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What is Qualitative Research? Methods, Types, Approaches and Examples

Qualitative research is a type of method that researchers use depending on their study requirements. Research can be conducted using several methods, but before starting the process, researchers should understand the different methods available to decide the best one for their study type. The type of research method needed depends on a few important criteria, such as the research question, study type, time, costs, data availability, and availability of respondents. The two main types of methods are qualitative research and quantitative research. Sometimes, researchers may find it difficult to decide which type of method is most suitable for their study. Keeping in mind a simple rule of thumb could help you make the correct decision. Quantitative research should be used to validate or test a theory or hypothesis and qualitative research should be used to understand a subject or event or identify reasons for observed patterns.  

Qualitative research methods are based on principles of social sciences from several disciplines like psychology, sociology, and anthropology. In this method, researchers try to understand the feelings and motivation of their respondents, which would have prompted them to select or give a particular response to a question. Here are two qualitative research examples :  

• Two brands (A & B) of the same medicine are available at a pharmacy. However, Brand A is more popular and has higher sales. In qualitative research , the interviewers would ideally visit a few stores in different areas and ask customers their reason for selecting either brand. Respondents may have different reasons that motivate them to select one brand over the other, such as brand loyalty, cost, feedback from friends, doctor’s suggestion, etc. Once the reasons are known, companies could then address challenges in that specific area to increase their product’s sales.  
• A company organizes a focus group meeting with a random sample of its product’s consumers to understand their opinion on a new product being launched.  

Table of Contents

What is qualitative research? 1

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data. The findings of qualitative research are expressed in words and help in understanding individuals’ subjective perceptions about an event, condition, or subject. This type of research is exploratory and is used to generate hypotheses or theories from data. Qualitative data are usually in the form of text, videos, photographs, and audio recordings. There are multiple qualitative research types , which will be discussed later.  

Qualitative research methods 2

Researchers can choose from several qualitative research methods depending on the study type, research question, the researcher’s role, data to be collected, etc.  

The following table lists the common qualitative research approaches with their purpose and examples, although there may be an overlap between some.  

Types of qualitative research 3,4

The data collection methods in qualitative research are designed to assess and understand the perceptions, motivations, and feelings of the respondents about the subject being studied. The different qualitative research types include the following:  

• In-depth or one-on-one interviews : This is one of the most common qualitative research methods and helps the interviewers understand a respondent’s subjective opinion and experience pertaining to a specific topic or event. These interviews are usually conversational and encourage the respondents to express their opinions freely. Semi-structured interviews, which have open-ended questions (where the respondents can answer more than just “yes” or “no”), are commonly used. Such interviews can be either face-to-face or telephonic, and the duration can vary depending on the subject or the interviewer. Asking the right questions is essential in this method so that the interview can be led in the suitable direction. Face-to-face interviews also help interviewers observe the respondents’ body language, which could help in confirming whether the responses match.  
• Document study/Literature review/Record keeping : Researchers’ review of already existing written materials such as archives, annual reports, research articles, guidelines, policy documents, etc.  
• Focus groups : Usually include a small sample of about 6-10 people and a moderator, to understand the participants’ opinion on a given topic. Focus groups ensure constructive discussions to understand the why, what, and, how about the topic. These group meetings need not always be in-person. In recent times, online meetings are also encouraged, and online surveys could also be administered with the option to “write” subjective answers as well. However, this method is expensive and is mostly used for new products and ideas.  
• Qualitative observation : In this method, researchers collect data using their five senses—sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing. This method doesn’t include any measurements but only the subjective observation. For example, “The dessert served at the bakery was creamy with sweet buttercream frosting”; this observation is based on the taste perception.  

Qualitative research : Data collection and analysis

• Qualitative data collection is the process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research.  
• The data collected are usually non-numeric and subjective and could be recorded in various methods, for instance, in case of one-to-one interviews, the responses may be recorded using handwritten notes, and audio and video recordings, depending on the interviewer and the setting or duration.  
• Once the data are collected, they should be transcribed into meaningful or useful interpretations. An experienced researcher could take about 8-10 hours to transcribe an interview’s recordings. All such notes and recordings should be maintained properly for later reference.  
• Some interviewers make use of “field notes.” These are not exactly the respondents’ answers but rather some observations the interviewer may have made while asking questions and may include non-verbal cues or any information about the setting or the environment. These notes are usually informal and help verify respondents’ answers.  

2. Qualitative data analysis 

• This process involves analyzing all the data obtained from the qualitative research methods in the form of text (notes), audio-video recordings, and pictures.  
• Text analysis is a common form of qualitative data analysis in which researchers examine the social lives of the participants and analyze their words, actions, etc. in specific contexts. Social media platforms are now playing an important role in this method with researchers analyzing all information shared online.   

There are usually five steps in the qualitative data analysis process: 5

• Prepare and organize the data  
• Transcribe interviews  
• Collect and document field notes and other material  
• Review and explore the data  
• Examine the data for patterns or important observations  
• Develop a data coding system  
• Create codes to categorize and connect the data  
• Assign these codes to the data or responses  
• Review the codes  
• Identify recurring themes, opinions, patterns, etc.  
• Present the findings  
• Use the best possible method to present your observations  

The following table 6 lists some common qualitative data analysis methods used by companies to make important decisions, with examples and when to use each. The methods may be similar and can overlap.  

Characteristics of qualitative research methods 4

• Unstructured raw data : Qualitative research methods use unstructured, non-numerical data , which are analyzed to generate subjective conclusions about specific subjects, usually presented descriptively, instead of using statistical data.  
• Site-specific data collection : In qualitative research methods , data are collected at specific areas where the respondents or researchers are either facing a challenge or have a need to explore. The process is conducted in a real-world setting and participants do not need to leave their original geographical setting to be able to participate.  
• Researchers’ importance : Researchers play an instrumental role because, in qualitative research , communication with respondents is an essential part of data collection and analysis. In addition, researchers need to rely on their own observation and listening skills during an interaction and use and interpret that data appropriately.  
• Multiple methods : Researchers collect data through various methods, as listed earlier, instead of relying on a single source. Although there may be some overlap between the qualitative research methods , each method has its own significance.  
• Solving complex issues : These methods help in breaking down complex problems into more useful and interpretable inferences, which can be easily understood by everyone.  
• Unbiased responses : Qualitative research methods rely on open communication where the participants are allowed to freely express their views. In such cases, the participants trust the interviewer, resulting in unbiased and truthful responses.  
• Flexible : The qualitative research method can be changed at any stage of the research. The data analysis is not confined to being done at the end of the research but can be done in tandem with data collection. Consequently, based on preliminary analysis and new ideas, researchers have the liberty to change the method to suit their objective.  

When to use qualitative research   4

The following points will give you an idea about when to use qualitative research .  

• When the objective of a research study is to understand behaviors and patterns of respondents, then qualitative research is the most suitable method because it gives a clear insight into the reasons for the occurrence of an event.  
• A few use cases for qualitative research methods include:  
• New product development or idea generation  
• Strengthening a product’s marketing strategy  
• Conducting a SWOT analysis of product or services portfolios to help take important strategic decisions  
• Understanding purchasing behavior of consumers  
• Understanding reactions of target market to ad campaigns  
• Understanding market demographics and conducting competitor analysis  
• Understanding the effectiveness of a new treatment method in a particular section of society  

A qualitative research method case study to understand when to use qualitative research 7

Context : A high school in the US underwent a turnaround or conservatorship process and consequently experienced a below average teacher retention rate. Researchers conducted qualitative research to understand teachers’ experiences and perceptions of how the turnaround may have influenced the teachers’ morale and how this, in turn, would have affected teachers’ retention.  

Method : Purposive sampling was used to select eight teachers who were employed with the school before the conservatorship process and who were subsequently retained. One-on-one semi-structured interviews were conducted with these teachers. The questions addressed teachers’ perspectives of morale and their views on the conservatorship process.  

Results : The study generated six factors that may have been influencing teachers’ perspectives: powerlessness, excessive visitations, loss of confidence, ineffective instructional practices, stress and burnout, and ineffective professional development opportunities. Based on these factors, four recommendations were made to increase teacher retention by boosting their morale.  

Advantages of qualitative research 1

• Reflects real-world settings , and therefore allows for ambiguities in data, as well as the flexibility to change the method based on new developments.  
• Helps in understanding the feelings or beliefs of the respondents rather than relying only on quantitative data.  
• Uses a descriptive and narrative style of presentation, which may be easier to understand for people from all backgrounds.  
• Some topics involving sensitive or controversial content could be difficult to quantify and so qualitative research helps in analyzing such content.  
• The availability of multiple data sources and research methods helps give a holistic picture.  
• There’s more involvement of participants, which gives them an assurance that their opinion matters, possibly leading to unbiased responses.   

Disadvantages of qualitative research 1

• Large-scale data sets cannot be included because of time and cost constraints.  
• Ensuring validity and reliability may be a challenge because of the subjective nature of the data, so drawing definite conclusions could be difficult.  
• Replication by other researchers may be difficult for the same contexts or situations.  
• Generalization to a wider context or to other populations or settings is not possible.  
• Data collection and analysis may be time consuming.  
• Researcher’s interpretation may alter the results causing an unintended bias.  

Differences between qualitative research and quantitative research 1

Frequently asked questions on qualitative research  , q: how do i know if qualitative research is appropriate for my study  .

A: Here’s a simple checklist you could use:  

• Not much is known about the subject being studied.  
• There is a need to understand or simplify a complex problem or situation.  
• Participants’ experiences/beliefs/feelings are required for analysis.  
• There’s no existing hypothesis to begin with, rather a theory would need to be created after analysis.  
• You need to gather in-depth understanding of an event or subject, which may not need to be supported by numeric data.  

Q: How do I ensure the reliability and validity of my qualitative research findings?  

A: To ensure the validity of your qualitative research findings you should explicitly state your objective and describe clearly why you have interpreted the data in a particular way. Another method could be to connect your data in different ways or from different perspectives to see if you reach a similar, unbiased conclusion.   

To ensure reliability, always create an audit trail of your qualitative research by describing your steps and reasons for every interpretation, so that if required, another researcher could trace your steps to corroborate your (or their own) findings. In addition, always look for patterns or consistencies in the data collected through different methods.  

Q: Are there any sampling strategies or techniques for qualitative research ?   

A: Yes, the following are few common sampling strategies used in qualitative research :  

1. Convenience sampling  

Selects participants who are most easily accessible to researchers due to geographical proximity, availability at a particular time, etc.  

2. Purposive sampling  

Participants are grouped according to predefined criteria based on a specific research question. Sample sizes are often determined based on theoretical saturation (when new data no longer provide additional insights).  

3. Snowball sampling  

Already selected participants use their social networks to refer the researcher to other potential participants.  

4. Quota sampling  

While designing the study, the researchers decide how many people with which characteristics to include as participants. The characteristics help in choosing people most likely to provide insights into the subject.  

Q: What ethical standards need to be followed with qualitative research ?  

A: The following ethical standards should be considered in qualitative research:  

• Anonymity : The participants should never be identified in the study and researchers should ensure that no identifying information is mentioned even indirectly.  
• Confidentiality : To protect participants’ confidentiality, ensure that all related documents, transcripts, notes are stored safely.  
• Informed consent : Researchers should clearly communicate the objective of the study and how the participants’ responses will be used prior to engaging with the participants.  

Q: How do I address bias in my qualitative research ?  

  A: You could use the following points to ensure an unbiased approach to your qualitative research :  

• Check your interpretations of the findings with others’ interpretations to identify consistencies.  
• If possible, you could ask your participants if your interpretations convey their beliefs to a significant extent.  
• Data triangulation is a way of using multiple data sources to see if all methods consistently support your interpretations.  
• Contemplate other possible explanations for your findings or interpretations and try ruling them out if possible.  
• Conduct a peer review of your findings to identify any gaps that may not have been visible to you.  
• Frame context-appropriate questions to ensure there is no researcher or participant bias.

We hope this article has given you answers to the question “ what is qualitative research ” and given you an in-depth understanding of the various aspects of qualitative research , including the definition, types, and approaches, when to use this method, and advantages and disadvantages, so that the next time you undertake a study you would know which type of research design to adopt.  

References:  

• McLeod, S. A. Qualitative vs. quantitative research. Simply Psychology [Accessed January 17, 2023]. www.simplypsychology.org/qualitative-quantitative.html    
• Omniconvert website [Accessed January 18, 2023]. https://www.omniconvert.com/blog/qualitative-research-definition-methodology-limitation-examples/  
• Busetto L., Wick W., Gumbinger C. How to use and assess qualitative research methods. Neurological Research and Practice [Accessed January 19, 2023] https://neurolrespract.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s42466-020-00059  
• QuestionPro website. Qualitative research methods: Types & examples [Accessed January 16, 2023]. https://www.questionpro.com/blog/qualitative-research-methods/  
• Campuslabs website. How to analyze qualitative data [Accessed January 18, 2023]. https://baselinesupport.campuslabs.com/hc/en-us/articles/204305675-How-to-analyze-qualitative-data  
• Thematic website. Qualitative data analysis: Step-by-guide [Accessed January 20, 2023]. https://getthematic.com/insights/qualitative-data-analysis/  
• Lane L. J., Jones D., Penny G. R. Qualitative case study of teachers’ morale in a turnaround school. Research in Higher Education Journal . https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1233111.pdf  
• Meetingsnet website. 7 FAQs about qualitative research and CME [Accessed January 21, 2023]. https://www.meetingsnet.com/cme-design/7-faqs-about-qualitative-research-and-cme     
• Qualitative research methods: A data collector’s field guide. Khoury College of Computer Sciences. Northeastern University. https://course.ccs.neu.edu/is4800sp12/resources/qualmethods.pdf  

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Qualitative Research Questions: Gain Powerful Insights + 25 Examples

We review the basics of qualitative research questions, including their key components, how to craft them effectively, & 25 example questions.

Einstein was many things—a physicist, a philosopher, and, undoubtedly, a mastermind. He also had an incredible way with words. His quote, "Everything that can be counted does not necessarily count; everything that counts cannot necessarily be counted," is particularly poignant when it comes to research. 

Some inquiries call for a quantitative approach, for counting and measuring data in order to arrive at general conclusions. Other investigations, like qualitative research, rely on deep exploration and understanding of individual cases in order to develop a greater understanding of the whole. That’s what we’re going to focus on today.

Qualitative research questions focus on the "how" and "why" of things, rather than the "what". They ask about people's experiences and perceptions , and can be used to explore a wide range of topics.

The following article will discuss the basics of qualitative research questions, including their key components, and how to craft them effectively. You'll also find 25 examples of effective qualitative research questions you can use as inspiration for your own studies.

Let’s get started!

What are qualitative research questions, and when are they used?

When researchers set out to conduct a study on a certain topic, their research is chiefly directed by an overarching question . This question provides focus for the study and helps determine what kind of data will be collected.

By starting with a question, we gain parameters and objectives for our line of research. What are we studying? For what purpose? How will we know when we’ve achieved our goals?

Of course, some of these questions can be described as quantitative in nature. When a research question is quantitative, it usually seeks to measure or calculate something in a systematic way.

For example:

• How many people in our town use the library?
• What is the average income of families in our city?
• How much does the average person weigh?

Other research questions, however—and the ones we will be focusing on in this article—are qualitative in nature. Qualitative research questions are open-ended and seek to explore a given topic in-depth.

According to the Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , “Qualitative research aims to address questions concerned with developing an understanding of the meaning and experience dimensions of humans’ lives and social worlds.”

This type of research can be used to gain a better understanding of people’s thoughts, feelings and experiences by “addressing questions beyond ‘what works’, towards ‘what works for whom when, how and why, and focusing on intervention improvement rather than accreditation,” states one paper in Neurological Research and Practice .

Qualitative questions often produce rich data that can help researchers develop hypotheses for further quantitative study.

• What are people’s thoughts on the new library?
• How does it feel to be a first-generation student at our school?
• How do people feel about the changes taking place in our town?

As stated by a paper in Human Reproduction , “...‘qualitative’ methods are used to answer questions about experience, meaning, and perspective, most often from the standpoint of the participant. These data are usually not amenable to counting or measuring.”

Both quantitative and qualitative questions have their uses; in fact, they often complement each other. A well-designed research study will include a mix of both types of questions in order to gain a fuller understanding of the topic at hand.

If you would like to recruit unlimited participants for qualitative research for free and only pay for the interview you conduct, try using Respondent  today. 

Crafting qualitative research questions for powerful insights

Now that we have a basic understanding of what qualitative research questions are and when they are used, let’s take a look at how you can begin crafting your own.

According to a study in the International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, there is a certain process researchers should follow when crafting their questions, which we’ll explore in more depth.

1. Beginning the process 

Start with a point of interest or curiosity, and pose a draft question or ‘self-question’. What do you want to know about the topic at hand? What is your specific curiosity? You may find it helpful to begin by writing several questions.

For example, if you’re interested in understanding how your customer base feels about a recent change to your product, you might ask: 

• What made you decide to try the new product?
• How do you feel about the change?
• What do you think of the new design/functionality?
• What benefits do you see in the change?

2. Create one overarching, guiding question 

At this point, narrow down the draft questions into one specific question. “Sometimes, these broader research questions are not stated as questions, but rather as goals for the study.”

As an example of this, you might narrow down these three questions: 

into the following question: 

• What are our customers’ thoughts on the recent change to our product?

3. Theoretical framing 

As you read the relevant literature and apply theory to your research, the question should be altered to achieve better outcomes. Experts agree that pursuing a qualitative line of inquiry should open up the possibility for questioning your original theories and altering the conceptual framework with which the research began.

If we continue with the current example, it’s possible you may uncover new data that informs your research and changes your question. For instance, you may discover that customers’ feelings about the change are not just a reaction to the change itself, but also to how it was implemented. In this case, your question would need to reflect this new information: 

• How did customers react to the process of the change, as well as the change itself?

4. Ethical considerations 

A study in the International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education stresses that ethics are “a central issue when a researcher proposes to study the lives of others, especially marginalized populations.” Consider how your question or inquiry will affect the people it relates to—their lives and their safety. Shape your question to avoid physical, emotional, or mental upset for the focus group.

In analyzing your question from this perspective, if you feel that it may cause harm, you should consider changing the question or ending your research project. Perhaps you’ve discovered that your question encourages harmful or invasive questioning, in which case you should reformulate it.

5. Writing the question 

The actual process of writing the question comes only after considering the above points. The purpose of crafting your research questions is to delve into what your study is specifically about” Remember that qualitative research questions are not trying to find the cause of an effect, but rather to explore the effect itself.

Your questions should be clear, concise, and understandable to those outside of your field. In addition, they should generate rich data. The questions you choose will also depend on the type of research you are conducting: 

• If you’re doing a phenomenological study, your questions might be open-ended, in order to allow participants to share their experiences in their own words.
• If you’re doing a grounded-theory study, your questions might be focused on generating a list of categories or themes.
• If you’re doing ethnography, your questions might be about understanding the culture you’re studying.

Whenyou have well-written questions, it is much easier to develop your research design and collect data that accurately reflects your inquiry.

In writing your questions, it may help you to refer to this simple flowchart process for constructing questions:

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25 examples of expertly crafted qualitative research questions

It's easy enough to cover the theory of writing a qualitative research question, but sometimes it's best if you can see the process in practice. In this section, we'll list 25 examples of B2B and B2C-related qualitative questions.

Let's begin with five questions. We'll show you the question, explain why it's considered qualitative, and then give you an example of how it can be used in research.

1. What is the customer's perception of our company's brand?

Qualitative research questions are often open-ended and invite respondents to share their thoughts and feelings on a subject. This question is qualitative because it seeks customer feedback on the company's brand. 

This question can be used in research to understand how customers feel about the company's branding, what they like and don't like about it, and whether they would recommend it to others.

2. Why do customers buy our product?

This question is also qualitative because it seeks to understand the customer's motivations for purchasing a product. It can be used in research to identify the reasons  customers buy a certain product, what needs or desires the product fulfills for them, and how they feel about the purchase after using the product.

3. How do our customers interact with our products?

Again, this question is qualitative because it seeks to understand customer behavior. In this case, it can be used in research to see how customers use the product, how they interact with it, and what emotions or thoughts the product evokes in them.

4. What are our customers' biggest frustrations with our products?

By seeking to understand customer frustrations, this question is qualitative and can provide valuable insights. It can be used in research to help identify areas in which the company needs to make improvements with its products.

5. How do our customers feel about our customer service?

Rather than asking why customers like or dislike something, this question asks how they feel. This qualitative question can provide insights into customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction with a company. 

This type of question can be used in research to understand what customers think of the company's customer service and whether they feel it meets their needs.

20 more examples to refer to when writing your question

Now that you’re aware of what makes certain questions qualitative, let's move into 20 more examples of qualitative research questions:

• How do your customers react when updates are made to your app interface?
• How do customers feel when they complete their purchase through your ecommerce site?
• What are your customers' main frustrations with your service?
• How do people feel about the quality of your products compared to those of your competitors?
• What motivates customers to refer their friends and family members to your product or service?
• What are the main benefits your customers receive from using your product or service?
• How do people feel when they finish a purchase on your website?
• What are the main motivations behind customer loyalty to your brand?
• How does your app make people feel emotionally?
• For younger generations using your app, how does it make them feel about themselves?
• What reputation do people associate with your brand?
• How inclusive do people find your app?
• In what ways are your customers' experiences unique to them?
• What are the main areas of improvement your customers would like to see in your product or service?
• How do people feel about their interactions with your tech team?
• What are the top five reasons people use your online marketplace?
• How does using your app make people feel in terms of connectedness?
• What emotions do people experience when they're using your product or service?
• Aside from the features of your product, what else about it attracts customers?
• How does your company culture make people feel?

As you can see, these kinds of questions are completely open-ended. In a way, they allow the research and discoveries made along the way to direct the research. The questions are merely a starting point from which to explore.

This video offers tips on how to write good qualitative research questions, produced by Qualitative Research Expert, Kimberly Baker.

Wrap-up: crafting your own qualitative research questions.

Over the course of this article, we've explored what qualitative research questions are, why they matter, and how they should be written. Hopefully you now have a clear understanding of how to craft your own.

Remember, qualitative research questions should always be designed to explore a certain experience or phenomena in-depth, in order to generate powerful insights. As you write your questions, be sure to keep the following in mind:

• Are you being inclusive of all relevant perspectives?
• Are your questions specific enough to generate clear answers?
• Will your questions allow for an in-depth exploration of the topic at hand?
• Do the questions reflect your research goals and objectives?

If you can answer "yes" to all of the questions above, and you've followed the tips for writing qualitative research questions we shared in this article, then you're well on your way to crafting powerful queries that will yield valuable insights.

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Asking the right questions in the right way is the key to research success. That’s true for not just the discussion guide but for every step of a research project. Following are 100+ questions that will take you from defining your research objective through  screening and participant discussions.

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• Open access
• Published: 03 January 2020

Students’ problem-solving strategies in qualitative physics questions in a simulation-based formative assessment

• Mihwa Park   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9549-9515 1  

Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research volume  2 , Article number:  1 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Previous studies on quantitative physics problem solving have been concerned with students’ using equations simply as a numerical computational tool. The current study started from a research question: “How do students solve conceptual physics questions in simulation-based formative assessments?” In the study, three first-year college students’ interview data were analyzed to characterize their problem-solving strategies in qualitative physics questions. Prior to the interview, the participating students completed four formative assessment tasks in physics integrating computer simulations and questions. The formative assessment questions were either constructed-response or two-tiered questions related to the simulations. When interviewing students, they were given two or three questions from each task and asked to think aloud about the questions. The findings showed that students still used equations to answer the qualitative questions, but the ways of using equations differed between students. The study found that when students were able to connect variables to a physical process and to interpret relationships among variables in an equation, equations were used as explanatory or conceptual understanding tools, not just as computational tools.

Introduction

Since the new U.S. science standards, Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), were released (NGSS Lead States, 2013 ), science assessments have been moving towards revealing students’ reasoning and their ability to apply core scientific ideas in solving problems (National Research Council, 2014 ; Pellegrino, 2013 ). Underwood, Posey, Herrington, Carmel, and Cooper ( 2018 ) suggested types of questions aligned with three-dimensional learning in A Framework for K-12 Science Education (National Research Council, 2012 ). These questions include constructed-response (CR) questions and two-tiered questions. Underwood et al. ( 2018 ) also argued that questions should address core and cross-cutting ideas and ask students to consider how scientific phenomena occur so that they can construct explanations and engage in argumentation. The underlying assumption of this approach could be that qualitative explanation questions (i.e., questions that ask students to explain qualitatively) reveal students’ reasoning and understanding of core scientific concepts better than do traditional multiple-choice and simple-calculation questions. Numerous studies in physics education have examined students’ problem-solving strategies, including studies that have identified differences in the problem-solving strategies employed by experts and novices. Experts tend to start by using general scientific principles to analyze problems conceptually, while novices tend to start by selecting equations and plugging in numbers (Larkin, McDermott, Simon, & Simon, 1980 ; Maloney, 1994 ; Simon & Simon, 1978 ). Thus, giving students opportunities to reason qualitatively about problems could help them to think like experts (van Heuvelen, 1991 ).

Another way to enhance students’ conceptual understanding of scientific ideas could be using computer simulations, because computer simulations help students visualize scientific phenomena that cannot be easily and accurately observed in real life. Many empirical studies support integrating computer simulations into assessments in order to promote students’ engagement in exploring scientific phenomena (de Jong & van Joolingen, 1998 ) and their conceptual understanding (Rutten, van Joolingen, & van der Veen, 2012 ; Trundle & Bell, 2010 ). For example, Quellmalz, Timms, Silberglitt, and Buckley ( 2012 ) developed a simulation-based science assessment, and found that the assessment was effective to reveal students’ knowledge and to find evidence of students’ reasoning. In the current study, computer simulations and conceptual qualitative questions were incorporated as integral parts of formative assessment to reveal students’ problem-solving strategies in answering qualitative physics questions. Therefore, the current study investigated students’ problem-solving strategies in physics, which offered them opportunities to elicit their reasoning by qualitatively explaining what would happen and why it would happen about a given physical situation.

Students’ strategies to solving physics problems

Early research on physics problem solving identified differences between experts and novices in their problem-solving strategies. For example, experts’ knowledge is organized into structures; thus, they demonstrate the effective use of sophisticated strategies to solve problems (Gick, 1986 ). Conversely, novices tend to describe physics problems at best in terms of equations, and spontaneously use superficial analogies (Gick, 1986 ). Experts also effectively use the problem decomposition strategy: breaking down a problem into subproblems, then solving each subproblem and combining them to form the final solution (Dhillon, 1998 ). They also apply relevant principle and laws to solve problems (Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser, 1981 ; Dhillon, 1998 ). By contrast, novices start with selecting equations and cue into surface features (Chi et al., 1981 ). A common finding from studies on differences between experts and novices in problem solving (e.g., Chi et al., 1981 ; Dhillon, 1998 ; Gick, 1986 ; Larkin et al., 1980 ) is that experts demonstrate their expertise in conceptual analysis of the problems using scientific principles and laws, then translate the problem into relevant mathematical equations, while novices jump to mathematical manipulations without the prior process of conceptual analysis (Larkin et al., 1980 ).

Huffman ( 1997 ) incorporated the results of studies on the differences in problem solving between experts and novices to formulate explicit problem-solving procedures for students. The procedures include five steps: (a) performing a qualitative analysis of the problem situation; (b) translating the conceptual analysis into a simplified physics description; (c) translating the physics description into specific mathematical equations to plan the solution; (d) combining the equations according to the plan; and (e) evaluating the solution to ensure it is reasonable and complete (Huffman, 1997 ). In essence, the procedure is designed to ensure students will conceptually reason about the problem first, using relevant scientific principles and laws, before jumping to selecting mathematical equations.

It is possible that students’ problem-solving strategies are influenced by problem representations (verbal, mathematical, graphical, etc.). Kohl and Finkelstein ( 2006 ) investigated how problem representations and student performance were related, and found that student strategies to solve physics problems often varied with different representations. They also found that not only problem representations but a number of other things, including prior knowledge and experience in solving problems from their previous classes, also influenced students’ performance, especially in the case of low-performing students. When asking students not to calculate a science question but to explain it conceptually, a study found that they still used equations or numerical values to solve the problems, indicating that they translated a conceptual qualitative question into a quantitative one (De Cock, 2012 ). Although students may succeed in calculating values in physics problems, it doesn’t always mean that they have good conceptual understanding of the questions (McDermott, 1991 ).

While earlier studies have been concerned with students’ using equations without conceptual understanding when solving problems, mathematical modeling plays a critical role in the epistemology in physics (Redish, 2017 ). Redish emphasized the importance of connecting physical meaning to mathematical representation when solving problems, because in physics, mathematical equations are linked to physical systems, and an equation contains packed conceptual knowledge. Thus, in physics, equations are not only computational tools but also symbolic representations of logical reasoning (Redish, 2005 , 2017 ). As such, students are expected to incorporate mathematical equations into their intuition of the physical world to conceptualize the physical system (Redish & Smith, 2008 ). In a study of students’ quantitative problem solving, Kuo, Hull, Gupta, and Elby ( 2012 ) pointed out the importance of connecting mathematical symbols to conceptual reasoning. Their study was conducted based on an assumption that equations should be blended with conceptual meaning in physics, which turned the attention of researchers on problem solving from how students select equations to how they use the equations. Kuo et al. ( 2012 ) concluded that blending of mathematical operations with conceptual reasoning constitutes good problem solving; thus, this blended process should be a part of problem-solving expertise in physics.

Using computer simulations as an assessment tool

Given that visualization plays a central role in the conceptualization process of physics (Kozhevnikov, Motes, & Hegarty, 2007 ), previous studies have used computer simulations to visualize scientific phenomena, especially those that cannot be accurately observed in real life, and reported their positive effect on students’ learning outcomes (Ardac & Akaygun, 2004 ; Dori & Hameiri, 2003 ). Using computer simulation to facilitate student learning in science was found to be especially effective on student performance, motivation (Rutten et al., 2012 ), and conceptual change (Smetana & Bell, 2012 ).

Computer simulation can be used not only as an instructional tool but also as an assessment tool. For example, Park, Liu, and Waight ( 2017 ) developed computer simulations for U.S. high school chemistry classes to help students conceptualize scientific phenomena, and then integrated the simulations into formative assessments with questions related to the simulations. Quellmalz et al. ( 2012 ) and Srisawasdi and Panjaburee ( 2015 ) also embedded computer simulations into formative assessments for use in science classrooms, and demonstrated positive effects on students’ performance compared to students who experienced only traditional assessments (e.g., paper-and-pencil tests). While many empirical studies have been done to investigate problem-solving strategies of students, there is a lack in studies on students’ strategies to solve physics problems when computer simulations were used as a visual representation and conceptual explanation questions were asked to reveal the students’ reasoning. This study addresses the gap in the body of literature by investigating students’ strategies in solving conceptual explanation questions in a simulation-based formative assessment.

Research procedure and participants

In the study, computer simulations and formative assessment questions were integrated into a web-based formative assessment system for online administration, which allowed students to use it at their convenience (Park, 2019 ). The formative assessment questions were either CR or two-tiered questions related to the simulations. A two-tiered question consists of a simple multiple-choice (MC) question and a justification question for which students write a justification for their answer to the MC question. This format of question was suggested to diagnose possible misconceptions held by students (Treagust, 1985 ) and to provide information about students’ reasoning behind their selected responses (Gurel, Eryılmaz, & McDermott, 2015 ). Computer simulations were selected from the Physics Education Technology (PhET) project ( https://phet.colorado.edu/ ) and embedded into the formative assessment system. The assessments targeted students’ conceptual understanding in physics, thus they were not asked to calculate any values or to demonstrate their mathematical competence (Park, 2019 ). Specifically, the questions presented a scientific situation and asked students to predict what would happen; then the assessment system asked students to run a simulation, posing questions asking for explanation of the phenomena and comparison between their prior ideas and the observed phenomena. Figure  1 presents example questions and simulation for the energy conservation task. After answering the questions, students ran the simulation and responded to questions asking how the skater’s highest speed changed and why they think it happened using evidence found in the simulation.

Energy conservation task example questions

Initially, first-year college students were recruited from a calculus-based, introductory level physics course at a large, public university in the United States; no particular demographic was targeted during recruitment. The physics course was offered to students majoring in subjects related to science or engineering and covered mechanics, including kinematics and conservation of energy, so simulations were selected to align with the course content. After selecting simulations from the PhET project, related formative assessment questions were created. As previously mentioned, the questions first asked students to predict what would happen in a given situation. In this case, verbal (expressed in writing) and pictorial representations (including images, diagrams, or graphs) describing the situation were shown on the screen (Fig.  1 ). Next, after the students answered the questions, the simulations were enabled for the students to run, and they were asked to explain the results. In total, four formative assessment tasks were developed and implemented online, and each task contained from 14 to 17 questions. Topics for the four tasks were (1) motion in two dimensions, (2) the laws of motion, (3) motion in one dimension and friction, and (4) conservation of energy. Descriptions of the four tasks are presented below.

Task 1: Students explore what factors will affect an object’s projectile motion when firing a cannon.

Task 2: Students create an applied force such as pulling against or pushing an object and observe how it makes the object move.

Task 3: Students explore the forces at work when a person tries to push a filing cabinet on a frictionless or frictional surface.

Task 4: Students explore a skater’s motion on different shapes of tracks and explore the relationship between the kinetic energy and thermal energy of the skater.

After the participating students completed the online implementations of the four tasks, an interview invitation email was sent to the students who had completed all four tasks, did not skip any questions, and did not answer a question with an off-task response, but included responses that needed further clarification. Initially, we invited six students to clarify and elaborate on their responses so we could better understand what they were thinking. When scoring students’ written responses, some responses needed further clarification. For example, students mentioned that in projectile motion, “mass is not relative to time”; “the greater angle will create a larger x component of velocity in a projectile motion”; or “an object’s speed is broken up evenly resulting in more air time”. In case of the energy conservation task, the responses needing more clarification were “the speed did not change because speed does not depend on mass” or “because a skater’s total energy increases with increase in mass, her speed does not change”. Those responses were not clear to the author. Thus, the author decided to invite them to clarify their responses. During the interviews, the students’ verbal responses inspired the author to explore differences in their problem-solving strategies to answer conceptual physics questions. Three students especially, Alex, Christopher, and Blake (all pseudonyms), demonstrated noticeable differences in their problem-solving strategies; therefore, they are the focus of the analysis in the current study.

Interview context and protocols

Semi-structured interviews were conducted to investigate students’ reasoning when responding to conceptual physics questions. To this end, the students were given two or three questions from each task and asked to think aloud about the questions. After they verbally answered each question, they were given their original written responses to see if their answers had changed, and if so, to explain why. When students used mathematical equations or graphs in their explanations, they were asked to explain why they used those particular strategies and how the strategies helped them to answer the questions. Some example interview questions were; “Please read the question. Will you tell me your answer for the question?”, “How did you answer this question?”, “Could you clarify what this means?”, and “What did you mean by (specific terms that students used)?” Students were interviewed individually by two interviewers. The interviews, which took place in an interview room located at their university, each lasted an hour.

While the interviews were going on, the author wrote memos about the students’ strategies to answer the given questions and their misconceptions about science. Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. The transcripts were initially analyzed to prepare and organize data into emergent themes. In this process, the memos were also used. As a result, three initial themes were developed: 1) students’ strategies to answer problems, 2) effects of the assessment on students’ learning, and 3) students’ misconceptions about science. In the study, the first theme—strategies to answer problems—was made a focus in the next level of analysis, as the students demonstrated noticeable differences in using equations to answer conceptual physics problems. After choosing the theme as a main focus, the author analyzed it by open coding the relevant parts of the transcripts of the individual student interviews (interviews about Tasks 1–3) to formulate possible characterizations of students’ problem-solving strategies, especially when they were using equations. The author constantly compared the characterizations to integrate and refine them (Strauss & Corbin, 1998 ). After that, the rest of each individual student interview transcript (interviews about Task 4) was analyzed, using the same categories to confirm the findings. Students’ drawings (i.e., graphs) used to explain their reasoning were also considered as a data source (Creswell, 2016 ). Once characterizations in students’ use of equations in qualitative physics question were identified and compared across cases, the analysis results were given to a physics education researcher to seek an external check (Creswell & Miller, 2000 ).

Previous studies on expert and novice problem-solving strategies were reflected in the design of the formative assessment questions. Specifically, it was hypothesized that conceptual explanation questions would help students think about the questions more conceptually, so that they would start to solve them using scientific concepts and laws. Therefore, short written questions in the tasks asked the students to explain or to justify their answers without using a formula. Nonetheless, when we were interviewing students, we found that they preferred to use equations and mathematical concepts when explaining physical situations. Although the three participating students commonly used equations or mathematical concepts in their explanations, how they used the equations or mathematical concepts differed. Detailed findings are presented below in three subsections representing patterns in problem-solving strategies. Formative assessment Tasks 1, 2, and 3 were designed to address the topic of Motion and Force, while Task 4 covered the topic of Energy Conservation. We analyzed interview data by these two topics. Note that two terms—formula and equation—were not differentiated in the analysis of data; instead, they were considered synonyms.

Alex’s case – using equations as a conceptual understanding tool

Motion and force.

When interviewing Alex, we asked him what would happen if a person pushed a box, then let it go (Task 2). He said, “If it is frictionless, the box will move forever with a constant velocity, and if friction exists, the speed will decrease and eventually the box will stop.” This answer was very similar to his original written response. Next, we asked what would happen to the box’s motion after another box was placed on top of it. Alex said, “I don’t know how to explain this without a formula.” Because the original questions had asked students not to use formulas, he assumed that he was not allowed to use one in this explanation, and obviously he was struggling to explain without it. We told him to use formulas whenever he wanted, and he quickly jumped into using one.

Alex: Resultant force equals mass times acceleration, so if you have a bigger mass. Uh, if the resultant force was 50N, that’s the force you applied, and then you had 10N in friction, for example, then the resultant force is 40. You had, if you had 20kg, the acceleration would be 2. If you had 50kg, the acceleration would be 4 over 5, which is 0.8, which is less than 2. So, the more mass you have the smaller the acceleration is going to be, as a result of the resultant force equals ma equation.

In this statement, Alex explained what would happen in the given situation with algebraic solutions, using F = ma equation, and concluded that mass would affect the object’s acceleration, as he demonstrated. He further described how the eq. ( F  =  ma ) helped him to explain the given physical situation.

Alex: If you use the formula, then it makes it much easier, because in real life, you never see something moving without friction, so it just clouds your judgment a bit.

In this statement, Alex described the role of equation for him as a conceptual understanding tool, especially in an ideal situation that is not observable in real life. This was something the author had not initially expected from the students during their interviews. When we asked Alex the next question in Task 3, his answer further supported the finding that equations helped him understand physical situations. Specifically, we asked, in a situation when a person was pushing a cabinet on either a frictionless or a frictional surface, what would happen to the cabinet’s motion and why.

Alex: The normal force is, the gravitational force cancels out the y , so the only thing acting on the—in the x -direction, which is the direction being pushed is the applied force, so as small of a force you apply to it, it’s still going to move it because there’s nothing opposing it…if there was friction, I agree that it won’t move. Because the friction, the friction is the coefficient of friction times the normal force, so, since it’s a really big object, it’s going to have a significant amount of friction acting on it.

In his verbal explanation, Alex used a mathematical concept and an equation to explain the given phenomenon, using the vector concept for two components of force and a mathematical equation for frictional force. Obviously, he found equations useful to make sense of physical situations and to explain his understanding to others. Notably, he started his answer by referring to the formula for kinetic friction force and used the formula as a tool to explain why the cabinet wouldn’t move on a frictional surface. His explanation again demonstrated that equations and mathematical concepts were useful to understanding and interpreting scientific phenomena, and not only as a simple computational tool, at least for Alex.

Conservation of energy

Task 4 was designed to investigate students’ conceptions of mechanical energy and its conservation. We asked Alex, when a skater is skateboarding on a track with no friction, what would happen to the skater’s highest speed as the skater’s mass increases? He again asked us if he could use equations. We confirmed that he was allowed to use equations anytime he wanted. Then he immediately started writing equations on the board (see Fig.  2 ). While he was writing, he explained each variable involved in the equations:

Alex: So, her initial, so, um, at the start, her initial energy is mgh + ½ mv 0 2 and then her final [writing on board] mgh + ½ mv f 2 , but the smaller thing to do is that they [mass] all cancel out, so the mass is really, it doesn’t play a role in the height or the velocity. And then, if you wanted to see how the conversion of energy works, if you were initially starting at the maximum height, whatever that is, you could do ½ mv 2 . At the start, her velocity is 0, at the top, so this cancels out, if we’re analyzing it at the bottom, which is her max speed, then this [ h ] is 0, and then you just do gh = v 2 . To find her velocity. Just looking at this, there’s no mass in this, so it doesn’t matter [the skater’s speed]. When you actually work it out, all the masses cancel out, so it doesn’t matter what the mass is, in reality, when you actually calculate it.

This response was different than his original written response to the same question: “If the skater has a larger mass, she will in turn have a larger gravitational potential energy since GPE [gravitational potential energy] has a direct relationship to mass. As a result and according to the principles of conservation of energy, the KE [kinetic energy] will be greater and thus the velocity will be greater.” In this original written response, Alex included a typical misconception that heavier objects fall faster (e.g., Gunstone, Champagne, & Klopfer, 1981 ; Lazonder & Ehrenhard, 2014 ); “If the skater has a larger mass…thus the velocity will be greater” (in his written response). This was the only case of a misconception found in Alex’s written responses. Notably, when he was using equations, he deduced that “it doesn’t matter what the mass is, in reality, when you actually calculate it” from his step-by-step problem-solving procedure using algebraic solutions. Although he solved the problem using equations through algebraic computation, he explained how the object’s velocity and height would change as the object moved: “At the start, her velocity is 0, at the top, so this cancels out, if we’re analyzing it at the bottom, which is her max speed, then this [ h ] is 0, and then you just do gh = v 2 .” Then he connected conceptual meaning to the equation: “Just looking at this, there’s no mass in this, so it doesn’t matter [the skater’s speed].” This confirmed that for Alex, equations were the first tool to make sense of physical situation. In other words, when he applied an equation to a physical situation, he considered variables related to specific situations, then connected conceptual meaning to the variables, which indicated that for him, equations played a role in analyzing and understanding physical situation.

Alex’s explanation

Christopher’s case – using equations as an explanatory tool

We asked Christopher a question—which tank shell would go farther when the initial angles for two tank shells were different (Task 1). In his original written response, he mentioned that “tank A (initial angle: 45 degree)’s speed is broken up more evenly and this results in more air time which leads to more distance covered in the x axis as well.” This answer was similar to Christopher’s thinking-aloud response, so we asked him to elaborate on what he meant by “speed is broken up more evenly.” Below is his response.

Christopher: Because the velocity is a vector quantity, the speed is still the same, but the velocity, the x and y axis are going to be more evenly split [for Tank A, with a 45-degree initial angle], whereas for Tank B [10-degree initial angle] it would have been almost all in the x axis and close to none in the y , so it wouldn’t get that much air time because the force of gravity still stays the same.

As seen in his response, Christopher deduced his answer from a mathematical concept (vector in this case) explaining why the 45-degree shell would have a greater horizontal range than the 10-degree shell one. His problem-solving strategy in the next questions (questions from Tasks 2 and 3) further confirmed that he used mathematical concepts and equations to explain physical situations. For example, when asked to compare two situations from Task 2—a person pushes a box and lets it go, and after placing another box on top of that, a person pushes both boxes and lets them go—Christopher immediately used F = ma and explained the situation.

Christopher: The velocity and the speed will be decreased because, when applying force, force is mass times acceleration. So, if it would be the same exact force with a higher mass, then the acceleration would have to go down significantly in order to keep the same number [force]. So, because of this, it wouldn’t speed up as much, so it would have a lower velocity after the force was applied [compared to the previous situation]. While you are pushing, the acceleration is constant. And if they let it go, there is no acceleration. Then speed will stay the same.

In his statement, he referred to F = ma , and explained why the box’s acceleration would be smaller when its mass increased using algebraic solutions, which is similar to Alex’s case. The difference is that Christopher’s explanation contained an interpretation of the relationship among velocity, acceleration, and applied force: “So, because of this, it wouldn’t speed up as much, so it would have a lower velocity after the force was applied.” This implies that Christopher did not just use the equation as a computational tool, but linked meanings to variables (force, velocity, mass, and acceleration) and interpreted a relationship among them. When we asked him a question from Task 3—when a person is pushing a cabinet, how will the cabinet’s velocity change after passing over the frictionless surface and traveling onto the surface with friction?—his answer reconfirmed that he considered the relationship among variables and gave conceptual meaning not only to the variables but also to the relationship, and used a mathematical concept as an important tool to interpret a physical situation.

Christopher: So, the velocity is 100% dependent on the acceleration, which depends on the force, and then in this scenario, it is the force at first, it has a much higher total net force in the x direction, whereas later on it decreases [on a frictional surface], but there’s still a positive net force in the x direction, so it will continue. The reason why it continues to speed up is because the acceleration is still positive. ‘Cause mass can’t really be negative so that [acceleration] is the only variable [to determine the change of velocity]. So, that’s why velocity continues to increase, it’s just not as much as before.

In his statement, Christopher did not interpret an individual variable separately; rather, he first considered the relationship between force, velocity, and acceleration using the concept of vector and scalar quantity (e.g., mass is not a vector quantity), and explained how each variable was influenced by the other variables’ changes. From the statements above, it is clear that Christopher reasoned through a physical process by interpreting relationships among variables and attaching conceptual meaning to the relationship and the variables.

When we asked Christopher about change in the skater’s highest speed when the skater’s mass increased, his original written and oral responses contained the common answer that the skater’s highest speed would stay the same because gravity acts on all objects equally: “the downward acceleration will be the same.” We further asked him about how total mechanical energy changes. His response is below.

Christopher: Her [the skater’s] mechanical energy would increase because the velocity would stay the same for kinetic, but the mass would go up, so it would make the answer higher. And it’s probably easier to think of it with GPE, can I use the formula to it?

Then he drew a formula on board (Fig.  3 ), and explained why the total mechanical energy would change.

Christopher: This is mg. Since these two [ gh, ½ ] stay the same for both cases, they can be canceled out. So then, these are the only variables in ME (mechanical energy), so if this [ m ] increases, then the whole system[’s energy] will increase, but it won’t change this [ v ] in the specific scenario. If you were to use the equations, once you were to set them equal to each other and solve for the final answer for each, they would still be the same, even though the mass is higher. But because it’s multiplied, you can cancel it [ m ] on both sides for that specific scenario, so it mainly just depends on the constant ½ and then the variable of height and the final velocity which would be the same for this case.

In his response, Christopher first explained the physical situation using the concept of energy and considered the situation as a system: “Her [the skater’s] mechanical energy would increase,” and “so if this [ m ] increases, then the whole system[‘s energy] will increase.” In order to prove why mass doesn’t affect the skater’s speed, he used an equation as an explanatory tool—“And it’s probably easier to think of it with GPE, can I use the formula to it?”—and showed that mass doesn’t affect the skater’s speed: “You can cancel it [ m ] on both sides for that specific scenario.” A noticeable difference from Alex’s approach is that Christopher used equations to prove his claim and to explain it in an easier way, while Alex used equations to make sense of the situation. In other words, equations were in play mainly as explanatory tools for Christopher, whereas they acted as conceptual understanding tools for Alex. Similarly to his previous responses to questions in Motion and Force, Christopher again demonstrated that he considered how all variables were related each other in the system, and attached meaning to the relationship and variables. Interestingly, he often used the phrase “specific scenario,” so we asked what it meant. Below is his response.

Christopher: The equations don’t really help because even though I see it and it’s in my head, but it’s not really useful if I don’t know the scenario. If it’s some problems, I know, are purposefully shaped to muddle it up, and make it purposefully confusing, but usually, when you run the scenario, in a program or in your head, it kind of takes out that confusing stuff.

The above response illustrated that Christopher conceptually interpreted the physical situation first, then translated equations into the physical situation. This strategy shared a commonality with Alex’s in that both students used equations in their explanations and connected how variables in the equations changed as the specific physical situation changed. At the same time, there was a difference between the two students. Christopher’s strategy started with an analysis of the situation, creating a physical scenario and then translating equations into the physical situation, while Alex mentioned relevant equations first, then connected them to the physical situation.

Christopher’s explanation. Note: ME = mechanical energy

Blake’s case – using equations as a computational tool

When we asked Blake which one would go farther when shot from a cannon, a tank shell or a baseball (when air resistance was negligible; Task 1), her original written response and her thinking-aloud response were similar: the mass of an object is not relative to its motion. When we asked her to explain why, she said:

Blake: Because I don’t see kg on the units at all [in the simulation]. kg is the unit for mass, kilograms, so, it’s not written as kg/m/s or something. You could easily compare it with units and mass is not part of the unit.

Her response was interesting in that she used the unit of velocity rather than acceleration. Also, she did not show her conceptual understanding of physical variables and their relationship as Christopher had done. We further asked her what factors should be changed to maximize the horizontal range of the projectile object, in order to elicit her reasoning about a projectile motion. Below is her response.

Blake: You need to throw it faster. Um, because, if you look at gun for example. It’s a really high velocity. So, you just see it going like straight because it’s just high velocity. And, um, if, if I’m throwing this phone, maximum distance it could go is like here [tosses phone, not very far]. Angle? I think…like the maximum distance for x axis and y axis is 45 degrees, but I think it should be a little lower. Around 45 but plus or minus 5 degrees, so like 40 degrees.

Interviewer: Why would you say that?

Blake: It doesn’t get that much time for vertical velocity, but the horizontal velocity will be faster.

In her response, Blake used real-life examples—shooting a gun and throwing a phone—as analogies to reason how to increase the horizontal range of a projectile object. However, when she threw the phone, she tossed it, which started it with a different initial angle from that of a bullet shot from a gun : “You just see it going like straight because it’s just high velocity.” Although she considered two directions of velocity when determining the optimal initial angle, she did not provide a scientifically reasonable explanation for why the initial angle should be lower than 45 degrees. It might be that Blake had learned that 45 degrees is the angle used to maximize range, but that she thought velocity would be more critical than the angle to determine the range, especially that the x -component of velocity would more important than the y -component because an object will fly faster horizontally than vertically when the x- component is greater. Thus, she lowered the initial angle a little bit. In the above statements, Blake did not demonstrate that she could consider the relationship between variables and link conceptual meanings to them (e.g., “Because I don’t see kg on the units at all” and “It doesn’t get that much time for vertical velocity, but the horizontal velocity will be faster”).

For the next question, we asked what would happen to the box’s motion after another box was placed on top of it. She said, “It would still be constant and stay at constant velocity in that motion.” We asked the question again, to clarify if she understood it.

Blake: Yeah. The velocity would be the same. After you let it go. So it will be at constant speed. And the force is proportional to the...wait, well acceleration is proportional to force and mass.

In her response, Blake attempted to apply Newton’s second law ( F = ma ), as the other two students had; however, she didn’t realize that acceleration is inversely proportional to mass, and therefore the velocity would be changed by the different acceleration. As a result, her response involved a misconception that mass doesn’t affect the speed of an object. In other words, she demonstrated her lack of understanding of the relationships between the variables (acceleration, velocity, mass, and force) involved in the situation. Her response to the questions confirmed that she explained scientific phenomena using variables in equations but failed to recognize the relationships among them. Instead she focused on individual variables, e.g., how acceleration will change as force changes, but did not explain how that would change velocity. She also did not explain how two components of velocity affect an object’s motion. Interestingly, she also used the unit of variable to justify her answer without applying conceptual meanings to it. For Blake, equations and units seemed to play important roles in explaining physical situations, but her connection of equations to physical situations was, at best, based on interpretations of individual variables.

When we asked Blake about change in the skater’s highest speed when the skater’s mass increased, her original written response was that her highest speed would increase because the mass of the skater would require more energy. When we interviewed her, her answer was different from her original response.

Blake: I think it should stay the same. I was thinking of the formula.

When we asked her to explain in more detail, she wrote an equation on the board (Fig.  4 ) and explained what it meant.

Blake: The highest point, because there won’t be any kinetic energy. And it’ll be mgh . Also ½ mv 2 and it [ m ] cancels out. It was exactly the same. The speed was the same. But—wasn’t there a bar graph [in the simulation]? Well, the total energy was bigger [in the simulation]. The total energy. But the total energy was same—no bigger.

Similarly to Alex, Blake used an equation to explain that the skater’s speed wouldn’t change because v doesn’t contain m after canceling out. However, she did not describe why kinetic energy is zero at the highest point and why potential energy is zero at the bottom. It might be that she just did not mention this, but it was obvious that she did not understand how the object’s mass affected the system: “But the total energy was same—no bigger.” We further asked her how the total mechanical energy of the skater would change when the skater’s mass increased. This time, she said, “Well, the total energy was bigger. ‘Cause energy depends on mass and either height or speed of a person.” As seen in the response, she thought of variables in equations of gravitational potential energy ( mgh ) and kinetic energy ( \( \frac{1}{2} \) mv 2 ). When asked why she previously had said the total mechanical energy would be the same, she answered, “because energy is always conserved.” This illustrated her misconception that the amount of energy should always be the same regardless of mass; however, when she considered variables in equations of PE and KE, she answered the question accurately. Throughout the interview, we found that Blake’s strategy to solve questions was consistent across different tasks; she used formulas and units as her first approach. However, a difference between Blake and the other two students is that although she used equations and variables, she did not explain how the variables influenced each other; and how they would change as a specific situation changed. In other words, she did not translate equations into physical situations nor link conceptual meanings to the variables and the relationships between them. The findings showed that for Blake, equations were more likely used as a simple computational tool.

Blake’s explanation

Disconnection of students’ problem-solving strategies from physics lecture

The three students all mentioned that they liked simulation-based questions. Alex said that the questions themselves made him think a lot, and running simulations also made him think more deeply: “Beforehand it [the task] just seems really simple, so you don’t put much thought into it. That’s easy. Just write it down, but then, once you run it, it makes you think about it more. So that’s cool too.”

As seen in his responses to the questions in the tasks, Alex used equations as conceptual understanding tools consistently across tasks. When we asked if he had learned this approach from his physics course, he said that his physics class heavily focused on solving problems but mostly by just reading off equations and plugging in numbers.

Alex: Physics is not about reading equations and stuff off a slide. It’s about working things by hand, and my professor, he has all the solutions to the problems in the book. He had them on a clear sheet of paper, and a Sharpie and then, so if he has problem 20, he puts problem 20 on the projector, and then he put that clean sheet there, and then he points to, oh here I did “v = a + blah blah,” so that’s really not effective at all in my opinion.

Christopher mentioned that the formative assessment would be very helpful for a lot of students, because it showed physical scenario. His physics class was more formula-based, with activities such as showing a formula and plugging in numbers to demonstrate how to solve a physics problem, which Christopher felt was disconnected from how he learned science. As he demonstrated, he learned best when he created a physical scenario, then translated it into equations. Alex also mentioned that physics is “about working things by hand,” which implies that he emphasized linking problem-solving procedures to physical situations. In Blake’s case, she mentioned that “It will help students to learn the concept better, but I think students will hate it [the formative assessment] because students will be like, ‘I don’t have time for this. It’s just that I am like too busy for this.’” In sum, the three students had a common opinion that the simulation-based formative assessment had helped them understand the given physical situation better, but the reasons why they liked it differed, as did their problem-solving strategies.

Discussion and conclusion

Previous studies on problem solving were concerned with students’ using equations simply as numerical computational tools by plugging in numbers. While experts tend to start with a conceptual analysis of problems using scientific principles and laws, novices start by selecting and manipulating equations without conceptual analysis (Larkin et al., 1980 ). The difference in solving problems might be more obvious in quantitative questions, in which a mathematically framed physics question may prompt students to use equations without conceptual understanding (Kohl & Finkelstein, 2006 ). The current study started from the research question “How do students solve conceptual physics questions in simulation-based formative assessments?” The findings showed that the students still used equations to answer the questions. However, their utilizations of equations were different. For example, Alex’s and Christopher’s strategies involved using equations to explain or interpret the given physical situation. To do so, they connected variables to physical situations and provided meanings to the variables and the relationships among the variables. Blake, however, used equations and units as tools to find answers for the questions without a clear connection of the variables and equations to the given physical situations. Christopher’s strategy was especially noticeable in that he used equations as effective explanatory tools for a physical situation. He started an analysis of the physical situation, then translated equations into the situation by creating a physical scenario in a system, such as how variables change as the situation changes, and how the variables are related to each other within the physical system. Alex’s explanations illustrated that he utilized equations to understand a physical situation. The difference between him and Christopher is that Alex used equations as major tools to analyze and understand the situation, while Christopher used them to effectively and easily explain the situation. Noticeably, Alex used algebraic computation processes using an equation to understand a given physical process.

Kuo et al. ( 2012 ) argued that linking conceptual reasoning to mathematical formalism indicates a more expert level of understanding and demonstrates robust solutions integrating conceptual and symbolic reasoning. They found that students used equations not just as computational tools but as tools to find conceptual shortcuts to solve physics problems. Although Kuo et al.’s study focused on quantitative problem solving, the current study revealed a similar finding where questions were created qualitatively without asking any calculations. Another difference from Kuo et al.’s study is that they provided an equation to students first, then asked them to explain the equation and apply the equation to a physical situation, whereas the current study provided a physical situation without any equations. As a conclusion, the current study supports that equations can be important in conceptualizing a physical situation by connecting conceptual meanings to equations. Therefore, mathematical equations can be used alternatively in problem solving (Kuo et al., 2012 ). Redish and Smith ( 2008 ) also illuminated the power of equations in solving physics problems and making sense of physical systems when students are able to link physical scenarios to mathematical equations. Thus, the connection of physical meaning to equations should be emphasized in teaching and learning physics in order to help students to conceptualize physical system (Redish & Smith, 2008 ).

Previous studies of quantitative physics problem solving have focused on using equations first when solving a physics question without a conceptual analysis of the problem situation, which indicated equations were in play as a simple computational tool. Although, the current study found a similar case, in which a student used equations as a simple computational tool, we also found that students used equations as a conceptual understanding or an effective explanatory tool. Indeed, using equations helped Alex realize his misconception and explain the situation accurately. While previous studies have emphasized performing a conceptual analysis first using scientific principles when solving a problem, this study argues the positive roles of using equations when it includes a connection between the equations and the physical situation. Therefore, this study contributes to the literature on physics problem solving in that equations can be used for students as tools for a conceptual understanding and as an explanatory tool. In this study, Christopher’s strategy was closer to the strategy used by experts, since he visualized a given situation to analyze by creating a physical scenario, then connected the relevant equations to the situation to explain the physical scenario. On the other hand, Alex used equations first to answer questions by connecting variables to the physical process through an algebraic solution process. Especially for Alex, equations facilitated his physical understanding of the problem and ability to explain the physical process. Although Alex and Blake used equations primarily as tools to answer questions, Blake did not demonstrate her interpretations of variables or the relationships among them in equations; nor did she connect variables to a physical situation. This indicated that her utilization of equations was closer to simple computational tools.

In conclusion, mathematical equations in physics were important when students were conceptually explaining a physical situation. It was revealed that using equations helped them explain a physical situation with more scientifically normative ideas. However, the ways they used equations differed between students. An equation could be an explanatory tool, a conceptual understanding tool, or a computational tool. The essence of the findings was that when students were able to connect variables to a physical process and to interpret relationships among variables in an equation, equations were in play as tools in understanding and explaining a physical situation. On the other hand, without interpretations of variables and connections to a physical situation, equations only served as simple computational tools. The study also found that students’ strategies to answer questions, especially conceptual ones, did not change with different topics in physics.

Implications and study limitations

As some students pointed out, their physics lectures demonstrated how to solve quantitative questions using equations as computational tools. As Christopher’s problem solving strategy was similar to the strategy used by experts, we suggest that his strategy be reflected in teaching physics. To be more specific, physics educators may provide an opportunity for students to visualize the physics phenomena. They could use models or computer simulations to help this procedure. Second, they should emphasize how equations are used to explain the phenomena as a “conceptual shortcut” (Kuo et al., 2012 , p. 39) by connecting equations and variables to the physical situation. In other words, as Alex and Christopher demonstrated, if physics instructions emphasize connections between physical meanings and mathematical expressions, it help students understand physical phenomenon. As we consider physics instructors as experts, perhaps in some cases their expert level of using equations was not reflected in their teaching. A future study topic would be to investigate the reason for the gap between physics experts’ strategies in solving physics problems and their teaching practices when demonstrating how to solve physics problems.

Although the findings of this study suggest an alternative way of using equations as an explanatory or a conceptual analysis tool for a physical situation, the findings might not be generalizable because the study context was limited to an introductory level physics course. Also, it is possible that topics for the tasks (kinematics and mechanical energy conservation) involving several equations might have influenced students’ strategies in answering questions. However, Redish ( 2017 ) emphasizes that a goal of physics is to create mathematical modeling (equations) that can predict and explain physical phenomena. Consequently, mathematical equations are included in physics topics and taught extensively in physics instruction especially in high school and college. We argue that students’ understanding of mathematical modeling in physics should not be considered as a following step after conceptual understanding of scientific principles. Instead, we support the claim that blending of physical meaning with mathematical operations should be emphasized in teaching physics (Kuo et al., 2012 ; Redish, 2005 , 2017 ). We also suggest that future studies should investigate how students’ strategies to answer questions are different in other topics, such as thermodynamics or electricity and magnetism.

Availability of data and materials

Interview data are not available for public.

Abbreviations

Constructed-Response

Gravitational Potential Energy

Kinetic Energy

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What is Qualitative Research? Methods and Examples

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What is Qualitative Research? Methods and Examples was originally published on Forage .

Qualitative research seeks to gain insights and understand people’s experiences and perspectives by studying social organizations and human behavior. Data in qualitative studies focuses on people’s beliefs and emotional responses. Qualitative data is especially helpful when a company wants to know how customers feel about a product or service, such as in user experience (UX) design or marketing . 

In this guide, we’ll go over:

Qualitative Research Definition

Qualitative research methods and examples, advantages and disadvantages of qualitative approaches, qualitative vs. quantitative research, showing qualitative research skills on resumes.

Researchers use qualitative approaches to “determine answers to research questions on human behavior and the cultural values that drive our thinking and behavior,” says Margaret J. King, director at The Center for Cultural Studies & Analysis in Philadelphia.

Data in qualitative research typically can’t be assessed mathematically — the data is not sets of numbers or quantifiable information. Rather, it’s collections of images, words, notes on behaviors, descriptions of emotions, and historical context. Data is collected through observations, interviews, surveys, focus groups, and secondary research. 

However, a qualitative study needs a “clear research question at its base,” notes King, and the research needs to be “observed, categorized, compared, and evaluated (along a scale or by a typology chart) by reference to a baseline in order to determine an outcome with value as new and reliable information.”

Who Uses Qualitative Research?

Researchers in social sciences and humanities often use qualitative research methods, especially in specific areas of study like anthropology, history, education, and sociology. 

Qualitative methods are also applicable in business, technology , and marketing spaces. For example, product managers use qualitative research to understand how target audiences respond to their products. They may use focus groups to gain insights from potential customers on product prototypes and improvements or surveys from existing customers to understand what changes users want to see. 

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Grounded Theory

Grounded theory is an inductive approach to theory development. In many forms of research, you begin with a hypothesis and then test it to see if you’re correct. In grounded theory, though, you go in without any assumptions and rely on the data you collect to form theories. You start with an open question about a phenomenon you are studying and collect and analyze data until you can form a fully-fledged theory from the information. 

Example: A company wants to improve its brand and marketing strategies. The company performs a grounded theory approach to solving this problem by conducting interviews and surveys with past, current, and prospective customers. The information gathered from these methods helps the company understand what type of branding and marketing their customer-base likes and dislikes, allowing the team to inductively craft a new brand and marketing strategy from the data. 

Action Research

Action research is one part study and one part problem-solving. Through action research, analysts investigate a problem or weakness and develop practical solutions. The process of action research is cyclical —- researchers assess solutions for efficiency and effectiveness and create further solutions to correct any issues found. 

Example: A manager notices her employees struggle to cooperate on group projects. She carefully reviews how team members interact with each other and asks them all to respond to a survey about communication. Through the survey and study, she finds that guidelines for group projects are unclear. After changing the guidelines, she reviews her team again to see if there are any changes to their behavior.  

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Phenomenological Research

Phenomenological research investigates a phenomenon in depth, looking at people’s experiences and understanding of the situation. This sort of study is primarily descriptive and seeks to broaden understanding around a specific incident and the people involved. Researchers in phenomenological studies must be careful to set aside any biases or assumptions because the information used should be entirely from the subjects themselves. 

Example : A researcher wants to better understand the lived experience of college students with jobs. The purpose of this research is to gain insights into the pressures of college students who balance studying and working at the same time. The researcher conducts a series of interviews with several college students, learning about their past and current situations. Through the first few interviews, the researcher builds a relationship with the students. Later discussions are more targeted, with questions prompting the students to discuss their emotions surrounding both work and school and the difficulties and benefits arising from their situation. The researcher then analyzes these interviews, and identifies shared themes to contextualize the experiences of the students. 

Ethnography

Ethnography is an immersive study of a particular culture or community. Through ethnographic research, analysts aim to learn about a group’s conventions, social dynamics, and cultural norms. Some researchers use active observation methods, finding ways to integrate themselves into the culture as much as possible. Others use passive observation, watching closely from the outside but not fully immersing themselves. 

Example: A company hires an external researcher to learn what their company’s culture is actually like. The researcher studies the social dynamics of the employees and may even look at how these employees interact with clients and with each other outside of the office. The goal is to deliver a comprehensive report of the company’s culture and the social dynamics of its employees. 

Case Studies

A case study is a type of in-depth analysis of a situation. Case studies can focus on an organization, belief system, event, person, or action. The goal of a case study is to understand the phenomenon and put it in a real-world context. Case studies are also commonly used in marketing and sales to highlight the benefits of a company’s products or services. 

Example: A business performs a case study of its competitors’ strategies. This case study aims to show why the company should adopt a specific business strategy. The study looks at each competitor’s business structure, marketing campaigns, product offerings, and historical growth trends. Then, using this data on other businesses, the researcher can theorize how that strategy would benefit their company. 

>>MORE: Learn how companies use case study interviews to assess candidates’ research and problem-solving skills. 

Qualitative research methods are great for generating new ideas. The exploratory nature of qualitative research means uncovering unexpected information, which often leads to new theories and further research topics. Additionally, qualitative findings feel meaningful. These studies focus on people, emotions, and societies and may feel closer to their communities than quantitative research that relies on more mathematical and logical data. 

However, qualitative research can be unreliable at times. It’s difficult to replicate qualitative studies since people’s opinions and emotions can change quickly. For example, a focus group has a lot of variables that can affect the outcome, and that same group, asked the same questions a year later, may have entirely different responses. The data collection can also be difficult and time-consuming with qualitative research. Ultimately, interviewing people, reviewing surveys, and understanding and explaining human emotions can be incredibly complex. 

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While qualitative research deals with data that isn’t easily manipulated by mathematics, quantitative research almost exclusively involves numbers and numerical data. Quantitative studies aim to find concrete details, like units of time, percentages, or statistics. 

Besides the types of data used, a core difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the idea of control and replication. 

“Qualitative is less subject to control (as in lab studies) and, therefore, less statistically measurable than quantitative approaches,” says King.

One person’s interview about a specific topic can have completely different responses than every other person’s interview since there are so many variables in qualitative research. On the other hand, quantitative studies can often be replicated. For instance, when testing the effects of a new medication, quantifiable data, like blood test results, can be repeated. Qualitative data, though, like how people feel about the medication, may differ from person to person and from moment to moment. 

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You can show your experience with qualitative research on your resume in your skills or work experience sections and your cover letter . 

In your skills section, you can list types of qualitative research you are skilled at, like conducting interviews, performing grounded theory research, or crafting case studies. 

You can highlight specific examples in the description of your past work or internship experiences. For example, you can talk about a time you used action research to solve a complex issue at your last job. 

Your cover letter is an excellent place to discuss in-depth qualitative research projects you’ve completed. For instance, say you spent a summer conducting ethnographic research or a whole semester running focus groups to get feedback on a product. You can talk about these experiences in your cover letter and note how these skills make you a great fit for the job. 

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83 Qualitative Research Questions & Examples

Qualitative research questions help you understand consumer sentiment. They’re strategically designed to show organizations how and why people feel the way they do about a brand, product, or service. It looks beyond the numbers and is one of the most telling types of market research a company can do.

The UK Data Service describes this perfectly, saying, “The value of qualitative research is that it gives a voice to the lived experience .”

Read on to see seven use cases and 83 qualitative research questions, with the added bonus of examples that show how to get similar insights faster with Similarweb Research Intelligence.

What is a qualitative research question?

A qualitative research question explores a topic in-depth, aiming to better understand the subject through interviews, observations, and other non-numerical data. Qualitative research questions are open-ended, helping to uncover a target audience’s opinions, beliefs, and motivations.

How to choose qualitative research questions?

Choosing the right qualitative research questions can be incremental to the success of your research and the findings you uncover. Here’s my six-step process for choosing the best qualitative research questions.

• Start by understanding the purpose of your research. What do you want to learn? What outcome are you hoping to achieve?
• Consider who you are researching. What are their experiences, attitudes, and beliefs? How can you best capture these in your research questions ?
• Keep your questions open-ended . Qualitative research questions should not be too narrow or too broad. Aim to ask specific questions to provide meaningful answers but broad enough to allow for exploration.
• Balance your research questions. You don’t want all of your questions to be the same type. Aim to mix up your questions to get a variety of answers.
• Ensure your research questions are ethical and free from bias. Always have a second (and third) person check for unconscious bias.
• Consider the language you use. Your questions should be written in a way that is clear and easy to understand. Avoid using jargon , acronyms, or overly technical language.

Types of qualitative research questions

For a question to be considered qualitative, it usually needs to be open-ended. However, as I’ll explain, there can sometimes be a slight cross-over between quantitative and qualitative research questions.

Open-ended questions

These allow for a wide range of responses and can be formatted with multiple-choice answers or a free-text box to collect additional details. The next two types of qualitative questions are considered open questions, but each has its own style and purpose.

• Probing questions are used to delve deeper into a respondent’s thoughts, such as “Can you tell me more about why you feel that way?”
• Comparative questions ask people to compare two or more items, such as “Which product do you prefer and why?” These qualitative questions are highly useful for understanding brand awareness , competitive analysis , and more.

Closed-ended questions

These ask respondents to choose from a predetermined set of responses, such as “On a scale of 1-5, how satisfied are you with the new product?” While they’re traditionally quantitative, adding a free text box that asks for extra comments into why a specific rating was chosen will provide qualitative insights alongside their respective quantitative research question responses.

• Ranking questions get people to rank items in order of preference, such as “Please rank these products in terms of quality.” They’re advantageous in many scenarios, like product development, competitive analysis, and brand awareness.
• Likert scale questions ask people to rate items on a scale, such as “On a scale of 1-5, how satisfied are you with the new product?” Ideal for placement on websites and emails to gather quick, snappy feedback.

Qualitative research question examples

There are many applications of qualitative research and lots of ways you can put your findings to work for the success of your business. Here’s a summary of the most common use cases for qualitative questions and examples to ask.

Qualitative questions for identifying customer needs and motivations

These types of questions help you find out why customers choose products or services and what they are looking for when making a purchase.

• What factors do you consider when deciding to buy a product?
• What would make you choose one product or service over another?
• What are the most important elements of a product that you would buy?
• What features do you look for when purchasing a product?
• What qualities do you look for in a company’s products?
• Do you prefer localized or global brands when making a purchase?
• How do you determine the value of a product?
• What do you think is the most important factor when choosing a product?
• How do you decide if a product or service is worth the money?
• Do you have any specific expectations when purchasing a product?
• Do you prefer to purchase products or services online or in person?
• What kind of customer service do you expect when buying a product?
• How do you decide when it is time to switch to a different product?
• Where do you research products before you decide to buy?
• What do you think is the most important customer value when making a purchase?

Qualitative research questions to enhance customer experience

Use these questions to reveal insights into how customers interact with a company’s products or services and how those experiences can be improved.

• What aspects of our product or service do customers find most valuable?
• How do customers perceive our customer service?
• What factors are most important to customers when purchasing?
• What do customers think of our brand?
• What do customers think of our current marketing efforts?
• How do customers feel about the features and benefits of our product?
• How do customers feel about the price of our product or service?
• How could we improve the customer experience?
• What do customers think of our website or app?
• What do customers think of our customer support?
• What could we do to make our product or service easier to use?
• What do customers think of our competitors?
• What is your preferred way to access our site?
• How do customers feel about our delivery/shipping times?
• What do customers think of our loyalty programs?

Qualitative research question example for customer experience

• ‍♀️ Question: What is your preferred way to access our site?
• Insight sought: How mobile-dominant are consumers? Should you invest more in mobile optimization or mobile marketing?
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: While using this type of question is ideal if you have a large database to survey when placed on a site or sent to a limited customer list, it only gives you a point-in-time perspective from a limited group of people.
• A new approach: You can get better, broader insights quicker with Similarweb Digital Research Intelligence. To fully inform your research, you need to know preferences at the industry or market level.
• ⏰ Time to insight: 30 seconds
• ✅ How it’s done: Similarweb offers multiple ways to answer this question without going through a lengthy qualitative research process. 

First, I’m going to do a website market analysis of the banking credit and lending market in the finance sector to get a clearer picture of industry benchmarks.

Here, I can view device preferences across any industry or market instantly. It shows me the device distribution for any country across any period. This clearly answers the question of how mobile dominate my target audience is , with 59.79% opting to access site via a desktop vs. 40.21% via mobile

I then use the trends section to show me the exact split between mobile and web traffic for each key player in my space. Let’s say I’m about to embark on a competitive campaign that targets customers of Chase and Bank of America ; I can see both their audiences are highly desktop dominant compared with others in their space .

Qualitative question examples for developing new products or services

Research questions like this can help you understand customer pain points and give you insights to develop products that meet those needs.

• What is the primary reason you would choose to purchase a product from our company?
• How do you currently use products or services that are similar to ours?
• Is there anything that could be improved with products currently on the market?
• What features would you like to see added to our products?
• How do you prefer to contact a customer service team?
• What do you think sets our company apart from our competitors?
• What other product or service offerings would like to see us offer?
• What type of information would help you make decisions about buying a product?
• What type of advertising methods are most effective in getting your attention?
• What is the biggest deterrent to purchasing products from us?

Qualitative research question example for service development

• ‍♀️ Question: What type of advertising methods are most effective in getting your attention?
• Insight sought: The marketing channels and/or content that performs best with a target audience .
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: When using qualitative research surveys to answer questions like this, the sample size is limited, and bias could be at play.
• A better approach: The most authentic insights come from viewing real actions and results that take place in the digital world. No questions or answers are needed to uncover this intel, and the information you seek is readily available in less than a minute.
• ⏰ Time to insight: 5 minutes
• ✅ How it’s done: There are a few ways to approach this. You can either take an industry-wide perspective or hone in on specific competitors to unpack their individual successes. Here, I’ll quickly show a snapshot with a whole market perspective.

Using the market analysis element of Similarweb Digital Intelligence, I select my industry or market, which I’ve kept as banking and credit. A quick click into marketing channels shows me which channels drive the highest traffic in my market. Taking direct traffic out of the equation, for now, I can see that referrals and organic traffic are the two highest-performing channels in this market.

Similarweb allows me to view the specific referral partners and pages across these channels. 

Looking closely at referrals in this market, I’ve chosen chase.com and its five closest rivals . I select referrals in the channel traffic element of marketing channels. I see that Capital One is a clear winner, gaining almost 25 million visits due to referral partnerships.

Next, I get to see exactly who is referring traffic to Capital One and the total traffic share for each referrer. I can see the growth as a percentage and how that has changed, along with an engagement score that rates the average engagement level of that audience segment. This is particularly useful when deciding on which new referral partnerships to pursue.  

Once I’ve identified the channels and campaigns that yield the best results, I can then use Similarweb to dive into the various ad creatives and content that have the greatest impact.

These ads are just a few of those listed in the creatives section from my competitive website analysis of Capital One. You can filter this list by the specific campaign, publishers, and ad networks to view those that matter to you most. You can also discover video ad creatives in the same place too.

In just five minutes ⏰ 

• I’ve captured audience loyalty statistics across my market
• Spotted the most competitive players
• Identified the marketing channels my audience is most responsive to
• I know which content and campaigns are driving the highest traffic volume
• I’ve created a target list for new referral partners and have been able to prioritize this based on results and engagement figures from my rivals
• I can see the types of creatives that my target audience is responding to, giving me ideas for ways to generate effective copy for future campaigns

Qualitative questions to determine pricing strategies

Companies need to make sure pricing stays relevant and competitive. Use these questions to determine customer perceptions on pricing and develop pricing strategies to maximize profits and reduce churn.

• How do you feel about our pricing structure?
• How does our pricing compare to other similar products?
• What value do you feel you get from our pricing?
• How could we make our pricing more attractive?
• What would be an ideal price for our product?
• Which features of our product that you would like to see priced differently?
• What discounts or deals would you like to see us offer?
• How do you feel about the amount you have to pay for our product?

Get Faster Answers to Qualitative Research Questions with Similarweb Today

Qualitative research question example for determining pricing strategies.

• ‍♀️ Question: What discounts or deals would you like to see us offer?
• Insight sought: The promotions or campaigns that resonate with your target audience.
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: Consumers don’t always recall the types of ads or campaigns they respond to. Over time, their needs and habits change. Your sample size is limited to those you ask, leaving a huge pool of unknowns at play.
• A better approach: While qualitative insights are good to know, you get the most accurate picture of the highest-performing promotion and campaigns by looking at data collected directly from the web. These analytics are real-world, real-time, and based on the collective actions of many, instead of the limited survey group you approach. By getting a complete picture across an entire market, your decisions are better informed and more aligned with current market trends and behaviors.
• ✅ How it’s done: Similarweb’s Popular Pages feature shows the content, products, campaigns, and pages with the highest growth for any website. So, if you’re trying to unpack the successes of others in your space and find out what content resonates with a target audience, there’s a far quicker way to get answers to these questions with Similarweb.

Here, I’m using Capital One as an example site. I can see trending pages on their site showing the largest increase in page views. Other filters include campaign, best-performing, and new–each of which shows you page URLs, share of traffic, and growth as a percentage. This page is particularly useful for staying on top of trending topics , campaigns, and new content being pushed out in a market by key competitors.

Qualitative research questions for product development teams

It’s vital to stay in touch with changing consumer needs. These questions can also be used for new product or service development, but this time, it’s from the perspective of a product manager or development team. 

• What are customers’ primary needs and wants for this product?
• What do customers think of our current product offerings?
• What is the most important feature or benefit of our product?
• How can we improve our product to meet customers’ needs better?
• What do customers like or dislike about our competitors’ products?
• What do customers look for when deciding between our product and a competitor’s?
• How have customer needs and wants for this product changed over time?
• What motivates customers to purchase this product?
• What is the most important thing customers want from this product?
• What features or benefits are most important when selecting a product?
• What do customers perceive to be our product’s pros and cons?
• What would make customers switch from a competitor’s product to ours?
• How do customers perceive our product in comparison to similar products?
• What do customers think of our pricing and value proposition?
• What do customers think of our product’s design, usability, and aesthetics?

Qualitative questions examples to understand customer segments

Market segmentation seeks to create groups of consumers with shared characteristics. Use these questions to learn more about different customer segments and how to target them with tailored messaging.

• What motivates customers to make a purchase?
• How do customers perceive our brand in comparison to our competitors?
• How do customers feel about our product quality?
• How do customers define quality in our products?
• What factors influence customers’ purchasing decisions ?
• What are the most important aspects of customer service?
• What do customers think of our customer service?
• What do customers think of our pricing?
• How do customers rate our product offerings?
• How do customers prefer to make purchases (online, in-store, etc.)?

Qualitative research question example for understanding customer segments

• ‍♀️ Question: Which social media channels are you most active on?
• Insight sought: Formulate a social media strategy . Specifically, the social media channels most likely to succeed with a target audience.
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods: Qualitative research question responses are limited to those you ask, giving you a limited sample size. Questions like this are usually at risk of some bias, and this may not be reflective of real-world actions.
• A better approach: Get a complete picture of social media preferences for an entire market or specific audience belonging to rival firms. Insights are available in real-time, and are based on the actions of many, not a select group of participants. Data is readily available, easy to understand, and expandable at a moment’s notice.
• ✅ How it’s done: Using Similarweb’s website analysis feature, you can get a clear breakdown of social media stats for your audience using the marketing channels element. It shows the percentage of visits from each channel to your site, respective growth, and specific referral pages by each platform. All data is expandable, meaning you can select any platform, period, and region to drill down and get more accurate intel, instantly.

This example shows me Bank of America’s social media distribution, with YouTube , Linkedin , and Facebook taking the top three spots, and accounting for almost 80% of traffic being driven from social media.

When doing any type of market research, it’s important to benchmark performance against industry averages and perform a social media competitive analysis to verify rival performance across the same channels.

Qualitative questions to inform competitive analysis

Organizations must assess market sentiment toward other players to compete and beat rival firms. Whether you want to increase market share , challenge industry leaders , or reduce churn, understanding how people view you vs. the competition is key.

• What is the overall perception of our competitors’ product offerings in the market?
• What attributes do our competitors prioritize in their customer experience?
• What strategies do our competitors use to differentiate their products from ours?
• How do our competitors position their products in relation to ours?
• How do our competitors’ pricing models compare to ours?
• What do consumers think of our competitors’ product quality?
• What do consumers think of our competitors’ customer service?
• What are the key drivers of purchase decisions in our market?
• What is the impact of our competitors’ marketing campaigns on our market share ? 10. How do our competitors leverage social media to promote their products?

Qualitative research question example for competitive analysis

• ‍♀️ Question: What other companies do you shop with for x?
• Insight sought: W ho are your competitors? Which of your rival’s sites do your customers visit? How loyal are consumers in your market?
• Challenges with traditional qualitative research methods:  Sample size is limited, and customers could be unwilling to reveal which competitors they shop with, or how often they around. Where finances are involved, people can act with reluctance or bias, and be unwilling to reveal other suppliers they do business with.
• A better approach: Get a complete picture of your audience’s loyalty, see who else they shop with, and how many other sites they visit in your competitive group. Find out the size of the untapped opportunity and which players are doing a better job at attracting unique visitors – without having to ask people to reveal their preferences.
• ✅ How it’s done: Similarweb website analysis shows you the competitive sites your audience visits, giving you access to data that shows cross-visitation habits, audience loyalty, and untapped potential in a matter of minutes.

Using the audience interests element of Similarweb website analysis, you can view the cross-browsing behaviors of a website’s audience instantly. You can see a matrix that shows the percentage of visitors on a target site and any rival site they may have visited.

With the Similarweb audience overlap feature, view the cross-visitation habits of an audience across specific websites. In this example, I chose chase.com and its four closest competitors to review. For each intersection, you see the number of unique visitors and the overall proportion of each site’s audience it represents. It also shows the volume of unreached potential visitors.

Here, you can see a direct comparison of the audience loyalty represented in a bar graph. It shows a breakdown of each site’s audience based on how many other sites they have visited. Those sites with the highest loyalty show fewer additional sites visited.

From the perspective of chase.com, I can see 47% of their visitors do not visit rival sites. 33% of their audience visited 1 or more sites in this group, 14% visited 2 or more sites, 4% visited 3 or more sites, and just 0.8% viewed all sites in this comparison. 

How to answer qualitative research questions with Similarweb

Similarweb Research Intelligence drastically improves market research efficiency and time to insight. Both of these can impact the bottom line and the pace at which organizations can adapt and flex when markets shift, and rivals change tactics.

Outdated practices, while still useful, take time . And with a quicker, more efficient way to garner similar insights, opting for the fast lane puts you at a competitive advantage.

With a birds-eye view of the actions and behaviors of companies and consumers across a market , you can answer certain research questions without the need to plan, do, and review extensive qualitative market research .

Wrapping up

Qualitative research methods have been around for centuries. From designing the questions to finding the best distribution channels, collecting and analyzing findings takes time to get the insights you need. Similarweb Digital Research Intelligence drastically improves efficiency and time to insight. Both of which impact the bottom line and the pace at which organizations can adapt and flex when markets shift.

Similarweb’s suite of digital intelligence solutions offers unbiased, accurate, honest insights you can trust for analyzing any industry, market, or audience.

• Methodologies used for data collection are robust, transparent, and trustworthy.
• Clear presentation of data via an easy-to-use, intuitive platform.
• It updates dynamically–giving you the freshest data about an industry or market.
• Data is available via an API – so you can plug into platforms like Tableau or PowerBI to streamline your analyses.
• Filter and refine results according to your needs.

Are quantitative or qualitative research questions best?

Both have their place and purpose in market research. Qualitative research questions seek to provide details, whereas quantitative market research gives you numerical statistics that are easier and quicker to analyze. You get more flexibility with qualitative questions, and they’re non-directional.

What are the advantages of qualitative research?

Qualitative research is advantageous because it allows researchers to better understand their subject matter by exploring people’s attitudes, behaviors, and motivations in a particular context. It also allows researchers to uncover new insights that may not have been discovered with quantitative research methods.

What are some of the challenges of qualitative research?

Qualitative research can be time-consuming and costly, typically involving in-depth interviews and focus groups. Additionally, there are challenges associated with the reliability and validity of the collected data, as there is no universal standard for interpreting the results.

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Qualitative Methods in Economics: "You Can Observe a Lot Just by Watching"

Related content.

Pluralist Showcase

In the pluralist showcase series by Rethinking Economics, Cahal Moran explores non-mainstream ideas in economics and how they are useful for explaining, understanding and predicting things in economics.

By Cahal Moran

If there’s one method economists have neglected the most, it’s qualitative research. Whereas economists favour mathematical models and statistics, qualitative research seeks to understand the world through intensive investigation of particular circumstances, which usually entails interviewing people directly about their experiences. While this may sound simple to quantitative types the style, purpose, context, and interpretation of an interview can vary widely. Because of this variety, I have written a longer post than usual on this topic rather than doing it a disservice. Having said that, examples of qualitative research in economics are sadly scant enough that it doesn’t warrant multiple posts. In this post I will introduce qualitative research in general with nods to several applications including the study of firm behaviour, race, Austrian economics, and health economics. More than usual I will utilise block quotes, which I feel is in the spirit of the topic.

Qualitative vs Quantitative: What’s the Difference?

Thanks to Raul Pacheo-Vega I found a seminal paper A Tale of Two Cultures: Contrasting Quantitative and Qualitative Research by Mahoney and Goertz, and it really is worth your time. Coming from political science, which more than any other discipline has experienced a schism between the two traditions, the authors sketch out how each tradition approaches 10 different areas of research. They seek to understand them as distinct approaches with their own merits and drawbacks rather than to elevate one or the other. They also point out that the names are misnomers: qualitative research may make use of numbers, while models and stats do not speak for themselves and many words are spent on their interpretation. The authors suggest some alternative labels to clarify things.

The taxonomy that most cemented my own understanding of this debate was that of probabilistic versus case-based reasoning. While probabilistic approaches seek to understand general populations by making inferences from representative samples, case-based approaches seek to understand a specific situation through in-depth study. As the authors note, there is no reason to think one approach is more ‘scientific’ than the other: the question of what caused the space shuttle Challenger to explode – a particular case - was considered scientific by the Nobel Prize winning physicist Richard Feynmann. While quantitative researchers would raise doubts about the generalisability of the small samples typical in qualitative research, qualitative researchers would emphasise that causal pathways are often specific to small populations, and general statements about causality are difficult to make with the number of observations typical of a quantitative study.

In order to discern causality, case-based reasoning utilises logic and set theory, thinking about cause and effect in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions. The goal is usually to understand every possible path to a given outcome, sometimes deemed the ‘causes of effects’. One new idea for me was what are known as INUS conditions – Insufficient but Nonredundant parts of an Unnecessary but Sufficient condition. This sounds confusing, but is easily illustrated with the example of a housefire. There may be more than one way a house fire can start and we’d ideally like to know all possibilities if we’re to prevent them. A house could burn down through a combination of short-circuiting electrics causing its wooden frame to catch alight; or through a combination of a furnace causing a nearby can of lighter fluid to explode. The short-circuiting, wooden frame, furnace, and lighter fluid are each an INUS condition which must be combined with a specific other INUS condition to create a fire - yet the fire could still occur without any of them, through a different pathway.

Understanding this would be virtually impossible with probabilistic reasoning because the idea of each variable’s quantitative impact on the fire – the ‘effects of causes’ - makes less sense than the idea of which variables are necessary or sufficient to cause the fire. The short-circuit does not have a quantitative impact on the ‘probability of a fire’; its impact depends on the other conditions. In a regression model the number of combinations of variables which can produce a given change in the outcome is practically infinite, but the set-theoretical approach is more restrictive.

There are countless economic questions where the case-based approach should reign, particularly historical questions such as ‘what causes countries to industrialise?’, where quantitative methods are famously poor. In case-based reasoning a single example can disprove a causal story: if the combination of conditions a, b, and c are thought to necessarily cause industrialisation, a single country in which a, b, and c are present but industrialisation has not occurred will suffice to disprove the theory. In contrast, such a country could be subsumed as ‘measurement error’ in a quantitative study because they deal with averages and distributions rather than logical necessities.

Considering the different conditions and possibilities – whether in an open-ended interview, case study, or ethnography – almost invariably entails speaking to real people (something economists might be reluctant to do). Creating an atmosphere of constructive collaboration is crucial and in many ways the conversation is itself the research: a ‘learning experience’ for both parties, as Tilda Gaskell puts it . An interviewer who is too rigid in their questioning is unlikely to create a rapport and elicit creative or interesting responses; on the other hand, if interviews are allowed to deviate too much from the plan they can be unsystematic and difficult to interpret. It is also important to note that issues of power, race, and gender can affect the outcome of an interview greatly (another set of considerations economists may struggle addressing).

Qualitative Research as a Corrective

In general, qualitative methods are better placed to study groups who have not traditionally been featured in economics – women, people of colour, and workers in the informal economy (such as sex workers). Because quantitative data is costly and difficult to gather, what has been gathered is a reflection of historical priorities, which almost by definition haven’t favoured marginalised groups. To this end, Trevon D. Logan has written a paper which combines qualitative and quantitative methods to study cotton picking in the Jim Crow South of the USA. He writes:

“Unfortunately, quantitative data is not a solution to this problem. The high empirical standards of contemporary economic history could be inappropriately applied to the subject of race. The implicit claims of the objectivity of quantitative data do not always hold up against the racial stain of American history. The reliance on quantitative data also limits the questions we ask about the relationship between America’s racial and economic history. I believe that qualitative empirical evidence is the missing element of African American economic history. Rather than supplementary, qualitative evidence should be a primary source of empirical evidence in African American economic history. Doing so may resolve several persistent problems in the field—the omissions and incompleteness of quantitative data, the lack of accuracy in the data we do have, and the nagging question of agency in African American history generally.”

Logan uses data from his own family records and interviews with family members to estimate cotton-picking rates and finds that their productivity was quite similar to modern estimates of the productivity of slaves. But his qualitative data tells him much more: the practice of cotton-picking was a marker of being backward and had long-lasting psychological consequences. The constant pressure to pick in order to survive meant children were forced to work - and faced with corporal punishment should they not work, or not work hard enough. This degree of marginalisation and terror experienced might make us question the sharp line drawn between slavery and emancipation, at least for some aspects of life. Logan has also written a book on male sex work which combines quantitative and qualitative research, which I have started reading and cannot recommend highly enough.

Emily Chamlee-Wright has also used qualitative methods to study race-related issues, including the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina and the informal economy in Sub-Saharan Africa. She likens qualitative research to the Austrian economists’ notion of entrepreneurial discovery: in both cases, “the relevant knowledge is never given but instead must be discovered through intellectual trial and error.” If the market is characterised by complexity, uncertainty, and discovery, why would knowledge about the market be any different? In the instance of Katrina, Chamlee-Wright notes that the researchers went in expecting the challenge of physical rebuilding to be highest on the list of surviviors’ concerns, but actually what they found was that the planning procedures for how and when to rebuild were the most frequently cited issue. She has expanded elsewhere on the relationship between qualitative methods and praxeology, a favoured method of the Austrian school which emphasises meaning and purpose. But a full elaboration of that point is perhaps best saved for another time.

It is worth pausing to reflect on the dismissive attitude most of the economics profession has towards qualitative work. It is virtually inconceivable that an economist could write their thesis using qualitative methods; there are very rarely any modules devoted to it on degrees; and it is extremely rare to see qualitative research in journals. More than this, such methods are routinely dismissed as “not rigorous” or “unscientific” in conversations and at conferences. As a quantitative economist this attitude infuriates me and clearly I am not the only one; Günseli Berik has also written with justified anger about such “arrogance”. She notes in the journal Feminist Economics that quantitative metrics have routinely ignored work done by women in the household and also treat discriminatory practices within firms as a ‘black box’. Qualitative approaches can help to shed light on both of these, something I noticed in my previous posts on feminist economics. It’s perhaps instructive that when researching all the qualitative research for this blog post, I noticed an unusually high number of female authors.

David Levine offered the following rebuke to the conceits of quantitative researchers:

"Regressions also have serious problems of generalizability (they predict poorly out-of-sample), subjectivity (researchers may stop specification searches when their favorite t statistic rises over 2), and measurement error (critical concepts like 'income' and 'capital' are very poorly measured). This is why research is hard-and why we should believe only findings obtained with multiple methodologies.”

Martha Starr agrees that a mixed-methods approach is the most desirable. For example, qualitative research can pave way for the gathering of quantitative data by helping researchers figure out what’s important. But it can do more: it can help us to understand how things work (or don’t) by looking beyond the figures.

"You Can Observe a Lot Just by Watching"

Economics has traditionally been about agents who have both objectives they want to pursue and constraints that limit how well they can pursue them. Susan Helper points out that asking people directly is a pretty good way of finding out their objectives and constraints, using a law firm as a case study. Puzzled by the fact that many workers complained about long hours but no firms offered them, researchers asked managers about it. From these conversations they realised that working long hours sends a signal to your superiors that you were a hard worker, which can result in everybody working an inefficiently high number of hours. Helper discusses a number of other helpful (!) examples, including one from the economist Claudia Goldin when she visited an auto-parts manufacturer:

"I didn't have any particular expectations going into the plant, but I remember vividly looking down from a mezzanine from which you could see the whole shop floor. As I looked down, I realized I was observing-in one moment-the transition from 19th century technology to 20th century technology. I could see the relative increase in the demand for skill just scanning across the room. The 'continuous process' machinery required lots of skilled labor to set up the machines and mechanics to maintain them; there were few operators....The old-fashioned areas [making similar parts], however, were filled with semi-skilled workers and almost no skilled workers. The scene sparked my imagination and I wrote two papers (Goldin and Lawrence Katz, 1996, 1998). For years I had been reading the history of technology, but it wasn't until I went to Pollak that I made the connection that adoption of continuous-process technology was complementary to skill."

Two well-known economists, Alan Blinder and Truman Bewley, wrote probably the most famous qualitative studies in economics with their respective books Asking About Prices and Why Wages Don’t Fall During a Recession. Both had a similar goal – to ask firms exactly why their prices or wages didn’t fluctuate as much as economic theory predicted – and both revolutionised our understanding by introducing notions such as reciprocity, fairness, and trust into a field which had traditionally side-lined them. Bewley has since detailed and defended the use of interviews as an empirical tool in economics in a nice paper , which notes (among other things) that economic actors often found economic theories hard to understand or silly, which is itself quite revealing. Ronald Coase is another prominent economist whose canonical theory of the firm was developed after a series of on-site visits.

Despite the relative success of these examples the approach remains rare and arguably the insights gleaned haven’t been fully appreciated in the theory of the firm - something I argued in my earlier post on firm behaviour, which drew from qualitative research. One thing which becomes clear from visiting firms and speaking to economic actors is how much variety there is in how people behave and how organisations operate, and a good example of this is healthcare.  Health system vary so much between and even within countries that qualitative research may well be necessary to understand it. Nevertheless, a paper in the journal Health Economics found that the percentage of papers using qualitative methods in the field was only in the single digits, and called for more qualitative research in the field:

“Health economists frequently argue that the well-known difficulties of uncertainty and incomplete information that characterize the health care sector have given rise to the development of a highly complex and diverse set of institutions that differ markedly across time and space. In general, researchers will wish to generalize their findings and to draw lessons for future policies indicative of the effects we can expect for other populations in other institutional settings. Such arguments derive their strength from knowledge of the context and processes, which generated the observed effects, and it is here that qualitative research may plausibly help in generating this knowledge.”

In her Master’s dissertation Lindsay Larsen used qualitative interviews of smokers regarding tobacco tax increases to test Gary Becker’s theory of rational addiction. Although many, including King, regard the idea that addicts rationally plan their addiction as absurd, the interviews revealed some congruence between the theory and between peoples’ perceptions. People were aware that their consumption now would likely increase their addiction in the future, and many seemed to respond to future tax rises as the theory predicted. On the other hand, addicts expressed internal struggle and sometimes straight up inconsistencies in their reasoning, which it’s fair to say are not features of the rational theory. It’s pretty hard to cling to any theory in its entirety when you actually go out and run it by real people.

Michael J. Piore has argued that by interviewing economic actors directly, qualitative research can help us to investigate key assumptions of economic theory like this. I mention Piore because he also entertains the following more nihilistic possibility, which is a thought I’ve had myself:

“In interpreting interviews, I do not think sufficient attention is ever given to the possibility that the world is really chaotic; it doesn’t fit anybody’s models, not those of the social scientist and not those available to the actors.”

At the very least, qualitative methods are an antidote to those social scientists who presume they have the world figured out.

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Overview of Qualitative Methods and Analytic Techniques

Chapter 3 common qualitative methods.

In this chapter we describe and compare the most common qualitative methods employed in project evaluations. 3 These include observations, indepth interviews, and focus groups. We also cover briefly some other less frequently used qualitative techniques. Advantages and disadvantages are summarized. For those readers interested in learning more about qualitative data collection methods, a list of recommended readings is provided.

3 Information on common qualitative methods is provided in the earlier User-Friendly Handbook for Project Evaluation (NSF 93-152).

Observations

Observational techniques are methods by which an individual or individuals gather firsthand data on programs, processes, or behaviors being studied. They provide evaluators with an opportunity to collect data on a wide range of behaviors, to capture a great variety of interactions, and to openly explore the evaluation topic. By directly observing operations and activities, the evaluator can develop a holistic perspective, i.e., an understanding of the context within which the project operates. This may be especially important where it is not the event that is of interest, but rather how that event may fit into, or be impacted by, a sequence of events. Observational approaches also allow the evaluator to learn about things the participants or staff may be unaware of or that they are unwilling or unable to discuss in an interview or focus group.

When to use observations . Observations can be useful during both the formative and summative phases of evaluation. For example, during the formative phase, observations can be useful in determining whether or not the project is being delivered and operated as planned. In the hypothetical project, observations could be used to describe the faculty development sessions, examining the extent to which participants understand the concepts, ask the right questions, and are engaged in appropriate interactions. Such formative observations could also provide valuable insights into the teaching styles of the presenters and how they are covering the material.

Observations during the summative phase of evaluation can be used to determine whether or not the project is successful. The technique would be especially useful in directly examining teaching methods employed by the faculty in their own classes after program participation. Exhibits 3 and 4 display the advantages and disadvantages of observations as a data collection tool and some common types of data that are readily collected by observation.

Readers familiar with survey techniques may justifiably point out that surveys can address these same questions and do so in a less costly fashion. Critics of surveys find them suspect because of their reliance on self-report, which may not provide an accurate picture of what is happening because of the tendency, intentional or not, to try to give the "right answer." Surveys also cannot tap into the contextual element. Proponents of surveys counter that properly constructed surveys with built in checks and balances can overcome these problems and provide highly credible data. This frequently debated issue is best decided on a case-by-case basis.

Recording Observational Data

Observations are carried out using a carefully developed set of steps and instruments. The observer is more than just an onlooker, but rather comes to the scene with a set of target concepts, definitions, and criteria for describing events. While in some studies observers may simply record and describe, in the majority of evaluations, their descriptions are, or eventually will be, judged against a continuum of expectations.

Observations usually are guided by a structured protocol. The protocol can take a variety of forms, ranging from the request for a narrative describing events seen to a checklist or a rating scale of specific behaviors/activities that address the evaluation question of interest. The use of a protocol helps assure that all observers are gathering the pertinent information and, with appropriate training, applying the same criteria in the evaluation. For example, if, as described earlier, an observational approach is selected to gather data on the faculty training sessions, the instrument developed would explicitly guide the observer to examine the kinds of activities in which participants were interacting, the role(s) of the trainers and the participants, the types of materials provided and used, the opportunity for hands-on interaction, etc. (See Appendix A to this chapter for an example of observational protocol that could be applied to the hypothetical project.)

The protocol goes beyond a recording of events, i.e., use of identified materials, and provides an overall context for the data. The protocol should prompt the observer to

Field notes are frequently used to provide more indepth background or to help the observer remember salient events if a form is not completed at the time of observation. Field notes contain the description of what has been observed. The descriptions must be factual, accurate, and thorough without being judgmental and cluttered by trivia. The date and time of the observation should be recorded, and everything that the observer believes to be worth noting should be included. No information should be trusted to future recall.

The use of technological tools, such as battery-operated tape recorder or dictaphone, laptop computer, camera, and video camera, can make the collection of field notes more efficient and the notes themselves more comprehensive. Informed consent must be obtained from participants before any observational data are gathered.

The Role of the Observer

There are various methods for gathering observational data, depending on the nature of a given project. The most fundamental distinction between various observational strategies concerns the extent to which the observer will be a participant in the setting being studied. The extent of participation is a continuum that varies from complete involvement in the setting as a full participant to complete separation from the setting as an outside observer or spectator. The participant observer is fully engaged in experiencing the project setting while at the same time trying to understand that setting through personal experience, observations, and interactions and discussions with other participants. The outside observer stands apart from the setting, attempts to be nonintrusive, and assumes the role of a "fly-on-the-wall." The extent to which full participation is possible and desirable will depend on the nature of the project and its participants, the political and social context, the nature of the evaluation questions being asked, and the resources available. "The ideal is to negotiate and adopt that degree of participation that will yield the most meaningful data about the program given the characteristics of the participants, the nature of staff-participant interactions, and the sociopolitical context of the program" (Patton, 1990).

In some cases it may be beneficial to have two people observing at the same time. This can increase the quality of the data by providing a larger volume of data and by decreasing the influence of observer bias. However, in addition to the added cost, the presence of two observers may create an environment threatening to those being observed and cause them to change their behavior. Studies using observation typically employ intensive training experiences to make sure that the observer or observers know what to look for and can, to the extent possible, operate in an unbiased manner. In long or complicated studies, it is useful to check on an observer’s performance periodically to make sure that accuracy is being maintained. The issue of training is a critical one and may make the difference between a defensible study and what can be challenged as "one person’s perspective."

A special issue with regard to observations relates to the amount of observation needed. While in participant observation this may be a moot point (except with regard to data recording), when an outside observer is used, the question of "how much" becomes very important. While most people agree that one observation (a single hour of a training session or one class period of instruction) is not enough, there is no hard and fast rule regarding how many samples need to be drawn. General tips to consider are to avoid atypical situations, carry out observations more than one time, and (where possible and relevant) spread the observations out over time.

Participant observation is often difficult to incorporate in evaluations; therefore, the use of outside observers is far more common. In the hypothetical project, observations might be scheduled for all training sessions and for a sample of classrooms, including some where faculty members who participated in training were teaching and some staffed by teachers who had not participated in the training.

Issues of privacy and access. Observational techniques are perhaps the most privacy-threatening data collection technique for staff and, to a lesser extent, participants. Staff fear that the data may be included in their performance evaluations and may have effects on their careers. Participants may also feel uncomfortable assuming that they are being judged. Evaluators need to assure everyone that evaluations of performance are not the purpose of the effort, and that no such reports will result from the observations. Additionally, because most educational settings are subject to a constant flow of observers from various organizations, there is often great reluctance to grant access to additional observers. Much effort may be needed to assure project staff and participants that they will not be adversely affected by the evaluators’ work and to negotiate observer access to specific sites.

Interviews provide very different data from observations: they allow the evaluation team to capture the perspectives of project participants, staff, and others associated with the project. In the hypothetical example, interviews with project staff can provide information on the early stages of the implementation and problems encountered. The use of interviews as a data collection method begins with the assumption that the participants’ perspectives are meaningful, knowable, and able to be made explicit, and that their perspectives affect the success of the project. An interview, rather than a paper and pencil survey, is selected when interpersonal contact is important and when opportunities for followup of interesting comments are desired.

Two types of interviews are used in evaluation research: structured interviews, in which a carefully worded questionnaire is administered; and indepth interviews, in which the interviewer does not follow a rigid form. In the former, the emphasis is on obtaining answers to carefully phrased questions. Interviewers are trained to deviate only minimally from the question wording to ensure uniformity of interview administration. In the latter, however, the interviewers seek to encourage free and open responses, and there may be a tradeoff between comprehensive coverage of topics and indepth exploration of a more limited set of questions. Indepth interviews also encourage capturing of respondents’ perceptions in their own words, a very desirable strategy in qualitative data collection. This allows the evaluator to present the meaningfulness of the experience from the respondent’s perspective. Indepth interviews are conducted with individuals or with a small group of individuals. 4

4 A special case of the group interview is called a focus group. Although we discuss focus groups separately, several of the exhibits in this section will refer to both forms of data collection because of their similarities.

Indepth interviews. An indepth interview is a dialogue between a skilled interviewer and an interviewee. Its goal is to elicit rich, detailed material that can be used in analysis (Lofland and Lofland, 1995). Such interviews are best conducted face to face, although in some situations telephone interviewing can be successful.

Indepth interviews are characterized by extensive probing and open-ended questions. Typically, the project evaluator prepares an interview guide that includes a list of questions or issues that are to be explored and suggested probes for following up on key topics. The guide helps the interviewer pace the interview and make interviewing more systematic and comprehensive. Lofland and Lofland (1995) provide guidelines for preparing interview guides, doing the interview with the guide, and writing up the interview. Appendix B to this chapter contains an example of the types of interview questions that could be asked during the hypothetical study.

The dynamics of interviewing are similar to a guided conversation. The interviewer becomes an attentive listener who shapes the process into a familiar and comfortable form of social engagement - a conversation - and the quality of the information obtained is largely dependent on the interviewer’s skills and personality (Patton, 1990). In contrast to a good conversation, however, an indepth interview is not intended to be a two-way form of communication and sharing. The key to being a good interviewer is being a good listener and questioner. Tempting as it may be, it is not the role of the interviewer to put forth his or her opinions, perceptions, or feelings. Interviewers should be trained individuals who are sensitive, empathetic, and able to establish a nonthreatening environment in which participants feel comfortable. They should be selected during a process that weighs personal characteristics that will make them acceptable to the individuals being interviewed; clearly, age, sex, profession, race/ethnicity, and appearance may be key characteristics. Thorough training, including familiarization with the project and its goals, is important. Poor interviewing skills, poor phrasing of questions, or inadequate knowledge of the subject’s culture or frame of reference may result in a collection that obtains little useful data.

When to use indepth interviews. Indepth interviews can be used at any stage of the evaluation process. They are especially useful in answering questions such as those suggested by Patton (1990):

Specific circumstances for which indepth interviews are particularly appropriate include

In the hypothetical project, indepth interviews of the project director, staff, department chairs, branch campus deans, and nonparticipant faculty would be useful. These interviews can address both formative and summative questions and be used in conjunction with other data collection methods. The advantages and disadvantages of indepth interviews are outlined in Exhibit 5.

When indepth interviews are being considered as a data collection technique, it is important to keep several potential pitfalls or problems in mind.

Exhibit 6 outlines other considerations in conducting interviews. These considerations are also important in conducting focus groups, the next technique that we will consider.

Recording interview data. Interview data can be recorded on tape (with the permission of the participants) and/or summarized in notes. As with observations, detailed recording is a necessary component of interviews since it forms the basis for analyzing the data. All methods, but especially the second and third, require carefully crafted interview guides with ample space available for recording the interviewee’s responses. Three procedures for recording the data are presented below.

In the first approach, the interviewer (or in some cases the transcriber) listens to the tapes and writes a verbatim account of everything that was said. Transcription of the raw data includes word-for-word quotations of the participant’s responses as well as the interviewer’s descriptions of participant’s characteristics, enthusiasm, body language, and overall mood during the interview. Notes from the interview can be used to identify speakers or to recall comments that are garbled or unclear on the tape. This approach is recommended when the necessary financial and human resources are available, when the transcriptions can be produced in a reasonable amount of time, when the focus of the interview is to make detailed comparisons, or when respondents’ own words and phrasing are needed. The major advantages of this transcription method are its completeness and the opportunity it affords for the interviewer to remain attentive and focused during the interview. The major disadvantages are the amount of time and resources needed to produce complete transcriptions and the inhibitory impact tape recording has on some respondents. If this technique is selected, it is essential that the participants have been informed that their answers are being recorded, that they are assured confidentiality, and that their permission has been obtained.

A second possible procedure for recording interviews draws less on the word-by-word record and more on the notes taken by the interviewer or assigned notetaker. This method is called "note expansion." As soon as possible after the interview, the interviewer listens to the tape to clarify certain issues and to confirm that all the main points have been included in the notes. This approach is recommended when resources are scarce, when the results must be produced in a short period of time, and when the purpose of the interview is to get rapid feedback from members of the target population. The note expansion approach saves time and retains all the essential points of the discussion. In addition to the drawbacks pointed out above, a disadvantage is that the interviewer may be more selective or biased in what he or she writes.

In the third approach, the interviewer uses no tape recording, but instead takes detailed notes during the interview and draws on memory to expand and clarify the notes immediately after the interview. This approach is useful if time is short, the results are needed quickly, and the evaluation questions are simple. Where more complex questions are involved, effective note-taking can be achieved, but only after much practice. Further, the interviewer must frequently talk and write at the same time, a skill that is hard for some to achieve.

Focus Groups

Focus groups combine elements of both interviewing and participant observation. The focus group session is, indeed, an interview (Patton, 1990) not a discussion group, problem-solving session, or decision-making group. At the same time, focus groups capitalize on group dynamics. The hallmark of focus groups is the explicit use of the group interaction to generate data and insights that would be unlikely to emerge without the interaction found in a group. The technique inherently allows observation of group dynamics, discussion, and firsthand insights into the respondents’ behaviors, attitudes, language, etc.

Focus groups are a gathering of 8 to 12 people who share some characteristics relevant to the evaluation. Originally used as a market research tool to investigate the appeal of various products, the focus group technique has been adopted by other fields, such as education, as a tool for data gathering on a given topic. Focus groups conducted by experts take place in a focus group facility that includes recording apparatus (audio and/or visual) and an attached room with a one-way mirror for observation. There is an official recorder who may or may not be in the room. Participants are paid for attendance and provided with refreshments. As the focus group technique has been adopted by fields outside of marketing, some of these features, such as payment or refreshment, have been eliminated.

When to use focus groups . When conducting evaluations, focus groups are useful in answering the same type of questions as indepth interviews, except in a social context. Specific applications of the focus group method in evaluations include

In the hypothetical project, focus groups could be conducted with project participants to collect perceptions of project implementation and operation (e.g., Were the workshops staffed appropriately? Were the presentations suitable for all participants?), as well as progress toward objectives during the formative phase of evaluation (Did participants exchange information by e-mail and other means?). Focus groups could also be used to collect data on project outcomes and impact during the summative phase of evaluation (e.g., Were changes made in the curriculum? Did students taught by participants appear to become more interested in class work? What barriers did the participants face in applying what they had been taught?).

Although focus groups and indepth interviews share many characteristics, they should not be used interchangeably. Factors to consider when choosing between focus groups and indepth interviews are included in Exhibit 7.

5 Survey developers also frequently use focus groups to pretest topics or ideas that later will be used for quantitative data collection. In such cases, the data obtained are considered part of instrument development rather than findings. Qualitative evaluators feel that this is too limited an application and that the technique has broader utility.

Developing a Focus Group

An important aspect of conducting focus groups is the topic guide. (See Appendix C to this chapter for a sample guide applied to the hypothetical project.) The topic guide, a list of topics or question areas, serves as a summary statement of the issues and objectives to be covered by the focus group. The topic guide also serves as a road map and as a memory aid for the focus group leader, called a "moderator." The topic guide also provides the initial outline for the report of findings.

Focus group participants are typically asked to reflect on the questions asked by the moderator. Participants are permitted to hear each other’s responses and to make additional comments beyond their own original responses as they hear what other people have to say. It is not necessary for the group to reach any kind of consensus, nor it is necessary for people to disagree. The moderator must keep the discussion flowing and make sure that one or two persons do not dominate the discussion. As a rule, the focus group session should not last longer than 1 1/2 to 2 hours. When very specific information is required, the session may be as short as 40 minutes. The objective is to get high-quality data in a social context where people can consider their own views in the context of the views of others, and where new ideas and perspectives can be introduced.

The participants are usually a relatively homogeneous group of people. Answering the question, "Which respondent variables represent relevant similarities among the target population?" requires some thoughtful consideration when planning the evaluation. Respondents’ social class, level of expertise, age, cultural background, and sex should always be considered. There is a sharp division among focus group moderators regarding the effectiveness of mixing sexes within a group, although most moderators agree that it is acceptable to mix the sexes when the discussion topic is not related to or affected by sex stereotypes.

Determining how many groups are needed requires balancing cost and information needs. A focus group can be fairly expensive, costing $10,000 to $20,000 depending on the type of physical facilities needed, the effort it takes to recruit participants, and the complexity of the reports required. A good rule of thumb is to conduct at least two groups for every variable considered to be relevant to the outcome (sex, age, educational level, etc.). However, even when several groups are sampled, conclusions typically are limited to the specific individuals participating in the focus group. Unless the study population is extremely small, it is not possible to generalize from focus group data.

Recording focus group data . The procedures for recording a focus group session are basically the same as those used for indepth interviews. However, the focus group approach lends itself to more creative and efficient procedures. If the evaluation team does use a focus group room with a one-way mirror, a colleague can take notes and record observations. An advantage of this approach is that the extra individual is not in the view of participants and, therefore, not interfering with the group process. If a one-way mirror is not a possibility, the moderator may have a colleague present in the room to take notes and to record observations. A major advantage of these approaches is that the recorder focuses on observing and taking notes, while the moderator concentrates on asking questions, facilitating the group interaction, following up on ideas, and making smooth transitions from issue to issue. Furthermore, like observations, focus groups can be videotaped. These approaches allow for confirmation of what was seen and heard. Whatever the approach to gathering detailed data, informed consent is necessary and confidentiality should be assured.

Having highlighted the similarities between interviews and focus groups, it is important to also point out one critical difference. In focus groups, group dynamics are especially important. The notes, and resultant report, should include comments on group interaction and dynamics as they inform the questions under study.

Other Qualitative Methods

The last section of this chapter outlines less common but, nonetheless, potentially useful qualitative methods for project evaluation. These methods include document studies, key informants, alternative (authentic) assessment, and case studies.

Document Studies

Existing records often provide insights into a setting and/or group of people that cannot be observed or noted in another way. This information can be found in document form. Lincoln and Guba (1985) defined a document as "any written or recorded material" not prepared for the purposes of the evaluation or at the request of the inquirer. Documents can be divided into two major categories: public records, and personal documents (Guba and Lincoln, 1981).

Public records are materials created and kept for the purpose of "attesting to an event or providing an accounting" (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). Public records can be collected from outside ( external ) or within ( internal ) the setting in which the evaluation is taking place. Examples of external records are census and vital statistics reports, county office records, newspaper archives, and local business records that can assist an evaluator in gathering information about the larger community and relevant trends. Such materials can be helpful in better understanding the project participants and making comparisons between groups/communities.

For the evaluation of educational innovations, internal records include documents such as student transcripts and records, historical accounts, institutional mission statements, annual reports, budgets, grade and standardized test reports, minutes of meetings, internal memoranda, policy manuals, institutional histories, college/university catalogs, faculty and student handbooks, official correspondence, demographic material, mass media reports and presentations, and descriptions of program development and evaluation. They are particularly useful in describing institutional characteristics, such as backgrounds and academic performance of students, and in identifying institutional strengths and weaknesses. They can help the evaluator understand the institution’s resources, values, processes, priorities, and concerns. Furthermore, they provide a record or history not subject to recall bias.

Personal documents are first-person accounts of events and experiences. These "documents of life" include diaries, portfolios, photographs, artwork, schedules, scrapbooks, poetry, letters to the paper, etc. Personal documents can help the evaluator understand how the participant sees the world and what she or he wants to communicate to an audience. And unlike other sources of qualitative data, collecting data from documents is relatively invisible to, and requires minimal cooperation from, persons within the setting being studied (Fetterman, 1989).

The usefulness of existing sources varies depending on whether they are accessible and accurate. In the hypothetical project, documents can provide the evaluator with useful information about the culture of the institution and participants involved in the project, which in turn can assist in the development of evaluation questions. Information from documents also can be used to generate interview questions or to identify events to be observed. Furthermore, existing records can be useful for making comparisons (e.g., comparing project participants to project applicants, project proposal to implementation records, or documentation of institutional policies and program descriptions prior to and following implementation of project interventions and activities).

The advantages and disadvantages of document studies are outlined in Exhibit 8.

Key Informant

A key informant is a person (or group of persons) who has unique skills or professional background related to the issue/intervention being evaluated, is knowledgeable about the project participants, or has access to other information of interest to the evaluator. A key informant can also be someone who has a way of communicating that represents or captures the essence of what the participants say and do. Key informants can help the evaluation team better understand the issue being evaluated, as well as the project participants, their backgrounds, behaviors, and attitudes, and any language or ethnic considerations. They can offer expertise beyond the evaluation team. They are also very useful for assisting with the evaluation of curricula and other educational materials. Key informants can be surveyed or interviewed individually or through focus groups.

In the hypothetical project, key informants (i.e., expert faculty on main campus, deans, and department chairs) can assist with (1) developing evaluation questions, and (2) answering formative and summative evaluation questions.

The use of advisory committees is another way of gathering information from key informants. Advisory groups are called together for a variety of purposes:

Members of such a group may be specifically selected or invited to participate because of their unique skills or professional background; they may volunteer; they may be nominated or elected; or they may come together through a combination of these processes.

The advantages and disadvantages of using key informants are outlined in Exhibit 9.

Performance Assessment

The performance assessment movement is impacting education from preschools to professional schools. At the heart of this upheaval is the belief that for all of their virtues - particularly efficiency and economy - traditional objective, norm-referenced tests may fail to tell us what we most want to know about student achievement. In addition, these same tests exert a powerful and, in the eyes of many educators, detrimental influence on curriculum and instruction. Critics of traditional testing procedures are exploring alternatives to multiple-choice, norm-referenced tests. It is hoped that these alternative means of assessment, ranging from observations to exhibitions, will provide a more authentic picture of achievement.

Critics raise three main points against objective, norm-referenced tests.

The search for alternatives to traditional tests has generated a number of new approaches to assessment under such names as alternative assessment, performance assessment, holistic assessment, and authentic assessment. While each label suggests slightly different emphases, they all imply a movement toward assessment that supports exemplary teaching. Performance assessment appears to be the most popular term because it emphasizes the development of assessment tools that involve students in tasks that are worthwhile, significant, and meaningful. Such tasks involve higher order thinking skills and the coordination of a broad range of knowledge.

Performance assessment may involve "qualitative" activities such as oral interviews, group problem-solving tasks, portfolios, or personal documents/creations (poetry, artwork, stories). A performance assessment approach that could be used in the hypothetical project is work sample methodology (Schalock, Schalock, and Girad, in press ). Briefly, work sample methodology challenges teachers to create unit plans and assessment techniques for students at several points during a training experience. The quality of this product is assessed (at least before and after training) in light of the goal of the professional development program. The actual performance of students on the assessment measures provides additional information on impact.

Case Studies

Classical case studies depend on ethnographic and participant observer methods. They are largely descriptive examinations, usually of a small number of sites (small towns, hospitals, schools) where the principal investigator is immersed in the life of the community or institution and combs available documents, holds formal and informal conversations with informants, observes ongoing activities, and develops an analysis of both individual and "cross-case" findings.

In the hypothetical study, for example, case studies of the experiences of participants from different campuses could be carried out. These might involve indepth interviews with the facility participants, observations of their classes over time, surveys of students, interviews with peers and department chairs, and analyses of student work samples at several points in the program. Selection of participants might be made based on factors such as their experience and training, type of students taught, or differences in institutional climate/supports.

Case studies can provide very engaging, rich explorations of a project or application as it develops in a real-world setting. Project evaluators must be aware, however, that doing even relatively modest, illustrative case studies is a complex task that cannot be accomplished through occasional, brief site visits. Demands with regard to design, data collection, and reporting can be substantial.

For those wanting to become thoroughly familiar with this topic, a number of relevant texts are referenced here.

Fetterman, D.M. (1989). Ethnography: Step by Step. Applied Social Research Methods Series, Vol. 17. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Guba, E.G., and Lincoln, Y.S. (1981). Effective Evaluation. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Lincoln, Y.S., and Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry . Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Lofland, J., and Lofland, L.H. (1995). Analyzing Social Settings: A Guide to Qualitative Observation and Analysis, 3rd Ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Patton, M.Q. (1990). Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods, 2nd Ed . Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Schalock, H.D., Schalock, M.D., and Girad, G.R. (In press). Teacher work sample methodology, as used at Western Oregon State College. In J. Millman, Ed., Assuring Accountability? Using Gains in Student Learning to Evaluate Teachers and Schools . Newbury Park, CA: Corwin.

Other Recommended Reading

Debus, M. (1995). Methodological Review: A Handbook for Excellence in Focus Group Research . Washington, DC: Academy for Educational Development.

Denzin, N.K., and Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds.). (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Erlandson, D.A., Harris, E.L., Skipper, B.L., and Allen, D. (1993). Doing Naturalist Inquiry: A Guide to Methods . Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Greenbaum, T.L. (1993). The Handbook of Focus Group Research . New York: Lexington Books.

Hart, D. (1994). Authentic Assessment: A Handbook for Educators . Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley.

Herman, J.L., and Winters, L. (1992). Tracking Your School’s Success: A Guide to Sensible Evaluation . Newbury Park, CA: Corwin Press.

Hymes, D.L., Chafin, A.E., and Gondor, R. (1991). The Changing Face of Testing and Assessment: Problems and Solutions. Arlington, VA: American Association of School Administrators.

Krueger, R.A. (1988). Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research . Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

LeCompte, M.D., Millroy, W.L., and Preissle, J. (Eds.). (1992). The Handbook of Qualitative Research in Education . San Diego, CA: Academic Press.

Merton, R.K., Fiske, M., and Kendall, P.L. (1990). The Focused Interview: A Manual of Problems and Procedures , 2nd Ed. New York: The Free Press.

Miles, M.B., and Huberman, A.M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis: An Expanded Sourcebook . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Morgan, D.L. (Ed.). (1993). Successful Focus Groups: Advancing the State of the Art. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Morse, J.M. (Ed.). (1994). Critical Issues in Qualitative Research Methods . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Perrone, V. (Ed.). (1991). Expanding Student Assessment . Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Reich, R.B. (1991). The Work of Nations . New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Schatzman, L., and Strauss, A.L. (1973). Field Research . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Seidman, I.E. (1991). Interviewing as Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education and Social Sciences. New York: Teachers College Press.

Stewart, D.W., and Shamdasani, P.N. (1990). Focus Groups: Theory and Practice . Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

United States General Accounting Office (GAO). (1990). Case Study Evaluations , Paper 10.1.9. Washington, DC: GAO.

Weiss, R.S. (1994). Learning from Strangers: The Art and Method of Qualitative Interview Studies . New York: Free Press.

Wiggins, G. (1989). A True Test: Toward More Authentic and Equitable Assessment. Phi Delta Kappan , May, 703-704.

Wiggins, G. (1989). Teaching to the (Authentic) Test. Educational Leadership , 46, 45.

Yin, R.K. (1989). Case Study Research: Design and Method . Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

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Opportunities and Challenges for AI-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis: An Example from Collaborative Problem-Solving Discourse Data

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• Leo A. Siiman   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6429-515X 9 ,
• Meeli Rannastu-Avalos   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7804-1430 9 ,
• Johanna Pöysä-Tarhonen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6614-0098 10 ,
• Päivi Häkkinen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6616-9114 10 &
• Margus Pedaste   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5087-9637 9  

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Computer Science ((LNCS,volume 14099))

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Recent advances in the usability of generative AI platforms, such as ChatGPT, suggest that artificial intelligence can seemingly capture many of the rules and meanings underlying human language. As a result, AI can potentially automate many tasks requiring human-like understanding and generation of natural language. Qualitative data analysis tends to be a time-consuming task which is susceptible to human bias and mistakes. In this study, we explored the use of ChatGPT and the GPT-4 model to assist with analyzing qualitative data from a previous study by Rannastu-Avalos, Mäeots, and Siiman (2022). In that prior study, pairs of adults collaborated via a free-form, text-based chat interface to solve a computer simulation problem about balancing a seesaw. To re-analyze the data using AI assistance, both deductive and inductive approaches were applied and the results compared to human coding and human interpretation of the data. The results show that it is important to structure and phrase prompts so that AI responses best align with human interpretation. Deductive analysis performed better than inductive analysis, presumably because prompts with richer contextual information referring to specific theoretical perspectives could be crafted. Our results suggest that AI-assisted qualitative analysis has the potential to improve transparency in the coding of qualitative data by encouraging human analysts to report AI prompts that agree with their interpretations of the data, and in turn can be reused by other researchers.

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Siiman, L.A., Rannastu-Avalos, M., Pöysä-Tarhonen, J., Häkkinen, P., Pedaste, M. (2023). Opportunities and Challenges for AI-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis: An Example from Collaborative Problem-Solving Discourse Data. In: Huang, YM., Rocha, T. (eds) Innovative Technologies and Learning. ICITL 2023. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 14099. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-40113-8_9

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The influencing factors of clinical nurses’ problem solving dilemma: a qualitative study

a Department of Nursing, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, Tongji University, Shanghai, China

b Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China

c Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China

Problem solving has been defined as “a goal-directed sequence of cognitive and affective operations as well as behavioural responses to adapting to internal or external demands or challenges. Studies have shown that some nurses lack rational thinking and decision-making ability to identify patients’ health problems and make clinical judgements, and have poor cognition and response to some clinical problems, easy to fall into problem-solving dilemma. This study aimed to understand the influencing factors of clinical nurses’ problem solving dilemma, to provide a basis for developing training strategies and improving the ability of clinical nurses in problem solving.

A qualitative research was conducted using in-depth interviews from August 2020 to December 2020. A total of 14 participants from a tertiary hospital in Shanghai, China were recruited through purposive sampling combined with a maximum variation strategy. Data were analysed with the conventional content analysis method.

Three themes and seven subthemes were extracted: nurse’s own factors (differences in knowledge structure and thinking, differences in professional values, poor strain capacity); improper nursing management (low sense of organizational support, contradiction between large workload and insufficient manpower allocation); patient factors (the concept of emphasizing medicine and neglecting to nurse, individual differences of patients).

The influencing factors of clinical nurses’ problem-solving dilemma are diverse. Hospital managers and nursing educators should pay attention to the problem-solving of clinical nurses, carry out a series of training and counselling of nurses by using the method of situational simulation, optimize the nursing management mode, learn to use new media technology to improve the credibility of nurses to provide guarantee for effective problem-solving of clinical nurses.

Introduction

Nursing education in China can be divided into two main levels: vocational education and higher education. Vocational education includes technical secondary schools and junior colleges, while higher education includes undergraduate, master’s and doctoral education. Vocational education aims at training students to master basic nursing service skills and to be able to take the post to engage in daily nursing work (Sun & Zong, 2017 ). Higher nursing education started late, and undergraduate education has always followed the “three-stage” education model of clinical medicine (basic medical courses, specialized courses and clinical practice). Most courses are centred on subject knowledge, and all clinical practice takes the form of centralized practice (Li, 2012 ). The training goal of nursing postgraduates is gradually expanding from academic master to professional master. The curriculum mainly includes classroom teaching and clinical practice. The classroom teaching contents include public courses (political theory, foreign languages, etc.), professional basic courses (advanced health assessment, pharmacotherapy, pathophysiology, evidence-based nursing, medical statistics or clinical epidemiology), specialized courses (advanced nursing practice theory) and Academic activities . The goal of nursing doctoral training is to cultivate high-level nursing research talents, focusing on the cultivation of scientific research ability rather than clinical practice ability. The curriculum includes ideology and politics, basic theory, research methods, specialized courses, development frontier, scientific writing, etc (Luo et al., 2018 ). There are some problems in the training mode and curriculum, such as theory and practice are out of touch, traditional lecture-based classroom teaching makes students passively accept knowledge, students attach importance to theory over practice, knowledge input to ability output, professional study to humanities knowledge. Nursing students receive no theoretical and/or practical training in problem solving before entering the clinical setting, so there is not a starting point for these nurses to clinical dilemmas in their professional life.

With the development of medicine, people pay more attention to health and have higher requirements for nursing service ability (Yang, Ning, et al., 2018). The National Nursing Development Plan (National Development and Reform Commission, 2017 ) points out that it is necessary to strengthen the construction of nurse teams, establish nurse training mechanisms and improve the professional quality and service ability of nurses. However, in the face of increasingly complex and changeable clinical environment, nurses are still lacking in problem-solving thinking and ability, and often fall into the dilemma of problem solving (Li et al., 2020 ).

Typical decision theory approaches to the identification of problem solving in nursing have viewed the process as a series of decision formulations that include: decisions about what observations should be made in the patient situation; decisions about deriving meaning from the data observed (clinical inferences); and decisions regarding the selection of action to be taken that will be of optimal benefit to the patient (McGuire, 1985 ). Information processing theory describes problem solving as an interaction between the information processing system (the problem-solver) and a task environment, which can be analysed as two simultaneously occurring sub-processes of “understanding” and “search” (VanLehn, 1989 ). Individuals collect the stimulus that poses the problem in the understanding process, forming the internal representation of the problem, transforming the problem stimulus into the initial information needed in the search process, and then producing mental information structures for the understanding of the problem, which making individuals distinguish the nature of the problem and clarify the goal of the problem. The mental information structures drive the search process that enables the individual to find or calculate the solution to the problem. This process starts with the nurse identifying the clinical problem and continues until the decision is made to resolve the problem (Taylor, 2000 ). Clinical problem solving requires nurses to have a variety of cognitive strategies, which involves nurses’ knowledge, experience, and memory process. Nurses must recognize the current problem and use all available knowledge and experience to transform the problem into their internal problem representation, and then set goals and search for strategies that can achieve the goal (Mayer & Wittrock, 1992 ). In today’s complex clinical environment, nurses need to be able to solve problems accurately, thoroughly, and quickly. Nurses who can solve problems efficiently have fewer medical errors (Babaei et al., 2018 ), and the level of nursing skills and empathy are higher (Ay et al., 2020 ; Bayindir Çevik & Olgun, 2015 ). To cultivate nurses’ problem solving thinking and ability, it is necessary to better understand the influencing factors of problem solving dilemma. However, these cannot be obtained by observing nurses’ behaviour in their work, and cannot be obtained through quantitative research either. Exploring the thinking process involved in nurses’ work through qualitative interviews is an effective way to understand the influencing factors of nurses’ problem solving. Given this, this study used qualitative research methods to deeply analyse the influencing factors of clinical front-line nurses’ problem solving dilemma, to provide a basis for making relevant strategies to cultivate nurses’ thinking and ability of problem solving.

Study design

A qualitative study based on in-depth interviews was conducted to obtain influencing factors of nurses’ problem-solving dilemma.

Settings and participants

Purposive sampling combined with a maximum variation strategy was used to identify and select information-rich participants related to the research phenomenon. Maximum variation was achieved in terms of participants’ gender, education level, professional title, marital status, seniority, and administrative office, respectively. The study was conducted between August 2020 to December 2020 in a tertiary hospital in Shanghai, China. The inclusion criteria were a nurse practicing certificate of the People’s Republic of China and within the valid registration period; having been engaged in clinical nursing work for at least 1 year and still engaged in clinical nursing work; clear language expression, able to clearly describe the solution and feelings of clinical problem solving; informed consent to this study and voluntary participation. The exclusion criterion were on leave during the study period (personal leave, maternity leave, sick leave, etc.); out for further study or came to the hospital for further study; confirmed or suspected mental illness and psychotropic medicine users. Purposive sampling continued until thematic saturation was reached during data analysis.

Data collection

Face-to-face, a semi-structured interview was used to collect information. All interviews were conducted in the lounge to ensure quiet and undisturbed by a female postgraduate nursing student with the guidance of her master tutor. Initially, an interview guide was developed based on literature review and expert consultation including about five predetermined questions: What thorny problems have you encountered in clinical work or have a great impact on you? How did you solve it? Why take such a solution? What is the biggest difficulty encountered in the process of problem solving? How does it affect you? How do you feel in the process of problem solving? Before the interview, the consent of the interviewee was obtained and then the researcher fully explains to the interviewees and starts with a friendly chat to allay the interviewees’ worries. During the interview, the researcher listened carefully and responded in time, always maintaining a neutral attitude, without any inducement or hint, if necessary, giving encouragement and praise to support the expression of the interviewees, and to record the interviewees’ facial expressions, physical movements and emotional responses in time. At the same time, a recording pen was used to ensure that the interview content was recorded accurately and without omission. The interview time for each person was 30 to 40 minutes.

Data analysis

After each interview, the researcher wrote an interview diary in time to reflect on the interview process and transcribed the interview content into words within 24 hours, then the researcher made a return visit by phone the next day to confirm that the information is correct. The seven-step method of Colaizzi’s phenomenological analysis method ( Table I ) was adopted to analyse the collected data(Colaizzi, 1978 ). Two researchers collated the original data, independently coded, summarized this information as themes, and organized a research group meeting once a week to discuss and reach a consensus.

7 steps of Colaizzi’s phenomenological analysis method.

Ethical considerations

This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, Affiliated to Tongji University, project number: K16-252. Before the interview, the researcher explained the purpose and significance of the study to each interviewee in detail and obtained the informed consent of them on a voluntary basis and all of the interviewees signed informed consent forms. To protect the privacy of each interviewee, their names are replaced by numbers (e.g., N1, N2), and the original materials and transcribed text materials involved are kept by the first author himself, and all materials are destroyed after the completion of the study.

There was no new point of view when the 13th nurse was interviewed, and there was still no new point of view when one more nurse was interviewed, the interview was over, 14 nurses were interviewed. Three themes and seven subthemes were extracted. The characteristics of the participants ( N = 14) are provided in Table II .

Participant characteristics (N = 14).

Nurses’ own factors

Differences in knowledge structure and thinking.

Differences in the structure of prior knowledge and way of thinking will affect nurses’ processing of clinical data, thus affecting their clinical decision-making. The nurses made a wrong judgement of the condition because of the solidified thinking that postoperative nausea and vomiting symptoms were side effects of narcotic drugs and the lack of overall control and understanding of the patient’s condition.

There was a patient who came back after surgery with nausea and vomiting, the first thing that went through my mind, is the drug side effects, so I didn’t pay much attention, as is often the case, the most common cause of postoperative nausea and vomiting is anesthetic drug side effects, but later found to be cerebral infarction, this kind of situation I find it hard to recognize.

Differences in professional values

Professional values of nurses are accepted codes of conduct internalized by nursing professionals through training and learning (Pan, 2016 ). Negative professional values are easy to lead to problem solving dilemma. Some nurses think nursing is just a service.

The work is difficult to do, everything is the nurse’s fault, the nurse must apologize and put up with the patient’s scolding, nursing is a service industry, sometimes I am really wronged.” There are also nurses who believe that nursing work can reflect their personal value, and solving problems successfully will bring them a sense of achievement.

Although the nursing work is very intense, I live a full life every day. I feel a sense of accomplishment and pride that I can solve the problems of patients and discharge them smoothly through my work.

Poor strain capacity

Nursing work is patient-centred holistic nursing, the current clinical situation is complex and changeable, requiring nurses must have good strain capacity, and can “be anxious about what the patient needs, think what the patient thinks, and solve the patient’s difficulties.”

All patients are self-centered, and they don’t care whether you (the nurse) are busy or not. For example, once I gave oral medicine to a patient, a patient in the same ward was in a hurry and asked me to help him call his son. I was busy handing out the medicine and did not help. As a result, the patient was very dissatisfied and complained to the head nurse.

The 20-bed patient went through the discharge formalities but was still lying in the hospital bed. when the new patient arrived and she didn’t leave, I went to urge her to leave the hospital, she suddenly got angry and scolded me, I don’t know what to do.

Improper nursing management

Low sense of organizational support.

Organizational support is an important resource for clinical nurses in the process of problem solving (Poghosyan et al., 2020 ). Low sense of organizational support will hinder nurses’ problem solving.

The style of leadership and the atmosphere of the department are very important. in a department I rotated before, the leader was too strict to listen to your explanation, and the atmosphere of the department was not good. I couldn’t find help when I encountered problems. When I have a conflict with a patient, the leader will only criticize me, which makes me feel helpless.

Sometimes there will be a conflict with patients due to the bed turnover problem, and the patient will not listen to your explanation and turn around to complain, the nurse will be responsible for such things. In severe cases, even violent incidents will be encountered and the personal safety can not be guaranteed.

Insufficient allocation of manpower

Although the total number of nurses has increased substantially, there is still a shortage of human resources under the rapidly increasing workload (Guo et al., 2021 ).

When I was on the night shift and I encountered the critical moment of rescuing patients, I had to call an anesthesiologist, a doctor on duty, a nurse on duty simultaneously, an observation of the patient’s condition to prevent accidents was needed, I also have to race against time to give the patient ECG monitoring and oxygen inhalation. When the doctor came, he also criticized me that the first-aid equipment was not in place (crying).

According to the normal nurse-patient ratio, each nurse takes care of eight patients, and now there are not only eight patients, but also with extra beds and a fast turnover, and sometimes a nurse is responsible for more than 12 patients

Patient factors

The concept of emphasizing medicine and neglecting to nurse.

There is a deviation in society’s cognition of the profession of nurses, which believes that nurses are the “legs” of doctors, and nurses’ work is to help doctors run errands, give injections and give fluids. This concept not only leads to nurses’ lack of due respect, but also hinders nurses’ professional identity, and has a great negative impact on nurses’ problem-solving (Gao et al., 2015 ).

The patient did not dare to tell the doctor something he was not satisfied with, but complained directly to the nurse. For example, if the patient did not want to do some tests, he would scold the nurse. The nurse explained to him that he would not listen. But when the doctor came, he smiled and refused to admit that he cursed nurses, and he would frame the nurse. 90% of the patients would be willing to listen to the doctor.

Sometimes the patient says he was not feeling well, and I know the patient’s condition. I will give her some reasonable explanations, but the patient does not accept it. She is satisfied only when the doctor come to see her. In the final analysis, the patient just don’t believe us. No matter how much I explain to her, it is not as effective as the doctor’s glance at her.

Individual differences of patients

There are differences in patients’ personality characteristics, cultural background, views on nurses and state of an illness, these individual differences are also the reasons for nurses’ problem-solving dilemma (Chan et al., 2018 ).

Some cancer patients are in a period of anger, and it is very difficult to communicate with him. When I see him angry and lose his temper, I will not talk to him and just leave.”

Patients have different cultural levels and different social backgrounds. Sometimes I can’t talk too deeply. If patients are a little more educated, it will be easier for us to communicate with them, and some patients can’t understand anything we say.”

Multiple factors affecting clinical nurses’ problem-solving dilemma

The reasons for nurses’ failure in problem solving are mainly in the process of understanding the problem, the search process driven by the psychological information structure, and the problem or loss of balance in the process of implementing the plan. In the process, the three factors of nurses, management and patients all played an important role. Nurses’ knowledge structure and thinking loopholes led to the deviation of nurses’ internal representation of the problem (Jonassen, 2005 ). Poor professional values and low sense of organizational support can lead to nurses’ negative orientation and attitude towards problems (Poghosyan et al., 2020 ; X. Wang et al., 2018 ). The manpower allocation of nurses, patients’ emphasis on medical treatment over nursing care, and individual differences mainly increase the complexity and difficulty of nurses’ problem-solving task environment as external factors. The three factors work together on the problem-solving of clinical nurses, which leads to the dilemma of problem-solving.

Implementing situational simulation training to improve the comprehensive quality of nurses

At present, the overall quality and ability of nurses cannot meet the requirements of systematic, effective and rapid problem-solving. It is necessary to strengthen the construction of nurses to improve nurses’ problem-solving ability. Some studies have shown that situational simulation class can improve students’ knowledge, experience, psychological quality and other abilities (Mohammad, 2020 ). It is suggested that nursing educators should explore targeted situational simulation teaching and strengthen the relationship between classroom teaching and clinical practice through situational simulation, and to build a novel, perfect and clinical knowledge network for nurses. Secondly, emergency situational simulation teaching should be carried out to enable nurses to experience emergency situations from different angles, so as to improve their thinking, skills and timeliness in dealing with emergencies (Zhang et al., 2019 ). The content of professional values training should also be added to the situational simulation class in order to cultivate nurses’ positive, accessible and stable professional values and promote their positive orientation and attitude when facing problems (Skeriene, 2019 ).

Optimize nursing management and improve nurses’ working experience

Through interviews, it is found that nursing management factors have caused nurses’ problem-solving dilemma to a certain extent, which needs to be optimized according to the specific problems existing in nursing management to help nurses deal with the problems and solve the dilemma effectively. The total number of registered nurses in China exceeded 4.7 million in 2021, an increase of 1.46 million from 3.24 million in 2015, an increase of 45% (Deng et al., 2019 ]. However, there is still a large workload and underallocation of manpower, which may be due to the unreasonable distribution of human resources between time periods and departments. Hospitals and nursing managers can use the hospital information system to evaluate the nursing workload, and allocate nursing human resources reasonably according to the evaluation results (H. Yang et al., 2019 ), so as to avoid nurses falling into the dilemma of problem solving due to long-term overloaded work. In addition, it is necessary to create a harmonious departmental atmosphere for nurses, create a supportive departmental environment (Aghaei et al., 2020 ), and strictly ensure the safety of nurses’ practice and put an end to the occurrence of violence. Timely and strong organizational support can reduce the painful feelings of nurses caused by adverse events (Stone, 2020 ). and help them to solve problems actively.

Using new media to improve the image and credibility of nurses

There is a bias in social cognition of the profession of nurses, and some negative media reports mislead patients, resulting in social stereotypes of nurses (L. Q. Wang et al., 2021 ). It is necessary to make full use of new media to objectively introduce the nursing profession to the public, publicize outstanding nursing figures and typical deeds, make the public realize the important role of nurses in health care, and create an atmosphere of understanding and supporting nurses in the whole society to enhance the image and credibility of nurses and help nurses deal with problems and solve difficulties effectively (Falkenstrom, 2017 ).

Limitations and strengths of the study

The limitation is that the transferability of this study’s results may be limited as a result of including a small number of participants and the participants all worked in the same hospital in Shanghai. More participants in different cities and hospitals could have increased the variety of the descriptions and experiences. The strength is that the use of purposive sampling facilitated inclusion of participants from a range of demographic groups. The use of maximum variation strategy facilitated that the participants covered different gender, education level, professional title, marital status, seniority and department, which helped to increase the representativeness of sample.

Implications for practice

This study provides an in-depth exploration of the problem solving dilemmas of clinical nurses in China and provides valuable insights into the continuing education of nurses. These insights shine a light on areas that warrant further investigation and need to be improved in continuing education of nurses. It is of great significance to improve nurses’ problem-solving ability, improve nurses’ professional quality, effectively solve patients’ medical treatment and health problems, and improve patients’ experience of seeking medical treatment.

Through the semi-structured interview, it is found that the problem-solving dilemma of clinical nurses is affected by many factors. Nurses themselves should be confident, self-improvement, constantly learning and enterprising to improve their own ability, and be good at using new media to improve nurses’ image and credibility. Hospitals, nursing administrators and nursing educators should take corresponding measures to improve the knowledge structure of nurses, cultivate nurses’ positive professional values and adaptability, and give full organizational support to nurses. optimize the allocation of nursing human resources to provide a strong guarantee for nurses to deal with problems solving dilemma.

Biographies

Yu Mei Li : associate chief nurse, master degree, master supervisor, engaged in nursing of tumor patients.

Yifan Luo : nurse, master degree, engaged in clinical nursing.

Funding Statement

This work was supported by the Graduate Education Research and Reform Education Management program of Tongji University [2021YXGL09].

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

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3 Problem statement examples and steps to write your own

We’ve all encountered problems on the job. After all, that’s what a lot of work is about. Solving meaningful problems to help improve something. 

Developing a problem statement that provides a brief description of an issue you want to solve is an important early step in problem-solving .

It sounds deceptively simple. But creating an effective problem statement isn’t that easy, even for a genius like Albert Einstein. Given one hour to work on a problem, he’d spend 55 minutes thinking about the problem and five minutes finding solutions. (Or so the story goes.)

Einstein was probably exaggerating to make a point. But considering his success in solving complex problems, we think he was on to something. 

As humans, we’re wired to jump past the problem and go directly to the solution stage. In emergencies, this behavior can be lifesaving, as in leaping out of the way of a speeding car. But when dealing with longer-range issues in the workplace, this can lead to bad decisions or half-baked solutions. 

That’s where problem statements come in handy. They help to meaningfully outline objectives to reach effective solutions. Knowing how to develop a great problem statement is also a valuable tool for honing your management skills .

But what exactly is a problem statement, when should you use one, and how do you go about writing one? In this article, we'll answer those questions and give you some tips for writing effective problem statements. Then you'll be ready to take on more challenges large and small.

What is a problem statement?

First, let’s start by defining a problem statement. 

A problem statement is a short, clear explanation of an issue or challenge that sums up what you want to change. It helps you, team members, and other stakeholders to focus on the problem, why it’s important, and who it impacts. 

A good problem statement should create awareness and stimulate creative thinking . It should not identify a solution or create a bias toward a specific strategy.

Taking time to work on a problem statement is a great way to short-circuit the tendency to rush to solutions. It helps to make sure you’re focusing on the right problem and have a well-informed understanding of the root causes. The process can also help you take a more proactive than reactive approach to problem-solving . This can help position you and your team to avoid getting stuck in constant fire-fighting mode. That way, you can take advantage of more growth opportunities.  

When to use a problem statement

The best time to create a problem statement is before you start thinking of solutions. If you catch yourself or your team rushing to the solution stage when you’re first discussing a problem, hit the brakes. Go back and work on the statement of the problem to make sure everyone understands and agrees on what the real problem is. 

Here are some common situations where writing problem statements might come in handy: 

• Writing an executive summary for a project proposal or research project
• Collaborating   on a cross-functional project with several team members
• Defining the customer issue that a proposed product or service aims to solve
• Using design thinking to improve user experience
• Tackling a problem that previous actions failed to solve 

How to identify a problem statement

Like the unseen body of an iceberg, the root cause of a specific problem isn’t always obvious. So when developing a problem statement, how do you go about identifying the true, underlying problem?

These two steps will help you uncover the root cause of a problem :

• Collect information from the research and previous experience with the problem
• Talk to multiple stakeholders who are impacted by the problem

People often perceive problems differently. Interviewing stakeholders will help you understand the problem from diverse points of view. It can also help you develop some case studies to illustrate the problem. 

Combining these insights with research data will help you identify root causes more accurately. In turn, this methodology will help you craft a problem statement that will lead to more viable solutions. 

What are problem statements used for?

You can use problem statements for a variety of purposes. For an organization, it might be solving customer and employee issues. For the government, it could be improving public health. For individuals, it can mean enhancing their own personal well-being . Generally, problem statements can be used to:

• Identify opportunities for improvement
• Focus on the right problems or issues to launch more successful initiatives – a common challenge in leadership
• Help you communicate a problem to others who need to be involved in finding a solution
• Serve as the basis for developing an action plan or goals that need to be accomplished to help solve the problem
• Stimulate thinking outside the box  and other types of creative brainstorming techniques

3 examples of problem statements

When you want to be sure you understand a concept or tool, it helps to see an example. There can also be some differences in opinion about what a problem statement should look like. For instance, some frameworks include a proposed solution as part of the problem statement. But if the goal is to stimulate fresh ideas, it’s better not to suggest a solution within the problem statement. 

In our experience, an effective problem statement is brief, preferably one sentence. It’s also specific and descriptive without being prescriptive. 

Here are three problem statement examples. While these examples represent three types of problems or goals, keep in mind that there can be many other types of problem statements.        

Example Problem Statement 1: The Status Quo Problem Statement

Example: 

The average customer service on-hold time for Example company exceeds five minutes during both its busy and slow seasons.

This can be used to describe a current pain point within an organization that may need to be addressed. Note that the statement specifies that the issue occurs during the company’s slow time as well as the busy season. This is helpful in performing the root cause analysis and determining how this problem can be solved. 

The average customer service on-hold time for Example company exceeds five minutes during both its busy and slow seasons. The company is currently understaffed and customer service representatives are overwhelmed.

Background:

Example company is facing a significant challenge in managing their customer service on-hold times. In the past, the company had been known for its efficient and timely customer service, but due to a combination of factors, including understaffing and increased customer demand, the on-hold times have exceeded five minutes consistently. This has resulted in frustration and dissatisfaction among customers, negatively impacting the company's reputation and customer loyalty.

Reducing the on-hold times for customer service callers is crucial for Example company. Prolonged waiting times have a detrimental effect on customer satisfaction and loyalty, leading to potential customer churn and loss of revenue. Additionally, the company's declining reputation in terms of customer service can have a lasting impact on its competitive position in the market. Addressing this problem is of utmost importance to improve customer experience and maintain a positive brand image.

Objectives:

The primary objective of this project is to reduce the on-hold times for customer service callers at Example company. The specific objectives include:

• Analyzing the current customer service workflow and identifying bottlenecks contributing to increased on-hold times.
• Assessing the staffing levels and resource allocation to determine the extent of understaffing and its impact on customer service.
• Developing strategies and implementing measures to optimize the customer service workflow and reduce on-hold times.
• Monitoring and evaluating the effectiveness of the implemented measures through key performance indicators (KPIs) such as average on-hold time, customer satisfaction ratings, and customer feedback.
• Establishing a sustainable approach to maintain reduced on-hold times, taking into account both busy and slow seasons, through proper resource planning, training, and process improvements.

Example Problem Statement 2: The Destination Problem Statement

Leaders at Example company want to increase net revenue for its premium product line of widgets by 5% for the next fiscal year. 

This approach can be used to describe where an organization wants to be in the future. This type of problem statement is useful for launching initiatives to help an organization achieve its desired state. 

Like creating SMART goals , you want to be as specific as possible. Note that the statement specifies “net revenue” instead of “gross revenue." This will help keep options open for potential actions. It also makes it clear that merely increasing sales is not an acceptable solution if higher marketing costs offset the net gains. 

Leaders at Example company aim to increase net revenue for its premium product line of widgets by 5% for the next fiscal year. However, the company currently lacks the necessary teams to tackle this objective effectively. To achieve this growth target, the company needs to expand its marketing and PR teams, as well as its product development teams, to prepare for scaling. 

Example company faces the challenge of generating a 5% increase in net revenue for its premium product line of widgets in the upcoming fiscal year. Currently, the company lacks the required workforce to drive this growth. Without adequate staff in the marketing, PR, and product development departments, the company's ability to effectively promote, position, and innovate its premium product line will be hindered. To achieve this kind of growth, it is essential that Example company expands teams, enhances capabilities, and strategically taps into the existing pool of loyal customers.

Increasing net revenue for the premium product line is crucial for Example company's overall business success. Failure to achieve the targeted growth rate can lead to missed revenue opportunities and stagnation in the market. By expanding the marketing and PR teams, Example company can strengthen its brand presence, effectively communicate the value proposition of its premium product line, and attract new customers.

Additionally, expanding the product development teams will enable the company to introduce new features and innovations, further enticing existing and potential customers. Therefore, addressing the workforce shortage and investing in the necessary resources are vital for achieving the revenue growth objective.

The primary objective of this project is to increase net revenue for Example company's premium product line of widgets by 5% in the next fiscal year. The specific objectives include:

• Assessing the current workforce and identifying the gaps in the marketing, PR, and product development teams.
• Expanding the marketing and PR teams by hiring skilled professionals who can effectively promote the premium product line and engage with the target audience.
• Strengthening the product development teams by recruiting qualified individuals who can drive innovation, enhance product features, and meet customer demands.
• Developing a comprehensive marketing and PR strategy to effectively communicate the value proposition of the premium product line and attract new customers.
• Leveraging the existing base of loyal customers to increase repeat purchases, referrals, and brand advocacy.
• Allocating sufficient resources, both time and manpower, to support the expansion and scaling efforts required to achieve the ambitious revenue growth target.
• Monitoring and analyzing key performance indicators (KPIs) such as net revenue, customer acquisition, customer retention, and customer satisfaction to measure the success of the growth initiatives.
• Establishing a sustainable plan to maintain the increased revenue growth beyond the next fiscal year by implementing strategies for continuous improvement and adaptation to market dynamics.

Example Problem Statement 3 The Stakeholder Problem Statement

In the last three quarterly employee engagement surveys , less than 30% of employees at Eample company stated that they feel valued by the company. This represents a 20% decline compared to the same period in the year prior. 

This strategy can be used to describe how a specific stakeholder group views the organization. It can be useful for exploring issues and potential solutions that impact specific groups of people. 

Note the statement makes it clear that the issue has been present in multiple surveys and it's significantly worse than the previous year. When researching root causes, the HR team will want to zero in on factors that changed since the previous year.

In the last three quarterly employee engagement surveys, less than 30% of employees at the Example company stated that they feel valued by the company. This indicates a significant decline of 20% compared to the same period in the previous year.

The company aspires to reduce this percentage further to under 10%. However, achieving this goal would require filling specialized roles and implementing substantial cultural changes within the organization.

Example company is facing a pressing issue regarding employee engagement and perceived value within the company. Over the past year, there has been a notable decline in the percentage of employees who feel valued. This decline is evident in the results of the quarterly employee engagement surveys, which consistently show less than 30% of employees reporting a sense of value by the company.

This decline of 20% compared to the previous year's data signifies a concerning trend. To address this problem effectively, Example company needs to undertake significant measures that go beyond superficial changes and necessitate filling specialized roles and transforming the company culture.

Employee engagement and a sense of value are crucial for organizational success. When employees feel valued, they tend to be more productive, committed, and motivated. Conversely, a lack of perceived value can lead to decreased morale, increased turnover rates, and diminished overall performance.

By addressing the decline in employees feeling valued, Example company can improve employee satisfaction, retention, and ultimately, overall productivity. Achieving the desired reduction to under 10% is essential to restore a positive work environment and build a culture of appreciation and respect.

The primary objective of this project is to increase the percentage of employees who feel valued by Example company, aiming to reduce it to under 10%. The specific objectives include:

• Conducting a comprehensive analysis of the factors contributing to the decline in employees feeling valued, including organizational policies, communication practices, leadership styles, and cultural norms.
• Identifying and filling specialized roles, such as employee engagement specialists or culture change agents, who can provide expertise and guidance in fostering a culture of value and appreciation.
• Developing a holistic employee engagement strategy that encompasses various initiatives, including training programs, recognition programs, feedback mechanisms, and communication channels, to enhance employee value perception.
• Implementing cultural changes within the organization that align with the values of appreciation, respect, and recognition, while fostering an environment where employees feel valued.
• Communicating the importance of employee value and engagement throughout all levels of the organization, including leadership teams, managers, and supervisors, to ensure consistent messaging and support.
• Monitoring progress through regular employee surveys, feedback sessions, and key performance indicators (KPIs) related to employee satisfaction, turnover rates, and overall engagement levels.
• Providing ongoing support, resources, and training to managers and supervisors to enable them to effectively recognize and appreciate their teams and foster a culture of value within their respective departments.
• Establishing a sustainable framework for maintaining high employee value perception in the long term, including regular evaluation and adaptation of employee engagement initiatives to address evolving needs and expectations.

What are the 5 components of a problem statement?

In developing a problem statement, it helps to think like a journalist by focusing on the five Ws: who, what, when, where, and why or how. Keep in mind that every statement may not explicitly include each component. But asking these questions is a good way to make sure you’re covering the key elements:

• Who: Who are the stakeholders that are affected by the problem?
• What: What is the current state, desired state, or unmet need? 
• When: When is the issue occurring or what is the timeframe involved?
• Where: Where is the problem occurring? For example, is it in a specific department, location, or region?
• Why: Why is this important or worth solving? How is the problem impacting your customers, employees, other stakeholders, or the organization? What is the magnitude of the problem? How large is the gap between the current and desired state? 

How do you write a problem statement?

There are many frameworks designed to help people write a problem statement. One example is outlined in the book, The Conclusion Trap: Four Steps to Better Decisions, ” by Daniel Markovitz. A faculty member at the Lean Enterprise Institute, the author uses many case studies from his work as a business consultant.

To simplify the process, we’ve broken it down into three steps:

1. Gather data and observe

Use data from research and reports, as well as facts from direct observation to answer the five Ws: who, what, when, where, and why. 

Whenever possible, get out in the field and talk directly with stakeholders impacted by the problem. Get a firsthand look at the work environment and equipment. This may mean spending time on the production floor asking employees questions about their work and challenges. Or taking customer service calls to learn more about customer pain points and problems your employees may be grappling with.    

2. Frame the problem properly  

A well-framed problem will help you avoid cognitive bias and open avenues for discussion. It will also encourage the exploration of more options.

A good way to test a problem statement for bias is to ask questions like these:

3. Keep asking why (and check in on the progress)

When it comes to problem-solving, stay curious. Lean on your growth mindset to keep asking why — and check in on the progress. 

Asking why until you’re satisfied that you’ve uncovered the root cause of the problem will help you avoid ineffective band-aid solutions.

What to avoid when writing a problem statement

When crafting a problem statement, it's essential to communicate the issue clearly and effectively. A well-formulated problem statement sets the stage for understanding and addressing the challenge at hand. However, there are common pitfalls that can undermine its clarity and purpose. Here's what you should avoid:

• Vagueness : Be specific about the problem and its context.
• Complexity : Keep the language simple and direct.
• Overgeneralization : Avoid broad statements that don’t address specific issues.
• Assumptions : Don’t presume solutions or causes without evidence.
• Jargon : Use clear, accessible language that can be understood by all stakeholders.

Refining your problem statements

When solving any sort of problem, there’s likely a slew of questions that might arise for you. In order to holistically understand the root cause of the problem at hand, your workforce needs to stay curious. 

An effective problem statement creates the space you and your team need to explore, gain insight, and get buy-in before taking action.

If you have embarked on a proposed solution, it’s also important to understand that solutions are malleable. There may be no single best solution. Solutions can change and adapt as external factors change, too. It’s more important than ever that organizations stay agile . This means that interactive check-ins are critical to solving tough problems. By keeping a good pulse on your course of action, you’ll be better equipped to pivot when the time comes to change. 

BetterUp can help. With access to virtual coaching , your people can get personalized support to help solve tough problems of the future.

Enhance your problem-solving skills

Discover effective strategies and personalized guidance to tackle complex challenges with confidence.

Madeline Miles

Madeline is a writer, communicator, and storyteller who is passionate about using words to help drive positive change. She holds a bachelor's in English Creative Writing and Communication Studies and lives in Denver, Colorado. In her spare time, she's usually somewhere outside (preferably in the mountains) — and enjoys poetry and fiction.

18 excellent educational podcasts to fuel your love of learning

The future of ai: where does your job stand, 6 ai prompt generator tools to boost your creativity, 20 ai tools to help boost productivity in 2023, 4 benefits of ai and 4 potential disadvantages, how to use 100% of your brain: is it possible, the 10 best work productivity tools to maximize your time, applications of ai: 10 common examples, experimentation brings innovation: create an experimental workplace, similar articles, 10 problem-solving strategies to turn challenges on their head, writing a value statement: your guide to keeping your team aligned, 10 personal brand statements to put all eyes on you, discover 4 types of innovation and how to encourage them, what is organizational structure and why is it important, create smart kpis to strategically grow your business, contingency planning: 4 steps to prepare for the unexpected, what is a career statement, and should you write one, how to craft an impactful company mission statement, stay connected with betterup, get our newsletter, event invites, plus product insights and research..

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Top 20 Qualitative Research Interview Questions & Answers

Master your responses to Qualitative Research related interview questions with our example questions and answers. Boost your chances of landing the job by learning how to effectively communicate your Qualitative Research capabilities.

Diving into the intricacies of human behavior, thoughts, and experiences is the lifeblood of qualitative research. As a professional in this nuanced field, you are well-versed in the art of gathering rich, descriptive data that can provide deep insights into complex issues. Now, as you prepare to take on new challenges in your career, it’s time to demonstrate not only your expertise in qualitative methodologies but also your ability to think critically and adapt to various research contexts.

Whether you’re interviewing for an academic position, a role within a market research firm, or any other setting where qualitative skills are prized, being prepared with thoughtful responses to potential interview questions can set you apart from other candidates. In this article, we will discuss some of the most common questions asked during interviews for qualitative research roles, offering guidance on how best to articulate your experience and approach to prospective employers.

Common Qualitative Research Interview Questions

1. how do you ensure the credibility of your data in qualitative research.

Ensuring credibility in qualitative research is crucial for the trustworthiness of the findings. By asking about methodological rigor, the interviewer is assessing a candidate’s understanding of strategies such as triangulation, member checking, and maintaining a detailed audit trail, which are essential for substantiating the integrity of qualitative data.

When responding to this question, you should articulate a multi-faceted approach to establishing credibility. Begin by highlighting your understanding of the importance of a well-defined research design and data collection strategy. Explain how you incorporate methods like triangulation, using multiple data sources or perspectives to confirm the consistency of the information obtained. Discuss your process for member checking—obtaining feedback on your findings from the participants themselves—to add another layer of validation. Mention your dedication to keeping a comprehensive audit trail, documenting all stages of the research process, which enables peer scrutiny and adds to the transparency of the study. Emphasize your ongoing commitment to reflexivity, where you continually examine your biases and influence on the research. Through this detailed explanation, you demonstrate a conscientious and systematic approach to safeguarding the credibility of your qualitative research.

Example: “ To ensure the credibility of data in qualitative research, I employ a rigorous research design that is both systematic and reflective. Initially, I establish clear protocols for data collection, which includes in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observations, ensuring that each method is well-suited to the research questions. To enhance the validity of the findings, I apply triangulation, drawing on various data sources, theoretical frameworks, and methodologies to cross-verify the information and interpretations.

During the analysis phase, member checking is a critical step, where I return to participants with a summary of the findings to validate the accuracy and resonance of the interpreted data with their experiences. This not only strengthens the credibility of the results but also enriches the data by incorporating participant insights. Furthermore, I maintain a comprehensive audit trail, meticulously documenting the research process, decisions made, and data transformations. This transparency allows for peer review and ensures that the research can be followed and critiqued by others in the field.

Lastly, reflexivity is integral to my practice. I continuously engage in self-reflection to understand and articulate my biases and assumptions and how they may influence the research process. By doing so, I can mitigate potential impacts on the data and interpretations, ensuring that the findings are a credible representation of the phenomenon under investigation.”

2. Describe a situation where you had to adapt your research methodology due to unforeseen challenges.

When unexpected variables arise, adaptability in research design is vital to maintain the integrity and validity of the study. This question seeks to assess a candidate’s problem-solving skills, flexibility, and resilience in the face of research challenges.

When responding, share a specific instance where you encountered a challenge that impacted your research methodology. Detail the nature of the challenge, the thought process behind your decision to adapt, the steps you took to revise your approach, and the outcome of those changes. Emphasize your critical thinking, your ability to consult relevant literature or peers if necessary, and how your adaptability contributed to the overall success or learning experience of the research project.

Example: “ In a recent qualitative study on community health practices, I encountered a significant challenge when the planned in-person interviews became unfeasible due to a sudden public health concern. The initial methodology was designed around face-to-face interactions to capture rich, detailed narratives. However, with participant safety as a priority, I quickly pivoted to remote data collection methods. After reviewing relevant literature on virtual qualitative research, I adapted the protocol to include video conferencing and phone interviews, ensuring I could still engage deeply with participants. This adaptation required a reevaluation of our ethical considerations, particularly around confidentiality and informed consent in digital formats.

The shift to remote interviews introduced concerns about potential biases, as the change might exclude individuals without access to the necessary technology. To mitigate this, I also offered the option of asynchronous voice recordings or email responses as a means to participate. This inclusive approach not only preserved the integrity of the study but also revealed an unexpected layer of data regarding digital literacy and access in the community. The study’s findings were robust, and the methodology adaptation was reflected upon in the final report, contributing to the discourse on the flexibility and resilience of qualitative research in dynamic contexts.”

3. What strategies do you employ for effective participant observation?

For effective participant observation, a balance between immersion and detachment is necessary to gather in-depth understanding without influencing the natural setting. This method allows the researcher to collect rich, contextual data that surveys or structured interviews might miss.

When responding to this question, highlight your ability to blend in with the participant group to minimize your impact on their behavior. Discuss your skills in active listening, detailed note-taking, and ethical considerations such as informed consent and maintaining confidentiality. Mention any techniques you use to reflect on your observations critically and how you ensure that your presence does not alter the dynamics of the group you are studying. It’s also effective to provide examples from past research where your participant observation led to valuable insights that informed your study’s findings.

Example: “ In participant observation, my primary strategy is to achieve a balance between immersion and detachment. I immerse myself in the environment to gain a deep understanding of the context and participants’ perspectives, while remaining sufficiently detached to observe and analyze behaviors and interactions objectively. To blend in, I adapt to the cultural norms and social cues of the group, which often involves a period of learning and adjustment to minimize my impact on their behavior.

Active listening is central to my approach, allowing me to capture the subtleties of communication beyond verbal exchanges. I complement this with meticulous note-taking, often employing a system of shorthand that enables me to record details without disrupting the flow of interaction. Ethically, I prioritize informed consent and confidentiality, ensuring participants are aware of my role and the study’s purpose. After observations, I engage in reflexive practice, critically examining my own biases and influence on the research setting. This reflexivity was instrumental in a past project where my awareness of my impact on group dynamics led to the discovery of underlying power structures that were not immediately apparent, significantly enriching the study’s findings.”

4. In what ways do you maintain ethical standards while conducting in-depth interviews?

Maintaining ethical standards during in-depth interviews involves respecting participant confidentiality, ensuring informed consent, and being sensitive to power dynamics. Ethical practice in this context is not only about adhering to institutional guidelines but also about fostering an environment where interviewees feel respected and understood.

When responding to this question, it’s vital to articulate a clear understanding of ethical frameworks such as confidentiality and informed consent. Describe specific strategies you employ, such as anonymizing data, obtaining consent through clear communication about the study’s purpose and the participant’s role, and ensuring the interviewee’s comfort and safety during the conversation. Highlight any training or certifications you’ve received in ethical research practices and give examples from past research experiences where you navigated ethical dilemmas successfully. This approach demonstrates your commitment to integrity in the research process and your ability to protect the well-being of your subjects.

Example: “ Maintaining ethical standards during in-depth interviews is paramount to the integrity of the research process. I ensure that all participants are fully aware of the study’s purpose, their role within it, and the ways in which their data will be used. This is achieved through a clear and comprehensive informed consent process. I always provide participants with the option to withdraw from the study at any point without penalty.

To safeguard confidentiality, I employ strategies such as anonymizing data and using secure storage methods. I am also attentive to the comfort and safety of interviewees, creating a respectful and non-threatening interview environment. In situations where sensitive topics may arise, I am trained to handle these with the necessary care and professionalism. For instance, in a past study involving vulnerable populations, I implemented additional privacy measures and worked closely with an ethics review board to navigate the complexities of the research context. My approach is always to prioritize the dignity and rights of the participants, adhering to ethical guidelines and best practices established in the field.”

5. How do you approach coding textual data without personal biases influencing outcomes?

When an interviewer poses a question about coding textual data free from personal biases, they are probing your ability to maintain objectivity and adhere to methodological rigor. This question tests your understanding of qualitative analysis techniques and your awareness of the researcher’s potential to skew data interpretation.

When responding, it’s essential to articulate your familiarity with established coding procedures such as open, axial, or thematic coding. Emphasize your systematic approach to data analysis, which might include multiple rounds of coding, peer debriefing, and maintaining a reflexive journal. Discuss the importance of bracketing your preconceptions during data analysis and how you would seek to validate your coding through methods such as triangulation or member checking. Your answer should convey a balance between a structured approach to coding and an openness to the data’s nuances, demonstrating your commitment to producing unbiased and trustworthy qualitative research findings.

Example: “ In approaching textual data coding, I adhere to a structured yet flexible methodology that mitigates personal bias. Initially, I engage in open coding to categorize data based on its manifest content, allowing patterns to emerge organically. This is followed by axial coding, where I explore connections between categories, and if applicable, thematic coding to identify overarching themes. Throughout this process, I maintain a reflexive journal to document my thought process and potential biases, ensuring transparency and self-awareness.

To ensure the reliability of my coding, I employ peer debriefing sessions, where colleagues scrutinize my coding decisions, challenging assumptions and offering alternative interpretations. This collaborative scrutiny helps to counteract any personal biases that might have crept into the analysis. Additionally, I utilize methods such as triangulation, comparing data across different sources, and member checking, soliciting feedback from participants on the accuracy of the coded data. These strategies collectively serve to validate the coding process and ensure that the findings are a credible representation of the data, rather than a reflection of my preconceptions.”

6. What is your experience with utilizing grounded theory in qualitative studies?

Grounded theory is a systematic methodology that operates almost in a reverse fashion from traditional research. Employers ask about your experience with grounded theory to assess your ability to conduct research that is flexible and adaptable to the data.

When responding, you should outline specific studies or projects where you’ve applied grounded theory. Discuss the nature of the data you worked with, the process of iterative data collection and analysis, and how you developed a theoretical framework as a result. Highlight any challenges you faced and how you overcame them, as well as the outcomes of your research. This will show your practical experience and your ability to engage deeply with qualitative data to extract meaningful theories and conclusions.

Example: “ In applying grounded theory to my qualitative studies, I have embraced its iterative approach to develop a theoretical framework grounded in empirical data. For instance, in a project exploring the coping mechanisms of individuals with chronic illnesses, I conducted in-depth interviews and focus groups, allowing the data to guide the research process. Through constant comparative analysis, I coded the data, identifying core categories and the relationships between them. This emergent coding process was central to refining and saturating the categories, ensuring the development of a robust theory that encapsulated the lived experiences of the participants.

Challenges such as data saturation and ensuring theoretical sensitivity were navigated by maintaining a balance between openness to the data and guiding research questions. The iterative nature of grounded theory facilitated the identification of nuanced coping strategies that were not initially apparent, leading to a theory that emphasized the dynamic interplay between personal agency and social support. The outcome was a substantive theory that not only provided a deeper understanding of the participants’ experiences but also had practical implications for designing support systems for individuals with chronic conditions.”

7. Outline the steps you take when conducting a thematic analysis.

Thematic analysis is a method used to identify, analyze, and report patterns within data, and it requires a systematic approach to ensure validity and reliability. This question assesses whether a candidate can articulate a clear, methodical process that will yield insightful findings from qualitative data.

When responding, you should outline a step-by-step process that begins with familiarization with the data, whereby you immerse yourself in the details, taking notes and highlighting initial ideas. Proceed to generating initial codes across the entire dataset, which involves organizing data into meaningful groups. Then, search for themes by collating codes into potential themes and gathering all data relevant to each potential theme. Review these themes to ensure they work in relation to the coded extracts and the entire dataset, refining them as necessary. Define and name themes, which entails developing a detailed analysis of each theme and determining the essence of what each theme is about. Finally, report the findings, weaving the analytic narrative with vivid examples, within the context of existing literature and the research questions. This methodical response not only showcases your technical knowledge but also demonstrates an organized thought process and the ability to communicate complex procedures clearly.

Example: “ In conducting a thematic analysis, I begin by thoroughly immersing myself in the data, which involves meticulously reading and re-reading the content to gain a deep understanding of its breadth and depth. During this stage, I make extensive notes and begin to mark initial ideas that strike me as potentially significant.

Following familiarization, I generate initial codes systematically across the entire dataset. This coding process is both reflective and interpretative, as it requires me to identify and categorize data segments that are pertinent to the research questions. These codes are then used to organize the data into meaningful groups.

Next, I search for themes by examining the codes and considering how they may combine to form overarching themes. This involves collating all the coded data relevant to each potential theme and considering the interrelationships between codes, themes, and different levels of themes, which may include sub-themes.

The subsequent step is to review these themes, checking them against the dataset to ensure they accurately represent the data. This may involve collapsing some themes into each other, splitting others, and refining the specifics of each theme. The essence of this iterative process is to refine the themes so that they tell a coherent story about the data.

Once the themes are satisfactorily developed, I define and name them. This involves a detailed analysis of each theme and determining what aspect of the data each theme captures. I aim to articulate the nuances within each theme, identifying the story that each tells about the data, and considering how this relates to the broader research questions and literature.

Lastly, I report the findings, weaving together the thematic analysis narrative. This includes selecting vivid examples that compellingly illustrate each theme, discussing how the themes interconnect, and situating them within the context of existing literature and the research questions. This final write-up is not merely about summarizing the data but about telling a story that provides insights into the research topic.”

8. When is it appropriate to use focus groups rather than individual interviews, and why?

Choosing between focus groups and individual interviews depends on the research goals and the nature of the information sought. Focus groups excel in exploring complex behaviors, attitudes, and experiences through the dynamic interaction of participants.

When responding to this question, articulate the strengths of both methods, matching them to specific research scenarios. For focus groups, emphasize your ability to facilitate lively, guided discussions that leverage group dynamics to elicit a breadth of perspectives. For individual interviews, highlight your skill in creating a safe, confidential space where participants can share detailed, personal experiences. Demonstrate strategic thinking by discussing how you would decide on the most suitable method based on the research question, participant characteristics, and the type of data needed to achieve your research objectives.

Example: “ Focus groups are particularly apt when the research question benefits from the interaction among participants, as the group dynamics can stimulate memories, ideas, and experiences that might not surface in one-on-one interviews. They are valuable for exploring the range of opinions or feelings about a topic, allowing researchers to observe consensus formation, the diversity of perspectives, and the reasoning behind attitudes. This method is also efficient for gathering a breadth of data in a limited timeframe. However, it’s crucial to ensure that the topic is suitable for discussion in a group setting and that participants are comfortable speaking in front of others.

Conversely, individual interviews are more appropriate when the subject matter is sensitive or requires deep exploration of personal experiences. They provide a private space for participants to share detailed and nuanced insights without the influence of others, which can be particularly important when discussing topics that may not be openly talked about in a group. The method allows for a tailored approach, where the interviewer can adapt questions based on the participant’s responses, facilitating a depth of understanding that is harder to achieve in a group setting. The decision between the two methods ultimately hinges on the specific needs of the research, the nature of the topic, and the goals of the study.”

9. Detail how you would validate findings from a case study research design.

In case study research, validation is paramount to ensure that interpretations and conclusions are credible. A well-validated case study reinforces the rigor of the research method and bolsters the transferability of its findings to other contexts.

When responding to this question, detail your process, which might include triangulation, where you corroborate findings with multiple data sources or perspectives; member checking, which involves sharing your interpretations with participants for their input; and seeking peer debriefing, where colleagues critique the process and findings. Explain how these methods contribute to the dependability and confirmability of your research, showing that you are not just collecting data but actively engaging with it to construct a solid, defensible narrative.

Example: “ In validating findings from a case study research design, I employ a multi-faceted approach to ensure the dependability and confirmability of the research. Triangulation is a cornerstone of my validation process, where I corroborate evidence from various data sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents. This method allows for cross-validation and helps in constructing a robust narrative by revealing consistencies and discrepancies in the data.

Member checking is another essential step in my process. By sharing my interpretations with participants, I not only honor their perspectives but also enhance the credibility of the findings. This iterative process ensures that the conclusions drawn are reflective of the participants’ experiences and not solely based on my own interpretations.

Lastly, peer debriefing serves as a critical checkpoint. By engaging colleagues who critique the research process and findings, I open the study to external scrutiny, which helps in mitigating any potential biases and enhances the study’s rigor. These colleagues act as devil’s advocates, challenging assumptions and conclusions, thereby strengthening the study’s validity. Collectively, these strategies form a comprehensive approach to validating case study research, ensuring that the findings are well-substantiated and trustworthy.”

10. What measures do you take to ensure the transferability of your qualitative research findings?

When asked about ensuring transferability, the interviewer is assessing your ability to articulate the relevance of your findings beyond the specific context of your study. They want to know if you can critically appraise your research design and methodology.

To respond effectively, you should discuss the thoroughness of your data collection methods, such as purposive sampling, to gather diverse perspectives that enhance the depth of the data. Explain your engagement with participants and the setting to ensure a rich understanding of the phenomenon under study. Highlight your detailed documentation of the research process, including your reflexivity, to allow others to follow your footsteps analytically. Finally, speak about how you communicate the boundaries of your research applicability and how you encourage readers to consider the transferability of findings to their contexts through clear and comprehensive descriptions of your study’s context, participants, and assumptions.

Example: “ In ensuring the transferability of my qualitative research findings, I prioritize a robust and purposive sampling strategy that captures a wide range of perspectives relevant to the research question. This approach not only enriches the data but also provides a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon across varied contexts. By doing so, I lay a foundation for the findings to resonate with similar situations, allowing others to judge the applicability of the results to their own contexts.

I meticulously document the research process, including the setting, participant interactions, and my own reflexivity, to provide a transparent and detailed account of how conclusions were reached. This level of documentation serves as a roadmap for other researchers or practitioners to understand the intricacies of the study and evaluate the potential for transferability. Furthermore, I ensure that my findings are presented with a clear delineation of the context, including any cultural, temporal, or geographic nuances, and discuss the assumptions underpinning the study. By offering this rich, contextualized description, I invite readers to engage critically with the findings and assess their relevance to other settings, thus facilitating a responsible and informed application of the research outcomes.”

11. How do you determine when data saturation has been reached in your study?

Determining data saturation is crucial because it signals when additional data does not yield new insights, ensuring efficient use of resources without compromising the depth of understanding. This question is posed to assess a candidate’s experience and judgment in qualitative research.

When responding to this question, one should highlight their systematic approach to data collection and analysis. Discuss the iterative process of engaging with the data, constantly comparing new information with existing codes and themes. Explain how you monitor for emerging patterns and at what point these patterns become consistent and repeatable, indicating saturation. Mention any specific techniques or criteria you employ, such as the use of thematic analysis or constant comparison methods, and how you document the decision-making process to ensure transparency and validity in your research findings.

Example: “ In determining data saturation, I employ a rigorous and iterative approach to data collection and analysis. As I engage with the data, I continuously compare new information against existing codes and themes, carefully monitoring for the emergence of new patterns or insights. Saturation is approached when the data begins to yield redundant information, and no new themes or codes are emerging from the analysis.

I utilize techniques such as thematic analysis and constant comparison methods to ensure a systematic examination of the data. I document each step of the decision-making process, noting when additional data does not lead to new theme identification or when existing themes are fully fleshed out. This documentation not only serves as a checkpoint for determining saturation but also enhances the transparency and validity of the research findings. Through this meticulous process, I can confidently assert that data saturation has been achieved when the collected data offers a comprehensive understanding of the research phenomenon, with a rich and well-developed thematic structure that accurately reflects the research scope.”

12. Relate an instance where member checking significantly altered your research conclusions.

Member checking serves as a vital checkpoint to ensure accuracy, credibility, and resonance of the data with those it represents. It can reveal misunderstandings or even introduce new insights that substantially shift the study’s trajectory or outcomes.

When responding, candidates should recount a specific project where member checking made a pivotal difference in their findings. They should detail the initial conclusions, how the process of member checking was integrated, what feedback was received, and how it led to a re-evaluation or refinement of the research outcomes. This response showcases the candidate’s methodological rigor, flexibility in incorporating feedback, and dedication to producing research that authentically reflects the voices and experiences of the study’s participants.

Example: “ In a recent qualitative study on community responses to urban redevelopment, initial findings suggested broad support for the initiatives among residents. However, during the member checking phase, when participants reviewed and commented on the findings, a nuanced perspective emerged. Several participants highlighted that their apparent support was, in fact, resignation due to a lack of viable alternatives, rather than genuine enthusiasm for the redevelopment plans.

This feedback prompted a deeper dive into the data, revealing a pattern of resigned acceptance across a significant portion of the interviews. The conclusion was substantially revised to reflect this sentiment, emphasizing the complexity of community responses to redevelopment, which included both cautious optimism and skeptical resignation. This critical insight not only enriched the study’s validity but also had profound implications for policymakers interested in understanding the true sentiment of the affected communities.”

13. What are the key considerations when selecting a sample for phenomenological research?

The selection of a sample in phenomenological research is not about quantity but about the richness and relevance of the data that participants can provide. It requires an intimate knowledge of the research question and a deliberate choice to include participants who have experienced the phenomenon in question.

When responding to this question, it’s essential to emphasize the need for a purposeful sampling strategy that aims to capture a broad spectrum of perspectives on the phenomenon under study. Discuss the importance of sample diversity to ensure the findings are robust and reflect varied experiences. Mention the necessity of establishing clear criteria for participant selection and the willingness to adapt as the research progresses. Highlighting your commitment to ethical considerations, such as informed consent and the respectful treatment of participants’ information, will also demonstrate your thorough understanding of the nuances in qualitative sampling.

Example: “ In phenomenological research, the primary goal is to understand the essence of experiences concerning a particular phenomenon. Therefore, the key considerations for sample selection revolve around identifying individuals who have experienced the phenomenon of interest and can articulate their lived experiences. Purposeful sampling is essential to ensure that the participants chosen can provide rich, detailed accounts that contribute to a deep understanding of the phenomenon.

The diversity of the sample is also crucial. It is important to select participants who represent a range of perspectives within the phenomenon, not just a homogenous group. This might involve considering factors such as age, gender, socio-economic status, or other relevant characteristics that could influence their experiences. While the sample size in phenomenological studies is often small to allow for in-depth analysis, it is vital to ensure that the sample is varied enough to uncover a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon.

Lastly, ethical considerations are paramount. Participants must give informed consent, understanding the nature of the study and their role in it. The researcher must also be prepared to handle sensitive information with confidentiality and respect, ensuring the participants’ well-being is prioritized throughout the study. Adapting the sample selection criteria as the study progresses is also important, as initial interviews may reveal additional nuances that require the inclusion of further varied perspectives to fully grasp the phenomenon.”

14. Which software tools do you prefer for qualitative data analysis, and for what reasons?

The choice of software tools for qualitative data analysis reflects a researcher’s approach to data synthesis and interpretation. It also indicates their proficiency with technology and their ability to leverage sophisticated features to deepen insights.

When responding, it’s essential to discuss specific features of the software tools you prefer, such as coding capabilities, ease of data management, collaborative features, or the ability to handle large datasets. Explain how these features have enhanced your research outcomes in the past. For example, you might highlight the use of NVivo for its robust coding structure that helped you organize complex data efficiently or Atlas.ti for its intuitive interface and visualization tools that made it easier to detect emerging patterns. Your response should demonstrate your analytical thought process and your commitment to rigorous qualitative analysis.

Example: “ In my qualitative research endeavors, I have found NVivo to be an invaluable tool, primarily due to its advanced coding capabilities and its ability to manage large and complex datasets effectively. The node structure in NVivo facilitates a hierarchical organization of themes, which streamlines the coding process and enhances the reliability of the data analysis. This feature was particularly beneficial in a recent project where the depth and volume of textual data required a robust system to ensure consistency and comprehensiveness in theme development.

Another tool I frequently utilize is Atlas.ti, which stands out for its user-friendly interface and powerful visualization tools. These features are instrumental in identifying and illustrating relationships between themes, thereby enriching the interpretive depth of the analysis. The network views in Atlas.ti have enabled me to construct clear visual representations of the data interconnections, which not only supported my analytical narrative but also facilitated stakeholder understanding and engagement. The combination of these tools, leveraging their respective strengths, has consistently augmented the quality and impact of my qualitative research outcomes.”

15. How do you handle discrepancies between participants’ words and actions in ethnographic research?

Ethnographic research hinges on the researcher’s ability to interpret both verbal and non-verbal data to draw meaningful conclusions. This question allows the interviewer to assess a candidate’s methodological rigor and analytical skills.

When responding, it’s essential to emphasize your systematic approach to reconciling such discrepancies. Discuss the importance of context, the use of triangulation to corroborate findings through multiple data sources, and the strategies you employ to interpret and integrate conflicting information. Highlight your commitment to ethical research practices, the ways you ensure participant understanding and consent, and your experience with reflective practice to mitigate researcher bias. Showcasing your ability to remain flexible and responsive to the data, while maintaining a clear analytical framework, will demonstrate your proficiency in qualitative research.

Example: “ In ethnographic research, discrepancies between participants’ words and actions are not only common but also a valuable source of insight. When I encounter such discrepancies, I first consider the context in which they occur, as it often holds the key to understanding the divergence. Cultural norms, social pressures, or even the presence of the researcher can influence participants’ behaviors and self-reporting. I employ triangulation, utilizing multiple data sources such as interviews, observations, and relevant documents to construct a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomena at hand.

I also engage in reflective practice to examine my own biases and assumptions that might influence data interpretation. By maintaining a stance of cultural humility and being open to the participants’ perspectives, I can better understand the reasons behind their actions and words. When integrating conflicting information, I look for patterns and themes that can reconcile the differences, often finding that they reveal deeper complexities within the social context being studied. Ethical research practices, including ensuring participant understanding and consent, are paramount throughout this process, as they help maintain the integrity of both the data and the relationships with participants.”

16. What role does reflexivity play in your research process?

Reflexivity is an ongoing self-assessment that ensures research findings are not merely a reflection of the researcher’s preconceptions, thereby increasing the credibility and authenticity of the work.

When responding, illustrate your understanding of reflexivity with examples from past research experiences. Discuss how you have actively engaged in reflexivity by questioning your assumptions, how this shaped your research design, and the methods you employed to ensure that your findings were informed by the data rather than your personal beliefs. Demonstrate your commitment to ethical research practice by highlighting how you’ve maintained an open dialogue with your participants and peers to challenge and refine your interpretations.

Example: “ Reflexivity is a cornerstone of my qualitative research methodology, as it allows me to critically examine my own influence on the research process and outcomes. In practice, I maintain a reflexive journal throughout the research process, documenting my preconceptions, emotional responses, and decision-making rationales. This ongoing self-analysis ensures that I remain aware of my potential biases and the ways in which my background and perspectives might shape the data collection and analysis.

For instance, in a recent ethnographic study, I recognized my own cultural assumptions could affect participant interactions. To mitigate this, I incorporated member checking and peer debriefing as integral parts of the research cycle. By actively seeking feedback on my interpretations from both participants and fellow researchers, I was able to challenge my initial readings of the data and uncover deeper, more nuanced insights. This reflexive approach not only enriched the research findings but also upheld the integrity and credibility of the study, fostering a more authentic and ethical representation of the participants’ experiences.”

17. Describe a complex qualitative dataset you’ve managed and how you navigated its challenges.

Managing a complex qualitative dataset requires meticulous organization, a strong grasp of research methods, and the ability to discern patterns and themes amidst a sea of words and narratives. This question evaluates the candidate’s analytical and critical thinking skills.

When responding to this question, you should focus on a specific project that exemplifies your experience with complex qualitative data. Outline the scope of the data, the methods you used for organization and analysis, and the challenges you encountered—such as data coding, thematic saturation, or ensuring reliability and validity. Discuss the strategies you implemented to address these challenges, such as iterative coding, member checking, or triangulation. By providing concrete examples, you demonstrate not only your technical ability but also your methodological rigor and dedication to producing insightful, credible research findings.

Example: “ In a recent project, I managed a complex qualitative dataset that comprised over 50 in-depth interviews, several focus groups, and field notes from participant observation. The data was rich with nuanced perspectives on community health practices, but it presented challenges in ensuring thematic saturation and maintaining a systematic approach to coding across multiple researchers.

To navigate these challenges, I employed a rigorous iterative coding process, utilizing NVivo software to facilitate organization and analysis. Initially, I conducted a round of open coding to identify preliminary themes, followed by axial coding to explore the relationships between these themes. As the dataset was extensive, I also implemented a strategy of constant comparison to refine and merge codes, ensuring thematic saturation was achieved. To enhance the reliability and validity of our findings, I organized regular peer debriefing sessions, where the research team could discuss and resolve discrepancies in coding and interpretation. Additionally, I conducted member checks with a subset of participants, which not only enriched the data but also validated our thematic constructs. This meticulous approach enabled us to develop a robust thematic framework that accurately reflected the complexity of the community’s health practices and informed subsequent policy recommendations.”

18. How do you integrate quantitative data to enhance the richness of a primarily qualitative study?

Integrating quantitative data with qualitative research can add a layer of objectivity, enhance validity, and offer a scalable dimension to the findings. This mixed-methods approach can help in identifying outliers or anomalies in qualitative data.

When responding to this question, a candidate should articulate their understanding of both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. They should discuss specific techniques such as triangulation, where quantitative data serves as a corroborative tool for qualitative findings, or embedded analysis, where quantitative data provides a backdrop for deep qualitative exploration. The response should also include practical examples of past research scenarios where the candidate successfully merged both data types to strengthen their study, highlighting their ability to create a symbiotic relationship between numbers and narratives for richer, more robust research outcomes.

Example: “ Integrating quantitative data into a qualitative study can significantly enhance the depth and credibility of the research findings. In my experience, I employ triangulation to ensure that themes emerging from qualitative data are not only rich in context but also empirically grounded. For instance, in a study exploring patient satisfaction, while qualitative interviews might reveal nuanced patient experiences, quantitative satisfaction scores can be used to validate and quantify the prevalence of these experiences across a larger population.

Furthermore, I often use quantitative data as a formative tool to guide the qualitative inquiry. By initially analyzing patterns in quantitative data, I can identify areas that require a deeper understanding through qualitative methods. For example, if a survey indicates a trend in consumer behavior, follow-up interviews or focus groups can explore the motivations behind that trend. This embedded analysis approach ensures that qualitative findings are not only contextually informed but also quantitatively relevant, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of the research question.”

19. What is your rationale for choosing narrative inquiry over other qualitative methods in storytelling contexts?

Narrative inquiry delves into individual stories to find broader truths and patterns. This method captures the richness of how people perceive and make sense of their lives, revealing the interplay of various factors in shaping narratives.

When responding, articulate your understanding of narrative inquiry, emphasizing its strengths in capturing lived experiences and its ability to provide a detailed, insider’s view of a phenomenon. Highlight your knowledge of how narrative inquiry can uncover the nuances of storytelling, such as the role of language, emotions, and context, which are essential for a deep understanding of the subject matter. Demonstrate your ability to choose an appropriate research method based on the research question, objectives, and the nature of the data you aim to collect.

Example: “ Narrative inquiry is a powerful qualitative method that aligns exceptionally well with the exploration of storytelling contexts due to its focus on the richness of personal experience and the construction of meaning. By delving into individuals’ stories, narrative inquiry allows researchers to capture the complexities of lived experiences, which are often embedded with emotions, cultural values, and temporal elements that other methods may not fully grasp. The longitudinal nature of narrative inquiry, where stories can be collected and analyzed over time, also offers a dynamic perspective on how narratives evolve, intersect, and influence the storyteller’s identity and worldview.

In choosing narrative inquiry, one is committing to a methodological approach that honors the subjectivity and co-construction of knowledge between the researcher and participants. This approach is particularly adept at uncovering the layers of language use, symbolism, and the interplay of narratives with broader societal discourses. It is this depth and nuance that makes narrative inquiry the method of choice when the research aim is not just to catalog events but to understand the profound implications of storytelling on individual and collective levels. The method’s flexibility in accommodating different narrative forms – be it oral, written, or visual – further underscores its suitability for research that seeks to holistically capture the essence of storytelling within its natural context.”

20. How do you address potential power dynamics that may influence a participant’s responses during interviews?

Recognizing and mitigating the influence of power dynamics is essential to maintain the integrity of the data collected in qualitative research, ensuring that findings reflect the participants’ genuine perspectives.

When responding to this question, one should emphasize their awareness of such dynamics and articulate strategies to minimize their impact. This could include techniques like establishing rapport, using neutral language, ensuring confidentiality, and employing reflexivity—being mindful of one’s own influence on the conversation. Furthermore, demonstrating an understanding of how to create a safe space for open dialogue and acknowledging the importance of participant empowerment can convey a commitment to ethical and effective qualitative research practices.

Example: “ In addressing potential power dynamics, my approach begins with the conscious effort to create an environment of trust and safety. I employ active listening and empathetic engagement to establish rapport, which helps to level the conversational field. I am meticulous in using neutral, non-leading language to avoid inadvertently imposing my own assumptions or perspectives on participants. This is complemented by an emphasis on the voluntary nature of participation and the assurance of confidentiality, which together foster a space where participants feel secure in sharing their authentic experiences.

Reflexivity is a cornerstone of my practice; I continuously self-assess and acknowledge my positionality and its potential influence on the research process. By engaging in this critical self-reflection, I am better equipped to recognize and mitigate any power imbalances that may arise. Moreover, I strive to empower participants by validating their narratives and ensuring that the interview process is not just extractive but also offers them a platform to be heard and to contribute meaningfully to the research. This balanced approach not only enriches the data quality but also adheres to the ethical standards that underpin responsible qualitative research.”

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• Open access
• Published: 11 May 2024

Nursing students’ stressors and coping strategies during their first clinical training: a qualitative study in the United Arab Emirates

• Jacqueline Maria Dias 1 ,
• Muhammad Arsyad Subu 1 ,
• Nabeel Al-Yateem 1 ,
• Fatma Refaat Ahmed 1 ,
• Syed Azizur Rahman 1 , 2 ,
• Mini Sara Abraham 1 ,
• Sareh Mirza Forootan 1 ,
• Farzaneh Ahmad Sarkhosh 1 &
• Fatemeh Javanbakh 1  

BMC Nursing volume  23 , Article number:  322 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

Understanding the stressors and coping strategies of nursing students in their first clinical training is important for improving student performance, helping students develop a professional identity and problem-solving skills, and improving the clinical teaching aspects of the curriculum in nursing programmes. While previous research have examined nurses’ sources of stress and coping styles in the Arab region, there is limited understanding of these stressors and coping strategies of nursing students within the UAE context thereby, highlighting the novelty and significance of the study.

A qualitative study was conducted using semi-structured interviews. Overall 30 students who were undergoing their first clinical placement in Year 2 at the University of Sharjah between May and June 2022 were recruited. All interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim and analyzed for themes.

During their first clinical training, nursing students are exposed to stress from different sources, including the clinical environment, unfriendly clinical tutors, feelings of disconnection, multiple expectations of clinical staff and patients, and gaps between the curriculum of theory classes and labatories skills and students’ clinical experiences. We extracted three main themes that described students’ stress and use of coping strategies during clinical training: (1) managing expectations; (2) theory-practice gap; and (3) learning to cope. Learning to cope, included two subthemes: positive coping strategies and negative coping strategies.

Conclusions

This qualitative study sheds light from the students viewpoint about the intricate interplay between managing expectations, theory practice gap and learning to cope. Therefore, it is imperative for nursing faculty, clinical agencies and curriculum planners to ensure maximum learning in the clinical by recognizing the significance of the stressors encountered and help students develop positive coping strategies to manage the clinical stressors encountered. Further research is required look at the perspective of clinical stressors from clinical tutors who supervise students during their first clinical practicum.

Peer Review reports

Nursing education programmes aim to provide students with high-quality clinical learning experiences to ensure that nurses can provide safe, direct care to patients [ 1 ]. The nursing baccalaureate programme at the University of Sharjah is a four year program with 137 credits. The programmes has both theoretical and clinical components withs nine clinical courses spread over the four years The first clinical practicum which forms the basis of the study takes place in year 2 semester 2.

Clinical practice experience is an indispensable component of nursing education and links what students learn in the classroom and in skills laboratories to real-life clinical settings [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. However, a gap exists between theory and practice as the curriculum in the classroom differs from nursing students’ experiences in the clinical nursing practicum [ 5 ]. Clinical nursing training places (or practicums, as they are commonly referred to), provide students with the necessary experiences to ensure that they become proficient in the delivery of patient care [ 6 ]. The clinical practicum takes place in an environment that combines numerous structural, psychological, emotional and organizational elements that influence student learning [ 7 ] and may affect the development of professional nursing competencies, such as compassion, communication and professional identity [ 8 ]. While clinical training is a major component of nursing education curricula, stress related to clinical training is common among students [ 9 ]. Furthermore, the nursing literature indicates that the first exposure to clinical learning is one of the most stressful experiences during undergraduate studies [ 8 , 10 ]. Thus, the clinical component of nursing education is considered more stressful than the theoretical component. Students often view clinical learning, where most learning takes place, as an unsupportive environment [ 11 ]. In addition, they note strained relationships between themselves and clinical preceptors and perceive that the negative attitudes of clinical staff produce stress [ 12 ].

The effects of stress on nursing students often involve a sense of uncertainty, uneasiness, or anxiety. The literature is replete with evidence that nursing students experience a variety of stressors during their clinical practicum, beginning with the first clinical rotation. Nursing is a complex profession that requires continuous interaction with a variety of individuals in a high-stress environment. Stress during clinical learning can have multiple negative consequences, including low academic achievement, elevated levels of burnout, and diminished personal well-being [ 13 , 14 ]. In addition, both theoretical and practical research has demonstrated that increased, continual exposure to stress leads to cognitive deficits, inability to concentrate, lack of memory or recall, misinterpretation of speech, and decreased learning capacity [ 15 ]. Furthermore, stress has been identified as a cause of attrition among nursing students [ 16 ].

Most sources of stress have been categorized as academic, clinical or personal. Each person copes with stress differently [ 17 ], and utilizes deliberate, planned, and psychological efforts to manage stressful demands [ 18 ]. Coping mechanisms are commonly termed adaptation strategies or coping skills. Labrague et al. [ 19 ] noted that students used critical coping strategies to handle stress and suggested that problem solving was the most common coping or adaptation mechanism used by nursing students. Nursing students’ coping strategies affect their physical and psychological well-being and the quality of nursing care they offer. Therefore, identifying the coping strategies that students use to manage stressors is important for early intervention [ 20 ].

Studies on nursing students’ coping strategies have been conducted in various countries. For example, Israeli nursing students were found to adopt a range of coping mechanisms, including talking to friends, engaging in sports, avoiding stress and sadness/misery, and consuming alcohol [ 21 ]. Other studies have examined stress levels among medical students in the Arab region. Chaabane et al. [ 15 ], conducted a systematic review of sudies in Arab countries, including Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Pakistan, Oman, Palestine and Bahrain, and reported that stress during clinical practicums was prevalent, although it could not be determined whether this was limited to the initial clinical course or occurred throughout clinical training. Stressors highlighted during the clinical period in the systematic review included assignments and workload during clinical practice, a feeling that the requirements of clinical practice exceeded students’ physical and emotional endurance and that their involvement in patient care was limited due to lack of experience. Furthermore, stress can have a direct effect on clinical performance, leading to mental disorders. Tung et al. [ 22 ], reported that the prevalence of depression among nursing students in Arab countries is 28%, which is almost six times greater than the rest of the world [ 22 ]. On the other hand, Saifan et al. [ 5 ], explored the theory-practice gap in the United Arab Emirates and found that clinical stressors could be decreased by preparing students better for clinical education with qualified clinical faculty and supportive preceptors.

The purpose of this study was to identify the stressors experienced by undergraduate nursing students in the United Arab Emirates during their first clinical training and the basic adaptation approaches or coping strategies they used. Recognizing or understanding different coping processes can inform the implementation of corrective measures when students experience clinical stress. The findings of this study may provide valuable information for nursing programmes, nurse educators, and clinical administrators to establish adaptive strategies to reduce stress among students going clinical practicums, particularly stressors from their first clinical training in different healthcare settings.

A qualitative approach was adopted to understand clinical stressors and coping strategies from the perspective of nurses’ lived experience. Qualitative content analysis was employed to obtain rich and detailed information from our qualitative data. Qualitative approaches seek to understand the phenomenon under study from the perspectives of individuals with lived experience [ 23 ]. Qualitative content analysis is an interpretive technique that examines the similarities and differences between and within different areas of text while focusing on the subject [ 24 ]. It is used to examine communication patterns in a repeatable and systematic way [ 25 ] and yields rich and detailed information on the topic under investigation [ 23 ]. It is a method of systematically coding and categorizing information and comprises a process of comprehending, interpreting, and conceptualizing the key meanings from qualitative data [ 26 ].

Setting and participants

This study was conducted after the clinical rotations ended in April 2022, between May and June in the nursing programme at the College of Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, in the United Arab Emirates. The study population comprised undergraduate nursing students who were undergoing their first clinical training and were recruited using purposive sampling. The inclusion criteria for this study were second-year nursing students in the first semester of clinical training who could speak English, were willing to participate in this research, and had no previous clinical work experience. The final sample consisted of 30 students.

Research instrument

The research instrument was a semi structured interview guide. The interview questions were based on an in-depth review of related literature. An intensive search included key words in Google Scholar, PubMed like the terms “nursing clinical stressors”, “nursing students”, and “coping mechanisms”. Once the questions were created, they were validated by two other faculty members who had relevant experience in mental health. A pilot test was conducted with five students and based on their feedback the following research questions, which were addressed in the study.

How would you describe your clinical experiences during your first clinical rotations?

In what ways did you find the first clinical rotation to be stressful?

What factors hindered your clinical training?

How did you cope with the stressors you encountered in clinical training?

Which strategies helped you cope with the clinical stressors you encountered?

Data collection

Semi-structured interviews were chosen as the method for data collection. Semi structured interviews are a well-established approach for gathering data in qualitative research and allow participants to discuss their views, experiences, attitudes, and beliefs in a positive environment [ 27 ]. This approach allows for flexibility in questioning thereby ensuring that key topics related to clinical learning stressors and coping strategies would be explored. Participants were given the opportunity to express their views, experiences, attitudes, and beliefs in a positive environment, encouraging open communication. These semi structured interviews were conducted by one member of the research team (MAS) who had a mental health background, and another member of the research team who attended the interviews as an observer (JMD). Neither of these researchers were involved in teaching the students during their clinical practicum, which helped to minimize bias. The interviews took place at the University of Sharjah, specifically in building M23, providing a familiar and comfortable environment for the participant. Before the interviews were all students who agreed to participate were provided with an explanation of the study’s purpose. The time and location of each interview were arranged. Before the interviews were conducted, all students who provided consent to participate received an explanation of the purpose of the study, and the time and place of each interview were arranged to accommodate the participants’ schedules and preferences. The interviews were conducted after the clinical rotation had ended in April, and after the final grades had been submitted to the coordinator. The timings of the interviews included the month of May and June which ensured that participants have completed their practicum experience and could reflect on the stressors more comprehensively. The interviews were audio-recorded with the participants’ consent, and each interview lasted 25–40 min. The data were collected until saturation was reached for 30 students. Memos and field notes were also recorded as part of the data collection process. These additional data allowed for triangulation to improve the credibility of the interpretations of the data [ 28 ]. Memos included the interviewers’ thoughts and interpretations about the interviews, the research process (including questions and gaps), and the analytic progress used for the research. Field notes were used to record the interviewers’ observations and reflections on the data. These additional data collection methods were important to guide the researchers in the interpretation of the data on the participants’ feelings, perspectives, experiences, attitudes, and beliefs. Finally, member checking was performed to ensure conformability.

Data analysis

The study used the content analysis method proposed by Graneheim and Lundman [ 24 ]. According to Graneheim and Lundman [ 24 ], content analysis is an interpretive technique that examines the similarities and differences between distinct parts of a text. This method allows researchers to determine exact theoretical and operational definitions of words, phrases, and symbols by elucidating their constituent properties [ 29 ]. First, we read the interview transcripts several times to reach an overall understanding of the data. All verbatim transcripts were read several times and discussed among all authors. We merged and used line-by-line coding of words, sentences, and paragraphs relevant to each other in terms of both the content and context of stressors and coping mechanisms. Next, we used data reduction to assess the relationships among themes using tables and diagrams to indicate conceptual patterns. Content related to stress encountered by students was extracted from the transcripts. In a separate document, we integrated and categorized all words and sentences that were related to each other in terms of both content and context. We analyzed all codes and units of meaning and compared them for similarities and differences in the context of this study. Furthermore, the emerging findings were discussed with other members of the researcher team. The final abstractions of meaningful subthemes into themes were discussed and agreed upon by the entire research team. This process resulted in the extraction of three main themes in addition to two subthemes related to stress and coping strategies.

Ethical considerations

The University of Sharjah Research Ethics Committee provided approval to conduct this study (Reference Number: REC 19-12-03-01-S). Before each interview, the goal and study procedures were explained to each participant, and written informed consent was obtained. The participants were informed that participation in the study was voluntary and that they could withdraw from the study at any time. In the event they wanted to withdraw from the study, all information related to the participant would be removed. No participant withdrew from the study. Furthermore, they were informed that their clinical practicum grade would not be affected by their participation in this study. We chose interview locations in Building M23that were private and quiet to ensure that the participants felt at ease and confident in verbalizing their opinions. No participant was paid directly for involvement in this study. In addition, participants were assured that their data would remain anonymous and confidential. Confidentiality means that the information provided by participants was kept private with restrictions on how and when data can be shared with others. The participants were informed that their information would not be duplicated or disseminated without their permission. Anonymity refers to the act of keeping people anonymous with respect to their participation in a research endeavor. No personal identifiers were used in this study, and each participant was assigned a random alpha-numeric code (e.g., P1 for participant 1). All digitally recorded interviews were downloaded to a secure computer protected by the principal investigator with a password. The researchers were the only people with access to the interview material (recordings and transcripts). All sensitive information and materials were kept secure in the principal researcher’s office at the University of Sharjah. The data will be maintained for five years after the study is completed, after which the material will be destroyed (the transcripts will be shredded, and the tapes will be demagnetized).

In total, 30 nursing students who were enrolled in the nursing programme at the Department of Nursing, College of Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, and who were undergoing their first clinical practicum participated in the study. Demographically, 80% ( n  = 24) were females and 20% ( n  = 6) were male participants. The majority (83%) of study participants ranged in age from 18 to 22 years. 20% ( n  = 6) were UAE nationals, 53% ( n  = 16) were from Gulf Cooperation Council countries, while 20% ( n  = 6) hailed from Africa and 7% ( n  = 2) were of South Asian descent. 67% of the respondents lived with their families while 33% lived in the hostel. (Table  1 )

Following the content analysis, we identified three main themes: (1) managing expectations, (2) theory-practice gap and 3)learning to cope. Learning to cope had two subthemes: positive coping strategies and negative coping strategies. An account of each theme is presented along with supporting excerpts for the identified themes. The identified themes provide valuable insight into the stressors encountered by students during their first clinical practicum. These themes will lead to targeted interventions and supportive mechanisms that can be built into the clinical training curriculum to support students during clinical practice.

Theme 1: managing expectations

In our examination of the stressors experienced by nursing students during their first clinical practicum and the coping strategies they employed, we identified the first theme as managing expectations.

The students encountered expectations from various parties, such as clinical staff, patients and patients’ relatives which they had to navigate. They attempted to fulfil their expectations as they progressed through training, which presented a source of stress. The students noted that the hospital staff and patients expected them to know how to perform a variety of tasks upon request, which made the students feel stressed and out of place if they did not know how to perform these tasks. Some participants noted that other nurses in the clinical unit did not allow them to participate in nursing procedures, which was considered an enormous impediment to clinical learning, as noted in the excerpt below:

“…Sometimes the nurses… They will not allow us to do some procedures or things during clinical. And sometimes the patients themselves don’t allow us to do procedures” (P5).

Some of the students noted that they felt they did not belong and felt like foreigners in the clinical unit. Excerpts from the students are presented in the following quotes;

“The clinical environment is so stressful. I don’t feel like I belong. There is too little time to build a rapport with hospital staff or the patient” (P22).

“… you ask the hospital staff for some guidance or the location of equipment, and they tell us to ask our clinical tutor …but she is not around … what should I do? It appears like we do not belong, and the sooner the shift is over, the better” (P18).

“The staff are unfriendly and expect too much from us students… I feel like I don’t belong, or I am wasting their (the hospital staff’s) time. I want to ask questions, but they have loads to do” (P26).

Other students were concerned about potential failure when working with patients during clinical training, which impacted their confidence. They were particularly afraid of failure when performing any clinical procedures.

“At the beginning, I was afraid to do procedures. I thought that maybe the patient would be hurt and that I would not be successful in doing it. I have low self-confidence in doing procedures” (P13).

The call bell rings, and I am told to answer Room No. XXX. The patient wants help to go to the toilet, but she has two IV lines. I don’t know how to transport the patient… should I take her on the wheelchair? My eyes glance around the room for a wheelchair. I am so confused …I tell the patient I will inform the sister at the nursing station. The relative in the room glares at me angrily … “you better hurry up”…Oh, I feel like I don’t belong, as I am not able to help the patient… how will I face the same patient again?” (P12).

Another major stressor mentioned in the narratives was related to communication and interactions with patients who spoke another language, so it was difficult to communicate.

“There was a challenge with my communication with the patients. Sometimes I have communication barriers because they (the patients) are of other nationalities. I had an experience with a patient [who was] Indian, and he couldn’t speak my language. I did not understand his language” (P9).

Thus, a variety of expectations from patients, relatives, hospital staff, and preceptors acted as sources of stress for students during their clinical training.

Theme 2: theory-practice gap

Theory-practice gaps have been identified in previous studies. In our study, there was complete dissonance between theory and actual clinical practice. The clinical procedures or practices nursing students were expected to perform differed from the theory they had covered in their university classes and skills lab. This was described as a theory–practice gap and often resulted in stress and confusion.

“For example …the procedures in the hospital are different. They are different from what we learned or from theory on campus. Or… the preceptors have different techniques than what we learned on campus. So, I was stress[ed] and confused about it” (P11).

Furthermore, some students reported that they did not feel that they received adequate briefing before going to clinical training. A related source of stress was overload because of the volume of clinical coursework and assignments in addition to clinical expectations. Additionally, the students reported that a lack of time and time management were major sources of stress in their first clinical training and impacted their ability to complete the required paperwork and assignments:

“…There is not enough time…also, time management at the hospital…for example, we start at seven a.m., and the handover takes 1 hour to finish. They (the nurses at the hospital) are very slow…They start with bed making and morning care like at 9.45 a.m. Then, we must fill [out] our assessment tool and the NCP (nursing care plan) at 10 a.m. So, 15 only minutes before going to our break. We (the students) cannot manage this time. This condition makes me and my friends very stressed out. -I cannot do my paperwork or assignments; no time, right?” (P10).

“Stressful. There is a lot of work to do in clinical. My experiences are not really good with this course. We have a lot of things to do, so many assignments and clinical procedures to complete” (P16).

The participants noted that the amount of required coursework and number of assignments also presented a challenge during their first clinical training and especially affected their opportunity to learn.

“I need to read the file, know about my patient’s condition and pathophysiology and the rationale for the medications the patient is receiving…These are big stressors for my learning. I think about assignments often. Like, we are just focusing on so many assignments and papers. We need to submit assessments and care plans for clinical cases. We focus our time to complete and finish the papers rather than doing the real clinical procedures, so we lose [the] chance to learn” (P25).

Another participant commented in a similar vein that there was not enough time to perform tasks related to clinical requirements during clinical placement.

“…there is a challenge because we do not have enough time. Always no time for us to submit papers, to complete assessment tools, and some nurses, they don’t help us. I think we need more time to get more experiences and do more procedures, reduce the paperwork that we have to submit. These are challenges …” (P14).

There were expectations that the students should be able to carry out their nursing duties without becoming ill or adversely affected. In addition, many students reported that the clinical environment was completely different from the skills laboratory at the college. Exposure to the clinical setting added to the theory-practice gap, and in some instances, the students fell ill.

One student made the following comment:

“I was assisting a doctor with a dressing, and the sight and smell from the oozing wound was too much for me. I was nauseated. As soon as the dressing was done, I ran to the bathroom and threw up. I asked myself… how will I survive the next 3 years of nursing?” (P14).

Theme 3: learning to cope

The study participants indicated that they used coping mechanisms (both positive and negative) to adapt to and manage the stressors in their first clinical practicum. Important strategies that were reportedly used to cope with stress were time management, good preparation for clinical practice, and positive thinking as well as engaging in physical activity and self-motivation.

“Time management. Yes, it is important. I was encouraging myself. I used time management and prepared myself before going to the clinical site. Also, eating good food like cereal…it helps me very much in the clinic” (P28).

“Oh yeah, for sure positive thinking. In the hospital, I always think positively. Then, after coming home, I get [to] rest and think about positive things that I can do. So, I will think something good [about] these things, and then I will be relieved of stress” (P21).

Other strategies commonly reported by the participants were managing their breathing (e.g., taking deep breaths, breathing slowly), taking breaks to relax, and talking with friends about the problems they encountered.

“I prefer to take deep breaths and breathe slowly and to have a cup of coffee and to talk to my friends about the case or the clinical preceptor and what made me sad so I will feel more relaxed” (P16).

“Maybe I will take my break so I feel relaxed and feel better. After clinical training, I go directly home and take a long shower, going over the day. I will not think about anything bad that happened that day. I just try to think about good things so that I forget the stress” (P27).

“Yes, my first clinical training was not easy. It was difficult and made me stressed out…. I felt that it was a very difficult time for me. I thought about leaving nursing” (P7).

I was not able to offer my prayers. For me, this was distressing because as a Muslim, I pray regularly. Now, my prayer time is pushed to the end of the shift” (P11).

“When I feel stress, I talk to my friends about the case and what made me stressed. Then I will feel more relaxed” (P26).

Self-support or self-motivation through positive self-talk was also used by the students to cope with stress.

“Yes, it is difficult in the first clinical training. When I am stress[ed], I go to the bathroom and stand in the front of the mirror; I talk to myself, and I say, “You can do it,” “you are a great student.” I motivate myself: “You can do it”… Then, I just take breaths slowly several times. This is better than shouting or crying because it makes me tired” (P11).

Other participants used physical activity to manage their stress.

“How do I cope with my stress? Actually, when I get stressed, I will go for a walk on campus” (P4).

“At home, I will go to my room and close the door and start doing my exercises. After that, I feel the negative energy goes out, then I start to calm down… and begin my clinical assignments” (P21).

Both positive and negative coping strategies were utilized by the students. Some participants described using negative coping strategies when they encountered stress during their clinical practice. These negative coping strategies included becoming irritable and angry, eating too much food, drinking too much coffee, and smoking cigarettes.

“…Negative adaptation? Maybe coping. If I am stressed, I get so angry easily. I am irritable all day also…It is negative energy, right? Then, at home, I am also angry. After that, it is good to be alone to think about my problems” (P12).

“Yeah, if I…feel stress or depressed, I will eat a lot of food. Yeah, ineffective, like I will be eating a lot, drinking coffee. Like I said, effective, like I will prepare myself and do breathing, ineffective, I will eat a lot of snacks in between my free time. This is the bad side” (P16).

“…During the first clinical practice? Yes, it was a difficult experience for us…not only me. When stressed, during a break at the hospital, I will drink two or three cups of coffee… Also, I smoke cigarettes… A lot. I can drink six cups [of coffee] a day when I am stressed. After drinking coffee, I feel more relaxed, I finish everything (food) in the refrigerator or whatever I have in the pantry, like chocolates, chips, etc” (P23).

These supporting excerpts for each theme and the analysis offers valuable insights into the specific stressors faced by nursing students during their first clinical practicum. These insights will form the basis for the development of targeted interventions and supportive mechanisms within the clinical training curriculum to better support students’ adjustment and well-being during clinical practice.

Our study identified the stressors students encounter in their first clinical practicum and the coping strategies, both positive and negative, that they employed. Although this study emphasizes the importance of clinical training to prepare nursing students to practice as nurses, it also demonstrates the correlation between stressors and coping strategies.The content analysis of the first theme, managing expectations, paves the way for clinical agencies to realize that the students of today will be the nurses of tomorrow. It is important to provide a welcoming environment where students can develop their identities and learn effectively. Additionally, clinical staff should foster an environment of individualized learning while also assisting students in gaining confidence and competence in their repertoire of nursing skills, including critical thinking, problem solving and communication skills [ 8 , 15 , 19 , 30 ]. Another challenge encountered by the students in our study was that they were prevented from participating in clinical procedures by some nurses or patients. This finding is consistent with previous studies reporting that key challenges for students in clinical learning include a lack of clinical support and poor attitudes among clinical staff and instructors [ 31 ]. Clinical staff with positive attitudes have a positive impact on students’ learning in clinical settings [ 32 ]. The presence, supervision, and guidance of clinical instructors and the assistance of clinical staff are essential motivating components in the clinical learning process and offer positive reinforcement [ 30 , 33 , 34 ]. Conversely, an unsupportive learning environment combined with unwelcoming clinical staff and a lack of sense of belonging negatively impact students’ clinical learning [ 35 ].

The sources of stress identified in this study were consistent with common sources of stress in clinical training reported in previous studies, including the attitudes of some staff, students’ status in their clinical placement and educational factors. Nursing students’ inexperience in the clinical setting and lack of social and emotional experience also resulted in stress and psychological difficulties [ 36 ]. Bhurtun et al. [ 33 ] noted that nursing staff are a major source of stress for students because the students feel like they are constantly being watched and evaluated.

We also found that students were concerned about potential failure when working with patients during their clinical training. Their fear of failure when performing clinical procedures may be attributable to low self-confidence. Previous studies have noted that students were concerned about injuring patients, being blamed or chastised, and failing examinations [ 37 , 38 ]. This was described as feeling “powerless” in a previous study [ 7 , 12 ]. In addition, patients’ attitudes towards “rejecting” nursing students or patients’ refusal of their help were sources of stress among the students in our study and affected their self-confidence. Self-confidence and a sense of belonging are important for nurses’ personal and professional identity, and low self-confidence is a problem for nursing students in clinical learning [ 8 , 39 , 40 ]. Our findings are consistent with a previous study that reported that a lack of self-confidence was a primary source of worry and anxiety for nursing students and affected their communication and intention to leave nursing [ 41 ].

In the second theme, our study suggests that students encounter a theory-practice gap in clinical settings, which creates confusion and presents an additional stressors. Theoretical and clinical training are complementary elements of nursing education [ 40 ], and this combination enables students to gain the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary to provide nursing care. This is consistent with the findings of a previous study that reported that inconsistencies between theoretical knowledge and practical experience presented a primary obstacle to the learning process in the clinical context [ 42 ], causing students to lose confidence and become anxious [ 43 ]. Additionally, the second theme, the theory-practice gap, authenticates Safian et al.’s [ 5 ] study of the theory-practice gap that exists United Arab Emirates among nursing students as well as the need for more supportive clinical faculty and the extension of clinical hours. The need for better time availability and time management to complete clinical tasks were also reported by the students in the study. Students indicated that they had insufficient time to complete clinical activities because of the volume of coursework and assignments. Our findings support those of Chaabane et al. [ 15 ]. A study conducted in Saudi Arabia [ 44 ] found that assignments and workload were among the greatest sources of stress for students in clinical settings. Effective time management skills have been linked to academic achievement, stress reduction, increased creativity [ 45 ], and student satisfaction [ 46 ]. Our findings are also consistent with previous studies that reported that a common source of stress among first-year students was the increased classroom workload [ 19 , 47 ]. As clinical assignments and workloads are major stressors for nursing students, it is important to promote activities to help them manage these assignments [ 48 ].

Another major challenge reported by the participants was related to communicating and interacting with other nurses and patients. The UAE nursing workforce and population are largely expatriate and diverse and have different cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Therefore, student nurses encounter difficulty in communication [ 49 ]. This cultural diversity that students encounter in communication with patients during clinical training needs to be addressed by curriculum planners through the offering of language courses and courses on cultural diversity [ 50 ].

Regarding the third and final theme, nursing students in clinical training are unable to avoid stressors and must learn to cope with or adapt to them. Previous research has reported a link between stressors and the coping mechanisms used by nursing students [ 51 , 52 , 53 ]. In particular, the inability to manage stress influences nurses’ performance, physical and mental health, attitude, and role satisfaction [ 54 ]. One such study suggested that nursing students commonly use problem-focused (dealing with the problem), emotion-focused (regulating emotion), and dysfunctional (e.g., venting emotions) stress coping mechanisms to alleviate stress during clinical training [ 15 ]. Labrague et al. [ 51 ] highlighted that nursing students use both active and passive coping techniques to manage stress. The pattern of clinical stress has been observed in several countries worldwide. The current study found that first-year students experienced stress during their first clinical training [ 35 , 41 , 55 ]. The stressors they encountered impacted their overall health and disrupted their clinical learning. Chaabane et al. [ 15 ] reported moderate and high stress levels among nursing students in Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Oman, Pakistan, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, and Sudan. Another study from Bahrain reported that all nursing students experienced moderate to severe stress in their first clinical placement [ 56 ]. Similarly, nursing students in Spain experienced a moderate level of stress, and this stress was significantly correlated with anxiety [ 30 ]. Therefore, it is imperative that pastoral systems at the university address students’ stress and mental health so that it does not affect their clinical performance. Faculty need to utilize evidence-based interventions to support students so that anxiety-producing situations and attrition are minimized.

In our study, students reported a variety of positive and negative coping mechanisms and strategies they used when they experienced stress during their clinical practice. Positive coping strategies included time management, positive thinking, self-support/motivation, breathing, taking breaks, talking with friends, and physical activity. These findings are consistent with those of a previous study in which healthy coping mechanisms used by students included effective time management, social support, positive reappraisal, and participation in leisure activities [ 57 ]. Our study found that relaxing and talking with friends were stress management strategies commonly used by students. Communication with friends to cope with stress may be considered social support. A previous study also reported that people seek social support to cope with stress [ 58 ]. Some students in our study used physical activity to cope with stress, consistent with the findings of previous research. Stretching exercises can be used to counteract the poor posture and positioning associated with stress and to assist in reducing physical tension. Promoting such exercise among nursing students may assist them in coping with stress in their clinical training [ 59 ].

Our study also showed that when students felt stressed, some adopted negative coping strategies, such as showing anger/irritability, engaging in unhealthy eating habits (e.g., consumption of too much food or coffee), or smoking cigarettes. Previous studies have reported that high levels of perceived stress affect eating habits [ 60 ] and are linked to poor diet quality, increased snacking, and low fruit intake [ 61 ]. Stress in clinical settings has also been linked to sleep problems, substance misuse, and high-risk behaviors’ and plays a major role in student’s decision to continue in their programme.

Implications of the study

The implications of the study results can be grouped at multiple levels including; clinical, educational, and organizational level. A comprehensive approach to addressing the stressors encountered by nursing students during their clinical practicum can be overcome by offering some practical strategies to address the stressors faced by nursing students during their clinical practicum. By integrating study findings into curriculum planning, mentorship programs, and organizational support structures, a supportive and nurturing environment that enhances students’ learning, resilience, and overall success can be envisioned.

Clinical level

Introducing simulation in the skills lab with standardized patients and the use of moulage to demonstrate wounds, ostomies, and purulent dressings enhances students’ practical skills and prepares them for real-world clinical scenarios. Organizing orientation days at clinical facilities helps familiarize students with the clinical environment, identify potential stressors, and introduce interventions to enhance professionalism, social skills, and coping abilities Furthermore, creating a WhatsApp group facilitates communication and collaboration among hospital staff, clinical tutors, nursing faculty, and students, enabling immediate support and problem-solving for clinical situations as they arise, Moreover, involving chief nursing officers of clinical facilities in the Nursing Advisory Group at the Department of Nursing promotes collaboration between academia and clinical practice, ensuring alignment between educational objectives and the needs of the clinical setting [ 62 ].

Educational level

Sharing study findings at conferences (we presented the results of this study at Sigma Theta Tau International in July 2023 in Abu Dhabi, UAE) and journal clubs disseminates knowledge and best practices among educators and clinicians, promoting awareness and implementation of measures to improve students’ learning experiences. Additionally we hold mentorship training sessions annually in January and so we shared with the clinical mentors and preceptors the findings of this study so that they proactively they are equipped with strategies to support students’ coping with stressors during clinical placements.

Organizational level

At the organizational we relooked at the available student support structures, including counseling, faculty advising, and career advice, throughout the nursing program emphasizing the importance of holistic support for students’ well-being and academic success as well as retention in the nursing program. Also, offering language courses as electives recognizes the value of communication skills in nursing practice and provides opportunities for personal and professional development.

For first-year nursing students, clinical stressors are inevitable and must be given proper attention. Recognizing nursing students’ perspectives on the challenges and stressors experienced in clinical training is the first step in overcoming these challenges. In nursing schools, providing an optimal clinical environment as well as increasing supervision and evaluation of students’ practices should be emphasized. Our findings demonstrate that first-year nursing students are exposed to a variety of different stressors. Identifying the stressors, pressures, and obstacles that first-year students encounter in the clinical setting can assist nursing educators in resolving these issues and can contribute to students’ professional development and survival to allow them to remain in the profession. To overcome stressors, students frequently employ problem-solving approaches or coping mechanisms. The majority of nursing students report stress at different levels and use a variety of positive and negative coping techniques to manage stress.

The present results may not be generalizable to other nursing institutions because this study used a purposive sample along with a qualitative approach and was limited to one university in the Middle East. Furthermore, the students self-reported their stress and its causes, which may have introduced reporting bias. The students may also have over or underreported stress or coping mechanisms because of fear of repercussions or personal reasons, even though the confidentiality of their data was ensured. Further studies are needed to evaluate student stressors and coping now that measures have been introduced to support students. Time will tell if these strategies are being used effectively by both students and clinical personnel or if they need to be readdressed. Finally, we need to explore the perceptions of clinical faculty towards supervising students in their first clinical practicum so that clinical stressors can be handled effectively.

Data availability

The data sets are available with the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to all second year nursing students who voluntarily participated in the study.

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Jacqueline Maria Dias, Muhammad Arsyad Subu, Nabeel Al-Yateem, Fatma Refaat Ahmed, Syed Azizur Rahman, Mini Sara Abraham, Sareh Mirza Forootan, Farzaneh Ahmad Sarkhosh & Fatemeh Javanbakh

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JMD conceptualized the idea and designed the methodology, formal analysis, writing original draft and project supervision and mentoring. MAS prepared the methodology and conducted the qualitative interviews and analyzed the methodology and writing of original draft and project supervision. NY, FRA, SAR, MSA writing review and revising the draft. SMF, FAS, FJ worked with MAS on the formal analysis and prepared the first draft.All authors reviewed the final manuscipt of the article.

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Dr Fatma Refaat Ahmed is an editorial board member in BMC Nursing. Other authors do not have any conflict of interest

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Dias, J.M., Subu, M.A., Al-Yateem, N. et al. Nursing students’ stressors and coping strategies during their first clinical training: a qualitative study in the United Arab Emirates. BMC Nurs 23 , 322 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-01962-5

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-01962-5

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10 Examples of Strengths and Weaknesses of Job Interviews

In a job interview, learn to answer the question, "What are your strengths and weaknesses?"

It is very common for hiring managers to ask about your strengths and weaknesses during a job interview. Like any question, your response holds weight. An interview aims to evaluate your ability to get the job done. This is an opportunity to highlight your positive qualities and demonstrate a growth mindset.

Everybody has both strengths and weaknesses. Answering this question will help you provide a context example of how you use your strengths to shine and improve any weaknesses relevant to the role. 

This article explains why interviewers ask this question, lists examples of strengths and weaknesses, and offers suggestions to help you answer wisely.

Why interviewers ask about strengths and weaknesses

This common question is a helpful tool for interviewers to understand your personality and working style. When hiring managers ask about your strengths and weaknesses, they evaluate a few things:

How do you conduct a self-assessment

Whether you are aware of your positive traits and how you use them in the workplace

Whether you can address your weaknesses and how you’ve worked to improve them

How your skills and traits will balance out those of current team members 

Strategies for talking about strengths

It may be helpful to first reflect on this question from the hiring manager’s perspective. What qualities or competencies are they looking for in this specific role? Consider how you can leverage your strengths to align with a key competency of the job description.

For your strengths, be confident. This is your chance to highlight what makes you a great fit for the job. Mention one or two top strengths, and provide examples of how you’ve used them in the workplace. Suppose you can back this up with measurable results, which would be even better. Reflect on these two questions as you formulate your answer: 

Why are you good at X? 

How does X help you at work?

Here is a sample structure for a response:

I am [STRENGTH]. I learned this through [HOW YOU DEVELOPED STRENGTH], and this allowed me to [IMPACT of STRENGTH] at my current/previous job/experience.

When you approach this question, consider the positive qualities you embody and the skills you possess that serve you well in the workplace. Here is a list of strengths to consider: 

Entrepreneurial

Detail-oriented

Collaborative

Problem-solver

Able to lead

Expert in a particular skill or software

Sample responses to "What are your strengths?"

These examples can give you an idea of the type of structured response. They demonstrate that you are confident of this strength and will use it to succeed in this specific role.

1. Collaborative

I am very collaborative. I’ve always enjoyed working on teams, and it is one of my strongest attributes. In my previous job as a marketing research analyst, I led a project involving diverse stakeholders, focus groups, and extensive field research, which taught me my ability to inspire others in stressful situations. The client used our insights to create a sustainable (both environmentally and financially) product.

2. Technical know-how

I love staying up-to-date with trends in the tech industry. From my current role, I know the ins and outs of SAP very well, so I can anticipate problems before they arise. I get excited about tinkering around with gadgets in my personal life, and this trait has come in handy in the workplace when I get to know a piece of software or program intimately.

3. Detail-oriented

As a content creator, I love brainstorming new approaches to reach our consumers. However, I am most known for my attention to detail. I care a lot about word choice because precise language can transform a piece from good to excellent (and I never miss a deadline). My blogs and articles consistently perform well and reach the top of Google searches. 

4. Positive attitude

My positive attitude is definitely one of my strengths. I have been a restaurant server, tutor, and health aide in the past decade, all jobs that require plenty of energy and endurance. I can view a situation from multiple perspectives and empathise with my customers, students, and patients to understand their needs at any time.

5. Solving problems

I am a solutions-oriented person and a quick learner. As an electrical engineer, I learned to perform well under pressure when designing equipment because our team could only win a contract if we produced the blueprints quickly with as few resources as possible. I am fearless in asking questions to determine the challenge in these circumstances. I do extensive research so that every client is extra prepared.

Strategies for talking about weaknesses

We all have weaknesses—that's just a part of being human. But your capacity to recognise a weakness and work towards improvement can be a strength. The key to talking about your weaknesses is to pair self-awareness with an action and a result:

What's the weakness?

What have you been doing to improve?

How has that improvement had a positive impact on your work?

Your interviewer may approach this question differently, so you’ll want to be prepared for the possibilities. Variations might include:

• What would your current manager/colleagues say is your biggest weakness?

• If you could change one thing about yourself, what would it be?

• How do you bounce back from mistakes?

• What areas in your career do you feel you could improve?

Explaining that you are aware of a particular weakness and have taken steps to improve is a sign of maturity and drive that is attractive to employers. Here is a sample structure for a response:

I used to have trouble with [WEAKNESS]. I've been working to address this by [ACTION] and realised I was improving because of [IMPACT].

When preparing to discuss your weaknesses, choose one that allows you to demonstrate growth and enthusiasm for learning. Here are some weaknesses that you might select from for your response: 

Self-critical

Disorganised

Prone to procrastination 

Uncomfortable with public speaking

Uncomfortable with delegating tasks

Risk-averse

Competitive 

Sensitive/emotional

Extreme introversion or extroversion

Limited experience in a particular skill or software

Sample responses to "What are your weaknesses?"

Feeling uncomfortable talking about your weaknesses to a potential employer is normal. But remember, this is an opportunity to showcase your ability to assess your performance honestly, respond to feedback positively, and continually improve—essential traits in almost any role. 

The following examples can help you formulate your response.

1. Self-criticism

I can be quite critical of myself, leading to negative self-talk and burnout. I can avoid this by recording my goals, objectives, and key results and setting aside time to celebrate milestones and achievements, big and small. This not only helps me focus on how I'm benefiting the team, but it has also helped me improve my prioritisation of my most impactful tasks.

2. Fear of public speaking

I am a naturally shy person. Since I was a kid, I have always felt nervous about presenting in front of the class and translating into the workplace. I led a big project a few years ago and was asked to present it to board members. I was so nervous, but I realised I had to overcome this fear. I signed up for Toastmasters as a way to practice public speaking. Not only did this help get me through that first presentation, but it also helped me feel more confident as a leader. Now, I'm helping my team build presentation skills.

3. Procrastination

Procrastination has long been a bad habit of mine. It stems from a fear of failure, to be honest. In my last job as a real estate agent, keeping up with appointments and critical paperwork was essential to success. I started using Google Calendar and apps like Trello to manage my time better. Crossing things off my to-do list makes me feel accomplished, and I've learned to tackle more challenging tasks early in the day when I'm feeling refreshed and less likely to put them off. 

4. Issues with delegating tasks

I'm a perfectionist, so I sometimes struggle to delegate tasks to my teammates. This has led to taking on too much. As a manager, I've been intentional about recognising the strengths of those on my team and delegating tasks that match those strengths. It was hard at first, but I've seen that by communicating clear expectations and trusting my team, they rise to the occasion, and I can manage projects more efficiently. 

5. Lack of experience with skill or software

I haven't had as much experience with Python as I'd like. When I shifted to data analytics, I knew I'd need a statistical programming language to perform efficient analysis. I signed up for a Python for Everybody course, and I've found I really love it. I'm excited to start applying the techniques I'm learning to help make my workflow more efficient.

Strengthen your weaknesses with Coursera.

Learn everything from Excel to cybersecurity to business writing with over 5,000 courses, certificates, and degrees from world-class institutions on Coursera. Join our global communit y and discover your next strength! 

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Welcome to the daily solving of our PROBLEM OF THE DAY with Yash Dwivedi . We will discuss the entire problem step-by-step and work towards developing an optimized solution. This will not only help you brush up on your concepts of Number Theory but also build up problem-solving skills. In this problem, we are given an infinite number line. You start at 0 and can go either to the left or to the right. The condition is that in the ith move, you must take i steps. Given a destination d, find the minimum number of steps required to reach that destination.

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