principles of qualitative research ppt

Chapter 20. Presentations

Introduction.

If a tree falls in a forest, and no one is around to hear it, does it make a sound? If a qualitative study is conducted, but it is not presented (in words or text), did it really happen? Perhaps not. Findings from qualitative research are inextricably tied up with the way those findings are presented. These presentations do not always need to be in writing, but they need to happen. Think of ethnographies, for example, and their thick descriptions of a particular culture. Witnessing a culture, taking fieldnotes, talking to people—none of those things in and of themselves convey the culture. Or think about an interview-based phenomenological study. Boxes of interview transcripts might be interesting to read through, but they are not a completed study without the intervention of hours of analysis and careful selection of exemplary quotes to illustrate key themes and final arguments and theories. And unlike much quantitative research in the social sciences, where the final write-up neatly reports the results of analyses, the way the “write-up” happens is an integral part of the analysis in qualitative research. Once again, we come back to the messiness and stubborn unlinearity of qualitative research. From the very beginning, when designing the study, imagining the form of its ultimate presentation is helpful.

Because qualitative researchers are motivated by understanding and conveying meaning, effective communication is not only an essential skill but a fundamental facet of the entire research project. Ethnographers must be able to convey a certain sense of verisimilitude, the appearance of true reality. Those employing interviews must faithfully depict the key meanings of the people they interviewed in a way that rings true to those people, even if the end result surprises them. And all researchers must strive for clarity in their publications so that various audiences can understand what was found and why it is important. This chapter will address how to organize various kinds of presentations for different audiences so that your results can be appreciated and understood.

In the world of academic science, social or otherwise, the primary audience for a study’s results is usually the academic community, and the primary venue for communicating to this audience is the academic journal. Journal articles are typically fifteen to thirty pages in length (8,000 to 12,000 words). Although qualitative researchers often write and publish journal articles—indeed, there are several journals dedicated entirely to qualitative research [1] —the best writing by qualitative researchers often shows up in books. This is because books, running from 80,000 to 150,000 words in length, allow the researcher to develop the material fully. You have probably read some of these in various courses you have taken, not realizing what they are. I have used examples of such books throughout this text, beginning with the three profiles in the introductory chapter. In some instances, the chapters in these books began as articles in academic journals (another indication that the journal article format somewhat limits what can be said about the study overall).

While the article and the book are “final” products of qualitative research, there are actually a few other presentation formats that are used along the way. At the very beginning of a research study, it is often important to have a written research proposal not just to clarify to yourself what you will be doing and when but also to justify your research to an outside agency, such as an institutional review board (IRB; see chapter 12), or to a potential funder, which might be your home institution, a government funder (such as the National Science Foundation, or NSF), or a private foundation (such as the Gates Foundation). As you get your research underway, opportunities will arise to present preliminary findings to audiences, usually through presentations at academic conferences. These presentations can provide important feedback as you complete your analyses. Finally, if you are completing a degree and looking to find an academic job, you will be asked to provide a “job talk,” usually about your research. These job talks are similar to conference presentations but can run significantly longer.

All the presentations mentioned so far are (mostly) for academic audiences. But qualitative research is also unique in that many of its practitioners don’t want to confine their presentation only to other academics. Qualitative researchers who study particular contexts or cultures might want to report back to the people and places they observed. Those working in the critical tradition might want to raise awareness of a particular issue to as large an audience as possible. Many others simply want everyday, nonacademic people to read their work, because they think it is interesting and important. To reach a wide audience, the final product can look like almost anything—it can be a poem, a blog, a podcast, even a science fiction short story. And if you are very lucky, it can even be a national or international bestseller.

In this chapter, we are going to stick with the more basic quotidian presentations—the academic paper / research proposal, the conference slideshow presentation / job talk, and the conference poster. We’ll also spend a bit of time on incorporating universal design into your presentations and how to create some especially attractive and impactful visual displays.

Researcher Note

What is the best piece of advice you’ve ever been given about conducting qualitative research?

The best advice I’ve received came from my adviser, Alford Young Jr. He told me to find the “Jessi Streib” answer to my research question, not the “Pierre Bourdieu” answer to my research question. In other words, don’t just say how a famous theorist would answer your question; say something original, something coming from you.

—Jessi Streib, author of The Power of the Past and Privilege Lost

Writing about Your Research

The journal article and the research proposal.

Although the research proposal is written before you have actually done your research and the article is written after all data collection and analysis is complete, there are actually many similarities between the two in terms of organization and purpose. The final article will (probably—depends on how much the research question and focus have shifted during the research itself) incorporate a great deal of what was included in a preliminary research proposal. The average lengths of both a proposal and an article are quite similar, with the “front sections” of the article abbreviated to make space for the findings, discussion of findings, and conclusion.

Figure 20.1 shows one model for what to include in an article or research proposal, comparing the elements of each with a default word count for each section. Please note that you will want to follow whatever specific guidelines you have been provided by the venue you are submitting the article/proposal to: the IRB, the NSF, the Journal of Qualitative Research . In fact, I encourage you to adapt the default model as needed by swapping out expected word counts for each section and adding or varying the sections to match expectations for your particular publication venue. [2]

You will notice a few things about the default model guidelines. First, while half of the proposal is spent discussing the research design, this section is shortened (but still included) for the article. There are a few elements that only show up in the proposal (e.g., the limitations section is in the introductory section here—it will be more fully developed in the conclusory section in the article). Obviously, you don’t have findings in the proposal, so this is an entirely new section for the article. Note that the article does not include a data management plan or a timeline—two aspects that most proposals require.

It might be helpful to find and maintain examples of successfully written sections that you can use as models for your own writing. I have included a few of these throughout the textbook and have included a few more at the end of this chapter.

Make an Argument

Some qualitative researchers, particularly those engaged in deep ethnographic research, focus their attention primarily if not exclusively on describing the data. They might even eschew the notion that they should make an “argument” about the data, preferring instead to use thick descriptions to convey interpretations. Bracketing the contrast between interpretation and argument for the moment, most readers will expect you to provide an argument about your data, and this argument will be in answer to whatever research question you eventually articulate (remember, research questions are allowed to shift as you get further into data collection and analysis). It can be frustrating to read a well-developed study with clear and elegant descriptions and no argument. The argument is the point of the research, and if you do not have one, 99 percent of the time, you are not finished with your analysis. Calarco ( 2020 ) suggests you imagine a pyramid, with all of your data forming the basis and all of your findings forming the middle section; the top/point of the pyramid is your argument, “what the patterns in your data tell us about how the world works or ought to work” ( 181 ).

The academic community to which you belong will be looking for an argument that relates to or develops theory. This is the theoretical generalizability promise of qualitative research. An academic audience will want to know how your findings relate to previous findings, theories, and concepts (the literature review; see chapter 9). It is thus vitally important that you go back to your literature review (or develop a new one) and draw those connections in your discussion and/or conclusion. When writing to other audiences, you will still want an argument, although it may not be written as a theoretical one. What do I mean by that? Even if you are not referring to previous literature or developing new theories or adapting older ones, a simple description of your findings is like dumping a lot of leaves in the lap of your audience. They still deserve to know about the shape of the forest. Maybe provide them a road map through it. Do this by telling a clear and cogent story about the data. What is the primary theme, and why is it important? What is the point of your research? [3]

A beautifully written piece of research based on participant observation [and/or] interviews brings people to life, and helps the reader understand the challenges people face. You are trying to use vivid, detailed and compelling words to help the reader really understand the lives of the people you studied. And you are trying to connect the lived experiences of these people to a broader conceptual point—so that the reader can understand why it matters. ( Lareau 2021:259 )

Do not hide your argument. Make it the focal point of your introductory section, and repeat it as often as needed to ensure the reader remembers it. I am always impressed when I see researchers do this well (see, e.g., Zelizer 1996 ).

Here are a few other suggestions for writing your article: Be brief. Do not overwhelm the reader with too many words; make every word count. Academics are particularly prone to “overwriting” as a way of demonstrating proficiency. Don’t. When writing your methods section, think about it as a “recipe for your work” that allows other researchers to replicate if they so wish ( Calarco 2020:186 ). Convey all the necessary information clearly, succinctly, and accurately. No more, no less. [4] Do not try to write from “beginning to end” in that order. Certain sections, like the introductory section, may be the last ones you write. I find the methods section the easiest, so I often begin there. Calarco ( 2020 ) begins with an outline of the analysis and results section and then works backward from there to outline the contribution she is making, then the full introduction that serves as a road map for the writing of all sections. She leaves the abstract for the very end. Find what order best works for you.

Presenting at Conferences and Job Talks

Students and faculty are primarily called upon to publicly present their research in two distinct contexts—the academic conference and the “job talk.” By convention, conference presentations usually run about fifteen minutes and, at least in sociology and other social sciences, rely primarily on the use of a slideshow (PowerPoint Presentation or PPT) presentation. You are usually one of three or four presenters scheduled on the same “panel,” so it is an important point of etiquette to ensure that your presentation falls within the allotted time and does not crowd into that of the other presenters. Job talks, on the other hand, conventionally require a forty- to forty-five-minute presentation with a fifteen- to twenty-minute question and answer (Q&A) session following it. You are the only person presenting, so if you run over your allotted time, it means less time for the Q&A, which can disturb some audience members who have been waiting for a chance to ask you something. It is sometimes possible to incorporate questions during your presentation, which allows you to take the entire hour, but you might end up shorting your presentation this way if the questions are numerous. It’s best for beginners to stick to the “ask me at the end” format (unless there is a simple clarifying question that can easily be addressed and makes the presentation run more smoothly, as in the case where you simply forgot to include information on the number of interviews you conducted).

For slideshows, you should allot two or even three minutes for each slide, never less than one minute. And those slides should be clear, concise, and limited. Most of what you say should not be on those slides at all. The slides are simply the main points or a clear image of what you are speaking about. Include bulleted points (words, short phrases), not full sentences. The exception is illustrative quotations from transcripts or fieldnotes. In those cases, keep to one illustrative quote per slide, and if it is long, bold or otherwise, highlight the words or passages that are most important for the audience to notice. [5]

Figure 20.2 provides a possible model for sections to include in either a conference presentation or a job talk, with approximate times and approximate numbers of slides. Note the importance (in amount of time spent) of both the research design and the findings/results sections, both of which have been helpfully starred for you. Although you don’t want to short any of the sections, these two sections are the heart of your presentation.

Fig 20.2. Suggested Slideshow Times and Number of Slides

Should you write out your script to read along with your presentation? I have seen this work well, as it prevents presenters from straying off topic and keeps them to the time allotted. On the other hand, these presentations can seem stiff and wooden. Personally, although I have a general script in advance, I like to speak a little more informally and engagingly with each slide, sometimes making connections with previous panelists if I am at a conference. This means I have to pay attention to the time, and I sometimes end up breezing through one section more quickly than I would like. Whatever approach you take, practice in advance. Many times. With an audience. Ask for feedback, and pay attention to any presentation issues that arise (e.g., Do you speak too fast? Are you hard to hear? Do you stumble over a particular word or name?).

Even though there are rules and guidelines for what to include, you will still want to make your presentation as engaging as possible in the little amount of time you have. Calarco ( 2020:274 ) recommends trying one of three story structures to frame your presentation: (1) the uncertain explanation , where you introduce a phenomenon that has not yet been fully explained and then describe how your research is tackling this; (2) the uncertain outcome , where you introduce a phenomenon where the consequences have been unclear and then you reveal those consequences with your research; and (3) the evocative example , where you start with some interesting example from your research (a quote from the interview transcripts, for example) or the real world and then explain how that example illustrates the larger patterns you found in your research. Notice that each of these is a framing story. Framing stories are essential regardless of format!

A Word on Universal Design

Please consider accessibility issues during your presentation, and incorporate elements of universal design into your slideshow. The basic idea behind universal design in presentations is that to the greatest extent possible, all people should be able to view, hear, or otherwise take in your presentation without needing special individual adaptations. If you can make your presentation accessible to people with visual impairment or hearing loss, why not do so? For example, one in twelve men is color-blind, unable to differentiate between certain colors, red/green being the most common problem. So if you design a graphic that relies on red and green bars, some of your audience members may not be able to properly identify which bar means what. Simple contrasts of black and white are much more likely to be visible to all members of your audience. There are many other elements of good universal design, but the basic foundation of all of them is that you consider how to make your presentation as accessible as possible at the outset. For example, include captions whenever possible, both as descriptions on slides and as images on slides and for any audio or video clips you are including; keep font sizes large enough to read from the back of the room; and face the audience when you are.

Poster Design

Undergraduate students who present at conferences are often encouraged to present at “poster sessions.” This usually means setting up a poster version of your research in a large hall or convention space at a set period of time—ninety minutes is common. Your poster will be one of dozens, and conference-goers will wander through the space, stopping intermittently at posters that attract them. Those who stop by might ask you questions about your research, and you are expected to be able to talk intelligently for two or three minutes. It’s a fairly easy way to practice presenting at conferences, which is why so many organizations hold these special poster sessions.

A good poster design will be immediately attractive to passersby and clearly and succinctly describe your research methods, findings, and conclusions. Some students have simply shrunk down their research papers to manageable sizes and then pasted them on a poster, all twelve to fifteen pages of them. Don’t do that! Here are some better suggestions: State the main conclusion of your research in large bold print at the top of your poster, on brightly colored (contrasting) paper, and paste in a QR code that links to your full paper online ( Calarco 2020:280 ). Use the rest of the poster board to provide a couple of highlights and details of the study. For an interview-based study, for example, you will want to put in some details about your sample (including number of interviews) and setting and then perhaps one or two key quotes, also distinguished by contrasting color background.

Incorporating Visual Design in Your Presentations

In addition to ensuring that your presentation is accessible to as large an audience as possible, you also want to think about how to display your data in general, particularly how to use charts and graphs and figures. [6] The first piece of advice is, use them! As the saying goes, a picture is worth a thousand words. If you can cut to the chase with a visually stunning display, do so. But there are visual displays that are stunning, and then there are the tired, hard-to-see visual displays that predominate at conferences. You can do better than most presenters by simply paying attention here and committing yourself to a good design. As with model section passages, keep a file of visual displays that work as models for your own presentations. Find a good guidebook to presenting data effectively (Evergreen 2018 , 2019 ; Schwabisch 2021) , and refer to it often.

Let me make a few suggestions here to get you started. First, test every visual display on a friend or colleague to find out how quickly they can understand the point you are trying to convey. As with reading passages aloud to ensure that your writing works, showing someone your display is the quickest way to find out if it works. Second, put the point in the title of the display! When writing for an academic journal, there will be specific conventions of what to include in the title (full description including methods of analysis, sample, dates), but in a public presentation, there are no limiting rules. So you are free to write as your title “Working-Class College Students Are Three Times as Likely as Their Peers to Drop Out of College,” if that is the point of the graphic display. It certainly helps the communicative aspect. Third, use the themes available to you in Excel for creating graphic displays, but alter them to better fit your needs . Consider adding dark borders to bars and columns, for example, so that they appear crisper for your audience. Include data callouts and labels, and enlarge them so they are clearly visible. When duplicative or otherwise unnecessary, drop distracting gridlines and labels on the y-axis (the vertical one). Don’t go crazy adding different fonts, however—keep things simple and clear. Sans serif fonts (those without the little hooks on the ends of letters) read better from a distance. Try to use the same color scheme throughout, even if this means manually changing the colors of bars and columns. For example, when reporting on working-class college students, I use blue bars, while I reserve green bars for wealthy students and yellow bars for students in the middle. I repeat these colors throughout my presentations and incorporate different colors when talking about other items or factors. You can also try using simple grayscale throughout, with pops of color to indicate a bar or column or line that is of the most interest. These are just some suggestions. The point is to take presentation seriously and to pay attention to visual displays you are using to ensure they effectively communicate what you want them to communicate. I’ve included a data visualization checklist from Evergreen ( 2018 ) here.

Ethics of Presentation and Reliability

Until now, all the data you have collected have been yours alone. Once you present the data, however, you are sharing sometimes very intimate information about people with a broader public. You will find yourself balancing between protecting the privacy of those you’ve interviewed and observed and needing to demonstrate the reliability of the study. The more information you provide to your audience, the more they can understand and appreciate what you have found, but this also may pose risks to your participants. There is no one correct way to go about finding the right balance. As always, you have a duty to consider what you are doing and must make some hard decisions.

The most obvious place we see this paradox emerge is when you mask your data to protect the privacy of your participants. It is standard practice to provide pseudonyms, for example. It is such standard practice that you should always assume you are being given a pseudonym when reading a book or article based on qualitative research. When I was a graduate student, I tried to find information on how best to construct pseudonyms but found little guidance. There are some ethical issues here, I think. [7] Do you create a name that has the same kind of resonance as the original name? If the person goes by a nickname, should you use a nickname as a pseudonym? What about names that are ethnically marked (as in, almost all of them)? Is there something unethical about reracializing a person? (Yes!) In her study of adolescent subcultures, Wilkins ( 2008 ) noted, “Because many of the goths used creative, alternative names rather than their given names, I did my best to reproduce the spirit of their chosen names” ( 24 ).

Your reader or audience will want to know all the details about your participants so that they can gauge both your credibility and the reliability of your findings. But how many details are too many? What if you change the name but otherwise retain all the personal pieces of information about where they grew up, and how old they were when they got married, and how many children they have, and whether they made a splash in the news cycle that time they were stalked by their ex-boyfriend? At some point, those details are going to tip over into the zone of potential unmasking. When you are doing research at one particular field site that may be easily ascertained (as when you interview college students, probably at the institution at which you are a student yourself), it is even more important to be wary of providing too many details. You also need to think that your participants might read what you have written, know things about the site or the population from which you drew your interviews, and figure out whom you are talking about. This can all get very messy if you don’t do more than simply pseudonymize the people you interviewed or observed.

There are some ways to do this. One, you can design a study with all of these risks in mind. That might mean choosing to conduct interviews or observations at multiple sites so that no one person can be easily identified. Another is to alter some basic details about your participants to protect their identity or to refuse to provide all the information when selecting quotes . Let’s say you have an interviewee named “Anna” (a pseudonym), and she is a twenty-four-year-old Latina studying to be an engineer. You want to use a quote from Anna about racial discrimination in her graduate program. Instead of attributing the quote to Anna (whom your reader knows, because you’ve already told them, is a twenty-four-year-old Latina studying engineering), you might simply attribute the quote to “Latina student in STEM.” Taking this a step further, you might leave the quote unattributed, providing a list of quotes about racial discrimination by “various students.”

The problem with masking all the identifiers, of course, is that you lose some of the analytical heft of those attributes. If it mattered that Anna was twenty-four (not thirty-four) and that she was a Latina and that she was studying engineering, taking out any of those aspects of her identity might weaken your analysis. This is one of those “hard choices” you will be called on to make! A rather radical and controversial solution to this dilemma is to create composite characters , characters based on the reality of the interviews but fully masked because they are not identifiable with any one person. My students are often very queasy about this when I explain it to them. The more positivistic your approach and the more you see individuals rather than social relationships/structure as the “object” of your study, the more employing composites will seem like a really bad idea. But composites “allow researchers to present complex, situated accounts from individuals” without disclosing personal identities ( Willis 2019 ), and they can be effective ways of presenting theory narratively ( Hurst 2019 ). Ironically, composites permit you more latitude when including “dirty laundry” or stories that could harm individuals if their identities became known. Rather than squeezing out details that could identify a participant, the identities are permanently removed from the details. Great difficulty remains, however, in clearly explaining the theoretical use of composites to your audience and providing sufficient information on the reliability of the underlying data.

There are a host of other ethical issues that emerge as you write and present your data. This is where being reflective throughout the process will help. How and what you share of what you have learned will depend on the social relationships you have built, the audiences you are writing or speaking to, and the underlying animating goals of your study. Be conscious about all of your decisions, and then be able to explain them fully, both to yourself and to those who ask.

Our research is often close to us. As a Black woman who is a first-generation college student and a professional with a poverty/working-class origin, each of these pieces of my identity creates nuances in how I engage in my research, including how I share it out. Because of this, it’s important for us to have people in our lives who we trust who can help us, particularly, when we are trying to share our findings. As researchers, we have been steeped in our work, so we know all the details and nuances. Sometimes we take this for granted, and we might not have shared those nuances in conversation or writing or taken some of this information for granted. As I share my research with trusted friends and colleagues, I pay attention to the questions they ask me or the feedback they give when we talk or when they read drafts.

—Kim McAloney, PhD, College Student Services Administration Ecampus coordinator and instructor

Final Comments: Preparing for Being Challenged

Once you put your work out there, you must be ready to be challenged. Science is a collective enterprise and depends on a healthy give and take among researchers. This can be both novel and difficult as you get started, but the more you understand the importance of these challenges, the easier it will be to develop the kind of thick skin necessary for success in academia. Scientists’ authority rests on both the inherent strength of their findings and their ability to convince other scientists of the reliability and validity and value of those findings. So be prepared to be challenged, and recognize this as simply another important aspect of conducting research!

Considering what challenges might be made as you design and conduct your study will help you when you get to the writing and presentation stage. Address probable challenges in your final article, and have a planned response to probable questions in a conference presentation or job talk. The following is a list of common challenges of qualitative research and how you might best address them:

Questions about generalizability . Although qualitative research is not statistically generalizable (and be prepared to explain why), qualitative research is theoretically generalizable. Discuss why your findings here might tell us something about related phenomena or contexts.
Questions about reliability . You probably took steps to ensure the reliability of your findings. Discuss them! This includes explaining the use and value of multiple data sources and defending your sampling and case selections. It also means being transparent about your own position as researcher and explaining steps you took to ensure that what you were seeing was really there.
Questions about replicability. Although qualitative research cannot strictly be replicated because the circumstances and contexts will necessarily be different (if only because the point in time is different), you should be able to provide as much detail as possible about how the study was conducted so that another researcher could attempt to confirm or disconfirm your findings. Also, be very clear about the limitations of your study, as this allows other researchers insight into what future research might be warranted.

None of this is easy, of course. Writing beautifully and presenting clearly and cogently require skill and practice. If you take anything from this chapter, it is to remember that presentation is an important and essential part of the research process and to allocate time for this as you plan your research.

Data Visualization Checklist for Slideshow (PPT) Presentations

Adapted from Evergreen ( 2018 )

Text checklist

Short catchy, descriptive titles (e.g., “Working-class students are three times as likely to drop out of college”) summarize the point of the visual display
Subtitled and annotations provide additional information (e.g., “note: male students also more likely to drop out”)
Text size is hierarchical and readable (titles are largest; axes labels smallest, which should be at least 20points)
Text is horizontal. Audience members cannot read vertical text!
All data labeled directly and clearly: get rid of those “legends” and embed the data in your graphic display
Labels are used sparingly; avoid redundancy (e.g., do not include both a number axis and a number label)

Arrangement checklist

Proportions are accurate; bar charts should always start at zero; don’t mislead the audience!
Data are intentionally ordered (e.g., by frequency counts). Do not leave ragged alphabetized bar graphs!
Axis intervals are equidistant: spaces between axis intervals should be the same unit
Graph is two-dimensional. Three-dimensional and “bevelled” displays are confusing
There is no unwanted decoration (especially the kind that comes automatically through the PPT “theme”). This wastes your space and confuses.

Color checklist

There is an intentional color scheme (do not use default theme)
Color is used to identify key patterns (e.g., highlight one bar in red against six others in greyscale if this is the bar you want the audience to notice)
Color is still legible when printed in black and white
Color is legible for people with color blindness (do not use red/green or yellow/blue combinations)
There is sufficient contrast between text and background (black text on white background works best; be careful of white on dark!)

Lines checklist

Be wary of using gridlines; if you do, mute them (grey, not black)
Allow graph to bleed into surroundings (don’t use border lines)
Remove axis lines unless absolutely necessary (better to label directly)

Overall design checklist

The display highlights a significant finding or conclusion that your audience can ‘”see” relatively quickly
The type of graph (e.g., bar chart, pie chart, line graph) is appropriate for the data. Avoid pie charts with more than three slices!
Graph has appropriate level of precision; if you don’t need decimal places
All the chart elements work together to reinforce the main message

Universal Design Checklist for Slideshow (PPT) Presentations

Include both verbal and written descriptions (e.g., captions on slides); consider providing a hand-out to accompany the presentation
Microphone available (ask audience in back if they can clearly hear)
Face audience; allow people to read your lips
Turn on captions when presenting audio or video clips
Adjust light settings for visibility
Speak slowly and clearly; practice articulation; don’t mutter or speak under your breath (even if you have something humorous to say – say it loud!)
Use Black/White contrasts for easy visibility; or use color contrasts that are real contrasts (do not rely on people being able to differentiate red from green, for example)
Use easy to read font styles and avoid too small font sizes: think about what an audience member in the back row will be able to see and read.
Keep your slides simple: do not overclutter them; if you are including quotes from your interviews, take short evocative snippets only, and bold key words and passages. You should also read aloud each passage, preferably with feeling!

Supplement: Models of Written Sections for Future Reference

Data collection section example.

Interviews were semi structured, lasted between one and three hours, and took place at a location chosen by the interviewee. Discussions centered on four general topics: (1) knowledge of their parent’s immigration experiences; (2) relationship with their parents; (3) understanding of family labor, including language-brokering experiences; and (4) experiences with school and peers, including any future life plans. While conducting interviews, I paid close attention to respondents’ nonverbal cues, as well as their use of metaphors and jokes. I conducted interviews until I reached a point of saturation, as indicated by encountering repeated themes in new interviews (Glaser and Strauss 1967). Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed with each interviewee’s permission, and conducted in accordance with IRB protocols. Minors received permission from their parents before participation in the interview. ( Kwon 2022:1832 )

Justification of Case Selection / Sample Description Section Example

Looking at one profession within one organization and in one geographic area does impose limitations on the generalizability of our findings. However, it also has advantages. We eliminate the problem of interorganizational heterogeneity. If multiple organizations are studied simultaneously, it can make it difficult to discern the mechanisms that contribute to racial inequalities. Even with a single occupation there is considerable heterogeneity, which may make understanding how organizational structure impacts worker outcomes difficult. By using the case of one group of professionals in one religious denomination in one geographic region of the United States, we clarify how individuals’ perceptions and experiences of occupational inequality unfold in relation to a variety of observed and unobserved occupational and contextual factors that might be obscured in a larger-scale study. Focusing on a specific group of professionals allows us to explore and identify ways that formal organizational rules combine with informal processes to contribute to the persistence of racial inequality. ( Eagle and Mueller 2022:1510–1511 )

Ethics Section Example

I asked everyone who was willing to sit for a formal interview to speak only for themselves and offered each of them a prepaid Visa Card worth $25–40. I also offered everyone the opportunity to keep the card and erase the tape completely at any time they were dissatisfied with the interview in any way. No one asked for the tape to be erased; rather, people remarked on the interview being a really good experience because they felt heard. Each interview was professionally transcribed and for the most part the excerpts are literal transcriptions. In a few places, the excerpts have been edited to reduce colloquial features of speech (e.g., you know, like, um) and some recursive elements common to spoken language. A few excerpts were placed into standard English for clarity. I made this choice for the benefit of readers who might otherwise find the insights and ideas harder to parse in the original. However, I have to acknowledge this as an act of class-based violence. I tried to keep the original phrasing whenever possible. ( Pascale 2021:235 )

Qualitative research design (CC-BY, 2020)

CC BY is the correct license for this work. Ignore the ones in the slides: use this materials as you like, with attribution. (KW, 02-2020)

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PowerPoint Slides: SOWK 621.01: Research I: Basic Research Methodology

The twelve lessons for SOWK 621.01: Research I: Basic Research Methodology as previously taught by Dr. Matthew DeCarlo at Radford University. Dr. DeCarlo and his team developed a complete package of materials that includes a textbook, ancillary materials, and a student workbook as part of a VIVA Open Course Grant.

The PowerPoint slides associated with the twelve lessons of the course, SOWK 621.01: Research I: Basic Research Methodology, as previously taught by Dr. Matthew DeCarlo at Radford University.

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The Principles of Qualitative Research - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

The Principles of Qualitative Research

The principles of qualitative research. hugh willmott. research professor in ... in n.c. smith and p.dainty (eds), the management research handbook, london: routledge ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

Hugh Willmott
Research Professor in Organizational Analysis
Cardiff Business School
Home Page http//dspace.dial.pipex.com/town/clos e/hr22/hcwhome
Module Outline
Introductions me and you
Defining Qualitative Research
Challenges of Qualitative Research
Theoretical and practical introduction to key issues involved in the production, analysis and presentation of qualitative data
specific reference to business and management-related fields of study.
Develop an understanding of the main issues encountered in the process of designing and pursuing qualitative analysis
exclusive focus on non-quantitative data
or occurring within the context of numerical data construction and interpretation
Theoretical traditions
- range of different approaches, perspectives, paradigms
Design Issues
- alternative principles and strategies
Data collection/construction
- diverse ways of collecting/constructing data
Claims and issues in social research
- concerns about reliability, validity, generalizability, reflexivity, ethics, etc.
Management Sciences graduate
Relevance of social theory (across the social sciences) for study of management and organization
Appeal of critical social theory (purpose is to change the world, not just to understand it)
diverse forms of critical social theory
emancipatory intent
Critical Management Studies (CMS)
Involvement in numerous qualitative studies
For example
Management of single homeless people field study
Management control (x 2) case studies
Strategy case studies
Accounting Regulation field study
Changing Employment Relations (case studies)
plus supervision of PhD students (PR, new media, business education, strategy, ethics, new manufacturing practices, mutuals,etc)
Topic Stance/Approach - Background
Topic of research what is it and how did it emerge?
Intended approach/perspective for undertaking the research what is it and why this choice?
Background academic and anything else considered relevant
What issues have emerged, and what has been learned about the presentation of research?
Focus and Scope
Defensibility of perspective
Preparedness
Ethics of research how deep to probe?
Politics of research hidden agendas? judgments?
Implicit assumptions and understandings re. meaning of research framing of questions and answers
Management of identity as interviewer and interviewee process of negotiation
Selective construction and (re)presentation of research findings (see above!)
A researcher is called in by a top manager to study the effects of an innovative change programme that has recently been implemented, at great cost and with much publicity, at the managers insistence. The research shows that the programme has had little or no effect. The manager angrily instructs the researcher not to publish the study even though the researcher had said at the start that freedom to publish was a condition of doing the work. A.B.Thomas (2004), Research Skills for Management Studies, London Routledge, p. 89
Health Warning. There is no single definitive answer to this question (just take a look at the different representations of qualitative research to be found in the numerous textbooks on the subject!). Here is one recently provided in a specialist article on the subject published in the top management journal, Academy of Management Journal)
1. Qualitative research is multimethod research that uses an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter (Denzin Lincoln, 1994). Qualitative research emphasizes qualities of entitiesthe processes and meanings that occur naturally (Denzin Lincoln, 2000 8).
2. Qualitative research often studies phenomena in the environments in which they naturally occur and uses social actors meanings to understand the phenomena (Denzin Lincoln, 1994 2).
3.Qualitative research addresses questions about how social experience is created and given meaning and produces representations of the world that make the world visible (Denzin Lincoln, 2000 3). Beyond this, qualitative research is particularly difficult to pin down because of its flexibility and emergent character (Van Maanen,1998 xi).
4. Qualitative research is often designed at the same time it is being done it requires highly contextualized individual judgments (Van Maanen, 1998 xi) moreover, it is open to unanticipated events, and it offers holistic depictions of realities that cannot be reduced to a few variables (pp 454-55)
Multiple methods (observation, interviewing, documentation, etc)
Focus upon naturally occurring meanings
Attention to actors frame of reference or sense-making
Emergent in direction and interpretation
Continuous adjustment iterative
Holistic (opposite of fragmented or highly selective)
Continuous exercise of judgment (craft)
Research is a craft. Like other crafts activities are not analyzableUnexpected problems appear. Procedures are not available to describe each aspect of research activityThrough practice one learns to ask research questions, how to conduct research projects, and what to strive for when writing a research paper
R. Daft, Learning the Craft of Organizational Research, Academy of Management Review, 8, pp 539-46 cited in A. Thomas (2004), Research Skills for Management Students, London Routledge, p. 4
Foregrounding the significance of context and particularity
Contesting outsiders accounts of the inside
Resistance to pressures for reduction to set of protocols
Development of theoretical generalization
Formation of critical yet productive and creative ways of thinking and doing (J. Mason (2005), Qualitative Researching, London Sage, p. 4)
Developing a type of rigor and systematicity that is appropriate to qualitative research. Key importance of reflexivity - confronting and often challenging your own assumptions, and recognising the extent to which your thoughts, action and decisions shape how you research and what you see (Mason, ibid, p. 5).
Systematic and rigorous but not rigid
Accountable endeavour to make it amenable to assessment
Strategically conducted thoughtfully planned but attentive to changing circumstances
Reflexive recurrently ask difficult questions re. role of researcher in research process (a researcher cannot be neutral, objective or detached, from the knowledge and evidence they are generating)
Provide explanations or arguments, not mere descriptions that appear to be factual (qualitative researchers should recognize that they are producing arguments, and should be explicit about the logic on which these are based, my emphasis)
Recognise that the distinction between qualitative and quantitative is not clear-cut.
Recognise that research is a moral practice involving numerous moral and political dilemmas
The meaning of qualitative research
where are its boundaries? what are its methods? what makes it research?
The standing of qualitative research
is it inferior (anecdotal, illustrative) or preparatory to quantitative research?
should qualitative research comply with the protocols and by judged by the criteria attributed to quantitative research re. validity, etc?
The ethics of qualitative research
is qualitative research unacceptably intrusive? What accountability is there of the researcher to the researched?
The conduct of qualitative research
what stance/ approach to take? Which methods to use? What skills to develop? What justifications to invoke?
Topic and Stance/ Approach
Safe but dull
Risky but personally satisfying?
P. Cryer (1996), The Research Students Guide to Success, Buckingham Open University Press
Homan, R. (1991), The Ethics of Social Research, London Longman
P. Jeffcutt and A. B.Thomas (1991), Understanding Supervisory Relationships in N.C. Smith and P. Dainty (eds), The Management Research Handbook, London Routledge
M. Tayeb (1991), Inside Story The Sufferings and Joys of Doctoral Research, Organization Studies, 12 301-4
Watson, T.J. (1994), Managing, Crafting and Researching Words, Skill and Imagination in Shaping Management Research, British Journal of Management, Special Issue, 5 77-87

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[Guide] How to Present Qualitative Research Findings in PowerPoint?

By: Author Shrot Katewa

As a researcher, it is quite pointless to do the research if we are unable to share the findings with our audience appropriately! Using PowerPoint is one of the best ways to present research outcomes. But, how does one present qualitative research findings using PowerPoint?

In order to present the qualitative research findings using PowerPoint, you need to create a robust structure for your presentation, make it engaging and visually appealing, present the patterns with explanations for it and highlight the conclusion of your research findings.

In this article, we will help you understand the structure of your presentation. Plus, we’ll share some handy tips that will make your qualitative research presentation really effective!

How to Create a Structure for your Qualitative Research Presentation?

Creating the right structure for your presentation is key to ensuring that it is correctly understood by your audience.

The structure of your Research Presentation not only makes it easier for you to create the document, it also makes it simple for the audience to understand what all will be covered in the presentation at the time of presenting it to your audience.

Furthermore, having a robust structure is a great way to ensure that you don’t miss out on any of the points while working on creating the presentation.

But, what structure should one follow?

Creating a good structure can be tricky for some. Thus, I’m sharing what has worked well for me during my previous research projects.

NOTE – It is important to note that although the following structure is highly effective for most research findings presentation, it has been generalized in order to serve a wide range of research projects. You may want to take a look at points that are very specific to the nature of your research project and include them at your discretion.

Here’s my recommended structure to create your Research Findings presentation –

1. Objective of the Research

A great way to start your presentation is to highlight the objective of your research project.

It is important to remember that merely sharing the objective may sometimes not be enough. A short backstory along with the purpose of your research project can pack a powerful punch ! It not only validates the reasoning for your project but also subtly establishes trust with your audience.

However, do make sure that you’re not reading the backstory from the slide. Let it flow naturally when you are delivering the presentation. Keep the presentation as minimalistic as possible.

2. Key Parameters Considered for Measurement

Once you’ve established the objective, the next thing that you may want to do is perhaps share the key parameters considered for the success of your project.

Every research project, including qualitative research, needs to have a few key parameters to measure against the objective of the research.

For example – If the goal of your project is to gather the sentiments of a certain group of people for a particular product, you may need to measure their feelings. Are they happy or unhappy using the product? How do they perceive the branding of the product? Is it affordable?

Make sure that you list down all such key parameters that were considered while conducting the qualitative research.

In general, laying these out before sharing the outcome can help your audience think from your perspective and look at the findings from the correct lens.

3. Research Methodology Adopted

The next thing that you may want to include in your presentation is the methodology that you adopted for conducting the research.

By knowing your approach, the audience can be better prepared for the outcome of your project. Ensure that you provide sound reasoning for the chosen methodology.

This section of your presentation can also showcase some pictures of the research being conducted. If you have captured a video, include that. Doing this provides further validation of your project.

4. Research Outcomes (Presenting Descriptive Analysis)

This is the section that will constitute the bulk of the your presentation.

Use the slides in this section to describe the observations, and the resulting outcomes on each of the key parameters that were considered for the research project.

It is usually a good idea to dedicate at least 1 or more slides for each parameter . Make sure that you present data wherever possible. However, ensure that the data presented can be easily comprehended.

Provide key learnings from the data, highlight any outliers, and possible reasoning for it. Try not to go too in-depth with the stats as this can overwhelm the audience. Remember, a presentation is most helpful when it is used to provide key highlights of the research !

Apart from using the data, make sure that you also include a few quotes from the participants.

5. Summary and Learnings from the Research

Once you’ve taken the audience through the core part of your research findings, it is a good practice to summarize the key learnings from each of the section of your project.

Make sure your touch upon some of the key learnings covered in the research outcome of your presentation.

Furthermore, include any additional observations and key points that you may have had which were previously not covered.

The summary slide also often acts as “Key Takeaways” from the research for your audience. Thus, make sure that you maintain brevity and highlight only the points that you want your audience to remember even after the presentation.

6. Inclusions and Exclusions (if any)

While this can be an optional section for some of the researchers.

However, dedicating a section on inclusions and exclusions in your presentation can be a great value add! This section helps your audience understand the key factors that were excluded (or included) on purpose!

Moreover, it creates a sense of thoroughness in the minds of your audience.

7. Conclusion of the Research

The purpose of the conclusion slide of your research findings presentation is to revisit the objective, and present a conclusion.

A conclusion may simply validate or nullify the objective. It may sometimes do neither. Nevertheless, having a conclusion slide makes your presentation come a full circle. It creates this sense of completion in the minds of your audience.

8. Questions

Finally, since your audience did not spend as much time as you did on the research project, people are bound to have a few questions.

Thus, the last part of your presentation structure should be dedicated to allowing your audience to ask questions.

Tips for Effectively Presenting Qualitative Research Findings using PowerPoint

For a presentation to be effective, it is important that the presentation is not only well structured but also that it is well created and nicely delivered!

While we have already covered the structure, let me share with you some tips that you can help you create and deliver the presentation effectively.

Tip 1 – Use Visuals

Using visuals in your presentation is a great way to keep the presentations engaging!

Visual aids not only help make the presentation less boring, but it also helps your audience in retaining the information better!

So, use images and videos of the actual research wherever possible. If these do not suffice or do not give a professional feel, there are a number of resources online from where you can source royalty-free images.

My recommendation for high-quality royalty-free images would be either Unsplash or Pexels . Both are really good. The only downside is that they often do not provide the perfect image that can be used. That said, it can get the job done for at least half the time.

If you are unable to find the perfect free image, I recommend checking out Dreamstime . They have a huge library of images and are much cheaper than most of the other image banks. I personally use Dreamstime for my presentation projects!

Tip 2 – Tell a Story (Don’t Show Just Data!)

I cannot stress enough on how important it is to give your presentation a human touch. Delivering a presentation in the form of a story does just that! Furthermore, storytelling is also a great tool for visualization .

Data can be hard-hitting, whereas a touching story can tickle the emotions of your audience on various levels!

One of the best ways to present a story with your research project is to start with the backstory of the objective. We’ve already talked about this in the earlier part of this article.

Start with why is this research project is so important. Follow a story arc that provides an exciting experience of the beginning, the middle, and a progression towards a climax; much like a plot of a soap opera.

Tip 3 – Include Quotes of the Participants

Including quotes of the participants in your research findings presentation not only provides evidence but also demonstrates authenticity!

Quotes function as a platform to include the voice of the target group and provide a peek into the mindset of the target audience.

When using quotes, keep these things in mind –

1. Use Quotes in their Unedited Form

When using quotes in your presentation, make sure that you use them in their raw unedited form.

The need to edit quotes should be only restricted to aid comprehension and sometimes coherence.

Furthermore, when editing the quotes, make sure that you use brackets to insert clarifying words. The standard format for using the brackets is to use square brackets for clarifying words and normal brackets for adding a missing explanation.

2. How to Decide which Quotes to Consider?

It is important to know which quotes to include in your presentation. I use the following 3 criteria when selecting the quote –

Relevance – Consider the quotes that are relevant, and trying to convey the point that you want to establish.
Length – an ideal quote should be not more than 1-2 sentences long.
Choose quotes that are well-expressed and striking in nature.

3. Preserve Identity of the Participant

It is important to preserve and protect the identity of the participant. This can be done by maintaining confidentiality and anonymity.

Thus, refrain from using the name of the participant. An alternative could be using codes, using pseudonyms (made up names) or simply using other general non-identifiable parameters.

Do note, when using pseudonyms, remember to highlight it in the presentation.

If, however, you do need to use the name of the respondent, make sure that the participant is okay with it and you have adequate permissions to use their name.

Tip 4 – Make your Presentation Visually Appealing and Engaging

It is quite obvious for most of us that we need to create a visually appealing presentation. But, making it pleasing to the eye can be a bit challenging.

Fortunately, we wrote a detailed blog post with tips on how to make your presentation attractive. It provides you with easy and effective tips that you can use even as a beginner! Make sure you check that article.

7 EASY tips that ALWAYS make your PPT presentation attractive (even for beginners)

In addition to the tips mentioned in the article, let me share a few things that you can do which are specific to research outcome presentations.

4.1 Use a Simple Color Scheme

Using the right colors are key to make a presentation look good.

One of the most common mistakes that people make is use too many colors in their presentation!

My recommendation would be to go with a monochromatic color scheme in PowerPoint .

4.2 Make the Data Tables Simple and Visually Appealing

When making a presentation on research outcomes, you are bound to present some data.

But, when data is not presented in a proper manner, it can easily and quickly make your presentation look displeasing! The video below can be a good starting point.

Using neat looking tables can simply transform the way your presentation looks. So don’t just dump the data from excel on your PowerPoint presentation. Spend a few minutes on fixing it!

4.3 Use Graphs and Charts (wherever necessary)

When presenting data, my recommendation would be that graphs and charts should be your first preference.

Using graphs or charts make it easier to read the data, takes less time for the audience to comprehend, and it also helps to identify a trend.

However, make sure that the correct chart type is used when representing the data. The last thing that you want is to poorly represent a key piece of information.

4.4 Use Icons instead of Bullet Points

Consider the following example –

This slide could have been created just as easily using bullet points. However, using icons and representing the information in a different format makes the slide pleasing on the eye.

Thus, always try to use icons wherever possible instead of bullet points.

Tip 5 – Include the Outliers

Many times, as a research project manager, we tend to focus on the trends extracted from a data set.

While it is important to identify patterns in the data and provide an adequate explanation for the pattern, it is equally important sometimes to highlight the outliers prominently.

It is easy to forget that there may be hidden learnings even in the outliers. At times, the data trend may be re-iterating the common wisdom. However, upon analyzing the outlier data points, you may get insight into how a few participants are doing things successfully despite not following the common knowledge.

That said, not every outlier will reveal hidden information. So, do verify what to include and what to exclude.

Tip 6 – Take Inspiration from other Presentations

I admit, making any presentation can be a tough ask let alone making a presentation for showcasing qualitative research findings. This is especially hard when we don’t have the necessary skills for creating a presentation.

One quick way to overcome this challenge could be take inspiration from other similar presentations that we may have liked.

There is no shame in being inspired from others. If you don’t have any handy references, you can surely Google it to find a few examples.

One trick that almost always works for me is using Pinterest .

But, don’t just directly search for a research presentation. You will have little to no success with it. The key is to look for specific examples for inspiration. For eg. search for Title Slide examples, or Image Layout Examples in Presentation.

Tip 7 – Ask Others to Critic your Presentation

The last tip that I would want to provide is to make sure that you share the presentation with supportive colleagues or mentors to attain feedback.

This step can be critical to iron out the chinks in the armor. As research project manager, it is common for you to get a bit too involved with the project. This can lead to possibilities wherein you miss out on things.

A good way to overcome this challenge is to get a fresh perspective on your project and the presentation once it has been prepared.

Taking critical feedback before your final presentation can also prepare you to handle tough questions in an adept manner.

Final Thoughts

It is quite important to ensure that we get it right when working on a presentation that showcases the findings of our research project. After all, we don’t want to be in a situation wherein we put in all the hard-work in the project, but we fail to deliver the outcome appropriately.

I hope you will find the aforementioned tips and structure useful, and if you do, make sure that you bookmark this page and spread the word. Wishing you all the very best for your project!

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PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1: QUALITATIVE

Published by Helen Banks Modified over 6 years ago

Presentation on theme: "PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1: QUALITATIVE"— Presentation transcript:

Research Methods in Crime and Justice

REVIEW OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH AND PRINCIPLES OF QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS SCWK 242 – SESSION 2 SLIDES.

Note: The majority of content in this powerpoint was obtained from the website of B. Dodge, Department of Applied Health Science at Indiana University.

Research Methodologies

Qualitative Paradigm: Phenomenology, Case Studies & Etnography

 It’s an approach to research that examines a concept or phenomenon from the perspective of the individual who is experiencing it  The research purpose.

Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches

Outline: Research Methodology: Case Study - what is case study

Chapter 16 Narrative Research Gay, Mills, and Airasian

Case Study Research By Kenneth Medley.

Chapter 15 Ethnographic Designs

Case Study Research A Qualitative Approach to Inquiry

Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches Dr. William M. Bauer

Qualitative vs. Quantitative QUANTITATIVE Hypothesis: All beans are alike. NULL: No beans are different. Method: Count the beans. QUALITATIVE Question:

Overview of Research Designs Qualitative. Outline Comparison of Qualitative and Quantitative Research Types of Qualitative Research Data Collection in.

Chapter 10 Conducting & Reading Research Baumgartner et al Chapter 10 Qualitative Research.

Qualitative Research.

Evidence Based Practice (EBP) For Physical Therapists.

Chapter 10 Qualitative Methods in Health and Human Performance.

About project

Introduction to Qualitative Research Design

Jul 21, 2014

1.39k likes | 3.44k Views

Introduction to Qualitative Research Design. By: S. Babar Ali. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: GROWING IN POPULARITY IN HEALTH AND MEDICINE .

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Introduction to Qualitative Research Design By: S. Babar Ali

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: GROWING IN POPULARITY IN HEALTH AND MEDICINE • Qualitative methods are becoming increasingly prevalent in medical and related research. They provide additional ways for health researchers to explore and explain the contexts in which they and their patients function, enabling a more comprehensive understanding of many aspects of the healthcare system.‟ (Kuper et al, 2006: 406) • Experiences in qualitative research?

What is Qualitative research? • The goal of Qualitative research is the development of concepts which helps to understand social phenomena in natural (rather then experimental) setting, giving due to emphasis to the meanings, experiences, and views of all the participants. (Pope & Mays,1995).

What is Qualitative research? Bryman’s (1998) characteristics of qualitative research: • Seeing through eyes • Describing the details of everyday settings • Understanding actions and meaning in their social context

Qualitative research • Qualitative research, also called field research, typically involves fieldwork in which the researcher observes and records behavior and events in their natural setting. • The researcher physically goes to the people, setting, or site in order to observe the subject as it normally and naturally occurs or behaves.

The types of objectives Positivist/Quantitative To count To quantify To measure To determine the effect A vs B Naturalistic/Qualitative To identify To explore To qualify To elucidate To describe To document

Difference between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Largely draw on positivist paradigm Extensive (large sample) Statistical sample of the population Techniques ( questionnaire, measurement) Focus: how many, determine single/causal relationship Analysis- mainly deductive Quantitative Qualitative • Largely draw on naturalistic paradigm • Intensive (small sampling) • Symbolic-representative of group • Technique-interview, group discussions, observations • Focus-Why, how, understand multiple inter-relationship • Analysis-mainly inductive

POSITIVIST („HARD‟ SCIENCES‟) VERSUS QUALITATIVE („SOFT SCIENCES‟) RESEARCH Positivism • “…emphasizes the measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables, not processes – proponents of such studies claim that their work is done in value-free framework” …contends that there is a reality out there to be objectively studied, captured, understood.” Positivist (e.g. quantitative) methods ar employed to isolate causes and effects: • -to measure and quantify phenomena • -to allow for the generalization of findings

„HARD‟ VS „SOFT‟ SCIENCES RESEARCH Qualitative Social Sciences Response to the failings of traditional deductive methodologies. Reject positivist criteria of evaluating data: replicability, „validity‟, objective, value-free. Emphasize innovative, inductive methods and research strategies Seek alternative methods for evaluating the „success‟ of qualitative research: multi-voiced texts, dialogical research, reflexivity. Use of experimental qualitative genres: narrative, storytelling, filmmaking.

DEDUCTIVE VERSUS INDUCTIVE PROCESSES Deductive process in quantitative studies begins with theory Examines hypothetical relationships within it Hypothesis – tested Inductive process in qualitative studies begins with observations Open questions which are applied to guide initial research Research is refined over the course of fieldwork and the collection and preliminary thematic analysis of data Inductive research drives the identification of situation-specific analytical approaches, or, the formulation of theory generated from study observations and findings (grounded theory)

Deductive reasoning • Associated with positivist/experimental approach • Researcher begins with acceptance of a general principle or belief and then apply that principle to explain a specific case or phenomenon. (DePoy & Gitlin, 1994)

Core Activities in Qualitative Research • Literature Review- a cursory review may be done initially to focus the study, otherwise it is conducted after the data has been collected and analyzed. • Rationale for delaying the L.R. is to avoid leading the participants in the direction of what has already been discovered. • Purpose of L.R. is to show how current findings fit into what is already known

Explicating Researcher’s Beliefs • Bracketing - setting aside one’s biases and personal views on a topic • Investigator keeps a diary of personal thoughts and feelings about the topic • Purpose is to make known to the researcher her/his beliefs about the topic so that the researcher may approach the topic honestly

Setting for Data Collection • The field is the natural world where participants live • The field requires reciprocity in terms of decision making • The participant & researcher determine what data will be shared • Participants must understand & be willing to share their thoughts & feelings about the phenomenon • Contrast this with quantitative studies where data are collected in controlled settings & the researcher is removed from the subject

Selection of Participants • Participant or informant refers to the individual who informs the research study (vs subjects or respondents) • They are active participants & equal partners • Must have 1st hand experience with research phenomenon (vs random selection) • They want to help others understand their lives & the social contexts in which they live & create meaning

Purposive Sampling • Participants must have first hand experience with the research experience and be able to talk about it • Researcher establishes clear criteria & rationale for sample selection • Goal is not generalization of findings but rich descriptions of phenomenon by those who have experienced it

Saturation • A situation in data collection in which participants’ descriptions become repetitive & confirm previously collected data • An indication that data collection is complete • Similar to adequate sample size in quantitative research

Data Analysis • Researcher immerses self in data to bring order & meaning to vast narrative • Begins with 1st data collection episode • Reading, rereading, intuiting, analyzing, synthesizing & reporting on data • Cyclical & recursive process that requires an extensive amount of time

Scientific Adequacy • RIGOR in qualitative research is less about the adherence to rules and more about fidelity to the spirit and standards of qualitative work (Sandelowski, 1993)

Data Analysis (cont’d) • Data from interviews are continuously reviewed to identify additional questions • Data from earlier interviews are routinely returned to participants for clarification/elaboration • Investigator must look for meaning in the data as it is reviewed

Data Analysis (Cont’d) • At conclusion of study a protracted period of data immersion in which conclusions are reviewed in the context of the whole study • Data similar in meaning are clustered together into preliminary categories

4 Criteria of Trustworthiness • Credibility • Transferability • Dependability • Confirmability

Credibility • Refers to the accuracy of the description • Is the description plausible & recognized by those who experienced it. • Enhanced by prolonged time in the field • Repeatedly observing & interacting with participants • Triangulation of data sources, methods, data type, investigators, & theories • Member checks-participants involved with data analysis

Dependability • Refers to the stability & trackability of the changes in data over time & conditions • Reflects the reality that people’s situations change & reality differs for people • Want to determine the extent to which another researcher with similar training & rapport with participants would make the same observations • This is determined by an audit trail

Transferability • Concerned with generalizability or fittingness of findings to other settings, populations, & contexts • Report must provide sufficient detail so that readers can assess this • Lack of transferability is often viewed as a weakness of qualitative methods

Confirmability • Basic issue here is one of neutrality • Do conclusions depend upon the subjects & conditions of inquiry rather than on the researcher • Would 2 independent researchers agree about the meanings emerging from the data • An audit trail is used • researcher must explicate how personal biases may have come into play and consider alternative explanations

Advantages & Limitations • Focus on the whole of the human experience & the meanings ascribed to them by participants they provide nurses with deep insights that would not be possible using quantitative methods exclusively • The major strength of qualitative work is the validity of the data it produces • Participants true reality is likely to be reflected

Advantages & Limitations (cont’d) • Major limitation is its perceived lack of objectivity & generalizability • Researchers become the research tools and may lack objectivity

Developing the Question • Focus is to describe the meaning of the lived experience from the perspective of the participant • Broad question: “What is the meaning of one’s lived experience?” • Central overarching question & subquestions

Role of Researcher • Is the instrument for data collection • Establishes good rapport with participants • Explicates beliefs through bracketing • The meaning of the lived experience is interpreted from the participants’ stories

Sample • Small purposive sample • Participants are able & willing to talk about their experience and describe their feelings • Large enough to get a rich description of the research phenomenon

Data Collection • In-depth interviews • Written descriptions of experiences in diaries & journals • Observations • Multiple interviews with same participants to reflect the meaning of the lived experience from the participants’ perspective

Data Analysis • Immersion with the data • Read, re-read transcripts, may return to participants for clarification or description • Comparative analysis to identify themes in data • Look for similarities & differences in data to identify themes • Reduce data into smaller & smaller number of categories to arrive at a consistent description of the meaning of the lived experience • Share description with participants for verification

Review of Literature • Conducted after data collection & analysis are complete • Places findings within the context of what is known about the phenomenon

Findings • reports the essence of the experience • reader should get an understanding of what it is like to experience the phenomenon

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Ethical Principles and Challenges for Qualitative Researchers

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Lorenzo-Quiles Oswaldo ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1087-8138 19

Part of the book series: Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing ((AISC,volume 1345))

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The ethics of qualitative research are a reflection of the different procedures and tools that characterise this type of research. Due to its characteristic features (Wiles 2012 ) and its circular and interactive nature (Rodríguez et al. 2005 ), ethical problems continuously arise throughout the entire qualitative research process. There are certain ethical considerations that are common to both qualitative and quantitative research. However, in the field of social science where qualitative research techniques are more frequently applied, these ethical issues are considerably complex given that researchers are influenced by a number of aspects intrinsic to the nature of the human phenomena being researched and which affect decisions regarding technical and procedural matters, information management and even dissemination. This situation influences the expertise, ethical quality and commitment of the researcher in relation to the generation and analysis of the materials upon which the work is based and improving the understanding by the scientific community of the phenomenon studied (Aspers and Corte 2019 ).

Qualitative researchers face a number of issues and challenges to ensure they carry out their research work in line with the principles expected of them relating to qualitative research, which are closely related to ethical values (Guba and Lincoln 1981 ).

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Oswaldo, LQ. (2021). Ethical Principles and Challenges for Qualitative Researchers. In: Costa, A.P., Reis, L.P., Moreira, A., Longo, L., Bryda, G. (eds) Computer Supported Qualitative Research. WCQR 2021. Advances in Intelligent Systems and Computing, vol 1345. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-70187-1_1

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