper from scratch. Do not copy the already existing materials, as it can lead to unsatisfactory mark or even expulsion. Secondly, start your research early; do not put off investigating the topic. The earlier you start, the easier it will be to meet the deadline. Thirdly, plan your work and create an outline for your task. A planned work will help you be systematic. Plus, it will help you avoid writer’s block, as you always have an outline to follow. Another secret is following all the requirements. A research paper is an academic assignment, so all these structural and formatting standards are important. Finally, make sure you proofread and edit your task. Check your paper for grammar and spelling mistakes, examine your choice of vocabulary. If it seems too much, you can always ask our professional editors and they will check the paper for you. A mistakes-free paper is essential to get high results.

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The human in the loop Perspectives and challenges for RoboCup 2050

• Open access
• Published: 16 May 2024
• Volume 48 , article number  8 , ( 2024 )

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• Alessandra Rossi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1362-8799 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Maike Paetzel-Prüsmann   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8418-3024 3   na1 ,
• Merel Keijsers   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6554-6675 4   na1 ,
• Michael Anderson 5 ,
• Susan Leigh Anderson 6 ,
• Daniel Barry 2 ,
• Jan Gutsche 7 ,
• Justin Hart 8 ,
• Luca Iocchi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9057-8946 9 ,
• Ainse Kokkelmans 10 ,
• Wouter Kuijpers 10 ,
• Yun Liu 11 ,
• Daniel Polani   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3233-5847 2 ,
• Caleb Roscon 12 ,
• Marcus Scheunemann 2 ,
• Peter Stone   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6795-420X 8 , 13 ,
• Florian Vahl 7 ,
• René van de Molengraft 10 &
• Oskar von Stryk   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2790-6115 14  

1 Altmetric

Robotics researchers have been focusing on developing autonomous and human-like intelligent robots that are able to plan, navigate, manipulate objects, and interact with humans in both static and dynamic environments. These capabilities, however, are usually developed for direct interactions with people in controlled environments, and evaluated primarily in terms of human safety. Consequently, human-robot interaction (HRI) in scenarios with no intervention of technical personnel is under-explored. However, in the future, robots will be deployed in unstructured and unsupervised environments where they will be expected to work unsupervised on tasks which require direct interaction with humans and may not necessarily be collaborative. Developing such robots requires comparing the effectiveness and efficiency of similar design approaches and techniques. Yet, issues regarding the reproducibility of results, comparing different approaches between research groups, and creating challenging milestones to measure performance and development over time make this difficult. Here we discuss the international robotics competition called RoboCup as a benchmark for the progress and open challenges in AI and robotics development. The long term goal of RoboCup is developing a robot soccer team that can win against the world’s best human soccer team by 2050. We selected RoboCup because it requires robots to be able to play with and against humans in unstructured environments, such as uneven fields and natural lighting conditions, and it challenges the known accepted dynamics in HRI. Considering the current state of robotics technology, RoboCup’s goal opens up several open research questions to be addressed by roboticists. In this paper, we (a) summarise the current challenges in robotics by using RoboCup development as an evaluation metric, (b) discuss the state-of-the-art approaches to these challenges and how they currently apply to RoboCup, and (c) present a path for future development in the given areas to meet RoboCup’s goal of having robots play soccer against and with humans by 2050.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

Robots are complex systems that require hardware and software components working together, supporting and at times compensating for each other. Footnote 1 From a scientific perspective, these requirements make reviewing progress in robotics difficult: How does a robot that folds clothes compare to one that finds human victims in a disaster scenario? How can we measure a fleet of robots organizing a warehouse against a single robot watering a plant? One could measure the stability of the shell material, the accuracy of the computer vision components, or the precision of the actuators. This, however, only provides us with a partial picture of the robots’ performance. What is missing is the evaluation of the system as a whole, and how the components work together in solving a specific task.

RoboCup (RC), one of the largest annual robotics competitions, is aimed at providing a benchmark for such evaluations: Robots from all over the world compete in several leagues offering unique challenges with well-defined sets of rules. The major leagues range from the @Home league , in which robots are tasked with household chores and interact with humans in social environments, to the Rescue league , in which robots need to find victims in realistic disaster scenarios, to the @Work and Logistics leagues , in which robots assemble objects or optimize a production chain. The Soccer leagues are the most well-known, as it is their goal to beat the best human soccer team by 2050. In the soccer leagues, teams of robots of different sizes and hardware configurations play soccer against each other. While these leagues address different scientific aspects, they are united in their aim to foster scientific development, by presenting increasing yearly challenges and favoring scientific collaborations between the different leagues.

Given the goal of creating robots that can beat humans at soccer, one might reasonably ask, “how will we know if they can?” On the surface, this seems like an easy question to answer – organise a soccer game: robots against the current FIFA World Cup Champion and if the robots win the RoboCup challenge has been met. However, it may not be quite so simple. Even if the World Cup Champions were to agree to play such a match, what would the rules be? If we built a “robot” the size and shape of a goal and place it in the goal (an invincible goalie), or if we built a robot that could place the ball in a cannon, and then shoot it towards the corner of the goal at high speed (an invincible attacker), nobody would be particularly impressed.

While the current FIFA rules do not place any restrictions on the size, shape, or “actuators” of the players, these are examples of issues that would need to be considered prior to assessing whether robots are better than people at soccer. A few similar issues arose in prior contests of humans versus machines, such as DeepBlue vs. Gary Kasparov at Chess, and AlphaGo vs. Lee Sedol at Go. The rules of these purely cognitive challenges, however, were relatively straightforward to define – the computers could use any means to decide what next move to make, and if they won, they were better than their opponent at the game in question. Soccer, instead, has cognitive and physical challenges. It is much less straightforward to define rules such that if the robots were to win, people would generally agree that robots are better than people at “soccer.” Thus, this question gets at a somewhat philosophical issue: what is the essence of soccer? Is it still soccer if one player can run twice as fast as all the other players, or if they can score without passing, or if the players are all controlled by a single program? These questions need to be answered so that we can ensure that the robots are really playing soccer .

Stone, Quinlan and Hester considered this question more than a decade ago in the Chapter “Can Robots Play Soccer?” from a popular philosophy book called “Soccer and Philosophy: Beautiful Thoughts on the Beautiful Game” Stone et al. ( 2010 ). They laid out a set of restrictions on the form and capabilities of individual robots to ensure that they will not be too fast, too strong, or too precise to be considered “human-like”. They also considered restrictions on team composition and communication, such as ensuring that the teammates have at least somewhat differing capabilities from one another, and that they can only communicate via human-perceptible sounds. And finally, they considered restrictions on coaching to place the robot coach on a similar footing as human coaches.

When looking at the abilities of the robots competing in the RC soccer leagues today, these considerations seem rather futuristic, given that the bipedal human-sized robots are so unstable and fragile that they need a human robot-handler walking behind them to catch them when they fall. In a recent survey (Paetzel-Prüsmann et al. 2023 ) which we distributed to students, researchers, and professors engaged in RC activities, locomotion was identified both as the most important and the most difficult research area when preparing to play against humans in 2050. Other areas that were considered of great importance and difficulty were awareness of the environment, robustness, and decision-making. While scientific progress in these areas can be seen as a prerequisite to the more future-looking considerations made by Stone et al. ( 2010 ), these responses also indicate that many researchers are currently overlooking the importance of the human in the loop as they are designing robots that can play against humans. Safety ranked fifth in perceived importance and difficulty to achieve, while HRI was considered quite challenging (ranked 6/12), but less important (ranked 9/12), and natural-language understanding, a key aspect in creating fair communication, was ranked last in importance.

This article can be seen as a natural revision and extension of the work by Stone et al. ( 2010 ), fleshing out the desiderata they laid out in more detail. We aim to give an overview of the state-of-the-art in robot hardware, cognition, behavior, and human-robot relational dynamics, as well as point out current challenges that robotics researchers are facing. The article however goes beyond these contemporary issues by identifying future challenges for the goal of 2050, and aims to prepare the research needed to create the robots that will eventually play with and against humans.

The remainder of this article is structured to provide state-of-art and current open challenges in the following areas: Sect.  2 discusses hardware and motion design; Sect.  3 presents cognitive capabilities and robot behaviors, including perception; Sect.  4 deliberates the complex dynamics in humans-robots soccer games; and Sect.  5 summarises the identified future research directions in unstructured HRI.

2 Hardware requirements

Robots that play soccer come in very different shapes and sizes. In the MiddleSize League (MSL), robots use wheels to get around the field and Lidars to create a three-dimensional map of the environment. In the Humanoid League (HL), robots are constrained to human-like locomotion and sensing. Scaling the robots to human size (which is likely necessary to match the running and kicking speed of humans) comes with unique challenges in the robots’ hardware design and motion control, many of which are unsolved to date. In this section, we give an overview of the current state of the art in hardware design and motion control for human-like soccer robots, and discuss a road to a more stable and safe robot design in the future.

2.1 Human-sized robot design

In order to meet the RC challenge and more generally unlock the potential of humanoid robots, Footnote 2 numerous research groups have been working on the hardware required for locomotion. For example, Honda Corporation developed the humanoid robot ASIMO (Sakagami et al. 2002 ), which has 34 DoF, is 120 cm tall, weighs 43 kg, and can kick a ball and shoot a goal. Boston Dynamics developed Atlas, a 150 cm tall research platform designed to push the limits of whole-body mobility. It has 20 DoF and weighs 80 kg. Atlas’ advanced control system and state-of-the-art hardware give the robot the power and balance to demonstrate human-level agility. Footnote 3 Georgia Institute of Technology developed humanoid robot DURUS which is 180 cm tall and weighs 79.5kg, and which is one of the most efficient robots when it comes to energy consumption for walking (Reher et al. 2016 ). Finally, the Technical University of Munich developed the humanoid robot LOLA with 25 DoF, which is 180 cm tall and weighs 60 kg (Buschmann et al. 2012 ).

2.1.1 Open challenges

Although a range of different humanoid robots have been developed, the design of a more powerful robot body remains a prerequisite for the RC 2050 goal. Robot configuration has always been one of the biggest challenges in robot design, with the main decisions revolving around the selection of DoF and the arrangement of the drive mechanism. Robot soccer requires a very flexible robot body that has the ability to walk, run, throw the ball, stand up, as well as a variety of other humanoid movements. First, this requires the robot to have sufficient DoF. For the humanoid robots currently participating in RC, there is a minimum of 6 DoF per leg, 3 per arm, and 2 in the neck joint, amounting to at least 20 DoF for a full robot. However, 20 is far from sufficient for more complex movements, which will be needed for competition with humans. Unfortunately, increasing the DoF leads to a dramatic increase in robot design complexity, control difficulty, and cost.

In terms of drive mechanism arrangement, the robot leg mechanisms of LOLA, ASIMO, and DURUS are designed in a very inspiring way. For example, the motor position of the knee and ankle joint of LOLA are improved by adding tandem and parallel drive mechanisms (see Fig.  1 ). In this way, the inertia of the robot’s legs is significantly reduced, it is more humanoid, and easier to control.

Structural of robot LOLA’s leg [10]

Finally considering motor power, existing motors are still far from being comparable to human muscles in terms of energy, efficiency, and torque output density. Among the existing motor-driven robots, the fastest humanoid robot known to be able to run is ASIMO, which can reach a maximum speed of 9 km/h (Sakagami et al. 2002 ). The fastest known human running speed lies almost 5 times higher at 44.72 km / h , which was achieved by Usain Bolt. At the same time, the power density of the ASIMO motor solution cannot support the completion of some highly explosive movements, such as parkour and backflips shown by ATLAS2. Footnote 4 As a result, a number of research institutions are now turning their attention to hydraulic solutions, such as IHMC, which is developing the full-size humanoid robot Nadia. Footnote 5 The difficulty with hydraulic drive solutions, however, is the lack of marketable integrated hydraulic drive units and the R &D costs which may be prohibitive for general research institutes and universities. Therefore, most research institutions and universities are still considering the use of electric motors to design relatively lightweight bipedal robots through weight reduction and non-full-size arrangements. Currently, many bipedal research institutions are studying Electro-active Polymer artificial muscles (Kim and Kim 2023 ) in the hope of obtaining drive units that are comparable to human muscle capabilities. This research direction could prove to be very interesting.

With the development of new drive units, such as carbon nanotube yarns, robot joints can now produce up to 85 times more force than human muscle (Lima et al. 2012 ). Furthermore, the capacitive dependence of artificial muscle drive performance has been solved which helps designing high-performance drivers with non-toxic, low drive voltages (Chu et al. 2021 ). The physical performance of future robots is thus expected to break through rapidly, and more and more robust robots will emerge to achieve the goals of RC 2050.

2.2 Motion engine

The HL and Standard Platform Footnote 6 League (SPL) Footnote 7 both require humanoids that use bipedal locomotion to compete in the RC competition. In both leagues, there have been successful approaches to enable robust and dynamic walking on mostly flat artificial grass. Herein, we consider bipedal locomotion to be a subset of all robot motion, including actions such as standing-up or kicking. RC has proved as a useful test bed for the current applied state of robot motion in a challenging environment, where humanoid robots have been able to successfully walk on artificial grass with little or no falling. Most approaches within the HL and SPL utilize zero moment point (ZMP) based step planning or computing walk trajectory. Although robust, the humanoids are yet unable to run, jump, stand-up or operate on non-flat terrain using ZMP-based motion and it does not appear to be a suitable candidate for a generalised motion engine (Vukobratovic and Borovac 2004 ).

Realizing a dynamic bipedal walk for robots is very difficult, and this is why most approaches have “typically been achieved by considering all aspects of the problem, often with explicit consideration of the interplay between modeling and feedback control” (Reher and Ames 2020 ). This is also true for RC where prominent candidates explicitly compute the center of mass using the ZMP (Czarnetzki et al. 2009 ), or use a central-pattern generator (Behnke 2006 ) to compute a suitable walking trajectory for the robot. Teams then use the robot’s sensory input to satisfy the computed trajectory. These methods need extensive parameter tweaking and rely on a growing number of assumptions about the environment. A popular assumption to render the methods computable is an approach that assumes a mostly flat and even terrain. The environment complexity will further increase the parameter space with moving towards a real-world soccer pitch, and with humans entering the competition as players.

2.2.1 Open challenges

When considering open challenges, we first propose agent self-modelling, where agents should be able to model their own non-linear control with meaningful abstraction from the environment. We expect this process to somewhat resemble a baby learning to walk, a process that is often linked to curiosity and intrinsic motivation (Scheunemann et al. 2022 ). This would include complex control variables, such as actuator behaviour under load, temperature, voltage and wear for example, where the behaviour is expected to change over time. We propose the challenge for agent local-world modelling, where the agent builds a model of the local environment abstracted from its self-model, to allow future planning of movements. This would include other robots and humans in the near vicinity, nearby terrain the robot is likely to interact with, and other useful observations.

Using mechanisms that allow robots to self-model their environment and adapt to unknown situations opens new issues. Teams in RC typically use algorithms that are computationally inexpensive due to the full autonomy constraints, whilst research labs want to use motion generations with a high level of control. There is evidence that an agent’s ability to create intelligent behaviours depends on the sensory motor loop, where an agent tends to benefit from embodiment due to environment complexity (Kubisch et al. 2011 ). Intrinsic motivation (IM) has been used to feed reinforcement learning for motion acquisition in simulation (Peng et al. 2018 ), but it also shows the learning of motion skills on real robots (Schillaci et al. 2016 ). IM has been shown to produce perceivably social motion behaviours, suggesting that it is suitable for complex human-robot interactions, such as a soccer game (Scheunemann et al. 2019 ).

2.3 Discussion and conclusion

Designing robots that are comparable to humans in their speed of locomotion, stability and robustness remains a major open challenge. Whilst the current approaches to motion in humanoid robotics have proven to be successful in more controlled scenarios, it remains to be seen how these solutions will scale to more complex real-world environments, where there is a larger number of unknown complex variables. These problems are not unique to humanoid soccer players. There is a considerable effort to get robots into dynamic environments, where most successful implementations have reduced motor capabilities, such as smart vacuums or toys. One reason we may see a reduced DoF for commonly deployed platforms is due to the cost and performance of actuators. We suggest that even with low-cost, high-performance actuators, robots are more generally still missing the motion framework for the required control in dynamic environments.

Another challenge to the design of robots that goes beyond the application of robot soccer is the development of bodies that are robust enough to survive and recover from a fall with minimal damage to the hardware system. Especially in social environments, human-like bodies are both desirable from an interaction point of view as from a locomotion perspective (as human environments are often designed to suit their bodily abilities well). However, even robots smaller than human size still risk permanent damage when falling down. Moreover, the potential threats to a robot’s bodily integrity don’t stop at the damage from a fall: They can also break small parts like a finger when getting tangled into another robot, human, or an obstacle in the environment. Apart from the motors and the outer shell of the robot, its inner parts can face failures like short circuits and cable breaks. While shielding these parts from extraneous interference can help to prevent some of the failures, it also makes it difficult to repair them on the spot.

One potential solution in making robots more robust could be cover materials that are harder to physically break. Especially when combining these with powerful motion engines, however, serious safety concerns arise for human players. One potential solution to this problem is the implementation of advanced safety procedures in the motion control loop, as is already standard in industrial robots. These robots recognize and stop a collision between their hardware and an obstacle within milliseconds, which minimizes their physical impact on a potential human getting in their way. While this works well for robots that interact with humans within a constrained space, robots that could potentially fall onto a human or find themselves in an otherwise unstable position need to find different strategies to minimize damage. Another potential solution to ensure human safety independent of the current physical state of the robot could be the application of materials and joints currently researched in the area of soft robotics. These materials require further advancement for being robust enough to work in an environment with as much physical contact as in robot soccer. As was pointed out by many researchers participating in our survey, hardware and motion control is still one of the main factors that needs to advance in order to play with or against human soccer players. However, as we will see in the next section, there are still many open research questions that can be tackled independently of the improvements in the robots’ hardware.

3 Cognitive capabilities & robot behavior

During a soccer game, robots need to proactively plan, manage and execute their playing goals – both collaborative/cooperative and for personal gain – while modeling their surroundings including human players. Therefore, robots need to be able to formulate purposeful conscious observations, build their knowledge of the context and the agents (human or machine) in the environment, and both plan and act accordingly (Rossi et al. 2020a ). Humans are able to naturally communicate among each other using verbal and non-verbal signals. However, robots’ ability to generate verbal and non-verbal expressive behaviors (such as natural spoken language, gestures, affective responses) does still not match their capability of understanding the situational context. This is particularly relevant if we want to simulate cognitive capabilities based on human-like senses, as is the case in the HL. This section presents an overview of existing techniques based on basic human-like abilities such as vision and audio sensors to build a robot’s awareness, and subsequently provides future scientific challenges to be addressed.

3.1 Audio in human-multi-robot systems

There is a growing interest in the use of auditory perception in robotic systems (Rascon and Meza 2017 ) which has been shown to be an important part of the interaction scene between a robot and a human (Meza et al. 2016 ). Footnote 8 In fact, it has been a part of other service robotics competitions (such as RC@Home ) for several years (RoboCup@Home Technical Committe 2024 ). In terms of a human-robot soccer match, there is an important amount of relevant information that can be extracted from the auditory scene, such as the location and intentions of the human adversaries, as well as the robot’s teammates; even the audience noise during the match can be integrated in the robots’ decision making process (Antonioni et al. 2021 ). Since audio can be perceived in an omnidirectional way, it is well suited to complement information that is extracted by other means (e.g., vision) which can benefit strategy planning and safety.

Pragmatically, auditory perception in robots (or robot audition) entails three main tasks: (1) localizing the sound sources in the environment given a frame of reference (usually, with the robot at its origin), (2) separating the audio data of each sound source from others such that each sound source has its own audio channel, and (3) classifying the sound source from each sound source channel. These three tasks are typically carried out in a serial manner, since the location of a sound source can be used to separate it from the captured audio mixture into its own channel. Once separated, a mono-source classifier can be used, instead of relying on far more complex techniques that carry out multi-source classification.

In terms of localization, the ODAS library (Grondin & Michaud, 2019 ) provides good localization performance, while requiring a relatively small software footprint. A deep-learning approach (Nakadai et al., 2020 ) outperforms it, but requires more computational power. It is also worth mentioning a few-microphone approach that can outperform them in certain scenarios (Gato, 2020 ). A beamforming-based approach (Grondin et al., 2020 ) requires knowing the location of the sound sources but can run in relatively light hardware. A deep-learning approach (Liu et al., 2020a ) provides an important jump in separation performance in real environments, although it requires an important amount of computational resources. A hybrid approach (Maldonado et al., 2020 ) provides a middle-ground between the acceptable performance and low computational requirements. In terms of classification, and particularly speaker identification, a deep-learning-based approach (Xie et al., 2019 ) can carry out this task “out in the wild”, but requires more computational power. A “lighter” approach (Vélez et al., 2020 ) provides  lower-but-still-acceptable performance. It is also worth mentioning the HARK library (Nakadai et al., 2010 ), since it has been a tried-and-true audition workhorse for more than a decade, and carries out all three auditory tasks in conjunction.

3.1.1 Open challenges

The challenges proposed here will go through several iterations, with rising difficulty as time goes on. The initial version is to estimate and track the relative direction of human adversaries in the near vicinity of the robot. Recordings of human adversaries can be used, or actual human volunteers, vocalizing specific utterances that can be expected to be heard during a soccer match, such as “I’m open”, “pass me the ball”, etc. The difficulty can be later increased by: a) using shorter utterances, such as “hey”, or non-linguistic vocalizations (grunts or mono-vowel yelling); and b) activating multiple human sound sources at the same time. The location of each human sound source can be used to quantify the precision of the robot’s localization performance.

In a subsequent version, the location information of the human sound source is to be integrated with the audio estimations of other robots, as well as their available visual data, to provide a shared robust localization of the human adversaries. This is proposed to eliminate the need for external sensing, which is typically used in indoor robot-robot matches, but is impractical to use in an outside environment. A robot will not be able to sense (either acoustically or visually) a human adversary on the other side of the field, but a nearby robot teammate should be able to. Thus, the robots themselves should aim to create an ad-hoc network through acoustic means to share the information perceived from their immediate surroundings to the rest of the robots. The acoustic parameters of the robot vocalization should be in the human-hearing range, so that it falls within the restrictions set by Stone et al. ( 2010 ). To evaluate the efforts of creating an ad-hoc acoustic network, a version of the challenge can be carried out using mobile human sound sources which will no doubt introduce localization errors in the estimation carried out by one robot. Thus, redundancy between the estimations of several robots should surmount these issues, and will be evaluated as such. To transition between using a common wireless network (e.g. WiFi or Bluetooth) and the acoustic network proposed here, a version of the test can simulate a situation where the wireless network “fails” by manually disabling one or more of the wireless sensors/antennae that the robots use to communicate with each other, and forcing them to use audio as a backup to continue such communication while a time-out is called. It is important to mention that such type of communication should not be required to be speech, and should be accepted in any form as long as the robots are able to communicate the relevant information to each other acoustically, without requiring wireless sensors, and without causing hearing discomfort to the human adversaries. However, it is also important to consider that not using speech will make the robots’ behaviours and intentions entirely non-transparent and impossible to infer for humans. As a consequence, human players will be less inclined to accept and trust to play with robots Nesset et al. ( 2021 ), and their interaction will be negatively affected and induce people to toss robots away de Graaf et al. ( 2017 ).

Other types of audio-based human-robot interactions can also be evaluated, such as making the robot verbally announce to the human referee if a human adversary made an illegal move (such as a foul or violating the offside rule).

In the final version of this challenge, the robot assesses the humans’ intentions and strategies via the analysis of the paralinguistic characteristics of the vocal utterances emitted to each other during the match, such as prosody, pitch, volume, and intonation, as well as the sound of stepping patterns. Professional players are well aware that yelling out a phrase such as “pass the ball” announces to their adversaries their intent. However, human adversaries may not be aware that they emit some vocalizations in critical moments even when not meant to be (a deep breath before a sprint, a small sigh when a play didn’t go as planned, a slight wail when they are free to receive the ball, etc.), which can be used to the robotic team’s advantage. This can also be used for the human team’s safety. For example, if a human would yelp right before crashing into the ground or another agent, or if they would scream when they are hurt. In addition, other auditory cues can be used that are not specific to speech, specifically that of the sound of human feet running or walking in the grass. Recordings of human volunteers during human-human matches can be used to evaluate the robot’s ability to recognize such activities, and communicate them to the rest of the team to be used for strategy planning and safety precautions.

The final outcome of a robot team that is able to solve all the proposed challenges is the localization and intention estimation of each human adversary through auditory perception without the use of external sensing.

3.2 Robot vision

Computer vision techniques have been used in many domains such as medical image processing (Ronneberger et al. 2015 ), Footnote 9 autonomous driving (Janai et al. 2020 ), and robotics (Jamzad et al. 2001 ) for several years. Computer vision enables autonomous robots to visually perceive their environment and offers a challenging testing ground for applied computer vision in complex and dynamic real world scenarios.

Currently computer vision used in humanoid robotics (and especially in the RC context) is transitioning from handcrafted model-based algorithms (Fiedler et al. 2019 ) to more robust and powerful data-driven ones (Vahl et al. 2021 ). The model-based approaches include conventional methods like the usage of color lookup tables or color clustering for simple segmentation tasks  (Freitag et al. 2016 ), Hough lines for line fitting (Szeliski 2010 ), or filtering in the frequency domain to generate regions of interest for later classification. Currently available data-based approaches include simple CNN classifiers which classify candidates generated by a model-based approach. More complex data-based methods include the YOLO architecture (Redmon et al. 2016 ) which directly detects objects in an image, or architectures like SegNet (Badrinarayanan et al. 2017 ) or UNet (Ronneberger et al. 2015 ) which generate pixel precise segmentation maps. Data-driven approaches such as convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are very powerful in terms of accuracy, robustness to noisy data, and the overall generalization. But they are computationally expensive and hard to modify or debug after the training. The data-driven approaches need large amounts of training data. This is an issue for many domains, but in the RC domain large quantities of annotated data for supervised learning are available as part of open data projects (Bestmann et al. 2022 ). While very powerful data-driven approaches exist, real-time constraints are still a limiting factor on embedded platforms like the autonomous robots used in the RC domain. Due to this limitation only subscale versions of models like YOLO and nearly no Region based Convolutional Neural Networks (RCNNs) (Girshick 2015 ) or Vision Transformers (Liu et al. 2021 ) are used. While being also computationally expensive, frameworks like OpenPose (Cao et al. 2019 ) enable 2D and 3D human pose estimation which is a growing field of interest in the humanoid RC domain.

3.2.1 Open challenges

One major challenge of the computer vision system is to perceive the state of the whole environment in a short amount of time. This requires the fast and reliable detection of various small objects in a large image space. For humanoid robots in the soccer context, this means that the comparably small soccer ball is one of the most important items that must be localized from a maximum distance of over 100 ms. On the other hand, a wide field of view is required to minimize the head movement needed for the observation of multiple targets. Head movements take time and limit the ability of tracking (e.g. the position of the opponents) which is a safety concern when playing against humans.

Adaptive resolution, which is dynamically changing the resolution of parts of images, could result in an efficient way of handling very high resolution images (Mnih et al. 2014 ). Various fast region of interest proposal methods or attention-based mechanisms could be used for such a task and need to be evaluated in the RC context.

As discussed before, there is a large amount of environment information that is critical for both strategy building and humans’ safety, and which can be transferred with and gathered from audio-based data. However, it is unreliable for long range communication, since the energy of acoustic signals drops faster compared to vision-based signals. Thus, gestures are essential for intuitive non-verbal long range communication and are therefore used by humans in everyday situations as well as in many different sports. As the soccer field size in the RC competition grows and the wireless communication gets more restricted, it is a feasible way of communicating with other players, referees or the trainer. Understanding gestures of the opposing team brings also tactical advantages. A more general version of the gesture recognition is the pose estimation. The robot’s behavior could use the pose of opponent’s legs and torso to outplay them or more importantly avoid injuries among the opponents when playing in proximity to them. There are state-of-the-art pose estimation frameworks, but further research regarding the integration into a dynamic gameplay and the reliability and safety impact of such approaches should be done. A classification of facial features expressing emotions, exhaustion, or the intentions of an opponent could also be used by the robot’s behavior when playing against humans. There are approaches, such as FER (Goodfellow et al., 2013 ), which could be adapted to this specific domain.

We expect that the robotic soccer games will be played more dynamically in the future. Such a play style includes faster movements, higher passes and less predictable surroundings. This implies that visual processing needs to be faster while remaining reliable. Currently, most of the RC robots do not feature any depth sensing, because LIDAR sensors are not allowed in the HL as there is no equivalent human sense (HL Laws of the Game 2019/ 2020 ). Instead, object’s relative positions are estimated based on the assumption that it is located on the same ground plane that the robot is standing on. This approach will no longer work when objects (e.g., the soccer ball) leave the ground. We therefore assume that a combination of both stereoscopic imaging for accurate short distance depth estimation and a quasi-monocular method for long range measurements as well as featureless regions is needed (Smolyanskiy et al., 2018 ). This is based on the fact that the distance between the cameras is small and the angular differences get too small for far away objects.

Learning based approach [full-size YOLOv4 (Bochkovskiy et al., 2020 )] in natural light conditions. Source  (Bestmann et al., 2022 )

On the way out of the laboratory and onto the field, we also encounter environmental effects such as natural light, which can drastically change in brightness, cast shadows, or glare the robot’s vision system. Other effects include disturbances due to rain, snow or dirt both in the air and on the ground. As long as these disturbances are included in the datasets, data-driven approaches appear to be robust against them to a certain degree. See figure  2 for an example.

3.3 Discussion and conclusion

The cognitive capabilities implemented in the state-of-art robots allow them to elaborate static and dynamic scenarios that do not take into account people’s fast and complex reactions. Perceiving as much information as possible about the state of the other players is crucial to avoid injuries and damage.

Multiple senses, such as hearing and vision perception, could be fused to improve robots’ perception and decision making process of the environmental context.

While the field of computer vision made large steps in the past years,there are still open challenges. For example, robots will need to be able to adapt to natural conditions of the weather and illuminations as well as expand the amount of observed information to include detailed information regarding enemy poses which are crucial for a dynamic and safe behavior. Learning based approaches are promising for these purposes, as they perform well in many domains and are distantly related to the way humans solve these challenges.

Moreover, in a such dynamic and near vicinity context, we can expect bidirectional communications. We want to optimize the ability of robots to communicate with each other, as well as their ability to infer the humans’ intentions, through sounds, natural languages and non-verbal modes. However, it is important that robots still perform transparent motions and behaviors that can be clearly recognized by the humans (Holthaus & Wachsmuth, 2021 ).

4 Human-robot relational dynamics

While anyone who watched the most recent RC matches will agree that playing against human teams is still a far way off, this is the eventual goal. Playing against and with humans opens up new challenges and dilemmas related to the HRI, for which no simple solution may exist. For example, a delicate balance will need to be struck between ensuring the robots are safe for humans to play with (and are perceived to be so by the human players so that they will actually agree to play) on the one hand, while on the other hand ensuring that the robots have enough opportunity to win so that they will give the human team a run for their money. The following section aims to highlight some of the most pressing issues and illustrate how they create a paradox that may prove to be unsolvable.

4.1 Playing against humans

Every year after RC’s MSL final, Footnote 10 the fresh world champion demonstrates its soccer skills against a team of human players. This annual match is an exposure of the worldwide state-of-the-art in human versus robot soccer playing (Soetens et al., 2015 ). The first goal against the human team was scored in 2014 and multiple goals have followed since. The human team, consisting of RC Trustees, continues its winning streak ever since. In RC, the MSL is well suited to the ‘robot versus human’ soccer play due to both its focus on robot teamwork, and its accessibility for humans by using the standard size FIFA ball and by its playing field dimensions.

The regular matches during the tournament are however without direct human interaction. The human referee team interfaces with the robots through a league-specific Refbox application (Dias et al., 2020 ) on a computer that is connected with both teams.

4.1.1 Open challenges

Various challenges have been identified towards a more sophisticated human interaction in the league. As a first step, robots have to be safe, not harming humans or themselves. As a second step, anticipating human behavior and, thirdly, cooperation can be aimed for. These three steps will be treated in the remainder of this section.

a) Safety The first challenge in a more sophisticated human interaction in the MSL is the safety of the human players. Ensuring human safety can be achieved both by considering the robot’s design and by considering its behavior. Currently, the robots in the MSL must not exceed the regulatory dimensions of \(50 \times 50 \times 80\) cm and weigh no more than 40 kg (MSL Technical Committee (2020) ). The robots can achieve speeds of up to 4 m/s without controlling the ball (Soetens et al., 2015 ). Even though collisions are to be avoided at any given moment, a collision with a human with the aforementioned weight and speed should not result in an injury. In a collision of \(0.01\;s\) , the kinetic energy of the robot, \(160\;kg.m.s^{-1}\) , would result in an interaction force of \(16\;kN\) .

The weight of the robot is mostly constituted by the weight of the electronic solenoid used to shoot the ball (4.5 kg (Meessen et al., 2010 )), the frame of the robot and the motors used. Reducing weight is one of the possible solutions to improve the safety of human players. Within the league, however, most robots weigh close to the maximum. With the state-of-the-art in sensors, actuators and materials, it is difficult to have competitive robot specifications (e.g., driving speed, kicker force) with reduced weight. Adding soft material on the outside of the robot, i.e. a bumper, and thus extending the duration of the collision, will result in smaller interaction forces and will enable safe feedback control actions. A robot should detect a collision via its compliant skin and react accordingly. Passive compliance should prevent initial damage, while further damage should be mitigated through active compliance. Even though the rulebook states a bumper has to be included in the design of the robot (MSL Technical Committee, (2020) ), the specifications are based on robot-robot collisions, which will result in too high interaction forces for humans.

Another approach to increasing the safety of human players is behavioral; i.e. to prevent high-speed collisions. For this to work, the robot has to detect the human. The current obstacle detection of most MSL teams uses a combination of a camera and a parabolic mirror, often referred to as Omni-vision. This catadioptric vision system enables a 360 \(^{\circ }\) view with a range of up to 11 metres (Dias et al., 2020 ), see Fig.  3 . The camera is pointing upwards and looking into a downwards-mounted parabolic mirror, hence it is impossible to detect objects above the height of the robot (80 cm). This not only hampers the detection of the ball once it is airborne and above the height of the robot, but also the detection of humans. Thanks to the increase in available computing power, many teams equip robotic players or goalkeepers with forward-facing cameras such as Kinect cameras (Dias et al., 2020 ) and use those as either main camera systems (Schreuder et al., 2019 ) or complementary systems.

Image captured from the catadioptric vision system. A human is observed in the top left corner of the image and a MSL robot in the top right corner

b) Anticipation The second challenge is to play against human players and to be able to anticipate their actions. The latter will require the detection and tracking of the human’s position on the soccer field. To detect opponent robots, most teams use the aforementioned color segmentation and vision system. For tracking, most teams filter the detections from the catadioptric vision system using extended Kalman filters or particle filters to be able to handle false positive detections, occlusions and to estimate the velocity of the opponent robots (Dias et al., 2017 ). These filters typically employ constant velocity models for the opponent robots.

The view from a catadioptric vision system will not be optimal, if sufficient at all, to provide accurate detections of a human and estimate its velocity. However, once a qualitative detection has been established for humans, for example using forward-facing cameras, similar filters can be employed to track opponent players and estimate their velocity. The possibilities for qualitative detections of humans have considerably changed over the last few years due to the use of the Kinect camera, state-of-the-art image-based human pose detection software (Cao et al., 2021 ), and other classifiers. These detections could be enhanced by using human motion patterns or gait patterns to provide better detections and/or estimate their velocity (Cao et al., 2021 ). In Dolatabadi et al. ( 2020 ), for example, the output of OpenPose is combined with a model for the position and velocity of the hip, knee, and ankle in typical human motion patterns, resulting in better tracking of humans.

Aside from technical questions, this also raises the question of to what extent collision should be anticipated in a human versus robot match. In human soccer, collisions frequently occur when opponents try to gain control over the ball. An open question thus remains, to what extent should a robot prevent collisions while maintaining a strong competitive intercept action?

c) Cooperation The third challenge is to eventually cooperate with human players. The teams of robots currently communicate information, such as detections, planned actions, and strategies, over a WiFi connection. A team of humans communicates by means of speech, gestures (Lim et al., 2017 ) and other subtle non-verbal cues. Even though communication through gestures was introduced in the MSL as a means to coach the robots in-between plays, this has yet to be attempted in dynamic play. Coaching, allowed by the rules, up to now included the use of QR codes shown by humans, voice coaching, and gesture coaching.

With the high-paced developments in the MSL, the league is likely to prepare itself for the first competitive or collaborative matches with humans. The increasing attractiveness of the league combined with this grand challenge steers developments into this direction.

4.2 Value-Driven Players

When considering the scenario where a robot team takes on a human team in a soccer match, Footnote 11 it is important to realize that the rules of the soccer game itself comprise only a subset of obligations that the robot has towards its human opponents. When circumstances warrant, say when an injury or some other incident not specifically covered by the rules occurs, other duties are likely to be added to or even take priority over the rules of the game. For instance, in case of an injury to a human player, the robot may be required to stop playing and prioritize providing whatever assistance it is capable of. Given this, a number of research questions arise, such as: 1) In which circumstances do the rules of the game no longer apply and how might these be discerned by an AI system? 2) What other obligations does a robot player have towards its human opponents and, when they conflict, how might the strongest obligation be determined? 3) How might a robot system be designed to meet these obligations in such circumstances? These and other such questions comprise an ethical dimension of the game, and provide an opportunity for research in this domain to contribute to the greater concerns regarding the ethical behavior of artificially intelligent agents operating autonomously in the world.

Although literature pertaining directly to the goal at hand is scarce, there have been efforts in related areas such as the ethics of sport (e.g., Boxill 2002 ) and machine and robot ethics (e.g., Anderson and Anderson 2011 ).

4.2.1 Open challenges

Central to ethical behavior in every domain are ethically-relevant features, duties to minimize or maximize these features, and a set of principles that prescribe which duties will prevail if they are in conflict. Ethically-relevant features may have a positive value, like sportsmanship; or a negative value, like harm. It is incumbent upon agents acting in any domain to not only minimize ethically-relevant features that have a negative value, but also to maximize features with a positive value. These considerations comprise the agent’s duties in that domain. Duties are likely to be context dependent. That is, which duties pertain will be contingent upon the current circumstances and the actions available to the agent within those circumstances. Furthermore, these circumstances will also determine which actions satisfy and/or violate these duties, as well as by how much. Thus, determining the correct action in any given set of circumstances is dependent upon how strongly each action satisfies and/or violates the applicable duties. This decision may be straightforward, as in the case where only one available action satisfies any duty. However, it is more likely that more than one action will satisfy and/or violate one or more duties. In such cases, a means (or set of principles) must be provided to choose between conflicting duties. Principles are the crux of ethical decision making and, in general, can be contentious. That said, even though many ethical dilemmas may still be unresolved, it seems more likely that a consensus may be reached in constrained domains as this one. In particular, we might find agreement on how we would like robots to behave towards us, the crux of the matter in this domain. An example of the approach we are advocating can be found in Anderson et al. ( 2019 ). Within the domain of healthcare robots, ethically relevant features and corollary duties are discovered though a dialogue with ethicists regarding straightforward cases of ethical dilemmas that such robots are likely to encounter. From determining in these example cases which actions are correct and why, machine learning is used to abstract an overarching principle that balances duties when they conflict. In a robot’s daily routine, sensors provide raw data from which a representation of the current situation may be abstracted. The robot can apply the learned principle to this representation in order to determine which of its possible actions is most ethically correct in the current situation. As any interaction a robot has with a human being will have ethical ramifications, this principle is used to determine all behavior of the robot (Berenz and Schaal 2018 ).

It is our hope that the investigation of such domain-specific value-driven agents will help illuminate the path to a better understanding of the ethical behavior of artificially intelligent agents in general.

The HL aims to have robots with humanlike appearance, Footnote 12 ability to sense, and functionality by 2050. This robotic design may have both positive and negative consequences for the trust that people place in the robot. While social robots are perceived more positively and have both higher quality and more effective interactions with humans than non-social robots (Holler and Levinson 2019 ), the same significant factors that improve perceived human likeness can negatively affect people’s acceptance of, and trust in, a robot.

Trust is considered to be a critical construct for establishing successful and lasting human-agent (i.e., human, computer or robot) interaction (Ross 2008 ). In the psychological literature (Szczesniak 2012 ), trust is a multidimensional reality that includes cognitive, emotional and behavioral components. It allows people to take decisions that will impact their everyday lives based on rational judgements (i.e., cognitive trust), affective interpersonal relationships (i.e., emotional trust), and their own or others’ actions (i.e., behavioral trust). For example, people decide to take a leap of trust while investing in a portfolio, buying a house, picking out an outfit or holiday destination, sharing working responsibilities with a team of other people, or passing a ball to their teammates hoping they will catch it and not score in their own goal.

Researchers in HRI (Rossi et al. 2017 ; Hancock et al. 2011 ; Cameron et al. 2015 ) highlighted several principles and factors that affect someone’s (i.e., the trustor or trusting) trust in a robot (the trustee or trusted). These factors can be related to the person, such as demographics, personality, prior experiences, self-confidence; to the robot, such as the robot’s reliability, transparency; and to the context of the interaction, e.g. communication modes and shared mental models. We believe that there is a correspondence between the multifaceted nature of human-human trust and the factors affecting people’s trust in robots. Firstly, cognitive trust is based on the trustees reliability, dependability, and competence (Szczesniak 2012 ). In the context of HRI, it is thus built on and affected by a robot’s performances and faults. People’s expectations of the capabilities of a robot depend on its appearance (Bernotat et al. 2021 ), its characteristics (Hancock et al. 2011 ), and the magnitude and timing of the errors it makes (Rossi et al. 2017 ). Secondly, emotional trust is based on the interpersonal relationships built between trustor and trustee (Szczesniak 2012 ). Similarly, human-robot trust is stronger when people are more familiar with robots HT et al. ( 2011 ), especially with their capabilities and limitations (Rossi et al. 2019 ). Thirdly, behavioral trust is affected by the trustee’s behavior and risk taking in untried and uncertain situations (Szczesniak 2012 ). Trust also depends on the trustor’s belief in the trustee’s positive attitude and credibility towards the trustor and a common goal (Simpson 2007 ). An example of how risk-taking behaviors affect the credibility of an opponent can be found in the popular game of poker where it is important that players gain a good reputation (Billings 1995 ). Similarly, a robot that builds a good “reputation" is trusted more by its human opponent in human-robot games (Correia et al. 2016 ).

4.3.1 Open challenges

Two interrelated challenges in the current state of the art are the baseline level of trust that people may put in robots, and how to manage people’s expectations of a robot to ensure those are realistic. Due to the particularly dynamic and unpredictable actions that a robot can perform during a soccer game, human supervised intervention (i.e., using the robot’s safety button) will be impossible. Thus, notwithstanding the state of development of the technological and cognitive abilities of robots, the question remains whether people will be willing to engage in a soccer match where there is no option for human supervised intervention. Here, trust drives individuals’ choice to rely on others (opponents and teammates) if they are in a vulnerable and uncertain situation. This trust depends on others’ choices, including behaviours, actions and motivations (Lee and See 2004 ). It is important that those observed choices can be interpreted along realistic expectations. For example, encountering a robot that looks very humanlike can lead people to believe that this robot has the ability to sense and respond to their actions and intentions. When these expectations are not met, people lose trust in the robot (Rossi et al. 2020b ). People lose trust when the robot makes errors or has non-transparent behaviours that are perceived as errors (Rossi et al. 2017 ). It is fundamental to understand how to balance robots’ appearances to enhance people’s trust without setting too high expectations. Robots with human-like appearances might be perceived as more aggressive and less friendly than a machine-like robot (Woods et al. 2006 ), which might lead to them being perceived as a threat. While people’s physical safety is well-investigated in the literature, particularly concerning industrial settings, their perceived safety is still overlooked (Akalin et al. 2021 ). People’s discomfort or stress during their interactions with robots can be prevented by manipulating the robot’s motions, social behaviors, or attitude (e.g., speech, gaze, posture) (Lasota et al. 2017 ). Perceived safety is also enhanced by producing higher predictability with legible robot behaviors (Rossi et al. 2020a ). Even assuming that transparent behaviors can be implemented by improving a robot’s modes of communications (verbal and non-verbal), soccer players act instinctively and use implicit communication signals that are difficult to identify and reproduce with robots.

4.4 Taking advantage of the robot

While it is important that human players feel safe enough to engage in a game of soccer with a robotic team, Footnote 13 perceived safety and predictability may have the unintended side effect of humans trying to take advantage of the robot and the restrictions on its behaviors. In non-soccer settings humans have been observed abusing robots that were deployed in public spaces, such as shopping malls, museums, and restaurants (Brscić et al. 2015 ), even when the robot is supposed to assist the human (Mutlu and Forlizzi 2008 ) or when it could result in dangerous situations for all parties involved, including any bystanders (Liu et al. 2020b ). In one way or another, these behaviors concern humans taking advantage of the robot – an entity that either by programming or sheer lack of comprehension will not retaliate against exploitation or misconduct. While unprovoked aggression purely for the sake of damaging the robot seems unlikely during a soccer match, it is easy to imagine humans searching for the loopholes in the robot’s programming that can be used to their advantage. For example, it would be naive to assume that human players will not try to capitalize on a robot’s built-in tendency to avoid conflict; this behavior has already been observed in interactions between human drivers and self-driving cars (Liu et al. 2020b ). Human drivers become more reckless around autonomous cars as they expect the autonomous car to prioritize safety over traffic rules.

4.4.1 Open challenges

In previously described scenarios, moreover, opportunistic behavior could emerge unintentionally. Social exchanges require a constant interpretation of others’ behavior and intentions in order to update evaluations of what the other parties might do next. This interpretation is often done automatically and without much thought, and is not only shaped by societal rules and norms but also on experience related to what others will (not) do or allow. For example, when two opposing human players are running towards the ball, each has to monitor on one hand their belief that the other player will avoid a collision and on the other hand whether this risk of colliding (and potential injury) is worth the potential reward. If one party knows that the other will avoid collision at all costs (including tackles or other risky methods of obtaining the ball), that gives them leverage. Thus, if robotic players avoid any and all situations where a human could get harmed, negotiations like these will be heavily skewed in favor of the humans.

Value-Driven players discussed the ethical implications of this conflict between “keeping human players safe” and “be a successful soccer player”, and Trust approached it from the perspective of human players’ perceived safety. However, the tension between these two values and how it is resolved will have further implications still. On one hand, robots need to place the bodily integrity of the human players above winning or no sensible human player would ever agree to play a game of soccer against a robotic team. At the same time, the robot players cannot afford to be too cautious as that would be a great disadvantage. A possible solution could be to impose harsher punishments and more meticulous monitoring of players’ behavior. However, this would probably only have limited effects: players could claim that their tackle was unintentional (which may result in unjust sanctions), and the potential advantages could be large enough to entice players to try their luck anyway. Alternatively, one could design a feedback loop within the robot decision making process that balances the risk and severity of possible negative consequences of any behavior against the odds and positive outcomes of it. In a sense, humans do this continuously (although our estimates may be biased by heuristics, mood, attention span, energy levels, and so on) and scientists “merely” need to find a way to formalize this constant updating of a cost-vs-benefits model of behavior. This way of decision making could introduce enough assertiveness in the robot team that human players cannot take full advantage of their programmed caution. Moreover, such a loop would imply that the robotic team will adapt their behavior during the match in order to counter their opponents’ playing style. If this is rather aggressive, the costs of a defensive play style would become higher, inducing robots to adopt a more assertive playing style themselves too. This leaves the question of how much harm inferred by a robot we are willing to theoretically suffer. In autonomous vehicles, humans are unforgiving of the slightest margin of error. We hold robots to different ethical standards as other humans (Malle et al. 2015 ) and view reactive aggressive behavior as a lot more maleficent and unacceptable when it comes from a robot than when it comes from a human (Bartneck and Keijsers 2020 ). However, we will need to come to terms with a certain degree of risk, if only to prevent humans causing far more risky scenarios while attempting to play the robot’s programming.

4.5 Mixed teams

In human-robot (HR) soccer teams, Footnote 14 the goal is to perform joint soccer tasks in order to achieve common shared objectives, such as scoring in the opposite goal, defending the own goal, and eventually winning a match or a tournament. HR teams have been studied for several application domains, including search and rescue (Nourbakhsh et al. 2005 ), and surveillance (Srivastava et al. 2013 ). HR mixed soccer teams (Argall et al. 2006 ) are very relevant examples of HR collaboration, as a soccer environment provides for interesting and challenging features, such as real time perception and action, dealing with naive users, competitive scenario (possibly two HR mixed teams playing against each other), and an attractive, engaging and easy to understand problem. Solutions validated in HR mixed soccer teams can be transferred, adapted and extended in many other industrial applications, bringing several advantages and contributions to improve human-robot collaboration in such domains. There are several relevant properties of HR mixed teams. Firstly, the presence of humans and robots in the same team implies a high degree of heterogeneity. Indeed, the interaction mechanisms in HR settings are very different from those used in robot-robot teams, since in many cases HR teams are forced to use natural human-like communications. Moreover, if we consider mixed HR teams with robots developed by different researchers, a suitable common language must be defined to account for the diversity of the agents in the team. A major consequence of such heterogeneity is that most of the elements that are relevant to define a joint behavior (such as communication, players’ actions, intentions, etc.) cannot be standardized and limited to a known predefined set of elements. Moreover, each agent has specific skills and abilities that should be exploited to optimize the overall team performance. Although heterogeneous, team members can interchange their roles among each other when this is beneficial to increase the performance. Secondly, the team goals are common and shared. Common goals refer to the notion of having the same goals for all the agents in the team. When a goal is achieved, all the team members will get the same benefit from it. If the goal is not achieved, all the team members will get the same disadvantage. Shared goals refer to explicit knowledge: all the agents know about the common goal, they know that all the agents know about the common goal, etc. Notice that in some cases of human soccer, individual goals are also present: e.g., a player wants to score to gain some personal benefit not completely shared with the team. We will not consider individual goals in this section. We also assume that team members trust each other. In particular, any agent expects that all the other agents in the team will act to achieve the common goal. Thirdly, when executing the task, the agents have to deal with limited resources (such as time space, energy, etc.) not only among themselves, but also with respect to the agents of the opponent team. We cannot assume the presence of a central processing unit, so strategic and tactical decisions must be distributively taken. Finally, as humans and robots share the same physical space, safety must be guaranteed with the maximum priority.

4.5.1 Open challenges

The properties described above make HR soccer teams very challenging to design, develop and deploy. Several research topics must be addressed, which are briefly summarized in the following.

(a) Design of HR teams HR team design should mainly focus on collaboration and interaction (Ma et al. 2017 ), possibly exploiting existing models of human-human interaction or defining new specific models. Dimensions for a taxonomy of existing methods (e.g., Jiang and Arkin 2015 ) can be helpful to identify specific design elements. Some general architectures for HR teams have been proposed (e.g., Lallée et al. 2010 ) to identify the main components needed for the development of such systems. The current achievements are still far from providing a concrete methodology or guidelines to design effective HR teams.

(b) Cooperative perception HR teams need sophisticated distributed perception abilities that allow all the team members to have a clear understanding of the situation. Moreover, simple assessment of the current situation is often insufficient, and predicting intentions of other agents in the environment is necessary. Typical solutions rely on sensor analysis and sensor fusion and are suitable in many practical applications, such as industrial environments (e.g., Bonci et al. ( 2021 )). Cooperative perception in HR soccer teams is even more challenging, due to the possibly high speed of operations and to the safety risks for humans involved in the task.

(c) Knowledge alignment A main use of cooperative perception is to align the knowledge states of all the agents in a team, which is necessary for a fully comprehensive situation assessment. For example, a complete shared understanding of the soccer play state (position and dynamics of all the players and of the ball) can enable the team members to distribute themselves in the field in a convenient formation. Designing proper models that allow humans and robots to efficiently share their knowledge (obviously individually represented in a very different way) is one of the most challenging research objectives in HR teams.

(d) Coordinated actions HR soccer teams need to properly coordinate their physical actions to affect the environment. Although some basic actions (e.g., kicking the ball) are executed by each single team member independently of the others, joint actions (e.g., passing) are very relevant in this domain. In addition to reactivity, which requires the team members to directly perform actions based on sensor stimuli, anticipating behaviors and pro-activity, based on prediction of future states of the environment, are extremely important. For example, predicting the intention of an opponent provides advantage in the choice and timing of executing suitable actions. Balancing reactivity, pro-activity, and anticipating behaviors in a heterogeneous HR team is a completely open problem.

(e) Interactions Interactions in HR soccer teams must be multi-modal (speech, non-verbal vocalizations, gestures, body postures, etc.) as many different situations may occur that make some modalities more appropriate than others. These interactions are often used to provide or exchange information, affecting the knowledge (or mental) state of the agents. For example, gestures can be used to indicate where or to whom to pass the ball. Developing effective interactions in the soccer domain is thus another interesting research challenge.

(f) Decision making Distributed decision-making and coordination are necessary abilities for soccer agents who need to balance decisions considering both short- and long-term goals. The soccer domain is inherently dynamic and dynamic forms of distributed coordination (Dias et al. 2006 ) are needed. The autonomy in decision-making by each team member must be considered as a dynamic aspect (Dias et al. 2008 ) in order to adapt to different situations that may occur during a game. For example, an agent may have a better view of the situation and can suggest another agent what to do. Individual decision-making must take into account teamwork elements, such as negotiation, commitment, and anticipation. If an agreement is taken (e.g., a pass), the decisions should be finalized to fulfil it.

(g) Learning and adaptation Team learning and adaptation is also of crucial importance for effective HR collaboration, due to the presence of an opponent team for which a precise model is not available beforehand and thus optimal behaviors cannot be precisely planned before the game. Techniques like Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning (MARL) have been successfully used in robot soccer teams. However, the application to HR teams, i.e., the development of Human-Robot Reinforcement Learning is a very interesting novel research challenge for HR soccer.

(h) Benchmarking Benchmarking HR teams has been considered both in general cases (e.g., Groom and Nass ( 2007 )) and for specific tasks (e.g., Xin and Sharlin ( 2007 )). HR soccer games can provide for a very interesting and challenging benchmarking scenario for HR collaboration, due to the features of the problems and the many open research areas that have been illustrated in this section.

4.6 Discussion and conclusion

At the moment, RC features almost exclusively matches between robotic teams. Since the long term goal is to have matches against human teams, human-robot relational dynamics will have to be considered at some point in the near future. One step towards this direction has been taken by MSL which introduced a rule for the 2022 competition. This rule allows a human player to take the place of a robot player. Footnote 15

The MSL new rule highlights a few interesting dilemmas with mixed teams, and there are connected principally to the human players’ safety, game’s dynamics and communications, and liability of any possible injuries to the human players.

This brings to the attention that there is most likely going to be a considerable tension between two conflicting goals: on one hand, the need for the robotic players to keep the humans safe, and on the other the need for the robotic team to not be (perceived as) pushovers. This is a complex dilemma to solve, as it involves the robot’s ability to dynamically evaluate many different and opposing goals (e.g., “pass the defenders of the opposing team while they are trying to take the ball from me” vs “avoid injuring the defenders of the opposing team”); the humans’ perception of the robot’s ability to evaluate opposing goals and make the right (moral) call; and finally ensuring that this trust of the human player in the robot’s morality doesn’t result in the human taking advantage of the robot (e.g., “the robots are programmed to avoid harming me, so if I go for a tackle they’ll abandon the ball to avoid the possibility of harming me”). This is a non-trivial issue as it depends not only on the robot’s ability to juggle a complex interplay of values, but also on the human’s perception of the robot’s ability to do so, and on balancing out those values in such a way that humans will still be willing to play against the robotic team without taking advantage of it. This may be a paradox that cannot be solely solved through robot design, but will require humans as well to adapt, e.g. through accepting a risk of being injured by a robot player.

A second issue that most sections touched upon but may not have discussed as in-depth as the trust dilemma, is the relevance of communication (both verbal and non-verbal). Successful communication of intentions and current states, both between members of the same team and also (maybe especially) between members of opposing teams, will be of tremendous importance if we are to see human-robot soccer matches in the future. Communication is key to all open questions discussed above. Without it, ethical behaviour cannot be designed, nor can trust be gained or boundaries set, and collaboration will be impossible.

Finally, a third issue resides in the identification of the legal and moral responsible actors in case of injuries to human players or broken property of robotic players. Several RC Leagues, such as the HL, have rules in place since a long time to prevent the damage to robots or the game fields, and the MSL stated in their new rule that the liability of injuries to human players falls on the team of the human player. The liability does not necessarily rely on one part, and the robot may be partially or fully responsible for an incident (e.g., if it applies a more forceful contact game with the human player). Legal responsibilities also do not only depend on the RC Federation’s regulations, but it could vary according to the country where the RC is played. For this reason, it is important to firstly define a global legal regulation for the whole RC, and then define a complaint mechanism with respect to the regulations of the host countries of the competition.

5 Conclusions

RoboCup provides one of the best benchmarks for autonomous robotics in unstructured environments due to the multitude of its open challenges. For example, to effectively play soccer, the robots need to perceive and interpret data from the external environment, collecting information about themselves, their teammates, and their opponents (e.g., position in the field); they need to be able to understand and communicate using verbal and non-verbal cues, and so on. However, not only do robots need to be designed using appropriate materials, but roboticists need to model their behaviors and mechanisms to allow human players to trust that robots are able to play in a safe and secure way. To explore such research directions, here, we contextualized RoboCup within the state-of-art of in the fields of Robotics, Engineering, Material Science, Ethics, and HRI, and presented the requirements that researchers in such areas need to address and develop in order to bring solutions/systems together in a safe, coherent and testable way for both human and robot players. We invite and encourage researchers to use the RC 2050 challenge to inspire, evaluate, and promote their work, ideally in collaboration with one another throughout the world.

Writing led by Peter Stone and Maike Paetzel-Prüsmann.

Yun Liu; HL Team ZJLabers, Zhejiang Lab, China.

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The SPL differs from HL because all teams are required to use Aldebaran NAO robots, which do not meet the HL’s restrictive rules with regard to the use of sensors and body proportions.

Caleb Rascon; RC@Home Technical Committee 2012–2017, Executive Committee 2017–2019, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico.

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Wouter Kuijpers, Ainse Kokkelmans and René van de Molengraft; MSL Team Tech United, Eindhoven University of Technology, Netherlands.

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Acknowledgements

This work has been supported by the Italian PON R &I 2014-2020 - REACT-EU (CUP E65F21002920003), and by the Italian Ministry for Universities and Research (MUR) under the grant FAIR (MUR: PE0000013)

Open access funding provided by Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II within the CRUI-CARE Agreement.

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Alessandra Rossi, Maike Paetzel-Prüsmann and Merel Keijsers have equally contribution to this work. The other authors are in alphabetical order.

Authors and Affiliations

University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy

Alessandra Rossi

University of Hertfordshire, Hertfordshire, UK

Alessandra Rossi, Daniel Barry, Daniel Polani & Marcus Scheunemann

Independent Researcher, Zürich, Switzerland

Maike Paetzel-Prüsmann

John Cabot University, Rome, Italy

Merel Keijsers

University of Hartford, Hartford, USA

Michael Anderson

University of Connecticut, Storrs, USA

Susan Leigh Anderson

University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

Jan Gutsche & Florian Vahl

University of Texas at Austin, Austin, USA

Justin Hart & Peter Stone

Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy

Luca Iocchi

Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

Ainse Kokkelmans, Wouter Kuijpers & René van de Molengraft

Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou, China

Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico

Caleb Roscon

Sony AI, Tokyo, Japan

Peter Stone

Technische Universität Darmstadt, Darmstadt, Germany

Oskar von Stryk

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Contributions

AR contributed to the manuscript conception, and AR, MPP and MK contributed to the design and preparations. The first and final draft of the manuscript was written by AR, MPP and MK, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. This work had contributions from several authors attributed in their sections. In particular, PS and MPP wrote the Introduction section; YL wrote the Human-sized robot design subsection; DB and MS wrote Motion Engine subsection; CR wrote the Audio in Human-Multi-robot Systems subsection; FV and JG wrote the Robot Vision subsection; WK, AK and RM wrote the Playing against humans subsection; MA and SLA wrote the Value-Driven Players subsection; AR wrote the Trust subsection; MK wrote the Taking advantage of the robot subsection; LI wrote the Mixed teams subsection. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Rossi, A., Paetzel-Prüsmann, M., Keijsers, M. et al. The human in the loop Perspectives and challenges for RoboCup 2050. Auton Robot 48 , 8 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10514-024-10159-3

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The Streetlight Effect in Data-Driven Exploration

We examine innovative contexts like scientific research or technical R&D where agents must search across many potential projects of varying and uncertain returns. Is it better to possess incomplete but accurate data on the value of some projects, or might there be cases where it is better to explore on a blank slate? While more data usually improves welfare, we present a theoretical framework to understand how it can unexpectedly decrease it. In our model of the streetlight effect, we predict that when data shines a light on attractive but not optimal projects, it can severely narrow the breadth of exploration and lower individual and group payoffs. We test our predictions in an online lab experiment and show that the availability of data on the true value of one project can lower individual payoffs by 17% and reduce the likelihood of discovering the optimal outcome by 54% compared to cases where no data is provided. Suggestive empirical evidence from genetics research illustrates our framework in a real-world setting: data on moderately promising genetic targets delays valuable discoveries by 1.6 years on average. Our paper provides the first systematic examination of the streetlight effect, outlining the conditions under which data leads agents to look under the lamppost rather than engage in socially beneficial exploration.

The first part of the experiment was conducted online via the Toronto Experimental Economics Laboratory in September 2021 and March 2022. The second part of the experiment was conducted online via the Vienna Center for Experimental Economics in July, August, and October 2023. The experiment received approval from the University of Toronto Research Ethics Board (approval #00038482) and was pre-registered at https://osf.io/zs2mu/. We are grateful to Gary Biglaiser, Kevin Bryan, Emeric Henry, Ryan Hill, Riitta Katila, Ramana Nanda, Jean-Robert Tyran and participants at the SIE workshop, the MOM workshop at HBS, the MAD conference at Columbia, the SMS Special Conference at Bocconi, the Strategy Science conference, as well as seminars at BU, GeorgiaTech, Michigan, NBER, Purdue, UC Berkeley, UCLA, and Wharton for their suggestions. We thank Adit Jain for his outstanding help in designing the experimental platform. Eva Chang and Cecil-Francis Brenninkmeijer provided excellent research assistance. All authors contributed equally and are listed in alphabetical order. Corresponding author: [email protected]. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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Using ideas from game theory to improve the reliability of language models

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Imagine you and a friend are playing a game where your goal is to communicate secret messages to each other using only cryptic sentences. Your friend's job is to guess the secret message behind your sentences. Sometimes, you give clues directly, and other times, your friend has to guess the message by asking yes-or-no questions about the clues you've given. The challenge is that both of you want to make sure you're understanding each other correctly and agreeing on the secret message.

MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL) researchers have created a similar "game" to help improve how AI understands and generates text. It is known as a “consensus game” and it involves two parts of an AI system — one part tries to generate sentences (like giving clues), and the other part tries to understand and evaluate those sentences (like guessing the secret message).

The researchers discovered that by treating this interaction as a game, where both parts of the AI work together under specific rules to agree on the right message, they could significantly improve the AI's ability to give correct and coherent answers to questions. They tested this new game-like approach on a variety of tasks, such as reading comprehension, solving math problems, and carrying on conversations, and found that it helped the AI perform better across the board.

Traditionally, large language models answer one of two ways: generating answers directly from the model (generative querying) or using the model to score a set of predefined answers (discriminative querying), which can lead to differing and sometimes incompatible results. With the generative approach, "Who is the president of the United States?" might yield a straightforward answer like "Joe Biden." However, a discriminative query could incorrectly dispute this fact when evaluating the same answer, such as "Barack Obama."

So, how do we reconcile mutually incompatible scoring procedures to achieve coherent, efficient predictions? 

"Imagine a new way to help language models understand and generate text, like a game. We've developed a training-free, game-theoretic method that treats the whole process as a complex game of clues and signals, where a generator tries to send the right message to a discriminator using natural language. Instead of chess pieces, they're using words and sentences," says Athul Jacob, an MIT PhD student in electrical engineering and computer science and CSAIL affiliate. "Our way to navigate this game is finding the 'approximate equilibria,' leading to a new decoding algorithm called 'equilibrium ranking.' It's a pretty exciting demonstration of how bringing game-theoretic strategies into the mix can tackle some big challenges in making language models more reliable and consistent."

When tested across many tasks, like reading comprehension, commonsense reasoning, math problem-solving, and dialogue, the team's algorithm consistently improved how well these models performed. Using the ER algorithm with the LLaMA-7B model even outshone the results from much larger models. "Given that they are already competitive, that people have been working on it for a while, but the level of improvements we saw being able to outperform a model that's 10 times the size was a pleasant surprise," says Jacob. 

"Diplomacy," a strategic board game set in pre-World War I Europe, where players negotiate alliances, betray friends, and conquer territories without the use of dice — relying purely on skill, strategy, and interpersonal manipulation — recently had a second coming. In November 2022, computer scientists, including Jacob, developed “Cicero,” an AI agent that achieves human-level capabilities in the mixed-motive seven-player game, which requires the same aforementioned skills, but with natural language. The math behind this partially inspired the Consensus Game. 

While the history of AI agents long predates when OpenAI's software entered the chat in November 2022, it's well documented that they can still cosplay as your well-meaning, yet pathological friend. 

The consensus game system reaches equilibrium as an agreement, ensuring accuracy and fidelity to the model's original insights. To achieve this, the method iteratively adjusts the interactions between the generative and discriminative components until they reach a consensus on an answer that accurately reflects reality and aligns with their initial beliefs. This approach effectively bridges the gap between the two querying methods. 

In practice, implementing the consensus game approach to language model querying, especially for question-answering tasks, does involve significant computational challenges. For example, when using datasets like MMLU, which have thousands of questions and multiple-choice answers, the model must apply the mechanism to each query. Then, it must reach a consensus between the generative and discriminative components for every question and its possible answers. 

The system did struggle with a grade school right of passage: math word problems. It couldn't generate wrong answers, which is a critical component of understanding the process of coming up with the right one. 

“The last few years have seen really impressive progress in both strategic decision-making and language generation from AI systems, but we’re just starting to figure out how to put the two together. Equilibrium ranking is a first step in this direction, but I think there’s a lot we’ll be able to do to scale this up to more complex problems,” says Jacob.   

An avenue of future work involves enhancing the base model by integrating the outputs of the current method. This is particularly promising since it can yield more factual and consistent answers across various tasks, including factuality and open-ended generation. The potential for such a method to significantly improve the base model's performance is high, which could result in more reliable and factual outputs from ChatGPT and similar language models that people use daily. 

"Even though modern language models, such as ChatGPT and Gemini, have led to solving various tasks through chat interfaces, the statistical decoding process that generates a response from such models has remained unchanged for decades," says Google Research Scientist Ahmad Beirami, who was not involved in the work. "The proposal by the MIT researchers is an innovative game-theoretic framework for decoding from language models through solving the equilibrium of a consensus game. The significant performance gains reported in the research paper are promising, opening the door to a potential paradigm shift in language model decoding that may fuel a flurry of new applications."

Jacob wrote the paper with MIT-IBM Watson Lab researcher Yikang Shen and MIT Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science assistant professors Gabriele Farina and Jacob Andreas, who is also a CSAIL member. They presented their work at the International Conference on Learning Representations (ICLR) earlier this month, where it was highlighted as a "spotlight paper." The research also received a “best paper award” at the NeurIPS R0-FoMo Workshop in December 2023.

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MIT researchers have developed a new procedure that uses game theory to improve the accuracy and consistency of large language models (LLMs), reports Steve Nadis for Quanta Magazine . “The new work, which uses games to improve AI, stands in contrast to past approaches, which measured an AI program’s success via its mastery of games,” explains Nadis. 

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Bariatric Surgery Reduces Breast Cancer Incidence in a Prospective Trial

• 1 Division of Breast Surgery, Department of Surgery, Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois
• Original Investigation Breast Cancer Risk After Bariatric Surgery and Influence of Insulin Levels Felipe M. Kristensson, MD; Johanna C. Andersson-Assarsson, PhD; Markku Peltonen, PhD; Peter Jacobson, MD, PhD; Sofie Ahlin, MD, PhD; Per-Arne Svensson, PhD; Kajsa Sjöholm, PhD; Lena M. S. Carlsson, MD, PhD; Magdalena Taube, PhD JAMA Surgery

In this issue of JAMA Surgery , Kristensson et al 1 build on their previous research using participants from the Swedish Obese Subjects Study (SOS), a prospective, controlled trial comparing bariatric surgery to usual care. The SOS investigators initially reported a decrease in cancer incidence after bariatric surgery in women, but not in men. 2 Subsequently, in the cohort of women participants, they reported that bariatric surgery reduced the incidence of female-specific cancers, particularly in those women who had hyperinsulinemia at baseline. 3 In this current study, women were followed up for a median of 23.9 years after bariatric surgery or usual care. The authors found a significantly lower incidence of breast cancer in the surgery group compared to the usual care group in premenopausal women and in women with elevated median insulin levels and insulin resistance at the time of enrollment. 1 This study is the first prospective study with long-term follow-up to report an association between bariatric surgery and a reduction in breast cancer incidence. While cancer incidence was not a prespecified end point and the SOS study was not randomized, a significant strength of the study is that both the surgery and usual care arm patients were eligible for bariatric surgery, which allowed for a more unbiased comparison of the 2 groups.

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Kulkarni SA , Sterbling HM. Bariatric Surgery Reduces Breast Cancer Incidence in a Prospective Trial. JAMA Surg. Published online May 15, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2024.1158

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