writing for qualitative research

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Qualitative Research Resources: Writing Up Your Research

Created by health science librarians.

• What is Qualitative Research?
• Qualitative Research Basics
• Special Topics
• Training Opportunities: UNC & Beyond
• Help at UNC
• Qualitative Software for Coding/Analysis
• Software for Audio, Video, Online Surveys
• Finding Qualitative Studies
• Assessing Qualitative Research

About this Page

Writing conventions for qualitative research, sample size/sampling:.

• Integrating Qualitative Research into Systematic Reviews
• Publishing Qualitative Research
• Presenting Qualitative Research
• Qualitative & Libraries: a few gems
• Data Repositories

Why is this information important?

• The conventions of good writing and research reporting are different for qualitative and quantitative research.
• Your article will be more likely to be published if you make sure you follow appropriate conventions in your writing.

On this page you will find the following helpful resources:

• Articles with information on what journal editors look for in qualitative research articles.
• Articles and books on the craft of collating qualitative data into a research article.

These articles provide tips on what journal editors look for when they read qualitative research papers for potential publication.  Also see Assessing Qualitative Research tab in this guide for additional information that may be helpful to authors.

Belgrave, L., D. Zablotsky and M.A. Guadagno.(2002). How do we talk to each other? Writing qualitative research for quantitative readers . Qualitative Health Research , 12(10),1427-1439.

Hunt, Brandon. (2011) Publishing Qualitative Research in Counseling Journals . Journal of Counseling and Development 89(3):296-300.

Fetters, Michael and Dawn Freshwater. (2015). Publishing a Methodological Mixed Methods Research Article. Journal of Mixed Methods Research 9(3): 203-213.

Koch, Lynn C., Tricia Niesz, and Henry McCarthy. (2014). Understanding and Reporting Qualitative Research: An Analytic Review and Recommendations for Submitting Authors. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin 57(3):131-143.

Morrow, Susan L. (2005) Quality and Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research in Counseling Psychology ; Journal of Counseling Psychology 52(2):250-260.

Oliver, Deborah P. (2011) "Rigor in Qualitative Research." Research on Aging 33(4): 359-360.

Sandelowski, M., & Leeman, J. (2012). Writing usable qualitative health research findings . Qual Health Res, 22(10), 1404-1413.

Schoenberg, Nancy E., Miller, Edward A., and Pruchno, Rachel. (2011) The qualitative portfolio at The Gerontologist : strong and getting stronger. Gerontologist 51(3): 281-284.

Weaver-Hightower, M. B. (2019). How to write qualitative research . [e-book]

Sidhu, Kalwant, Roger Jones, and Fiona Stevenson (2017). Publishing qualitative research in medical journals. Br J Gen Pract ; 67 (658): 229-230. DOI: 10.3399/bjgp17X690821 PMID: 28450340

• This article is based on a workshop on publishing qualitative studies held at the Society for Academic Primary Care Annual Conference, Dublin, July 2016.

Smith, Mary Lee.(1987) Publishing Qualitative Research. American Educational Research Journal 24(2): 173-183.

Tong, Allison, Sainsbury, Peter, Craig, Jonathan ; Consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ): a 32-item checklist for interviews and focus groups , International Journal for Quality in Health Care , Volume 19, Issue 6, 1 December 2007, Pages 349–357, https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzm042 .

Tracy, Sarah. (2010) Qualitative Quality: Eight 'Big-Tent' Criteria for Excellent Qualitative Research. Qualitative Inquiry 16(10):837-51.

Because reviewers are not always familiar with qualitative methods, they may ask for explanation or justification of your methods when you submit an article. Because different disciplines,different qualitative methods, and different contexts may dictate different approaches to this issue, you may want to consult articles in your field and in target journals for publication.  Additionally, here are some articles that may be helpful in thinking about this issue. 

Bonde, Donna. (2013). Qualitative Interviews: When Enough is Enough . Research by Design.

Guest, Greg, Arwen Bunce, and Laura Johnson. (2006) How Many Interviews are Enough?: An Experiment with Data Saturation and Variability. Field Methods 18(1): 59-82.

Morse, Janice M. (2015) "Data Were Saturated..." Qualitative Health Research 25(5): 587-88 . doi:10.1177/1049732315576699.

Nelson, J. (2016) "Using Conceptual Depth Criteria: Addressing the Challenge of Reaching Saturation in Qualitative Research." Qualitative Research, December. doi:10.1177/1468794116679873.

Patton, Michael Quinn. (2015) "Chapter 5: Designing Qualitative Studies, Module 30 Purposeful Sampling and Case Selection. In Qualitative Research & Evaluation Methods: Integrating Theory and Practice, Fourth edition, pp. 264-72. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications, Inc. ISBN: 978-1-4129-7212-3

Small, Mario Luis. (2009) 'How Many Cases Do I Need?': On Science and the Logic of Case-Based Selection in Field-Based Research. Ethnography 10(1): 538.

Search the UNC-CH catalog for books about qualitative writing . Selected general books from the catalog are listed below. If you are a researcher at another institution, ask your librarian for assistance locating similar books in your institution's catalog or ordering them via InterLibrary Loan.  

Oft quoted and food for thought

• Morse, J. M. (1997). " Perfectly healthy, but dead": the myth of inter-rater reliability. DOI:10.1177/104973239700700401 Editorial
• Silberzahn, R., Uhlmann, E. L., Martin, D. P., Anselmi, P., Aust, F., Awtrey, E., ... & Carlsson, R. (2018). Many analysts, one data set: Making transparent how variations in analytic choices affect results. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychologi
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The Oxford Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd edn)

Patricia Leavy Independent Scholar Kennebunk, ME, USA

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The Oxford Handbook of Qualitative Research, second edition, presents a comprehensive retrospective and prospective review of the field of qualitative research. Original, accessible chapters written by interdisciplinary leaders in the field make this a critical reference work. Filled with robust examples from real-world research; ample discussion of the historical, theoretical, and methodological foundations of the field; and coverage of key issues including data collection, interpretation, representation, assessment, and teaching, this handbook aims to be a valuable text for students, professors, and researchers. This newly revised and expanded edition features up-to-date examples and topics, including seven new chapters on duoethnography, team research, writing ethnographically, creative approaches to writing, writing for performance, writing for the public, and teaching qualitative research.

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• Published: 16 November 2020

Navigating the qualitative manuscript writing process: some tips for authors and reviewers

• Chris Roberts   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8613-682X 1 ,
• Koshila Kumar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8504-1052 2 &
• Gabrielle Finn   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0419-694X 3  

BMC Medical Education volume  20 , Article number:  439 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Qualitative research explores the ‘black box’ of how phenomena are constituted. Such research can provide rich and diverse insights about social practices and individual experiences across the continuum of undergraduate, postgraduate and continuing education, sectors and contexts. Qualitative research can yield unique data that can complement the numbers generated in quantitative research, [ 1 ] by answering “how” and “why” research questions. As you will notice in this paper, qualitative research is underpinned by specific philosophical assumptions, quality criteria and has a lexicon or a language specific to it.

A simple search of BMC Medical Education suggests that there are over 800 papers that employ qualitative methods either on their own or as part of a mixed methods study to evaluate various phenomena. This represents a considerable investment in time and effort for both researchers and reviewers. This paper is aimed at maximising this investment by helping early career researchers (ECRs) and reviewers new to the qualitative research field become familiar with quality criteria in qualitative research and how these can be applied in the qualitative manuscript writing process. Fortunately, there are numerous guidelines for both authors and for reviewers of qualitative research, including practical “how to” checklists [ 2 , 3 ]. These checklists can be valuable tools to confirm the essential elements of a qualitative study for early career researchers (ECRs). Our advice in this article is not intended to replace such “how to” guidance. Rather, the suggestions we make are intended to help ECRs increase their likelihood of getting published and reviewers to make informed decisions about the quality of qualitative research being submitted for publication in BMC Medical Education. Our advice is themed around long-established criteria for the quality of qualitative research developed by Lincoln and Guba [ 4 ]. (see Table  1 ) Each quality criterion outlined in Table 1 is further expanded in Table  2 in the form of several practical steps pertinent to the process of writing up qualitative research.

As a general starting point, the early career writer is advised to consult previously published qualitative papers in the journal to identify the genre (style) and relative emphasis of different components of the research paper. Patton [ 5 ] advises researchers to “FOCUS! FOCUS! FOCUS!” in deciding which components to include in the paper, highlighting the need to exclude side topics that add little to the narrative and reduce the cognitive load for readers and reviewers alike. Authors are also advised to do significant re-writing, rephrasing, re-ordering of initial drafts, to remove faulty grammar, and addresses stylistic and structural problems [ 6 ]. They should be mindful of “the golden thread,” that is their central argument that holds together the literature review, the theoretical and conceptual framework, the research questions, methodology, the analysis and organisation of the data and the conclusions. Getting a draft reviewed by someone outside of the research/writing team is one practical strategy to ensure the manuscript is well presented and relates to the plausibility element.

The introduction of a qualitative paper can be seen as beginning a conversation. Lingard advises that in this conversation, authors need to persuade the reader and reviewer of the strength, originality and contributions of their work [ 7 ]. In constructing a persuasive rationale, ECRs need to clearly distinguish between the qualitative research phenomenon (i.e. the broad research issue or concept under investigation) and the research context (i.e. the local setting or situation) [ 5 ]. The introduction section needs to culminate in a qualitative research question/s. It is important that ECRs are aware that qualitative research questions need to be fine-tuned from their original state to reflect gaps in the literature review, the researcher/s’ philosophical stance, the theory used, or unexpected findings [ 8 ]. This links to the elements of plausibility and consistency outlined in Table 1 .

Also, in the introduction of a qualitative paper, ECRs need to explain the multiple “lenses” through which they have considered complex social phenomena; including the underpinning research paradigm and theory. A research paradigm reveals the researcher/s’ values and assumptions about research and relates to axiology (what do you value?), ontology (what is out there to know?) epistemology (what and how can you know it?), and methodology (how do you go about acquiring that knowledge?) [ 9 ] ECRs are advised to explicitly state their research paradigm and its underpinning assumptions. For example, Ommering et al., state “We established our research within an interpretivist paradigm, emphasizing the subjective nature in understanding human experiences and creation of reality.” [ 10 ] Theory refers to a set of concepts or a conceptual framework that helps the writer to move beyond description to ‘explaining, predicting, or prescribing responses, events, situations, conditions, or relationships.’ [ 11 ] Theory can provide comprehensive understandings at multiple levels, including: the macro or grand level of how societies work, the mid-range level of how organisations operate; and the micro level of how people interact [ 12 ]. Qualitative studies can involve theory application or theory development [ 5 ]. ECRs are advised to briefly summarise their theoretical lens and identify what it means to consider the research phenomenon, process, or concept being studied with that specific lens. For example, Kumar and Greenhill explain how the lens of workplace affordances enabled their paper to draw “attention to the contextual, personal and interactional factors that impact on how clinical educators integrate their educational knowledge and skills into the practice setting, and undertake their educational role.” [ 13 ] Ensuring that the elements of theory and research paradigm are explicit and aligned, enhances plausibility, consistency and transparency of qualitative research. The use of theory can also add to the currency of research by enabling a new lens to be cast on a research phenomenon, process, or concept and reveal something previously unknown or surprising.

Moving to the methods, methodology is a general approach to studying a research topic and establishes how one will go about studying any phenomenon. In contrast, methods are specific research techniques and in qualitative research, data collection methods might include observation or interviewing, or photo elicitation methods, while data analysis methods may include content analysis, narrative analysis, or discourse analysis to mention a few [ 8 ]. ECRs will need to ensure the philosophical assumptions, methodology and methods follow from the introduction of a manuscript and the research question/s, [ 3 ] and this enhances the consistency and transparency elements. Moreover, triangulation or the combining of multiple observers, theories, methods, and data sources, is vital to overcome the limitation of singular methods, lone analysts, and single-perspective theories or models [ 8 ]. ECRs should report on not only what was triangulated but also how it was performed, thereby enhancing the elements of plausibility and consistency. For example, Touchie et al., describe using three researchers, three different focus groups, and representation of three different participant cohorts to ensure triangulation [ 14 ]. When it comes to the analysis of qualitative data, ECRs may claim they have used a specific methodological approach (e.g. interpretative phenomenological approach or a grounded theory approach) whereas the analytical steps are more congruent with a more generalist approach, such as thematic analysis [ 15 ]. ECRs are advised that such methodological approaches are founded on a number of philosophical considerations which need to inform the framing and conduct of a study, not just the analysis process. Alignment between the methodology and the methods informs the consistency, transparency and plausibility elements.

Comprehensively describing the research context in a way that is understandable to an international audience helps to illuminate the specific ‘laboratory’ for the research, and how the processes applied or insights generated in this ‘laboratory’ can be adapted or translated to other contexts. This addresses the relevancy element. To further enhance plausibility and relevance, ECRs should situate their work clearly on the evaluation–research continuum. Although not a strictly qualitative research consideration, evaluation focuses mostly on understanding how specific local practices may have resulted in specific outcomes for learners. While evaluation is vital for quality assurance and improvement, research has a broader and strategic focus and rates more highly against the currency and relevancy criteria. ECRs are more likely to undertake evaluation studies aimed at demonstrating the impact and outcomes of an educational intervention in their local setting, consistent with level one of Kirkpatrick’s criteria [ 16 ]. For example, Palmer and colleagues explain that they aimed to “develop and evaluate a continuing medical education (CME) course aimed at improving healthcare provider knowledge” [ 17 ]. To be competitive for publication, evaluation studies need to (measure and) report on at least level two and above of Kirkpatrick’s criteria. Learning how to problematise and frame the investigation of a problem arising from practice as research, provides ECRs with an opportunity to adopt a more critical and scholarly stance.

Also, in the methods, ECRs may provide detail about the study context and participants but little in the way of personal reflexive statements. Unlike quantitative research which claims that knowledge is objective and seeks to remove subjective influences, qualitative research recognises that subjectivity is inherent and that the researcher is directly involved in interpreting and constructing meanings [ 8 ]. For example, Bindels and colleagues provide a clear and concise description about their own backgrounds making their ‘lens’ explicit and enabling the reader to understand the multiple perspectives that have informed their research process [ 18 ]. Therefore, a clear description of the researcher/s position and relationship to the research phenomenon, context and participants, is vital for transparency, relevance and plausibility. We three are all experienced qualitative researchers, writers, reviewers and are associate editors for BMC Medical Education. We are situated in this research landscape as consumers, architects, and arbiters and we engage in these roles in collaboration with others. This provides a useful vantage point from which to provide commentary on key elements which can cause frustration for would-be authors and reviewers of qualitative research papers [ 19 ].

In the discussion of a qualitative paper, ECRs are encouraged to make detailed comments about the contributions of their research and whether these reinforce, extend, or challenge existing understandings based on an analysis that is theoretically or socially significant [ 20 ]. As an example, Barratt et al., found important data to inform the training of medical interns in the use of personal protective equipment during the COVID 19 pandemic [ 21 ]. ECRs are also expected to address the “so what” question which relates to the the consequence of findings for policy, practice and theory. Authors will need to explicitly outline the practical, theoretical or methodological implications of the study findings in a way that is actionable, thereby enhancing relevance and plausibility. For example, Burgess et al., presented their discussion according to four themes and outlined associated implications for individuals and institutions [ 22 ]. A balanced view of the research can be presented by ensuring there is congruence between the data and the claims made and searching the data and/or literature for evidence that disconfirms the findings. ECRs will also need to put forward the sources of uncertainty (rather than limitations) in their research and argue what these may mean for the interpretations made and how the contributions to knowledge could be adopted by others in different contexts [ 23 ]. This links to the plausibility and transparency elements.

In conclusion

Qualitative research is underpinned by specific philosophical assumptions, quality criteria and a lexicon, which ECRs and reviewers need to be mindful of as they navigate the qualitative manuscript writing and reviewing processes. We hope that the guidance provided here is helpful for ECRs in preparing submissions and for reviewers in making informed decisions and providing quality feedback.

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CR and KK wrote the first draft. All three authors contributed to severally revising the manuscript. The author(s) read and approved the final manuscript.

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Roberts, C., Kumar, K. & Finn, G. Navigating the qualitative manuscript writing process: some tips for authors and reviewers. BMC Med Educ 20 , 439 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-020-02370-4

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How to write qualitative research questions.

11 min read Here’s how to write effective qualitative research questions for your projects, and why getting it right matters so much.

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is a blanket term covering a wide range of research methods and theoretical framing approaches. The unifying factor in all these types of qualitative study is that they deal with data that cannot be counted. Typically this means things like people’s stories, feelings, opinions and emotions , and the meanings they ascribe to their experiences.

Qualitative study is one of two main categories of research, the other being quantitative research. Quantitative research deals with numerical data – that which can be counted and quantified, and which is mostly concerned with trends and patterns in large-scale datasets.

What are research questions?

Research questions are questions you are trying to answer with your research. To put it another way, your research question is the reason for your study, and the beginning point for your research design. There is normally only one research question per study, although if your project is very complex, you may have multiple research questions that are closely linked to one central question.

A good qualitative research question sums up your research objective. It’s a way of expressing the central question of your research, identifying your particular topic and the central issue you are examining.

Research questions are quite different from survey questions, questions used in focus groups or interview questions. A long list of questions is used in these types of study, as opposed to one central question. Additionally, interview or survey questions are asked of participants, whereas research questions are only for the researcher to maintain a clear understanding of the research design.

Research questions are used in both qualitative and quantitative research , although what makes a good research question might vary between the two.

In fact, the type of research questions you are asking can help you decide whether you need to take a quantitative or qualitative approach to your research project.

Discover the fundamentals of qualitative research

Quantitative vs. qualitative research questions

Writing research questions is very important in both qualitative and quantitative research, but the research questions that perform best in the two types of studies are quite different.

Quantitative research questions

Quantitative research questions usually relate to quantities, similarities and differences.

It might reflect the researchers’ interest in determining whether relationships between variables exist, and if so whether they are statistically significant. Or it may focus on establishing differences between things through comparison, and using statistical analysis to determine whether those differences are meaningful or due to chance.

• How much? This kind of research question is one of the simplest. It focuses on quantifying something. For example:

How many Yoruba speakers are there in the state of Maine?

• What is the connection?

This type of quantitative research question examines how one variable affects another.

For example:

How does a low level of sunlight affect the mood scores (1-10) of Antarctic explorers during winter?

• What is the difference? Quantitative research questions in this category identify two categories and measure the difference between them using numerical data.

Do white cats stay cooler than tabby cats in hot weather?

If your research question fits into one of the above categories, you’re probably going to be doing a quantitative study.

Qualitative research questions

Qualitative research questions focus on exploring phenomena, meanings and experiences.

Unlike quantitative research, qualitative research isn’t about finding causal relationships between variables. So although qualitative research questions might touch on topics that involve one variable influencing another, or looking at the difference between things, finding and quantifying those relationships isn’t the primary objective.

In fact, you as a qualitative researcher might end up studying a very similar topic to your colleague who is doing a quantitative study, but your areas of focus will be quite different. Your research methods will also be different – they might include focus groups, ethnography studies, and other kinds of qualitative study.

A few example qualitative research questions:

• What is it like being an Antarctic explorer during winter?
• What are the experiences of Yoruba speakers in the USA?
• How do white cat owners describe their pets?

Qualitative research question types

Marshall and Rossman (1989) identified 4 qualitative research question types, each with its own typical research strategy and methods.

• Exploratory questions

Exploratory questions are used when relatively little is known about the research topic. The process researchers follow when pursuing exploratory questions might involve interviewing participants, holding focus groups, or diving deep with a case study.

• Explanatory questions

With explanatory questions, the research topic is approached with a view to understanding the causes that lie behind phenomena. However, unlike a quantitative project, the focus of explanatory questions is on qualitative analysis of multiple interconnected factors that have influenced a particular group or area, rather than a provable causal link between dependent and independent variables.

• Descriptive questions

As the name suggests, descriptive questions aim to document and record what is happening. In answering descriptive questions , researchers might interact directly with participants with surveys or interviews, as well as using observational studies and ethnography studies that collect data on how participants interact with their wider environment.

• Predictive questions

Predictive questions start from the phenomena of interest and investigate what ramifications it might have in the future. Answering predictive questions may involve looking back as well as forward, with content analysis, questionnaires and studies of non-verbal communication (kinesics).

Why are good qualitative research questions important?

We know research questions are very important. But what makes them so essential? (And is that question a qualitative or quantitative one?)

Getting your qualitative research questions right has a number of benefits.

• It defines your qualitative research project Qualitative research questions definitively nail down the research population, the thing you’re examining, and what the nature of your answer will be.This means you can explain your research project to other people both inside and outside your business or organization. That could be critical when it comes to securing funding for your project, recruiting participants and members of your research team, and ultimately for publishing your results. It can also help you assess right the ethical considerations for your population of study.
• It maintains focus Good qualitative research questions help researchers to stick to the area of focus as they carry out their research. Keeping the research question in mind will help them steer away from tangents during their research or while they are carrying out qualitative research interviews. This holds true whatever the qualitative methods are, whether it’s a focus group, survey, thematic analysis or other type of inquiry.That doesn’t mean the research project can’t morph and change during its execution – sometimes this is acceptable and even welcome – but having a research question helps demarcate the starting point for the research. It can be referred back to if the scope and focus of the project does change.
• It helps make sure your outcomes are achievable

Because qualitative research questions help determine the kind of results you’re going to get, it helps make sure those results are achievable. By formulating good qualitative research questions in advance, you can make sure the things you want to know and the way you’re going to investigate them are grounded in practical reality. Otherwise, you may be at risk of taking on a research project that can’t be satisfactorily completed.

Developing good qualitative research questions

All researchers use research questions to define their parameters, keep their study on track and maintain focus on the research topic. This is especially important with qualitative questions, where there may be exploratory or inductive methods in use that introduce researchers to new and interesting areas of inquiry. Here are some tips for writing good qualitative research questions.

1. Keep it specific

Broader research questions are difficult to act on. They may also be open to interpretation, or leave some parameters undefined.

Strong example: How do Baby Boomers in the USA feel about their gender identity?

Weak example: Do people feel different about gender now?

2. Be original

Look for research questions that haven’t been widely addressed by others already.

Strong example: What are the effects of video calling on women’s experiences of work?

Weak example: Are women given less respect than men at work?

3. Make it research-worthy

Don’t ask a question that can be answered with a ‘yes’ or ‘no’, or with a quick Google search.

Strong example: What do people like and dislike about living in a highly multi-lingual country?

Weak example: What languages are spoken in India?

4. Focus your question

Don’t roll multiple topics or questions into one. Qualitative data may involve multiple topics, but your qualitative questions should be focused.

Strong example: What is the experience of disabled children and their families when using social services?

Weak example: How can we improve social services for children affected by poverty and disability?

4. Focus on your own discipline, not someone else’s

Avoid asking questions that are for the politicians, police or others to address.

Strong example: What does it feel like to be the victim of a hate crime?

Weak example: How can hate crimes be prevented?

5. Ask something researchable

Big questions, questions about hypothetical events or questions that would require vastly more resources than you have access to are not useful starting points for qualitative studies. Qualitative words or subjective ideas that lack definition are also not helpful.

Strong example: How do perceptions of physical beauty vary between today’s youth and their parents’ generation?

Weak example: Which country has the most beautiful people in it?

Qualitative Research Writing

• First Online: 11 November 2020

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• Seyyed-Abdolhamid Mirhosseini 2  

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This chapter focuses on the presentation of qualitative studies in writing. Although not part of the technicalities of the process of inquiry itself, the quality of reporting the process and outcomes of research plays a crucial role in completing the research endeavor. Apart from sharing the research findings, research writing can serve two other purposes. The very attempt at preparing an account of a study to be read by outsiders can help researchers distance themselves from the details of the project and notice the possible shortcomings. Moreover, a transparent presentation of the details of the research process and illustrating the findings in qualitative writing can facilitate corroboration and contribute to the overall process of taking care of the quality of qualitative research. The chapter also briefly addresses publishing qualitative language education research and introduces some related journals.

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Mirhosseini, SA. (2020). Qualitative Research Writing. In: Doing Qualitative Research in Language Education. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56492-6_10

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Published : 11 November 2020

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Writing a qualitative research report

Affiliation.

• 1 School of Nursing and Midwifery Studies, University of Wales College of Medicine, Heath Park, Cardiff, UK. [email protected]
• PMID: 15234716
• DOI: 10.1016/j.aaen.2003.11.006

A research project in nursing or nursing education is probably only complete once the findings have been published. This paper offers a format for writing a qualitative research report for publication. It suggests, at least, the following sections: introduction, aims of the study, review of the literature, sample, data collection methods, data analysis methods, findings, discussion, conclusion, abstract. Each of these sections is addressed along with many written-out examples. In some sections, alternative approaches are suggested. The aim of the paper is to help the neophyte researcher to structure his or her report and for the experienced researcher to reflect on his or her current practice. References to other source material on qualitative research are given.

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• Nursing Research / methods*
• Periodicals as Topic / standards
• Qualitative Research*
• Research Design / standards
• Writing* / standards

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How to Write a Qualitative Research Paper

October 25, 2023

A qualitative research paper is a type of academic paper that focuses on exploring and understanding a phenomenon in depth, often using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of textual or visual data. Unlike quantitative research which relies on numerical data and statistical analysis, a qualitative research paper aims to provide detailed insights, interpretations, and subjective understandings of the research topic. The purpose of writing a qualitative research paper is to delve into the complexity of the subject matter and provide a rich and comprehensive understanding of it. To write a qualitative research paper effectively, it is crucial to carefully select a research topic, formulate pertinent research questions, conduct a thorough literature review, select an appropriate methodology, collect and analyze data, and present well-supported interpretations and conclusions.

Choosing a Research Topic

Choosing a research topic is a critical first step in writing a qualitative research paper. The topic should be of interest to the researcher and align with their expertise and passion. It is important to select a topic that is specific, manageable, and aligned with the research objectives. One approach is to identify gaps in existing literature and areas that require further exploration. Brainstorming, consulting with peers and mentors, and reviewing recent publications can help in generating ideas.

Once potential topics are identified, it is necessary to evaluate their feasibility and relevance. Consideration should be given to the availability of resources, access to data, ethical considerations, and potential impact. The research topic should be significant, addressing a research gap or contributing to the existing body of knowledge. It is also beneficial to choose a topic that allows for in-depth exploration and provides opportunities for meaningful analysis and interpretation.

Narrow down the topic by clarifying the research questions and objectives. This will refine the focus and guide the research process. It is essential to ensure that the chosen topic is ethically sound and aligns with the research guidelines and regulations. By carefully selecting a research topic, researchers can lay a solid foundation for their qualitative research paper and set themselves up for a successful and impactful study.

Qualitative Research Paper Topics Examples:

• The lived experiences of nursing home residents
• An exploration of the impact of social media on mental health
• Understanding the perspectives of parents of children with autism spectrum disorder
• The influence of cultural values on leadership styles in multinational organizations
• The role of spirituality in addiction recovery
• A phenomenological study of the experience of chronic pain
• Investigating the benefits and drawbacks of remote working for employees
• The experiences of international students in higher education
• The impact of mindfulness practices on stress and anxiety
• Exploring the factors that contribute to a positive work-life balance in healthcare professionals.

Formulating Research Questions and Objectives

Formulating clear research questions and objectives is a crucial step in writing a qualitative research paper. These questions and objectives guide the research process and provide focus for the study. Here are some tips for formulating research questions and objectives:

• Start with a broad research question: This will allow for exploration of the research topic and help in identifying key areas of focus.
• Refine the research question: Narrow down the research question by considering its relevance, feasibility, and practicality.
• Consider the research objectives: The research objectives should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound. Use the SMART criteria to refine the research objectives.
• Ensure coherence between research questions and objectives: The research questions and objectives should work together to provide clarity and direction for the research.
• Use open-ended questions: Qualitative research involves exploring in-depth subjective experiences and perspectives. Open-ended questions allow for this exploration and provide rich data.
• Keep the target audience in mind: Formulate research questions and objectives that are relevant and meaningful to the intended audience.

Examples of research questions and objectives:

Research question: How do teachers cope with the challenges of remote teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic?

Research objectives:

• To explore the experiences of teachers with remote teaching during the pandemic.
• To identify the strategies used by teachers to overcome the challenges of remote teaching.
• To understand the impact of remote teaching on the well-being of teachers.

Conducting a Literature Review

Conducting a literature review is a critical aspect of writing a qualitative research paper. It involves reviewing existing literature on the chosen research topic and identifying gaps or areas that require further exploration. Here are some tips for conducting a literature review:

• Develop a search strategy: It is essential to develop a search strategy to ensure that relevant literature is captured. Databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and PsycINFO can be used to search for relevant literature.
• Use keywords: Keywords are essential for ensuring that relevant literature is identified. Start with a broad search, and then narrow down the search using specific keywords.
• Review the literature: Review the identified literature and assess its quality, relevance, and validity. Identify and summarize key themes, concepts, and findings.
• Identify gaps in the literature: Identify areas where further research is required. This will provide a basis for formulating research questions and objectives.
• Document all sources: Keep accurate records of all sources reviewed, including the author, title, publication date, and source.
• Evaluate the relevance of the literature: Ensure that reviewed literature is relevant by evaluating the date of publication and the credibility of the author and publisher.

Conducting a literature review is a crucial step in writing a qualitative research paper. The review provides a basis for understanding existing knowledge and identifying areas for future research. By carefully reviewing literature, researchers can ensure that their writing is informed and current, and that their research objectives are relevant and significant.

Selecting a Methodology

Selecting the appropriate methodology is a critical step in writing a qualitative research paper. The methodology chosen should align with the research questions and objectives and provide a suitable approach to collect relevant data. Qualitative research methodologies include ethnography, case study, grounded theory, phenomenology, and content analysis.

Researchers need to consider which methodology is best suited for their research questions and objectives. Ethnography and grounded theory are useful when researchers need to explore and describe complex social phenomena. Phenomenology is suited for understanding how individuals perceive or experience specific phenomena. Case study research is appropriate when researchers need to understand or explain a specific case or context. Content analysis is helpful when researchers need to analyze textual or visual data.

Selecting an appropriate methodology is essential to ensure high-quality research that can effectively answer the research questions and objectives. Careful consideration of the strengths and weaknesses of each methodology will ensure that the chosen methodology is best suited to the research project for writing a qualitative research paper.

Collecting Data

Collecting data is a crucial step in a qualitative research project. Data collection methods should be carefully chosen, based on the research questions, objectives, and methodology selected. The most common data collection methods in qualitative research include interviews, focus groups, observation, and document analysis.

Interviews are common in qualitative research and gather data through structured, semi-structured, or unstructured questions. Focus groups use group discussions to gather data from participants on specific topics. Observation involves collecting data through direct observation of behavior, while document analysis involves analyzing existing documents such as newspapers, journals, or reports.

When selecting a data collection method, it is essential to consider the research question and objective, the availability of participants, and the time and resources available. It is important to ensure that the data collection method is ethical and respects participants’ privacy and confidentiality.

In addition to collecting data, it is essential to document the data obtained. Data documentation should include information such as the date and time of data collection, the data collection method used, the participants’ demographics, and their responses. Further, it is crucial to ensure that the data collected is reliable and valid.

Overall, collecting data is a critical step in a qualitative research project, and researchers must carefully select appropriate data collection methods and document and analyze their data accurately.

Analyzing Data

Analyzing data is a crucial step in writing a qualitative research paper. It involves reviewing and interpreting the data collected to answer the research questions and objectives. Researchers must ensure that the data is analyzed consistently, systematically, and accurately.

Qualitative data analysis methods include thematic analysis, content analysis, and narrative analysis. Thematic analysis involves identifying themes and patterns within the data, while content analysis involves analyzing the frequency and distribution of specific words or phrases. Narrative analysis involves analyzing and interpreting the stories told by participants in the research project.

During data analysis, the researcher must document and track the findings and conclusions in a clear and concise manner. Writing can help to organize thoughts and ideas, making it easier to identify and summarize key themes and patterns.

It is essential to maintain transparency throughout the data analysis process, clearly outlining the steps taken to analyze the data. Researchers must also ensure that the analysis remains true to the data collected and avoid introducing personal bias.

Overall, analyzing data is a critical step in writing a qualitative research paper. By carefully analyzing and interpreting data, researchers can answer research questions and objectives and provide new insights into a specific topic or phenomenon. Writing is crucial throughout the process as it guides the analysis and ensures that the findings are documented and transparent.

Interpreting Results

Interpreting results is a crucial step in writing a qualitative research paper. It involves analyzing the data, identifying key themes, and drawing conclusions based on the findings. Researchers must ensure that the results are accurately and transparently reported.

During the interpretation of results, it is essential to keep an open mind, question assumptions, and support findings with strong evidence from the data collected. The analysis should consider different perspectives, such as the participants’ views and cultural background.

Qualitative research is often subjective, and interpretations of results can vary widely. Therefore, it is crucial to incorporate alternative interpretations and acknowledge any potential limitations or biases in the research process.

Researchers should use writing to convey the findings clearly and concisely, including a comprehensive summary of key themes and conclusions drawn from the data. The discussion of results should connect the research findings to previous literature and highlight the study’s contributions to the field.

In addition, researchers must also consider any practical implications of the research, including suggestions for future research and recommendations for policy or practice. Finally, researchers should ensure that the results are presented in a way that is accessible to a wide audience, including both academic and non-academic communities.

In conclusion, interpreting results from qualitative research is a multi-step process that involves analyzing the data collected, drawing conclusions and taking into account the research limitations, and presenting the findings in a clear, concise, and accessible manner.

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