current environmental issues in the philippines 2021 essay

Addressing the plastic pollution crisis in the Philippines: New momentum

Junu shrestha, agnes balota.

Low cost garbage filtering system that catches all forms of rubbish in a dirty flowing river in Cebu City, Philippines.

A growing middle class, increased consumer demand and a strong economic boom have spurred the Philippines’ economy in recent decades. This growth, positive in so many ways, has inadvertently fed a plastic pollution crisis.

In response, the government, academia and civil society have confronted the issue head on through studies, consultations, and awareness raising with support from the World Bank. This work has helped to build policies that govern the consumption, recovery and recycling of plastics.

In recent decades, the Philippines has made strides with comprehensive legislation such as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 and the National Plan of Action for the Prevention, Reduction, and Management of Marine Litter. While the Philippines has established these comprehensive laws and action plans to address the issue, more effective implementation and stakeholder involvement are necessary to achieve tangible results.

The Polluter Pays Principle

Communities in Metro Manila bring recyclables to collection center.

In 2023, a critical national law has been passed in the Philippines that advances this legal framework to combat plastic pollution much further. Titled the “Extended Producer Responsibility” (EPR) law, the legislation requires mandatory EPR for businesses with assets worth over ₱100 million. The law also encourages smaller businesses to voluntarily participate in the program. “The polluter pays” principle is central to EPR, obligating plastic packaging producers to assume full responsibility for the entire life cycle of their products, including waste management. This means that those who bring plastic packaging into the Philippine market must pay for the cost of waste prevention, clean up, and recovery measures.

Given the volume of plastic imported and manufactured for consumption, the country has not been able to catch up with its needs for reducing, recycling, and reusing (3Rs). Before enactment of the new law, the burden of managing waste was entirely on the shoulders of Local government Units (LGUs), who often lack the capacity to deal with the increasing waste on their own.

Under the new law, businesses can recover their plastic packaging waste and offset their plastic footprint by undertaking recovery schemes, establishing hubs for collection of waste, partnering with LGUs to recover plastic waste and establishing industrial scale recycling centers, among others. This polluter pays principle eases the LGU’s burden.

Reviewing Korea’s Pollution Playbook

The World Bank is supporting early implementation of the law with technical assistance, including the recently published report, “ Combating Plastic Waste Crisis in the Philippines ,” which analyzes Korea’s EPR system and distills lessons learned to inform EPR implementation in the Philippines.

Recognizing a growing waste management crisis, Korea introduced policies, regulations and enforcement, effectively reducing its plastic waste and increasing recycling over the past 20 years.

Several factors enabled the success of its EPR system for plastic waste, some of which can guide the Philippines. Recommendations include awareness raising, managing waste effectively, proper separation, and putting the burden of cost on plastic producers to finance collection, sorting and recycling. The success of the EPR law and enforcement in the Philippines will depend on increasing the number of waste collection and recycling facilities paid for by the plastic producers. The enforcement of these fees will finance a new level of waste management infrastructure.

While valuable lessons can be gleaned from Korea, notable differences also exist. There are more than 2,000 inhabited islands in the Philippines, many of which lack infrastructure and services. The well-being and future livelihoods of informal waste collectors remain a crucial gap to be addressed.

Policy makers can achieve meaningful improvements in the waste management system and significantly reduce polluting plastic waste if lessons from successfully operating EPR systems such as Korea’s are taken into consideration, and the waste management gaps in the Philippines effectively addressed.

With a clear governance framework and reliable financial flows, the enterprises that generate plastic packaging are now in the business of responsibly recovering plastic from trash and waterways and placing it into managed waste systems. This law, though years in the making, marks the beginning of aggressive measures to reduce the amount of plastic waste being generated in the Philippines. The benefits of this law will extend beyond the Philippines, reducing marine plastic waste in shared seas and oceans.

Related works :

Market Study on Plastics Circularity Opportunities and Barriers ;
An Assessment of Municipal Solid Waste Plans, Collection,
Recycling and Disposal of Metro Manila ;
Reducing Plastic Waste in the Philippines:
An Assessment of Policies and Regulations to Guide Country Dialogue and Facilitate Action;
The Role of Extended Producer Responsibility Schemes for Packaging towards Circular Economies in APEC
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Practice Manager for Environment, Natural Resources and the Blue Economy in the East Asia and Pacific Region

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Floods, reclamations, illegal fishing among 2021’s biggest environment stories

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Floods, reclamations, illegal fishing among 2021’s biggest environment stories

MANILA, Philippines – Just days before Christmas, millions of Filipinos found themselves reeling from the massive damage caused by Typhoon Odette (Rai) , the strongest tropical cyclone to hit the Philippines in 2021. Philippine scientists have said the increasing frequency and severity of tropical cyclones are among the top climate-induced risks that the country now faces with an increasingly warmer planet.

Odette made landfall a month after world leaders in November clinched the Glasgow Climate Pact, which keeps alive the hope of capping global warming at 1.5 degrees Celsius. Vulnerable nations like the Philippines were disappointed that the deal offered no funding for climate-linked losses and damages , but agreed it was still better than nothing.

While 2021 was an important year for the climate, the Philippines this year also had to contend with other environmental issues, such as illegal fishing, reclamation projects, threats to environmental defenders, and pollution. But there were moments of hope, too, like when a Filipino scientist made history by being one of the first humans to reach the Emden Deep, the third deepest spot on Earth.

Here are some of the biggest environment stories in the Philippines in 2021:

Reclamation projects

Airport City displaces Bulacan fisherfolk
Aerotropolis heightens disaster risks for Bulacan communities
Environmental scientists, groups oppose Dumaguete ‘smart city’ reclamation project
Dumaguete mayor, council halt contract signing with Smart City developer

Oceans, fisheries

Filipino scientist among first humans to reach 3rd deepest spot on Earth
Amid shrinking catch, hope keeps fisherfolk afloat in West Philippine Sea
Tagbanua women transform pandemic woes to marine protection work in Palawan
Fighting for food, security, and the depths of the West Philippine Sea
How women fishers in Surigao del Sur started reclaiming their labor on the coast
Only 3 firms responsible for nearly half of PH’s plastic waste – report
Groups sue PH gov’t for inaction on plastic pollution
Waste dumping? 44M kilos of fertilizer from South Korea shipped to PH landfill
Unsafe levels of hexavalent chromium found in Rio Tuba waterways

Climate change

UN sounds clarion call over ‘irreversible’ climate impacts by humans
What the Philippine delegation did at COP26 climate summit
UN climate agreement clinched after late drama over coal
Meet the Filipino lawyer standing up for 134 developing countries at COP26
2 Filipinos key to COP26 progress on platform linking vulnerable countries to climate finance
Are PH consumer goods companies doing enough to tackle plastic waste?
Funds to help PH survive warmer planet depend on Glasgow UN climate summit

Nature, forests

‘Icon of hope’: Philippine eagle Pag-asa dies at 28
How a Philippine eagle became a symbol of hope
DENR, lawmakers want to arm forest guards, put up environment protection academy
Palawan authorities rezone forest to allow mining

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Children in philippines at ‘extremely high risk’ of the impacts of the climate crisis - unicef, for the first time, unicef ranks countries based on children’s exposure and vulnerability to climate and environmental shocks, with filipino children the world’s 31st most vulnerable..

Siblings go around Barangay (village) Sabang, San Jose, in Camarines Sur province, Philippines, to find items that they can salvage in the aftermath of typhoon Rolly (Goni)

NEW YORK/MANILA , 20 August 2021 – Young people living in the Philippines are among those most at risk of the impacts of climate change, threatening their health, education, and protection, according to a UNICEF report launched today.

‘The Climate Crisis Is a Child Rights Crisis: Introducing the Children’s Climate Risk Index’ is the first comprehensive analysis of climate risk from a child’s perspective. It ranks countries based on children’s exposure to climate and environmental shocks, such as cyclones and heatwaves, as well as their vulnerability to those shocks, based on their access to essential services.

Launched in collaboration with Fridays for Future on the third anniversary of the youth-led global climate strike movement, the report finds approximately 1 billion children – nearly half the world's 2.2 billion children – live in one of the 33 countries classified as “extremely high-risk”. The findings reflect the number of children impacted today; figures likely to get worse as the impacts of climate change accelerate.

The Philippines is among these countries, with a ranking of 31. The report found that Filipino children are highly exposed to coastal floods and tropical cyclones, but also that investments in social services, particularly child health and nutrition can make a significant difference in our ability to safeguard their futures from the impacts of climate change.

“The climate crisis is a child’s rights crisis,” said UNICEF Philippines Representative Oyunsaikhan Dendevnorov. “Filipino children face many dangers within their lifetimes, but if we act now we can prevent it becoming worse. If we invest to make the services they depend upon to survive and thrive– such as water, healthcare and education – resilient it will help to protect their futures from the impacts of a changing climate and degrading environment.”

The Children’s Climate Risk Index (CCRI) reveals:

240 million children are highly exposed to coastal flooding;
330 million children are highly exposed to riverine flooding;
400 million children are highly exposed to cyclones;
600 million children are highly exposed to vector borne diseases;
815 million children are highly exposed to lead pollution;
820 million children are highly exposed to heatwaves;
920 million children are highly exposed to water scarcity;
1 billion children are are highly exposed to exceedingly high levels of air pollution [1]

An estimated 850 million children – 1 in 3 worldwide – live in areas where at least four of these climate and environmental shocks overlap. As many as 330 million children – 1 in 7 worldwide – live in areas affected by at least five major shocks.

The report also reveals a disconnect between where greenhouse gas emissions are generated, and where children are enduring the most significant climate-driven impacts. The 33 extremely high-risk countries collectively emit just 9 per cent of global CO2 emissions. Conversely, the 10 highest emitting countries collectively account for nearly 70 per cent of global emissions. Only one of these countries is ranked as ‘extremely high-risk’ in the index.

“The frightening environmental changes we are seeing across the planet are being driven by a few but experienced by many,” Oyunsaikhan adds. “Filipino children know climate change is a threat to their future, and they are calling on the world leaders to act. So far, too little has been done, but we still have time. We must urgently reduce greenhouse gas emissions and work as a global community to build a better world for all children.”

Without the urgent action required to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, children will continue to suffer the most. Compared to adults, children require more food and water per unit of their body weight, are less able to survive extreme weather events, and are more susceptible to toxic chemicals, temperature changes and diseases, among other factors.

UNICEF is calling on governments, businesses and relevant actors to:

Increase investment in climate adaptation and resilience in key services for children. To protect children, communities and the most vulnerable from the worst impacts of the already changing climate, critical services must be adapted, including water, sanitation and hygiene systems, health and education services.
Reduce greenhouse gas emissions. To avert the worst impacts of the climate crisis, comprehensive and urgent action is required. Countries must cut their emissions by at least 45% (compared to 2010 levels) by 2030 to keep warming to no more than 1.5 degrees Celsius.
Provide children with climate education and greens skills, critical for their adaptation to and preparation for the effects of climate change. Children and young people will face the full devastating consequences of the climate crisis and water insecurity, yet they are the least responsible. We have a duty to all young people and future generations.
Include young people in all national, regional and international climate negotiations and decisions, including at COP26. Children and young people must be included in all climate-related decision making. 
Ensure the recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic is green, low-carbon and inclusive, so that the capacity of future generations to address and respond to the climate crisis is not compromised.

[1] Annual mean exposure >35µg/m 3

Notes to Editors:

The CCRI was developed in collaboration with several partners including the Data for Children Collaborative.

In order to make the report more accessible to global youth, UNICEF also collaborated with Climate Cardinals, an international youth led non-profit which translates climate change research and information so that they can reach as many young people and leaders as possible.

Read the report

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About unicef.

UNICEF promotes the rights and wellbeing of every child, in everything we do. Together with our partners, we work in 190 countries and territories to translate that commitment into practical action, focusing special effort on reaching the most vulnerable and excluded children, to the benefit of all children, everywhere.

For more information about UNICEF and its work for children in the Philippines, visit www.unicef.ph .

Follow UNICEF Philippines on Facebook , Twitter and Instagram .

UN Committee on the Rights of the Child calls for protecting

In the face of a deepening climate crisis, partners gather in Bangkok to recognize and reaffirm new obligations to protect the lives and futures of children

Stronger Climate Action Will Support Sustainable Recovery and Accelerate Poverty Reduction in the Philippines

MANILA, November 09, 2022 – Climate change is exacting a heavy toll on Filipinos’ lives, properties, and livelihoods, and left unaddressed, could hamper the country’s ambition of becoming an upper middle-income country by 2040. However, the Philippines has many of the tools and instruments required to reduce damages substantially, according to the World Bank Group’s Country Climate and Development Report (CCDR) for the Philippines, released today.

With 50 percent of its 111 million population living in urban areas, and many cities in coastal areas, the Philippines is vulnerable to sea level rise. Changes due to the variability and intensity of rainfall in the country and increased temperatures will affect food security and the safety of the population.

Multiple indices rank the Philippines as one of the countries most affected by extreme climate events. The country has experienced highly destructive typhoons almost annually for the past 10 years. Annual losses from typhoons have been estimated at 1.2 percent of GDP.

Climate action in the Philippines must address both extreme and slow-onset events. Adaptation and mitigation actions, some of which are already underway in the country, would reduce vulnerability and future losses if fully implemented.

“Climate impacts threaten to significantly lower the country’s GDP and the well-being of Filipinos by 2040. However, policy actions and investments – principally to protect valuable infrastructure from typhoons and to make agriculture more resilient through climate-smart measures -- could reduce these negative climate impacts by two-thirds,” said World Bank Vice President for East Asia and Pacific, Manuela V. Ferro.

The private sector has a crucial role to play in accelerating the adoption of green technologies and ramping up climate finance by working with local financial institutions and regulators.

“ The investments needed to undertake these actions are substantial, but not out of reach, ” said IFC Acting Vice President for Asia and the Pacific, John Gandolfo . “ The business leaders and bankers who embrace climate as a business opportunity and offer these low-carbon technologies, goods and services will be the front runners of our future. ”

The report also undertakes an in-depth analysis of challenges and opportunities for climate-related actions in agriculture, water, energy, and transport. Among the recommendations are:

Avoiding new construction in flood-prone areas.
Improving water storage to reduce the risk of damaging floods and droughts. This will also increase water availability.
Extending irrigation in rainfed areas and promoting climate-smart agriculture practices such as Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD).
Making social protection programs adaptive and scalable to respond to climate shocks.
Removing obstacles that private actors face in scaling investments in renewable energy.
Ensuring new buildings are energy efficient and climate resilient.

Many climate actions will make the Philippines more resilient while also contributing to mitigating climate change.

“The Philippines would benefit from an energy transition towards more renewable energy. Accelerated decarbonization would reduce electricity costs by about 20 percent below current levels which is good for the country’s competitiveness and would also dramatically reduce air pollution,” said Ferro.

Even with vigorous adaptation efforts, climate change will affect many people. Some climate actions may also have adverse effects on particular groups, such as workers displaced by the move away from high-emission activities. The report recommends that the existing social protection system in the country be strengthened and scaled up to provide support to affected sectors and groups.

World Bank Group Country Climate and Development Reports : The World Bank Group’s Country Climate and Development Reports (CCDRs) are new core diagnostic reports that integrate climate change and development considerations. They will help countries prioritize the most impactful actions to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and boost adaptation while delivering on broader development goals. CCDRs build on data and rigorous research and identify main pathways to reduce GHG emissions and climate vulnerabilities, including the costs and challenges as well as benefits and opportunities from doing so. The reports suggest concrete, priority actions to support the low-carbon, resilient transition. As public documents, CCDRs aim to inform governments, citizens, the private sector, and development partners and enable engagements with the development and climate agenda. CCDRs will feed into other core Bank Group diagnostics, country engagements, and operations to help attract funding and direct financing for high-impact climate action.

10 Things You Should Know About the World Bank Group’s First Batch of Country Climate and Development Reports
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Philippines

Philippines: Country Climate and Development Report 2022

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Stronger Climate Action Will Support Sustainable Recovery and Accelerate Poverty Reduction in the Philippines

The private sector has a crucial role to play in accelerating the adoption of green technologies and ramping up climate finance by working with local financial institutions and regulators.

The report also undertakes an in-depth analysis of challenges and opportunities for climate-related actions in agriculture, water, energy, and transport. Among the recommendations are:

Avoiding new construction in flood-prone areas.
Improving water storage to reduce the risk of damaging floods and droughts. This will also increase water availability.
Extending irrigation in rainfed areas and promoting climate-smart agriculture practices such as Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD).
Making social protection programs adaptive and scalable to respond to climate shocks.
Removing obstacles that private actors face in scaling investments in renewable energy.
Ensuring new buildings are energy efficient and climate resilient.

Many climate actions will make the Philippines more resilient while also contributing to mitigating climate change.

10 Things You Should Know About the World Bank Group’s First Batch of Country Climate and Development Reports
CCDR Video link

PRESS RELEASE NO: 2023/025/EAP

In Washington: Kym Smithies [email protected]

In Manila: David Llorito [email protected]

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Mini review article, a critical survey on renewable energy applications in the philippines and china: present challenges and perspectives.

Law School, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming, China

China’s Belt and Road (B&R) initiative provides new ideas and opportunities for international cooperation. Renewable energy plays a crucial role not only in the national sustainable development framework of China and the Philippines but also in bilateral cooperation between them. However, some obstacles still need to be addressed because renewable energy cooperation between China and the Philippines has not been thoroughly and comprehensively studied to date. Based on an in-depth analysis of current renewable energy cooperation between China and the Philippines, this paper employs PESTEL analysis to fully investigate the cooperative advantages and disadvantages by considering politics (P), economy (E), society (S), technology (T), environment (E), and legislation (L) and proposes several constructive suggestions. The ultimate purpose was to design feasible schemes to ensure the sufficient utilization of renewable energy and the construction of integrated power grid systems to meet shortages of electricity supply especially in the isolated small islands in the Philippines through cooperation with China. In particular, it offers valuable advice concerning the U.S.-China trade war and COVID- 19 pandemic, outlining how cooperation in the exploitation of potential renewable energy is vital.

Introduction

In response to the advantages of renewable energy ( Gullberg et al., 2014 ), many countries and regional organizations have entered into cooperative targeted renewable energy initiatives ( Anand et al., 2021 ; Mohan, 2021 ; Sasmita and Sidhartha, 2021 ). Existing research on renewable cooperation ( Feng et al., 2020 ) is mainly focused on a comprehensive analysis of the renewable energy cooperative mechanism between two countries ( Suryanarayana and Saumendra, 2020 ), a country and regional organizations ( Mehdi and Mehdi, 2020 ), and regional organizations ( Indeo, 2019 ), by forecasting the potentiality of cooperation and undertaking analysis via a mathematical model ( Satish and Vinod, 2020 ). However, three existing gaps need to be overcome.

• Most previous studies fail to comprehensively analyze the advantages and disadvantages of renewable energy cooperation between specific countries under B & R.

• Specific suggestions based on the effective factors of cooperation such as politics, economy, society, technology, environment, and legislation have not been proposed.

• The latest factors, including the COVID-19 pandemic and the United States-China trade war, have not been addressed.

This paper focuses on the exploitation of renewable energy cooperation between China and the Philippines, proposing a new perspective in response to this new context and undertakes a comprehensive investigation of a cooperative scheme between two countries. Based on a systematic overview of renewable energy systems in China and the Philippines, including the current situation, existing problems, policies, and plans, the basis and challenges for further cooperation between the two countries are explored ( Renewable Energy Development in the Philippines and Renewable Energy Development Status in China Sections).

The background informing this topic and existing renewable energy cooperation projects between China and the Philippines are addressed, and a Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal (PESTEL) analysis is adopted to illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of those factors in cooperation ( The Philippines—China Renewable Energy Cooperation Under Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal Analysis Section);

Finally, some feasible and promising suggestions are proposed to deal with emerging problems and opportunities in renewable cooperation between China and the Philippines under B&R ( Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal Recommendations Section).

Renewable Energy Development in the Philippines

Current status.

The Philippines stores rich renewable energy which also plays an important role in the energy supply of the country. As Table 1 shows, although the proportion of renewable energy in the total amount of installed capacity is only about 30% and there has been a slight downward trend in the last 3 years, the quantity produced is still steadily growing.

TABLE 1 . The Philippine installed capacity mix (MW) ( The Department of Energy, 2019 ).

Geothermal Energy

The Philippines is located in a tropical low-latitude area at the junction of Asia, Europe, and the Pacific plate, which means the country has rich geothermal energy resources. After many years of development, the installed capacity of geothermal power reached 1,944 MW in 2018, accounting for 13% of the world’s total, and ranking third after the United States and Indonesia ( Ratio et al., 2020 ).

Hydropower Energy

The Philippines has 421 rivers, numerous mountains, rugged terrain, and a rainy climate, which create abundant hydropower resources that contribute the largest portion of installed capacity generated by renewable energy. Although the Philippines already has some large-scale hydropower plants and has made achievements in the development of hydropower infrastructure, there is still 13,097 MW of undeveloped hydropower generation capacity remaining, according to an assessment by the Philippine Department of Energy ( The Department of Energy, 2019 ).

Solar Energy

With solar radiation of 4.0–6.0 kWh/m2/day, the Philippines has abundant solar energy resources which evenly distribute across the country and vary between 10 and 20% every month ( Sharma and Kolhe, 2020 ). Due to the continuous improvement of technology and efficiency of solar photovoltaic (PV) modules, the solar energy industry has achieved scale development and significantly reduced the costs of solar power generation ( Sharma and Kolhe, 2020 ). More and more residents and industrial sectors in the Philippines have started to use small-scale solar PV production.

Problem and Causes

The continuous economic expansion of the Philippines has brought serious problems in the form of insufficient energy supply ( Mondal et al., 2018 ). The Philippines’ GDP in 2018 grew by 6.2%, exceeding 6% for the seventh consecutive year ( GPD, 2019 ). However, more than 11% of the population has no electricity, and a higher proportion suffers from unreliable electricity supply ( Bertheau et al., 2020 ).

Huge reserves and the potential of renewable energy resources have not achieved a satisfying development in the Philippines.

The main reasons for the insufficient utilization of renewable energy, include the fact that the development of renewable energy requires high prepayment and technology costs ( Zafar et al., 2019 ). Moreover, hydropower and geothermal energy, which generate the most electricity, have a very long development cycle ( Barroco and Herrera, 2019 ). Moreover, the Philippines is unable to form an integrated power grid system, which impacts the sufficient transmission of electricity generated by renewable energy. The Philippine power supply system is also divided into “on-grid” and “off-grid” areas. The on-grid is supplied by two separate main power grids which lack a connection with each other. The off-grid covers these areas but suffers from insufficient power or even no power supply at all ( Bertheau et al., 2020 ).

Policies and Plans

The Philippine government has realized the importance of developing renewable energy and has formulated several policies and plans based on the focuses: 1) ensuring energy security, 2) achieving optimal energy pricing, 3) diversifying fuel sources, and 4) developing sustainable energy systems ( The Department of Energy, 2017 ). The National Renewable Energy Program (2011–2030) anticipates that the generation capacity of renewable energy will triple by 2030 ( Wang et al., 2020 ) This has lead to the development of policies including carbon taxes, the improvement of energy efficiency in both generation and consumption, diversification of the energy supply-mix ( Cabalu et al., 2015 ). Those policies and plans not only ensure energy security and reduced reliance on fossil energy they are also milestones in building a greener Philippines.

Renewable Energy Development Status in China

As the second-largest economy in the world, China has abundant renewable energy storage. By the end of 2019, the installed capacity of renewable energy in China was as high as 794.88 GW and has increased by 8.7% since 2018 ( Si et al., 2021 ). The current power generation capacity of each renewable energy source is shown in Figure 1 , and the current situation of China’s renewable energy is shown in Table 2 ( China Renewable Energy Engineering Institute, 2019 ). In 2013, China proposed the B&R initiative, which covers 65 countries in Asia, Africa, and Europe ( Wang et al., 2020 ). More importantly, promoting the green and low-carbon transformation of the energy structure of countries along the B&R is a core content of green construction in the area and a significant measure in improving the ecological environment and supporting global sustainable development ( Yang et al., 2021 ). As a key country along the Maritime Silk Road, the Philippines has also joined the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank initiated by the Chinese government.

FIGURE 1 . Various types of power generation (A) installed capacity, and (B) proportion.

TABLE 2 . Status of types of renewable energy in China.

After decades of efforts, China has developed innovative approaches to energy and shared these experiences with other countries through the green cooperation of B&R to eliminate dependence on high-carbon growth models.

The advantages of the Chinese approach stem from it being a strong financial power. China has promoted the vigorous development of renewable energy, and in 2018 China became the world’s largest investor in renewable energy for the seventh consecutive year, an investment that accounts for almost one-third of the world’s total, reaching US $91.2 billion ( Si et al., 2021 ). Moreover, China’s renewable energy technology, manufacturing level, and high-quality production capacity have significantly improved in recent years, and a complete industrial chain with international advanced levels has been constructed in the renewable energy sector. This huge renewable energy product market has also contributed to the development of renewable energy worldwide.

In 2005, China enacted the Renewable Energy Law, quickly followed by more than 100 policies, regulating grid subsidies and special fund management measures, including guidance on promoting renewable energy consumption and other aspects as shown in Figure 2 ( China Renewable Energy Engineering Institute, 2019 ). The most important renewable energy plan of China is the 14th Five-year Plan (2021–2025). The key tasks of which include giving priority to the development of renewable energy based on market forces and low costs, systematically evaluating the development conditions and goals of various renewable energy resources, promoting renewable energy technologies and equipment to develop a relative industrial system, etc., ( Liu, 2019 ). In addition to the macro level, specific plans for different types of renewable energy exist that are international and jointly promote the construction of clean energy ( Liu, 2019 ).

FIGURE 2 . Renewable energy policy roadmap in China ( China Renewable Energy Engineering Institute, 2019 ). Abbreviations: National People’s Congress (NPC); State Council (SC); Renewable Energy (RE); Ministry of Finance (MOF); National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC); National Energy Administration (NEA); Exchange rate: 100 (CNY) = 15.4400 (USD) (Date: January 22, 2021).

The Philippines—China Renewable Energy Cooperation Under Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal Analysis

Existing cooperation.

China and the Philippines have a history of extensive cooperation in renewable energy, including hydropower, PV, biomass energy, and wind energy, as shown in Table 3 . This includes both the supply of existing equipment and Engineering Procurement Construction (EPC). This has greatly improved the utilization of hydroelectric and PV in the Philippines, and has made up for power shortages in some areas.

TABLE 3 . The Philippines—China renewable energy corporation projects.

Hydropower cooperation is the focus of the China-Philippines renewable energy cooperation agreement. Cooperative projects are mainly large-scale hydropower plants with an installed capacity of over 10 MW. Solar energy has now become the fastest-growing type of renewable energy in the Philippines, which has attracted many Chinese enterprises.

As one of the listed companies affiliated with the State Grid of China, the NARI Group owns several EPC projects of PV power stations in the Philippines. The Hengshun Group, a private company in China, signed an EPC contract of wind power and PV integration with Energy Logics Philippines, Inc. in 2016: the largest PV integration project to date in the Philippines.

Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal Analysis of Renewable Energy Cooperation

Under the intensifying forces of globalization and competition, PESTEL has recently evolved from PEST analysis, to consider the environmental and legal factors, with increased potential impact on businesses ( Thakur, 2021 ). The PESTEL analysis model is an effective tool for macro-environmental analysis that can not only analyze the external environment but also identify all forces that have an impact on the organization. This analysis mode mainly analyzes the investment environment of enterprises.

China and the Philippines have established diplomatic relations for 45 years. A mutual friendship formed after the election of Roberto Duterte to President of the Philippines in 2016. Building upon this preexisting relationship, China’s focus on green energy cooperation among countries means that it actively seeks energy cooperation partners in different regions. The Philippines is currently pursuing a green energy development model, implementing a large number of fiscal incentives to attract foreign investment in the renewable energy sector ( Cabalu et al., 2015 ).

Disadvantage

The relevant disputes between China and the Philippines in the South China Sea once froze the bilateral relationship. The current highly friendly relationship benefits from Duterte’s policy towards China, but this might change when Duterte’s term in office ends in 2022. Besides, the Philippines has serious political corruption problems and bureaucracy that may also lead to the unfair treatment of Chinese companies.

The Philippines is one of the most dynamic economies in the East Asia Pacific region. As a beneficiary of the power industry reform of the Philippines, the State Grid Corporation of China holds 40% of the National Grid Corporation of the Philippines. Meanwhile, Chinese energy enterprises have excellent brands and performance advantages. For example, as an active partner cooperating with the Philippines, China Energy Engineering Group Company has experience in power engineering projects and formed a complete industrial chain in international cooperation ( Shang et al., 2020 ).

In 2020, COVID- 19 pandemic caused a recession in the world economy and hindered international cooperation. In addition, the United States-China trade war has seriously affected the world market and greatly increased the trade barriers between economies. These international economic factors are detrimental to the cooperation between the two countries.

The overall economic level of the Philippines is not high, and the per capita GDP ranks 123rd in the world ( International Monetary Fund Philippine GDP per capita, 2019 ). Moreover, the industrial development level of the Philippines is relatively low, and public facilities such as transportation, electricity, and hydropower lag behind other countries. An out-of-date economy and lesser developed technical facilities make cooperation between the Philippines and other countries difficult.

China and the Philippines belong to the East Asian cultural circle and have a long history of cultural exchange. A Cultural Exchange Forum and a series of public welfare activities between the two countries were also held recently ( Sina News, 2018 ). After the COVID- 19 pandemic, China has repeatedly donated medical materials to the Philippines to jointly fight the epidemic.

The Philippines has an abundant labor force and a very young population structure in which the working-age population aged between 15 and 65 has reached 63.6%. In addition, English is the official language of the Philippines, and the literacy rate of Philippines residents is 96.4%, ranking among the highest in Asia ( Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China, 2019 ).

The domestic security situation of the Philippines is not favorable. There were 8,826 murders and 16,100 robberies in 2017, with 8.40 per 100,000 people ( Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China, 2019 ). There are also several armed rebel terrors groups.

The price levels and costs in the Philippines are also extremely high. The prices of vegetables and fruits, electricity, and hotel accommodation and meals are 3–4 times, 2–3 times, and 1–2 times higher than that of China, respectively ( Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China, 2019 ).

Technological

China and the Philippines are technically complementary in terms of energy development and power construction. China’s power technology is in the front ranks of the world and could help power development in the Philippines. For example, the advanced UHVDC power transmission technology could realize a sufficient power supply in the offshore islands, which is highly conducive to the formation of the power grid system in the Philippines. Meanwhile, China’s infrastructure construction, including 5G, the internet of things, and the industrial internet are also very advanced ( Yang et al., 2021 ). The Philippines also attaches great importance to the development of science and technology through active cooperation with technology-developed countries in engineering and scientific projects via higher education.

Due to the limitations of technology and financial resources, the level of large-scale projects independently constructed by the Philippines is very limited. Hence, many projects have been completed with capital and technologies from other countries. Chinese enterprises may lack the most advanced technology and experience in geothermal energy cooperation due to the lack of domestic geothermal resources.

The risks affecting electricity technical standards of design and construction cannot be ignored. The Philippines mainly adopts American standards which are different from those of China and lead to the extension of design and approval time.

Environment

China is a maritime neighbor of the Philippines, and the local time of the Philippines is consistent with Beijing time, which is convenient for cooperation and communication.

Due to its fragile climate and frequent geological disasters, the Philippines is frequently affected by natural disasters resulting in a great loss of human life and property ( Bollettino et al., 2020 ). Besides, the construction of hydropower stations could adversely affect wildlife and plants and lead to geological disasters. Local people and environmental protection organizations are very opposed to the construction of hydropower stations and the development of geothermal energy, which may greatly impact energy cooperation.

China and the Philippines issued the “Renewable Energy Law” in 2005 and 2008, respectively, to vigorously develop renewable energy and ensure energy security and the optimization of the ecological environment. Foreign investment in biomass and garbage power generation projects had a restriction of 40% lifted in November of 2019 after an announcement by the Philippine government. It is anticipated that other renewable energy projects will be further opened to foreign investment in the future ( The Department of Energy Administrative Order, 2020 ).

According to Philippine law, foreign investors are prohibited from buying land ( The Department of Energy Administrative Order, 2020 ). In addition, the Philippines has strict controls over work visas for Chinese, which is not conducive to management and technical personnel traveling there from China. Furthermore, as the main form of contracted projects between Chinese enterprises and the Philippines, government projects can only be established after being approved by the Philippine National Economic Development Agency.

Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Environmental, and Legal Recommendations

First, the Philippines and China should make the most of the existing mutual friendly diplomatic relationship to actively develop cooperation. The B&R and the China-ASEAN Free Trade Area have brought more opportunities and favorable conditions for renewable energy cooperation between the two countries. In terms of disputes in the South China Sea, it is the consensus and commitment of China and the Philippines to settle through negotiation and properly manage their relevant dispute.

Secondly, the renewable energy development strategy could be deepened in the two countries respectively. China should consider renewable energy as a new orientation of developing export trade and investment outward, and actively guide and support overseas cooperation. The Philippines could absorb advanced foreign renewable energy technologies in grid construction while mobilizing domestic resources to develop renewable energy.

With the guidance of the B&R initiative and the help from the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, the Philippines could actively carry out infrastructure construction to improve the business environment. In terms of offshore islands, the construction of renewable energy power plants and grids would solve electricity shortages.

Hydropower and geothermal power generation are the main areas of international cooperation in the Philippines. The EPC mode could be an ideal choice in cooperation, which is relatively fixed, and the implementation period is not long. Chinese companies could integrate the upstream and downstream of the industrial chain systematically to achieve sufficient cooperation and expand the scale and benefits of collaboration.

The two countries could continue to carry out cultural exchange under the background of B&R and promote non-government exchange. In addition, China and the Philippines always adhere to the coexistence of diversified culture, mutual learning, and cooperation for shared benefits. Therefore, Chinese companies participating in cooperation should pay attention to local cultural differences, and respect the local customs, religions, and living habits of the Philippines. Besides, the Philippine government needs to increase public security management through the reduction of crime rate, strictly control the possession of guns, and standardize its application administrative procedures.

Firstly, China is an advantageous partner in assisting the Philippines to form a complete power grid that especially aims to increase the power supply of offshore islands. To reduce the technical risk, research and exploitation in major technology should be strengthened. Making good use of a contract to constraint risk, promoting project supervision and construction quality should be the focus of project management.

Secondly, great attention should also be paid to the integration of power standards with international standards. Due to the different situations in each country, integration should not aim to achieve the unity of technical standards but to learn from the international advanced technical standards and increase public knowledge of China’s working practices to continuously optimize and update standards.

Due to the frequent occurrence of natural disasters and tropical epidemic diseases in the Philippines, contractors should pay close attention to local news and take preventive measures to prevent personnel and property losses.

Actively fulfilling social responsibility and strengthening environmental awareness is of great significance, because they develop the local economy and improve local people’s livelihoods. Through appropriate publicity in a local area, the public could be told more about the cooperative project, and gain an understanding of the fact that they will directly experience an improvement in quality of life quality from these projects. This would improve the enterprise’s local popularity and form a positive corporate image.

On the governmental level, an agreement focused on the strategic cooperation of renewable energy and based on the national strategy and security of both two countries could be reached, which may include investment, technology cooperation, grid construction, and trade. Furthermore, governments of China and the Philippines could establish a unified and effective platform to share renewable cooperative information, corresponding policies, and administrative procedures to solve the difficulty of information collection and nontransparent policies faced by potential cooperators or contractors.

In terms of enterprises, Chinese organizations need to fully understand Philippine laws and regulations to ensure they operate legally, including visas, environmental protection, land, and localized employment regulations. Moreover, the restriction of the foreign investment ratio of renewable energy projects should be studied seriously to maximize the profit of the enterprises in accordance with the laws of the Philippines.

This paper is the first to undertake a systematic study of renewable energy cooperation between China and the Philippines under B&R, and draws the following crucial conclusions:

Firstly, the cooperation between China and the Philippines in renewable energy is a mthod of building a greener Philippines and protecting the environment. The coexistence of abundant but undeveloped renewable energy resources and the shortage of electricity supply, especially in the offshore islands, requires deep cooperation with China, as it has superior technological and extensive experience in grid construction. Among various renewable energy, hydropower and geothermal powers are major cooperative areas, in terms of the status of the Philippines. How to explore and utilize renewable energy more economically and efficiently, and realize a sufficient electricity supply are important factors in alleviating dependence on imported fossil fuel energy, a will form a top priority of any cooperative agreement. In addition, the two countries can use the opportunity of renewable energy cooperation to promote cooperation in other industries and achieve mutual benefit and win-win results between the two countries.

Secondly, renewable energy cooperation is the focus of energy cooperation in any B&R initiative. Moreover, a Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership was established in 2020 and has eliminated trade barriers between Asia-Pacific countries and ASEAN countries. The combination of these initiatives and agreements presents an unprecedented opportunity for China and the Philippines to develop renewable energy cooperation. However, the outbreak of the United States-China trade war and the ongoing COVID- 19 pandemic have brought unprecedented challenges to such potential cooperation initiatives. In response to opportunities and challenges and to achieve a win-win situation, China and the Philippines need to strengthen political and economic cooperation and promote corresponding policies.

Thirdly, a cooperative agreement focused on strategic cooperation concerning renewable energy that is based on national strategy and the security of both two countries may include investment, technology cooperation, grid construction, and trade for renewable energy infrastructure. Furthermore, the Chinese and the Philippine governments could establish a unified and effective platform to share renewable cooperative information, corresponding policies, and administrative procedures to solve the difficulties of collecting information and nontransparent policies faced by potential cooperators or contractors.

Finally, although the disputes between China and the Philippines in the South China Sea once impacted this bilateral relationship seriously, the current friendly relationship has lasted 5 years, creating a positive and timely opportunity for cooperation between the two countries.

Author Contributions

XL: Conceptualization, Writing- Reviewing and Editing. HW: Writing- Original draft preparation, Investigation. YL: Writing- Reviewing and Editing. WL: Supervision, Resources.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the support of the Talents Training Program of Kunming University of Science and Technology (KKZ3201524007).

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Keywords: the belt and road, the Philippines-China cooperation, renewable energy, PESTEL analysis, renewable energy cooperation

Citation: Li X, Wang H, Lu Y and Li W (2021) A Critical Survey on Renewable Energy Applications in the Philippines and China: Present Challenges and Perspectives. Front. Energy Res. 9:724892. doi: 10.3389/fenrg.2021.724892

Received: 15 June 2021; Accepted: 19 July 2021; Published: 30 July 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Li, Wang, Lu and Li. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Wanlin Li, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

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How Did the Philippines Become the World’s Biggest Ocean Plastic Polluter?

As summer vacation commences, tourists are bound to flock to the Philippines, a nation known for its iconic islands that house some of the world’s whitest sands and most transparent waters. Unfortunately, the Asian nation has also made waves by being crowned as the world’s biggest ocean plastic polluter. In this article, we dive into the persistent plastic pollution in the country’s waters.

Assessing Ocean Plastic Pollution in the Philippines

The Philippines had the largest share of global plastic waste discarded in the ocean in 2019. The country was responsible for 36.38% of global oceanic plastic waste, far more than the second-largest plastic polluter, India, which in the same year accounted for about 12.92% of the total.

Contrary to popular belief, most plastic waste does not enter the sea directly. Conversely, it makes its way to the sea from smaller water streams.

According to a 2021 study , 80% of plastic waste comes from rivers and seven of the top ten plastic-polluted rivers in the world are in the Philippines. Pasig River even dethrones the previously most polluted river in 2017 , the Yangtze River of China.

How Does Plastic Pollution Affect the Environment?

The Philippines prides itself on having one of the world’s most diverse marine biodiversity. By being at the apex of the Coral Triangle, the country holds an extensive system of coral reefs occupying more than 27,000 square kilometres (10,425 square miles).

Dubbed the “rainforest of the sea”, coral reefs are the essence of marine ecosystems , with 25% of the ocean’s fish relying on them for shelter, food, and reproduction.

Unfortunately, this centralisation of dependence is easily overthrown once coral reefs encounter threats such as rising ocean temperatures and plastic pollution.

A 2018 study showed that, without the presence of plastic, coral reefs have a 4% likelihood of contracting a disease. With plastic, the risk dramatically increases to 89% due to the spread of pathogens.

This phenomenon triggers a chain reaction, as it disrupts marine ecosystems and causes nearby sea animals to consume microplastics. Microplastics are smaller pieces of plastic generated through processes such as weathering and exposure to wave action and more. Their consumption is evidently persisting in the Philippines, where nearly half of all rabbitfish , a commonly consumed fish species, were found to contain traces of microplastics.

By dumping plastics into the sea, these eventually enter our bloodstream. According to the United Nations, more than 51 trillion microplastic particles litter the world’s seas, a quantity that outnumbers the stars in our galaxy by 500 times.

While we are increasingly aware of where microplastics can be found, we are still relatively in the dark about their impact on the environment and especially on human health. Yet, there is no doubt that microplastics contain highly toxic and harmful chemicals.

You might also like: 5 Coral Reefs That Are Currently Under Threat and Dying

What’s Behind the Philippines’ Plastic Pollution Crisis?

The Philippines has a peculiar culture of consuming products in small quantities. For example, instead of buying a regular bottle of shampoo, many people opt for sachets sold at local stores at a much lower price.

With a reported 20 million people living below the poverty line in 2021, the country’s widespread poverty leaves citizens hunting for the cheapest alternative. Large corporations exploit this situation by offering palm-sized packages of products and building a “sachet economy”, further exacerbating plastic pollution in the country.

Sachets of powdered soap being sold at SM Hypermarket in the Philippines. Photo: Whologwhy/Flickr (CC BY 2.0).

Nonetheless, it is said that there is no other material that offers safer and quicker transportation of food like plastic does.

Instead of merely focusing on reducing plastic use, governments should also consider increasing the accessibility to proper disposal facilities. Indeed, the head of Philippine Alliance for Recycling and Materials Sustainability Crispian Lao states that 70% of Filipinos lack access to disposal facilities, which steers plastic waste directly to oceans. With minimal exposure to environmentally-friendly options for plastic disposal, the population often lacks awareness of plastic pollution.

This highlights another problem: The lack of government action.

Among the reasons behind plastic pollution being such a big issue in the Philippines is government mismanagement. More specifically, the government is criticised for merely having good laws surrounding waste disposal but often failing to properly enforce them .

In 2001, the government established the Waste Management Act to tackle the nation’s growing solid waste problem through methods such as prohibition of open dumps for solid waste and by adopting systematic waste segregation. Two decades later, the Commission on Audit stated that there has still been a “steady” increase in waste generation.

You might also like: 4 Biggest Environmental Issues in the Philippines in 2024

How Do We Fix This?

In the grand scheme of things, most of the causes of plastic pollution could be addressed with proper government intervention. Instead of feeding into the corporate agenda that maximises plastic production, the government could take notes from its surrounding Asian regions.

For example, Taiwan was responsible for a meagre 0.05% of global oceanic plastic waste in 2019, owing to numerous legislation to protect its waters from plastic that the country enforced in recent years, including the Marine Pollution Control Act in 2000 and the Action Plan of Marine Debris Governance in 2018. In 2020, the Environmental Protection Administration declared a ban on all free plastic straws and has now pledged to ban all single-use plastics by 2030. With years of revising and enforcing plans, Taiwan can now aim for bigger environmental goals.

Another great example is China. Up until 2017, the country was the largest importer of plastic . Since the introduction of a ban on imported waste in 2018, including different types of plastics, things have drastically changed. The ban effectively halved the amount of imported waste. Ultimately, China was responsible for only 7.22% of global oceanic plastic pollution in 2019.

Additionally, the Philippine government could extend its success from the six-month closure of its tropical landmark Boracay in 2018, following former President Duterte’s order to carry out rehabilitation works to restore the island’s pristine condition from pollution.

A survey conducted in February 2018 by the Philippines News Agency found that a staggering 716 out of 834 businesses had no discharge permit and were draining contaminated water into the sea.

Before the closure, the faecal coliform level in Boracay waters was at nearly 900 most probably number (MPN) per 100 millilitres (ml). The acceptable level for swimming conditions is 100 MPN per 100ml. By the time it reopened, Boracay’s coliform concentration had plummeted to 40 MPN per 100 ml, indicating a much cleaner environment.

Despite the financial loss that came with the prolonged closure of Boracay, numerous stakeholders have stated that it was worth it.

You might also like: 10 Plastic Pollution in the Ocean Facts You Need to Know

As this example shows, short-term efforts can lead to long-term improvements.

Especially if aided by government measures, the actions of an entire nation can go a long way. By increasing the number of accessible recycling bins, people would be one step closer to classifying their trash. By imposing fees or even bans on the use or production of plastics, people would have no plastic to throw into the seas. By simply raising awareness, more Filipinos would act against plastic pollution.

Featured image: Wikimedia Commons.

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A glimpse at the critical state of the Philippine environment

April 27, 2020

by IBON Foundation

While nations attempt to meet the sustainable development goals envisioning an end to poverty, protection of the planet, and peace and prosperity, neoliberalism has spearheaded the unbridled destruction of the environment. This was discussed by IBON in the webinar-launch of its new book State of the Philippine Environment on the 50 th Earth Day.

Done at the height of the coronavirus lockdown, IBON research head Rosario Guzman discussed sections of the book with the closest relation to the coronavirus pandemic. Studies show that the coronavirus may have been an animal-to-human transmission of a pathogen and that this finds roots in disrupted ecology. Tackled were deforestation and land-use changes, loss of ecological integrity due to ‘dirty industries’, urbanization and poverty, and climate change risks and vulnerabilities.

Crippled by culprits

The discussion in the book has been quite straightforward, Guzman shared. The environment is in a critical state, degraded hugely by destructive and extractive profit-motivated activities of foreign and local corporations, oligarchs, politicians, officials, and certain individuals. Their operations have been ushered by government policies no less, which are neoliberal, pro-foreign, pro-business, anti-environment, and anti-people.

The current context is that of gross income inequality. To illustrate, the country’s top oligarchs who belong to the richest, narrowest section of Philippine society (Sy, Villar, Gokongwei, Razon, and Ayala families, to cite the top 5 in 2020) have accumulated wealth from environmental destruction. Their businesses include environment-encroaching sectors such as real estate, construction, food and drinks, ports development, manufacturing, power, energy, water, oil, telecommunications, mining, and agribusiness. Their dominance in the economy, on the other hand, leave those at the base – families whose monthly incomes fall under the Php21,000 and below bracket – poor and vulnerable to hunger, disasters, and diseases.

Deforestation and land conversion

Human activities disrupting the ecological balance such as clearing of forests and land-use changes may have led to the emergence of pathogens such as the coronavirus. Logging, mining, corporate plantations, and other extractive activities have eaten at the forest cover of the Philippines, which has diminished to just 7 million hectares as of 2015, or just 23.3% of the country’s land area. According to environment scientists, this is ecologically unhealthy and critical given the country’s geography and terrain, which should sustain a 54% forest cover.

Land degradation due to soil erosion is moderate in 16.6% and severe in 70.5% of the country’s land area. The Philippines was among the first countries to implement the Green Revolution, which promoted the use of inorganic chemicals and input-dependent crop varieties.

Land conversion for corporate agriculture, cash crops, real estate and infrastructure has added to ecological disruption. For instance, the Duterte administration is allocating one million hectares for oil palm plantations, 98% of which are in Mindanao. It is also pushing for its Build, Build, Build infrastructure projects – case in point are the dam projects nationwide, six of which under loans with China, which threaten to destroy farms, forests and water sources, and displace communities and livelihoods.

Loss of ecological integrity

The loss of ecological integrity has also been due to ‘dirty industries’ being promoted by the government, such as large-scale mining that has always been equated with environmental destruction and the preference for dirty fuel such as coal for energy development.

Large-scale mining entails cheap methods that spell deforestation, slope destabilization, soil erosion, water resource gradation, desertification, crop damages, siltation, alteration of terrain and sea bottom topography, increased water turbidity, and air pollution. Guzman noted how large-scale mining violations cut across environmental, human and sovereign rights.

Then there is the heavy reliance on coal, the dirtiest fossil fuel and a major source of air pollution. Eleven of 49 current committed power plant projects are coal-fired, accounting for 78% of combined rated capacity.

Urbanization and poverty

Because of lack of rural development, people flock to the cities looking for livelihood and jobs. Guzman said that urbanization has become associated more with poverty and diseases instead of development. Especially in Metro Manila, millions are rendered vulnerable under the enhanced community quarantine (ECQ). While being one of the most important anti-COVID-19 measures, physical distancing is difficult to practice in the region where 29% of the families are cramped in spaces that allow only four square meters and below per person, which is below World Health Organization (WHO) standard.

One of four residents in Metro Manila is an informal settler, and 51% of informal settlers live in danger areas. Also, the health advice of frequent hand washing and disinfecting of surroundings is a huge challenge where only a little over half of families have water piped into their dwellings and 24% still source water from protected wells.

Meanwhile, air pollution is Metro Manila’s problem. The region is not only the worst traffic on earth as the navigational app Waze once said and the most congested, it is also among the world’s cities with poorest air quality. The Philippines ranks third among countries with the highest incidence of deaths related to outdoor air pollution, 65% of which is due to mobile sources.

Climate change disasters

The Philippine contribution to the climate crisis is minute if compared to the accountability of transnational corporations of the industrialized countries. Yet, the country’s greenhouse gas emissions have also increased from 2007 to 2017 due to its continued use of oil and increasing reliance on coal.

The injustice still lies in the fact that the Philippines, despite its minor contribution to GHG, is among most vulnerable to climate disasters. The Philippines is the 5 th most affected country by climate disasters from 1998 to 2017, according to the Climate Risk Index 2019.

Anti-environment policy and Philippine vulnerability to climate hazards

The imperiled state of the environment is the direct result of decades of Philippine government legislation that prioritizes foreign investment and trade anchored on environmentally destructive premises. The promotion of real estate development, national land use policy that favors pro-foreign and pro-business infrastructure and agribusiness, and the liberalization and privatization of public utilities and the commons have been the general framework of environmental destruction.

On the other hand, these neoliberal policies have entailed the demolition of slums and the urban poor, bay reclamation and coastal displacement, land and resource grabs, including and the grabbing of ancestral lands of the indigenous people, and displacement of farming communities.

The country has seen private interests taking over Philippine resources, utilizing these for profit-making, and narrowing people’s chances for healthy environment and living.

Ways forward

The Philippine environment is very much devastated, degraded, rendering us helpless and vulnerable to this pandemic. Yet, Guzman said that the Philippines is the center not only of environmental degradation but also of environmental movements, albeit noting that environment defenders in the country are also top harassed, killed, and victimized by human rights violations.

The Philippine environmental movement has contributed much to the discourse of sustainable development. Guzman concluded her discussion by saying, “Perhaps we should put the people’s right to a healthy environment as an overarching principle not just in the Constitution but in all laws. This will always be at odds with neoliberalism, which we can spend a lifetime, even maybe until the next coronavirus, fighting.”

Guzman’s lecture was followed by a panel discussion on water, food and medical waste management in the time of COVID-19. Attended online by over 500 participants from schools, environmental groups and advocates, institutions, academe, journalists, and others nationwide, the webinar-launch was co-organized with the Center for Environmental Concerns (CEC) Philippines , Kalikasan-People’s Network for the Environment (PNE), and Youth Advocates for Climate Action Philippines (YACAP). It was the last in a three-part series titled “State of the Philippine Environment: Ecological Challenges and Ecological Solutions”, which was also featured in Earth Day Network Philippines and Agroecology X activities.

IBON’s State of the Philippine Environment is a colorfully illustrated reference book with nine chapters.*

* The State of the Philippine Environment’s chapters are: 1 – Forests, 2 – Land, 3 – Marine and Coast Environment, 4 – Freshwater Resources, 5 – Air, 6 – Dirty Industries, 7 – Urbanization, 8 – Climate Change, 9 – Charting Real Solutions. Editors: Sanny Afable and Rosario Guzman. Illustrated by Jennifer Padilla. For copies contact IBON or the IBON Bookshop on Facebook while the lockdown remains in force.

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