argumentative essay for stress

Stress and Its Effects on Health Essay

Introduction, physical effects, psychological effects, behavioral effects.

Stress is the emotional strain or tension experienced by an individual due to a reaction toward various demanding and influential situations. The challenging or compelling situations are termed stressors. Stressors can be internal or external and include life changes such as losing a significant figure, low socioeconomic status, relationship problems, occupational challenges, and familial or environmental factors. An individual’s response to stressors influences the outcome of their life. Health is a state of complete social, emotional, and physical well-being and not merely the absence of disease. Stress is a common risk factor for negative health status secondary to negative adaptation and coping with the stressors. Stressors can create a strain on one’s physical, psychological and behavioral well-being, leading to lasting effects that are detrimental to one’s health.

Stress is associated with various physical health impacts on an individual. In an online cross-sectional survey by Keech et al. (2020) to determine the association between stress and the physical and psychological health of police officers, the findings illustrate that stress negatively impacts physical and psychological well-being. One hundred and thirty-four police officers were involved in the study (Keech et al., 2020). The findings demonstrate that stress resulted in various short and long-term physical effects that included increased heart rates, sweating, high blood pressure, and long-term development of the cardiac condition. In addition, stress resulted in the development of gastrointestinal disorders such as peptic ulcer and irritable bowel syndrome. Keech et al. (2020) note that stress’s associated physical health effects are explained by various mechanisms that include overstimulation of the sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis.

Overstimulation of the sympathetic nervous system results in increased sympathetic actions on the peripheral body organs leading to increased sweat production, heart rate, respiration rate, and urinary and bowel elimination. The study notes that chronic stress without positive adaptation measures results in the progressive development of hypertension, peptic ulcers, and irritable bowel syndrome as long-term effects (Keech et al., 2020). Within the gastrointestinal tract, chronic stress activity on the sympathetic nervous system results in increased parietal cell action. Overactivity of the parietal cells results in excessive gastric acid production, gradually eroding the mucosa, and ulceration occurs.

The effects of stress on the cardiovascular system are explained in a review by Kivimäki & Steptoe (2017) to determine the impact of stress on the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases. In the review, stress is identified to cause cardiovascular conditions secondary to the effects of sustained sympathetic action on heart contractility and peripheral vascular resistance (Kivimäki & Steptoe, 2017). The sympathetic nervous system contributes to normal heart and blood vessel contractility. However, when the system is overstimulated, a surge in contractility above the normal limits ensues, leading to the progressive development of heart conditions.

Psychological well-being incorporates a positive mental health status evidenced by an individual’s satisfaction with life, happiness, rational thinking and decision-making, and positive mood patterns. Stress has been associated with alterations in an individual’s psychological wellness. An explanation for alteration in an individual’s psychological well-being secondary to stress is negative adaptation. Keech et al. (2020) note that an individual’s response to a stressor determines whether stress results in positive or negative effects. In the online cross-sectional survey by Keech et al. (2020), the findings illustrate that pressure resulted in the development of anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorders as long-term effects among the participants. Exposure to stressful situations resulted in progressively developing anxiety among the individual secondary to persistent worry over the issue. The anxiety results in other physical manifestations, including increased heart rate, palpitations, sweating, and altered mobility. Depression and bipolar conditions were also associated with chronic stress secondary to the impacts of stress on neurotransmitter function and nerves.

Similar findings are noted in a cross-sectional study by Zhang et al. (2020) to compare the prevalence and severity of stress-associated mental health symptoms, including anxiety, depression, and insomnia among healthcare workers during the COVID pandemic. Five hundred and twenty-four healthcare workers were involved in the study. The study findings illustrate that 31.3% of the participants developed depression secondary to the stressful working environment, 41.2% reported anxiety, and 39.3% reported sleep disturbances (Zhang et al., 2020). The scientific explanation for the relationship between stress and depression was attributed to the effects of stressful periods on neurotransmitter homeostasis. Chronic stress results in the altered regulation of neurotransmitters in the central nervous system. Alterations in serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine resulted in the progressive development of depression and anxiety. Sleep disturbances reported by the participants are attributed to alterations in cortisol hormone homeostasis secondary to overstimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis.

Stressful situations can also lead to alterations in the behavioral patterns of an individual. The most common behavioral effects secondary to stress include the development of eating disorders, altered sleeping patterns, impaired concentration, and drug abuse especially alcohol. Alterations in sleep and eating patterns are linked to stress’s effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis (HPA). Exposure to stressful events leads to increased activation of the HPA axis with a net effect of increased catecholamine production (adrenaline and noradrenaline) (Moustafa et al., 2018). Increased adrenaline and noradrenaline production results in dysregulation in the eating and sleeping patterns. Sustained high levels of cortisol results in difficulty falling asleep and increased metabolic processes. The biological clock regulates the typical sleeping pattern that relies on producing the sleep hormone melatonin. Melatonin production by the pineal gland is regulated indirectly by the concentration of serum cortisol levels and directly by light perception. Imbalances in the serum concentration cycle secondary to stress results in imbalanced melatonin production and concentration with a net effect of sleeping difficulties.

The emotional strain caused by stress increases the risk of alcohol and other illicit drug use and dependence. Moustafa et al. (2018) conducted an integrative literature review to determine the relationship between childhood trauma, early-life stress, alcohol and drug use, addiction, and abuse. The review findings illustrate that stress increases the risk of alcohol and drug use, addiction, and abuse among the victims. An explanation for the increased risk is the individuals’ lack of identification and implementation of effective coping strategies (Moustafa et al., 2018). Lack of effective coping strategies results in maladaptive measures such as illicit drug use and alcohol consumption. Extensive use of the maladaptive measures results in progressive addiction and drug abuse among individuals with an increased predisposition to other health effects. Alcohol consumption and other illicit drug use over time increase the risk of developing cardiac, respiratory, and liver conditions.

Stress is the emotional strain or tension experienced by an individual due to a reaction toward various demanding and influential situations. Individual response to stressors influences their health. Maladaptive response to stress results in various physical, psychological, and behavioral negative effects. Negative effects of stress on physical health include increased heart rates, sweating, high blood pressure, and long-term development of the cardiac condition. Psychological effects include the development of anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorders. The behavioral effects of stress on an individual include the development of eating disorders, altered sleeping patterns, impaired concentration, and abuse of alcohol and other drugs. Based on the research findings, it is essential for healthcare providers to identify strategic measures and health initiatives to educate and sensitize the community members on effective stress management approaches in all settings to aid in combating the health effects.

Keech, J. J., Cole, K. L., Hagger, M. S., & Hamilton, K. (2020). The association between stress mindset and physical and psychological well being: Testing a stress beliefs model in police officers . Psychology & Health , 35 (11), 1306-1325. Web.

Kivimäki, M., & Steptoe, A. (2017). Effects of stress on the development and progression of cardiovascular disease . Nature Reviews Cardiology , 15 (4), 215–229. Web.

Moustafa, A. A., Parkes, D., Fitzgerald, L., Underhill, D., Garami, J., Levy-Gigi, E., Stramecki, F., Valikhani, A., Frydecka, D., & Misiak, B. (2018). The relationship between childhood trauma, early-life stress, and alcohol and drug use, abuse, and addiction: An integrative review . Current Psychology , 40 (2), 579–584. Web.

Zhang, X., Zhao, K., Zhang, G., Feng, R., Chen, J., Xu, D., Liu, X., Ngoubene-Italy, A. J., Huang, H., Liu, Y., Chen, L., & Wang, W. (2020). Occupational Stress and Mental Health: A comparison between frontline medical staff and non-frontline medical staff during the 2019 novel Coronavirus Disease outbreak . Frontiers in Psychiatry , 11 . Web.

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Argumentative Essay on Stress

Stress: tension: (psychology) a state of mental or emotional strain or suspense. Although this is hardly something that is malignant, it is something that everybody works to avoid. Despite everyone’s attempts at evasion, we all experience stress, but I’ll bet you didn’t know that, in most cases, stress is self induced. The main way we cause ourselves stress is by overbooking, or taking on too many things at once. Overbooking is an easy thing to succumb to because it may seem like a remote possibility that being involved with a variety of activities could be negative however, it will only reverberate your chances of being successful.

When we attempt to take on too many things at once and try to do them without respite, we not only thwart ourselves, but we become fretful as we realize the excruciating fact that is we cannot handle everything. We become pressed for time, and are so focused on getting things complete, that we rush and are unable to complete said tasks to the best of our ability. It may seem that stress is ubiquitous but it is not. Be careful, and DO NOT try to take on more that you can handle. Don’t join the robotics team if you are already working on key club and student senate. The world will not end if you have some free time and you will be surprised as well as relieved when you find that you can relax, and that you actually have time to get things done and done well.

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Home — Essay Samples — Education — Homework — How Too Much Homework Causes Too Much Stress

How Too Much Homework Causes Too Much Stress

• Categories: Education System Homework

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Words: 1491 |

Published: Dec 16, 2021

Words: 1491 | Pages: 3 | 8 min read

Works Cited

• Cooper, H. (2006). The battle over homework: Common ground for administrators, teachers, and parents. Corwin Press.
• LeTendre, G. K., & Baker, D. P. (2005). International perspectives on student outcomes and homework: Family–school–community partnerships. Theory Into Practice, 44(3), 182-193.
• Kohn, A. (2006). The homework myth: Why our kids get too much of a bad thing. Da Capo Press.
• Trautwein, U., & Koller, O. (2003). The relationship between homework and achievement—still much of a mystery. Educational psychology review, 15(2), 115-145.
• Stanford Graduate School of Education. (2014). The case for (quality) homework. Retrieved from https://ed.stanford.edu/news/case-quality-homework
• Vatterott, C. (2010). Rethinking homework: Best practices that support diverse needs. ASCD.
• Kalish, N. (2012). The case against homework: How homework is hurting our children and what we can do about it. William Morrow.
• Pope, D. (2014). Overloaded and underprepared: Strategies for stronger schools and healthy, successful kids. John Wiley & Sons.
• Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement. Developmental psychology, 45(3), 740.
• Epstein, J. L., & Van Voorhis, F. L. (2001). More than minutes: Teachers’ roles in designing homework. Educational psychologist, 36(3), 181-193.

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• Essay on Human

Effects Of Stress On Individuals Argumentative Essay Example

Type of paper: Argumentative Essay

Topic: Human , Health , Medicine , Stress , Study , Body , Immune System , Heart

Words: 1000

Published: 02/08/2020

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Whereas individuals can respond differently to the same type of stress, if stressed too frequently, the body may suffer harmful effects given that stress is the body's response to challenging situations and circumstances. In biological terms, stress refers to responses by organisms to stressors that could be environmental stimuli or conditions (Heidenreich, 2009). It is usually a way in which individual’s bodies respond to challenges by means of the activation of the sympathetic nervous systems. The resultant effects of the responses to stress could either be a flight response or a fight response. Stressful conditions are typically conditions that are either negative or positive and do have an impact on the mental state or the psychological well being of individuals who are faced with stressful situations. The stressful conditions are usually characterized by a series of physical reactions and are argued to represent the mental disorders or even physical disorders in the individual that is stressed out. Studies have shown that individuals have the potential of responding differently to the same stressors. If the individuals are always stressed in a frequent manner, their bodies will definitely develop harmful effects as the body responds to the challenges it faces and the circumstances presented. This paper discusses the effects that stress has on individual persons and the manner in which they respond to the stressors. Studies have shown that there are vital organs within the body which play significant roles in the perception and response to stress. The human brain is the most active organ in the human body that perceives situations of stress and responds to it (Lupien et al, 2009). The brain is charged with the responsibility of processing various types of information within the body. There are also smaller sections of the brain like the hypothalamus that actively responds to the stressful conditions that the individual person on. Individuals are found to respond differently to the stressors and thus there is no uniform response that people have when it comes to responding to stressors. The effects of stress can either be moderate or chronic depending on the intensity of the stressful condition. The stress can affect the emotions of an individual as well as the body of the individual under stressful conditions. Stress can also affect the immune systems of individuals. When the frequency of stress is constant, the immune system is weakened significantly (Thompson, 2010). The weakening of the immune system makes individuals become more likely to develop sickness as opposed to being healthy and stress free. For those who have chronic diseases, they become more vulnerable to effects of stress as it worsens their immune system even more. Stress also affects the human heart significantly. It usually has a link to the bodies’ blood pressures which studies have revealed that stress causes high blood pressure. It also causes the heart to beat abnormally and causes the blood to clot. Either, stress has the potential of making the human arteries to harden- a condition normally referred to as atherosclerosis. It can also cause heart failure and heart attack diseases. Stress also affects the human lungs as it has the potential of worsening certain diseases that are associated with the human lungs. Stress worsens disease conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary and asthma conditions (Heidenreich, 2009). Studies have also found that stress can also affect the human skin more so on individuals who have the problems of skin diseases. For example, individuals with acne and psoriasis skin diseases are at higher risk of their condition becoming worse due to stress. Stress significantly affects the manner in which the stressed individuals feel, the manner in which they think and the eventual manner in which they act. Under stressful conditions, individuals respond with feelings of crankiness that may make them be unable to deal with even smaller problems. There are those who respond to stressful situations by losing their tempers while others end up developing feelings of frustrations In many occasions, stress is found to affects the human muscles as the constant tensions lead to pains in the shoulders, low back and around the neck. Studies have also shown that the presence of stress in individuals acts as a contributing factor to the development of irritable bowel syndrome, peptic ulcers and gastro esophageal reflux diseases (Edu, 2009). Individuals with such diseases are at higher risk since stress worsens the conditions. Either, the reproductive system of individuals is also affected by stress. There are those who respond to stressors with dysfunctional reproductive system. Constant presence of stressors alters the normal functioning of the reproductive system. In both male and females, stressful conditions can lead to low infertility which essentially affects the ability to reproduce off springs and is more pronounced in women than in men. Women respond to stressors through miscarriages and painful menstrual cycles. The men might respond with inability to experience full erection (Heidenreich, 2009). In conclusion, stressful situations are shown to have differing effects on the individuals who are stressed. The individuals stressed tend to respond differently to the stressors with some showing variations in their biological body processes while others showing variations in their attitude or mental states. There are those who have medical conditions that are worsened by the presence of stressors within their day to day life. For the stressors to cause the severity of these medical conditions they have to be experienced on a constant basis.

Heidenreich, P. (2009). Handbook of Stress: Causes, Effects and Control. New York: Nova Science Publishers Thompson, H. L. (2010). The Stress Effects: Why smart Leaders make Dumb Decisions and What to Do about It. San Francisco, California: Josssey-Bass www.umm.edu (2009, February 13) Stress Complications. Retrieved from http://www.umm.edu/patiented/articles/what_health_consequences_of_stre ss_000031_3.htm Conrad, C. (2011). The Handbook Of Stress: Neuropsychological Effects On The Brain. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K: Wiley-Blackwell. Lupien, S. Mcewen, B. Gunnar, M. & Heim, C. (2009). Effects Of Stress Throughout The Lifespan On The Brain, Behaviour And Cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. Page 434-445.

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There Are 5 'Stress Languages.' Here's How To Figure Out Yours.

Wellness Reporter, HuffPost

Have you ever been in an argument with someone and felt like the two of you were speaking different languages? Turns out that might not be too far off: Those difficulties in communicating could be due to differing stress languages, essentially a way of thinking about how you respond to challenging situations.

“When we are stressed, our blood goes to our body and leaves our frontal lobe area. So our frontal lobe kind of goes offline,” said Chantal Donnelly , a physical therapist, stress researcher and author of “ Settled: How to Find Calm in a Stress-Inducing World .”

The frontal lobe is responsible for functions like self-control, emotions and thinking, according to the Cleveland Clinic . “We also have these cranial nerves that start in the brainstem,” Donnelly said. “They’re associated with communication and connection, and those get compromised when we’re in a stress response.”

“So, when you’re in an argument, you are not speaking the same language ― you actually are having trouble communicating and hearing each other properly,” she explained.

This explains why you might have felt you just couldn’t get through to your partner, child or friend during a conflict: You really weren’t understanding each other in the moment.

Donnelly came up with the concept of stress languages while working with her own clients. She found that stress management was the key missing element in their treatment. “Stress language” is not an official mental health term, but the concept can help you learn about yourself and your loved ones, much like the love languages that have become widely known in recent years.

Below, experts share more on stress languages, how to determine yours, and why it’s important to manage your stress.

The 5 Different Stress Languages

There are five categories of stress languages, according to Donnelly’s research, and many of us fall into one (or maybe a few) of them. They are:

The Imploder: This is a “freeze” response to a stressful situation. The imploder may feel hopeless, helpless and paralyzed, Donnelly explained.

The Exploder: This is a “fight or flight” response to a stressful situation. This person may have an inflated reaction to a stressful situation; they might get irritable, frustrated or angry, or even leave a situation that they can’t handle, Donnelly said.

The Fixer: This “ tend and befriend ” reaction is typically how women express a stress response. This can look like appeasement, people pleasing, overstepping boundaries and even “mothering” people who aren’t your kids, according to Donnelly.

The Number: As in, a person who numbs themself to the outside world when things aren’t going well, Donnelly said. This person usually uses escapism ― such as drugs, alcohol, online gaming, overworking or overexercising ― as a coping mechanism for stress.

The Denier: This is someone who possesses toxic positivity in response to stress and can be overly optimistic to avoid reality, Donnelly explained.

“The first three ― the exploder, the imploder and the fixer ― are based on biologically where people go when they become stressed,” Donnelly said. “And then the last two, the denier and the number, those are based on strategies that people try to use on a regular basis to overcome or manage stress.”

Which one are you? To figure that out, Donnelly said you should look for stress response patterns in yourself and in others when you’re having a rough day.

“I suggest that people ask their partners if they see a pattern, and realize that you may not agree, but to step back and be really curious about what your partner sees in you,” Donnelly said. “It’s really about catching yourself and your partner in these repetitive approaches to stress.”

Keep in mind that you may fall into multiple categories of stress language. Or certain people may bring out different stress responses in you: You might respond differently to your parents, for example, than you would to your partner or your boss.

The Importance Of Knowing Your Stress Language

Just like knowing your own love language and that of your partner, it’s beneficial to understand how you and those around you handle stress. This way, you’ll be able to anticipate how your friend, boss or partner may react in an argument, which can help lead to a calmer interaction and make it easier to anticipate what they need in the moment.

“Understanding stress languages brings more understanding in your relationships,” Donnelly said.

“I think [stress languages are] useful in the sense that they’re fun and you can learn about a lot about yourself,” said Christopher Hansen , a licensed professional counselor with Thriveworks in San Antonio. While “stress language” isn’t an official clinical term, the idea does have its place in mental health, he said.

Hansen likened understanding your stress language to being sick and not knowing what’s wrong. Once you get a diagnosis, there’s some sense of relief, because you can finally put a name to what’s happening.

Donnelly said that identifying your stress language, or someone else’s, is not about pointing fingers, but simply a way to have better communication.

“Those terms can sound like labels, and my purpose is not to give people labels,” Donnelly said. “It’s really just to create a framework or a vernacular so that there is a way of understanding others in your life.”

Plus, it can be a good way to change problematic behaviors. It’s impossible to change a behavior if you don’t realize you’re doing it. Understanding how you respond to stress can be the first step in grasping how you act in an argument or other tough situations.

For example, if your stress language is that of an “exploder,” and you have outbursts during stressful moments, identifying your pattern of aggression makes it possible to stop yourself next time, Hansen noted. Or if you’re a “fixer” and you tend to overstep boundaries in stressful situations, you can acknowledge that and catch yourself before you do it again.

Other Ways To Handle Stress

Stress can wreak havoc on your mental health and physical health alike. It can cause physical symptoms like headache, chest pain, trouble sleeping and fatigue, in addition to emotional states like sadness, anger, overwhelm and more, according to the Mayo Clinic .

“Cumulative stress is probably the most causal to the development of anxiety and depressive disorders,” Hansen said. Plus, chronic stress can lead to major issues like heart disease and high blood pressure.

These risks make it clear why you should manage your stress as much as possible, whether through understanding your stress language or adopting lifestyle changes, like keeping a healthy routine, to help you keep your cool.

“Routine is the secret to good stress hormones,” Elizabeth Shirtcliff , a research professor at the Center for Translational Neuroscience at the University of Oregon, previously told HuffPost . To help manage your stress, you can try eating at the same times every day and having a bedtime routine, an exercise regimen and regular hobbies that you lean on.

“Those are all going to be ways that help your body predict the day and therefore not have to overdo it,” Shirtcliff told HuffPost.

Beyond having a good baseline for stress management, in a stressful moment you can try a body-up response instead of a brain-down response, Donnelly suggested. This means focusing on your physical body instead of your mind. For example, try breathing exercises, rather than positive thinking, to get your body into a calm state.

“If you inhale for a count of three and exhale for a count of six, that’s going to settle your nervous system just a little bit,” Donnelly said.

What To Do If You’re Still Stressed Out

Stress can become unbearable past a certain point, and no matter how familiar you are with your stress language, you may need additional support to cope ― especially since chronic stress, which can lead to heart health issues, isn’t an easy thing to just turn off.

“The litmus test for whether something’s a problem or not is if it’s affecting your relationships, your ability to work, your ability to have fun, to enjoy life,” Hansen said. “If you’re withdrawing, those are all hardcore symptoms of either a depressive or an anxiety disorder.”

If this sounds familiar, it’s a good idea to seek out professional help, if possible. You can use databases like Psychology Today and Inclusive Therapists to find a mental health provider near you.

“The biggest thing I always say [is]... it’s a sign of strength to admit that you need help and get the right help,” Hansen said.

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Judge Grills U.S. and Google on Antitrust Claims

Judge Amit P. Mehta tried poking holes in the closing arguments of a landmark monopoly case as he weighs a ruling that could reshape tech.

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By David McCabe and Cecilia Kang

Reporting from the E. Barrett Prettyman U.S. Courthouse in Washington

The judge overseeing a landmark U.S. antitrust challenge to Google tried to poke holes in both sides’ cases during closing arguments Thursday as he weighed a ruling that could reshape the technology industry.

Judge Amit P. Mehta was presiding over the first day of closing arguments in the most consequential tech antitrust case since the U.S. government sued Microsoft in the late 1990s. The Justice Department has sued Google, accusing it of illegally shoring up a monopoly in online search. Google has denied the claims.

On Thursday, Judge Mehta questioned the government’s argument that Google’s dominance had hurt the quality of the experience for searching for information online. But he also pushed Google to defend its central argument that it isn’t a monopoly because consumers use other companies like Amazon to search for shopping items and TikTok to search for music clips.

“Certainly I don’t think the average person would say, ‘Google and Amazon are the same thing,’” Judge Mehta said.

His ruling — expected in the coming weeks or months — will help set a precedent for a series of government challenges to tech giants’ size and power. Federal regulators have also filed antitrust lawsuits against Apple, Amazon and Meta, and a second case against Google over online advertising.

Before the start of closing arguments in a U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia courtroom, Jonathan Kanter , head of the Justice Department’s antitrust division, approached Kent Walker, president of global affairs at Google, to chat.

Judge Mehta began proceedings by questioning Kenneth Dintzer, the Justice Department’s lead courtroom lawyer for the trial, about innovation in search.

The government has argued that a lack of competition in the online search business — in which, it says, almost 90 percent of all searches are conducted with Google — means Google doesn’t need to invest in the quality of its search experience. But Judge Mehta told Mr. Dintzer that it would be hard to “dispute that search today looks a lot different than it did 10 to 15 years ago” and that some of that change was due to Google’s work.

“It seems to me a hard road for you to go down for me to conclude that Google hasn’t innovated enough,” Judge Mehta said.

The Justice Department also argued that because Google had a monopoly and didn’t face strong competition, it hadn’t put privacy protections into its search engine. The judge interrupted Mr. Dintzer to say there may be a “trade-off” for privacy versus the quality of search. Judge Mehta added that his challenge was how to measure if Google had done enough to protect the privacy of users.

Judge Mehta prodded Google’s lead litigator, John E. Schmidtlein, on the argument that companies like Amazon and ESPN are true competitors to its search engine. He noted that if he wanted to know who the shortstop for the Baltimore Orioles was in 1983, he would most likely use Google.

The judge questioned how it would be possible for another company to beat Google out as the search engine that automatically populates for Apple’s web browser, Safari. He posited that it could be impossible without having billions of dollars to spend to build a competitive search engine and billions more to pay Apple.

Judge Mehta also asked why Google needed to pay to be the default search engine across the web if its product was already better than those made by its competitors.

In the midst of his exchanges with the judge, Mr. Schmidtlein offered a simple explanation: “Google is winning because it’s better.”

David McCabe covers tech policy. He joined The Times from Axios in 2019. More about David McCabe

Cecilia Kang reports on technology and regulatory policy and is based in Washington D.C. She has written about technology for over two decades. More about Cecilia Kang

Joseph Epstein, conservative provocateur, tells his life story in full

In two new books, the longtime essayist and culture warrior shows off his wry observations about himself and the world

Humorous, common-sensical, temperamentally conservative, Joseph Epstein may be the best familiar — that is casual, personal — essayist of the last half-century. Not, as he might point out, that there’s a lot of competition. Though occasionally a scourge of modern society’s errancies, Epstein sees himself as essentially a serious reader and “a hedonist of the intellect.” His writing is playful and bookish, the reflections of a wry observer alternately amused and appalled by the world’s never-ending carnival.

Now 87, Epstein has just published his autobiography, “ Never Say You’ve Had a Lucky Life: Especially if You’ve Had a Lucky Life ,” in tandem with “ Familiarity Breeds Content: New and Selected Essays .” This pair of books brings the Epstein oeuvre up to around 30 volumes of sophisticated literary entertainment. While there are some short-story collections (“The Goldin Boys,” “Fabulous Small Jews”), all the other books focus on writers, observations on American life, and topics as various as ambition, envy, snobbery, friendship, charm and gossip. For the record, let me add that I own 14 volumes of Epstein’s views and reviews and would like to own them all.

Little wonder, then, that Epstein’s idea of a good time is an afternoon spent hunched over Herodotus’s “Histories,” Marguerite Yourcenar’s “Memoirs of Hadrian” or almost anything by Henry James, with an occasional break to enjoy the latest issue of one of the magazines he subscribes to. In his younger days, there were as many as 25, and most of them probably featured Epstein’s literary journalism at one time or another. In the case of Commentary, he has been contributing pieces for more than 60 years.

As Epstein tells it, no one would have predicted this sort of intellectual life for a kid from Chicago whose main interests while growing up were sports, hanging out, smoking Lucky Strikes and sex. A lackadaisical C student, Myron Joseph Epstein placed 169th in a high school graduating class of 213. Still, he did go on to college — the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign — because that’s what was expected of a son from an upper-middle-class Jewish family. But Urbana-Champaign wasn’t a good fit for a jokester and slacker: As he points out, the president of his college fraternity “had all the playfulness of a member of the president’s Council of Economic Advisers.” No matter. Caught peddling stolen copies of an upcoming accounting exam for $5 a pop, Epstein was summarily expelled.

Fortunately, our lad had already applied for a transfer to the University of Chicago, to which he was admitted the next fall. Given his record, this shows a surprising laxity of standards by that distinguished institution, but for Epstein the move was life-changing. In short order, he underwent a spiritual conversion from good ol’ boy to European intellectual in the making. In the years to come, he would count the novelist Saul Bellow and the sociologist Edward Shils among his close friends, edit the American Scholar, and teach at Northwestern University. His students, he recalls, were “good at school, a skill without any necessary carry-over, like being good at pole-vaulting or playing the harmonica.”

Note the edge to that remark. While “Never Say You’ve Had a Lucky Life” is nostalgia-laden, there’s a hard nut at its center. Epstein feels utter contempt for our nation’s “radical change from a traditionally moral culture to a therapeutic one.” As he explains: “Our parents’ culture and that which came long before them was about the formation of character; the therapeutic culture was about achieving happiness. The former was about courage and honor, the latter about self-esteem and freedom from stress.” This view of America’s current ethos may come across as curmudgeonly and reductionist, but many readers — whatever their political and cultural leanings — would agree with it. Still, such comments have sometimes made their author the focus of nearly histrionic vilification.

Throughout his autobiography, this lifelong Chicagoan seems able to remember the full names of everyone he’s ever met, which suggests Epstein started keeping a journal at an early age. He forthrightly despises several older writers rather similar to himself, calling Clifton Fadiman, author of “The Lifetime Reading Plan,” pretentious, then quite cruelly comparing Mortimer J. Adler, general editor of the “Great Books of the Western World” series, with Sir William Haley, one of those deft, widely read English journalists who make all Americans feel provincial. To Epstein, “no two men were more unalike; Sir William, modest, suave, intellectually sophisticated; Mortimer vain, coarse, intellectually crude.” In effect, Fadiman and Adler are both presented as cultural snake-oil salesmen. Of course, both authors were popularizers and adept at marketing their work, but helping to enrich the intellectual lives of ordinary people doesn’t strike me as an ignoble purpose.

In his own work, Epstein regularly employs humor, bits of slang or wordplay, and brief anecdotes to keep his readers smiling. For instance, in a chapter about an editorial stint at the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Epstein relates this story about a colleague named Martin Self:

“During those days, when anti-Vietnam War protests were rife, a young woman in the office wearing a protester’s black armband, asked Martin if he were going to that afternoon’s protest march. ‘No, Naomi,’ he said, ‘afternoons such as this I generally spend at the graveside of George Santayana.’”

Learned wit, no doubt, but everything — syntax, diction, the choice of the philosopher Santayana for reverence — is just perfect.

But Epstein can be earthier, too. Another colleague “was a skirt-chaser extraordinaire," a man "you would not feel safe leaving alone with your great-grandmother.” And of himself, he declares: “I don’t for a moment wish to give the impression that I live unrelievedly on the highbrow level of culture. I live there with a great deal of relief.”

In his many essays, including the sampling in “Familiarity Breeds Content,” Epstein is also markedly “quotacious,” often citing passages from his wide reading to add authority to an argument or simply to share his pleasure in a well-turned observation. Oddly enough, such borrowed finery is largely absent from “Never Say You’ve Had a Happy Life.” One partial exception might be the unpronounceable adjective “immitigable,” which appears all too often. It means unable to be mitigated or softened, and Epstein almost certainly stole it from his friend Shils, who was fond of the word.

Despite his autobiography’s jaunty title, Epstein has seen his share of trouble. As a young man working for an anti-poverty program in Little Rock, he married a waitress after she became pregnant with his child. When they separated a decade later, he found himself with four sons to care for — two from her previous marriage, two from theirs. Burt, the youngest, lost an eye in an accident while a toddler, couldn’t keep a job, fathered a child out of wedlock and eventually died of an opioid overdose at 28. Initially hesitant, Epstein came to adore Burt’s daughter, Annabelle, as did his second wife, Barbara, whom he married when they were both just past 40.

Some pages of “Never Say You’ve Had a Lucky Life” will be familiar to inveterate readers of Epstein’s literary journalism, all of which carries a strong first-person vibe. Not surprisingly, however, the recycled anecdotage feels less sharp or witty the second time around. But overall, this look back over a long life is consistently entertaining, certainly more page-turner than page-stopper. To enjoy Epstein at his very best, though, you should seek out his earlier essay collections such as “The Middle of My Tether,” “Partial Payments” and “A Line Out for a Walk.” Whether he writes about napping or name-dropping or a neglected writer such as Somerset Maugham, his real subject is always, at heart, the wonder and strangeness of human nature.

Never Say You’ve Had a Lucky Life

Especially if You’ve Had a Lucky Life

By Joseph Epstein

Free Press. 304 pp. $29.99

Familiarity Breeds Content

New and Selected Essays

Simon & Schuster. 464 pp. $20.99

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