dog behavior essay

Measuring the Behaviour of Dogs: An Ethological Approach

• First Online: 01 January 2014

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• Claudia Fugazza 2 &
• Ádam Miklósi 2  

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What are ‘dog cognition’ studies actually studying? What role does the dog play in behaviour research? In this essay we consider how to study this species from the ethologist’s perspective by providing a critical summary of the various approaches and explaining how these can answer questions on function, evolution, mechanism, and development and by highlighting the potential pitfalls in methodology. It is impossible to claim that one dog is more dog - like than others and it is now evident that even the concept of breed per se presents some problematic issues from the canid ethologist’s perspective. Thus for any sampling it is fundamental to keep in mind what is the research question and to choose the subjects according to what aspects are expected to be relevant. In general the researcher should include a wide range of purebred dogs and mongrels living in human families in a representative sample. When sampling for investigations comparing wolves and dogs, we must bear in mind that dogs present a mosaic pattern of wolf-like traits and cannot be ranked along a strict continuum when assessing their differences from wolves. Therefore for comparative studies and also when the research question regards general dog abilities, a mixed sample of purebred dogs and mongrels is advisable. It is probably even more important to ensure that all animals have had similar past experience, especially with regard to humans. It should be noted that those dog owners that participate on a voluntary basis in a research program are already a specific sub-sample because it is very likely that those owners are particularly interested and take special care of their dogs. Thus it is also likely that these owners want to be part of the experiment and these dogs may actually also ‘need’ the presence of the owner. If the experiment is designed carefully the presence of the owner should not interfere with the outcome. The lack of a generally accepted ethogram is hindering behaviour research on dogs. The scientific community should aim for developing a categorical list of behaviour units that forms the basis of behavioural observations and experimental work.

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Acknowledgements

A.M. is grateful for the support of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (MTA 01 031), and the European Science Foundation (ESF Research Networking Programme titled “The Evolution of Social Cognition: Comparisons and integration across a wide range of human and non-human animal species”). C.F. is grateful for the support of the APDT Foundation and for the fellowship of the Hungarian Scholarship Board.

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Fugazza, C., Miklósi, Á. (2014). Measuring the Behaviour of Dogs: An Ethological Approach. In: Horowitz, A. (eds) Domestic Dog Cognition and Behavior. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-53994-7_8

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What Your Dog Wants

Dogs are “really good at reading our emotions,” says one expert. But we’re not so good at reading theirs.

By Melinda Wenner Moyer

Listen to This Article

My family is one of the estimated 23 million American households that got a pandemic pet, and Ozzy, our new beloved German Shepherd-Afghan Hound-Chow Chow mix, has brought us joy during a very difficult time. A 2021 study found that, during the pandemic, people who owned dogs felt more socially supported and were less likely to have symptoms of depression than people who didn’t own a dog but wanted to. Ozzy’s rock-star-like fur, which looks teased and crimped around his head — he’s named after Ozzy Osbourne — and weird monkeylike noises make us giggle, and my kids love playing tug-of-war with him outside.

But Ozzy has also, at times, been a pain in the butt, doing things like jumping on the kitchen table to steal my burrito and pulling his leash like a sled dog on walks. So a few months ago, my partner and I hired a trainer to help us figure him out. The first thing our trainer, Amber Marino, taught us was that we were probably misinterpreting much of Ozzy’s behavior, as most owners do. “Dogs are always communicating with us, but most of the time we’re not listening, which can lead to behavioral issues,” she told me. I was surprised to learn from her that when a pup rolls over, he doesn’t necessarily want a tummy rub — it could be that he wants some space. I’d always assumed that when a dog wags its tail, it meant she was happy, but it could actually mean that she’s amped up and about to lash out.

I wanted to know more about what makes dogs act the way they do, so I reached out to several scientists to explain what humans get wrong when it comes to dog behavior. Here are some of the fascinating things I learned.

How to recognize signs of distress

One key mistake people make is that they often miss signs that dogs are stressed or anxious — often a precursor to aggressive behavior. According to the experts, a stressed-out pup may show she’s scared by licking her lips, yawning, lifting a front paw, shedding hair, scratching, shaking, panting or pacing. Her eyes can change, too: When we used to take our other dog, Henry, to the dog park, he would sometimes get what my partner and I referred to as “crazy eye” — his eyes would bug out, and you’d see more of the whites. I didn’t realize until recently that this is a phenomenon called “ whale eye ,” and it’s often a sign of doggie distress.

This doesn’t mean that every time your dog pants, yawns or lifts a paw, he’s on the verge of a breakdown. Dogs pant when they’re hot, too. Some dogs, such as pointers, lift their front paws when they pick up a scent. Yawning can also mean, of course, that your dog is tired. To understand what a dog’s body language and behavior are saying, “you have to look at the dog’s whole body, and you have to think about the context in which you’re in,” said psychologist Sarah Byosiere, director of the Thinking Dog Center at CUNY Hunter College in New York City.

So if your dog is panting but he isn’t hot or winded, or if your dog is yawning but not seemingly tired, yes, he could be stressed. And especially if you’re seeing a constellation of these stress behaviors at once, that’s a good sign that your pup is uncomfortable, Dr. Byosiere said.

If your dog is out of sorts, what should you do? First, try to figure out what might be causing his discomfort, said psychologist Angie Johnston, director of the Boston College Canine Cognition Center and Social Learning Laboratory. Are you in an unfamiliar place? Is your dog meeting new people or dogs? Once you have an idea as to what might be making your pup uncomfortable, “pull back from that activity,” she said, and see if those anxious behaviors dissipate.

Tail movements are another thing we think we understand but typically don’t. “The most common misconception, by far, is that tail-wagging definitely means the dog is happy,” Dr. Johnston said. If a dog’s tail-wagging is fluid and relaxed, then yes, she’s probably content, she said — but if the tail is wagging only slightly, and seems rigid, then it may be a sign that she is about to be aggressive. Research suggests , too, that when a dog’s wagging tail leans more to the right, she’s happy, but if it leans more to the left, she’s feeling hostile.

How to manage a dog’s social life

Many of the mistakes we make as dog owners revolve around how we handle their social interactions. We often don’t recognize the signs — panting, stiff tail-wagging, lip-licking, yawning — that our dog is uncomfortable around other people or dogs and needs help. Responding to their cues might mean asking other people to give your dog space. Maybe it means leaving the dog park and going home. “Probably the worst thing to do is to not do anything,” Dr. Byosiere said. If you don’t step in, you’re also increasing the risk that they could become aggressive.

One reason we make these errors is that we tend to assume dogs are more extroverted than they really are. “People who love dogs love to meet new dogs. But not all dogs like to meet new people or dogs,” said Brian Hare, an evolutionary anthropologist at Duke University who founded their Canine Cognition Center. If you want to meet a dog, first ask her owner if it’s OK — and respect them if they say no.

If the owner says it’s OK, approach the dog slowly. Stop a few feet away, kneel or crouch down, and see if the dog approaches you, Dr. Hare suggested. If he doesn’t — and especially if he looks or walks away — take that as a sign that you shouldn’t get any closer. If you see some of the distress signals mentioned earlier, that’s also a sign that he’s feeling nervous and that you should back off. And don’t approach a dog with your hand outstretched, Dr. Hare said — this can trigger aggression in dogs that have been mistreated, and it could lead to a bite. Instead, hold your hand out in a fist, or don’t extend a hand at all.

Don’t anthropomorphize your pup

The experts told me that we often attribute our dog’s actions to feelings they’re not really having. I have always assumed that Ozzy licks my face because he loves me. But — and boy, was I sorry to learn this — dogs often lick faces because they’re hoping to get a taste of what you recently ate, said Evan MacLean, an evolutionary anthropologist and comparative psychologist at the University of Arizona. (This stems from the behavior of young wolves, who lick the insides of their mothers’ mouths so that their moms regurgitate food for them to eat. Which explains why dogs do gross things like eat people’s vomit.)

Another mistake we make is assuming that dogs like the same things we do. Yes, some dogs love to be petted and snuggled. But many don’t. Ozzy sometimes rolls onto his back when my 11-year-old pets him, and that may be because he’s feeling uncomfortable, not because he wants a belly rub, Dr. MacLean said — although admittedly, he said, it can be hard to tell the difference.

Also, that guilty expression you see on your dog’s face after she’s done something “bad”? Research shows it’s not really a sign that she feels sheepish — she’s probably just responding to your anger. “Dogs show this look as a response to their person’s behavior or tone, not to their doing something we consider wrong,” said cognitive scientist Alexandra Horowitz, who directs the Barnard College Dog Cognition Lab.

Ultimately, dogs understand us far better than we understand them, Dr. Johnston said. Over thousands of years of domestication, they’ve become “really good at reading our emotions,” she said, but “I don’t think that it’s worked as much in the other direction.” To do right by our beloved canines, we really need to get to know them — and their weird little cues. I realize now that Ozzy has been communicating his needs to us pretty clearly but that we just haven’t been receptive — and now that we’re paying more attention, he’s become much better behaved. We’re still working on his proclivity toward burrito theft, however. That one is harder to tame.

Audio produced by Kate Winslett .

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Read more: Why Heart Disease in Women is So Often Missed or Dismissed

When embracing the little things in life goes viral

A trend that began early in the pandemic, encouraging people to appreciate even the most seemingly mundane moments, continues to thrive on social media. This approach, which draws from mindfulness, positive psychology and the Danish custom of hygge, helps people “romanticize their lives.”

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DogTV, a pay-TV service designed for dogs who are stuck at home alone, hopes to tap into a huge new audience of pandemic puppies  — plus their owners.

72 Dog Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

To find good research titles for your essay about dogs, you can look through science articles or trending pet blogs on the internet. Alternatively, you can check out this list of creative research topics about dogs compiled by our experts .

🐩 Dog Essays: Things to Consider

🏆 best dog titles for essays, 💡 most interesting dog topics to write about, ❓ questions about dog.

There are many different dog essays you can write, as mankind’s history with its best friends is rich and varied. Many people will name the creatures their favorite animals, citing their endearing and inspiring qualities such as loyalty, obedience, bravery, and others.

Others will discuss dog training and the variety of important roles the animals fulfill in our everyday life, working as shepherds, police members, guides to blind people, and more.

Some people will be more interested in dog breeding and the incredible variety of the animals show, ranging from decorative, small Yorkshire terriers to gigantic yet peaceful Newfoundland dogs. All of these topics are interesting and deserve covering, and you can incorporate all of them a general essay.

Dogs are excellent pet animals, as their popularity, rivaled only by cats, shows. Pack animals by nature, they are open to including members of other species into their groups and get along well with most people and animals.

They are loyal to the pack, and there are examples of dogs adopting orphaned kittens and saving other animals and children from harm.

This loyalty and readiness to face danger makes them favorite animals for many people, and the hundreds of millions of dogs worldwide show that humans appreciate their canine friends.

It also allows them to work many important jobs, guarding objects, saving people, and using their noses to sniff out various trails and substances.

However, dogs are descended from wolves, whose pack nature does not prevent them from attacking those outside the group. Some larger dogs are capable of killing an adult human alone, and most can at least inflict severe harm if they attack a child.

Dogs are trusted and loved because of their excellent trainability. They can be taught to be calm and avoid aggression or only attack once the order is given.

They can also learn a variety of other behaviors and tricks, such as not relieving themselves in the house and executing complex routines. This physical and mental capacity to perform a variety of tasks marks dogs as humanity’s best and most versatile helpers.

The variety of jobs dogs perform has led humans to try to develop distinct dog breeds for each occupation, which led to the emergence of numerous and different varieties of the same animal.

The observation of the evolution of a specific type of dog as time progressed and its purposes changed can be an interesting topic. You can also discuss dog competitions, which try to find the best dog based on various criteria and even have titles for the winners.

Comparisons between different varieties of the animal are also excellent dog argumentative essay topics. Overall, there are many interesting ideas that you can use to write a unique and excellent essay.

Regardless of what you ultimately choose to write about, you should adhere to the central points of essay writing. Make sure to describe sections of your paper with dog essay titles that identify what you will be talking about clearly.

Write an introduction that identifies the topic and provides a clear and concise thesis statement. Finish the paper with a dog essay conclusion that sums up your principal points. It will be easier and more interesting to read while also adhering to literature standards if you do this.

Below, we have provided a collection of great ideas that you can use when writing your essays, research papers, speeches, or dissertations. Take inspiration from our list of dog topics, and don’t forget to check out the samples written by other students!

• An Adventure with My Pet Pit-Bull Dog “Tiger” One look at Tiger and I knew that we were not going to leave the hapless couple to the mercies of the scary man.
• Dogs Playing Poker The use of dogs in the painting is humorous in that the writer showed them doing human things and it was used to attract the attention of the viewer to the picture.
• Debates on Whether Dog is the Best Pet or not The relationships between dogs and man have been improving over the years and this has made dogs to be the most preferable pets in the world. Other pets have limited abilities and can not match […]
• Dog Food: Pedigree Company’s Case The attractiveness of the dog food category is manifested through the intense competitive nature of the various stakeholders. The third and final phase of the segmentation is to label the category of dog food as […]
• Breed Specific Legislation: Dog Attacks As a result, the individuals that own several canines of the “banned” breeds are to pay a lot of money to keep their dogs.
• Animal Cruelty: Inside the Dog Fighting In most cases the owner of the losing dog abandons the injured dog to die slowly from the injuries it obtained during the fight. The injuries inflicted to and obtained by the dogs participating in […]
• The Benefits of a Protection Dog Regardless of the fact that protection dogs are animals that can hurt people, they are loving and supportive family members that provide their owners with a wide range of benefits.
• Cats vs. Dogs: Are You a Cat or a Dog Person? Cats and dogs are two of the most common types of pets, and preferring one to another can arguably tell many things about a person.
• “Love That Dog” Verse Novel by Sharon Creech In this part of the play, it is clear that Jack is not ready to hide his feelings and is happy to share them with someone who, in his opinion, can understand him.
• Cesar Millan as a Famous Dog Behaviorist Millan earned the nickname “the dog boy” because of his natural ability to interact with dogs. Consequently, the dog behaviorist became a celebrity in different parts of the country.
• “Marley: A Dog Like No Other” by John Grogan John Grogan’s international bestseller “Marley: A Dog Like No Other” is suited for children of all ages, and it tells the story of a young puppy, Marley, who quickly develops a big personality, boundless energy, […]
• The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-time Haddon therefore manages to carry the reader into the world of the novel and holds the reader to the end of the novel.
• Compare and Contrast Your First Dog vs. Your Current Dog Although she was very friendly and even tried to take care of me when I was growing up, my mother was the real owner.
• Small Dog Boarding Business: Balanced Scorecard Bragonier posits that SWOT analysis is essential in the running of the business because it helps the management to analyze the business at a glance.
• Moral Dilemma: Barking Dog and Neighborhood Since exuberant barking of Stella in the neighborhood disturbs many people, debarking is the appropriate measure according to the utilitarian perspective.
• Dog Training Techniques Step by Step The first step that will be taken in order to establish the performance of this trick is showing the newspaper to the dog, introducing the desired object and the term “take”.
• How to Conduct the Dog Training Properly At the same time, it is possible to work with the dog and train it to perform certain actions necessary for the owner. In the process of training, the trainer influences the behavior of the […]
• The Great Pyrenees Dog Breed as a Pet In the folklore of the French Pyrenees, there is a touching legend about the origin of the breed. The dog will not obey a person of weak character and nervous.
• Dog Food by Subscription: Service Design Project For the convenience and safety of customers and their dogs, customer support in the form of a call center and online chat is available.
• “Everyday” in The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night-Time by Haddon The novel presents Christopher who passes through many changes in his life, where he adapts to it and acclimatizes the complications that come with it.
• A Dog’s Life by Charles Chaplin The theme of friendship and love that is clear in the relationship between Tramp and Scraps. The main being that Chaplin makes it very comical thus; it is appealing to the audience, and captures the […]
• What Dog Are You? All of them possess individual traits that have to suit the profile and character of the owner for them to create a harmonious and beneficial union and to feel comfortable together first of all, every […]
• Why Does Your Dog Pretend to Like You? Children and the older generation can truly cherish and in the case of children can develop as individuals with the help of dogs.
• Caring for a Dog With Arthritis For Monty, the dog under study, the size, and disposition of the dog, the stage of the disease as also its specific symptoms and behaviour need to be observed and then a suitable choice of […]
• Dog House: Business Law Today Based on the definition of a shareholder’s derivative suit, it is possible to say that corporations can be expected to benefit from this type of litigation.
• “Traditional” Practice Exception in Dog Act One of those who wanted the word to remain in the clause was the president of the Beaufort Delta Dog Mushers and also an Inuvik welder.Mr.
• “How to Draw a Dog” Video Lecture Critique The video begins with an introduction to the character that the artist is going to draw. The artist provides a more detailed description of the process later when he begins to draw dog’s eyebrows and […]
• Small Dog Boarding Business: Strategic Plan Based on the first dimension of the competing values framework, the dog boarding business already has the advantage of a flexible business model, it is possible to adjust the size of the business or eliminate […]
• Non-Profit Dog Organization’s Mission Statement In terms of the value we are bringing, our team regards abandoned animals who just want to be loved by people, patients with special needs, volunteers working at pet shelters, and the American society in […]
• “Dog’s Life” by Charlie Chaplin Film Analysis In this film, the producer has used the comic effect to elaborate on the message he intends to deliver to the audience. The function of a dog is to serve the master.
• Dog’ Education in “The Culture Clash” by Jean Donaldson The second chapter comes under the title, Hard-Wiring: What the Dog comes with which tackles the characteristic innate behaviors that dogs possess naturally; that is, predation and socialization. This chapter sheds light on the behaviors […]
• Implementing Security Policy at Dog Parks To ensure that people take responsibility for their dogs while in the parks, the owners of the parks should ensure that they notify people who bring their dogs to the park of the various dangers […]
• Operant Conditioning in Dog Training In regards to negative enforcements, the puppy should be fitted with a collar and upon the command “sit”, the collar should be pulled up a bit to force the dog to sit down.
• First in Show Pet Foods, Inc and Dog Food Market Due to the number of competitors, it is clear that First in Show Pet Food, Inc.understands it has a low market share.
• Animal Assisted Therapy: Therapy Dogs First, the therapist must set the goals that are allied to the utilization of the therapy dog and this should be done for each client.
• The Tail Wagging the Dog: Emotions and Their Expression in Animals The fact that the experiment was conducted in real life, with a control group of dogs, a life-size dog model, a simultaneous observation of the dogs’ reaction and the immediate transcription of the results, is […]
• The Feasibility Analysis for the Ropeless Dog Lead This is because it will have the ability to restrict the distance between the dog and the master control radio. The exploration of different sales models and prices for other devices indicates that the Rope-less […]
• Classical Conditioning: Teaching an Old Dog New Tricks According to Basford and Stein’s interpretation, classical conditioning is developed in a person or an animal when a neutral stimulus “is paired or occurs contingently with the unconditioned stimulus on a number of occasions”, which […]
• The Movements and Reactions of Dogs in Crates and Outside Yards This study discusses the types of movements and reactions exhibited by dogs in the two confinement areas, the crate and the outside yard.
• A Summary of “What The Dog Saw” Gladwell explores the encounters of Cesar Millan, the dog whisperer who non-verbally communicated with the dogs and mastered his expertise to tame the dogs.
• Border Collie Dog Breed Information So long as the movement of the Border Collies and the sheep is calm and steady, they can look for the stock as they graze in the field.
• Evolution of Dogs from the Gray Wolf However, the combined results of vocalisation, morphological behavior and molecular biology of the domesticated dog now show that the wolf is the principle ancestor of the dog.
• Attacking Dog Breeds: Truth or Exaggeration?
• Are Bad Dog Laws Unjustified?
• Are Dog Mouths Cleaner Than Humans?
• Can Age Affect How Fast a Dog Runs?
• Can Chew Treats Kill Your Dog?
• Can You Control Who the Alpha Dog Is When You Own Two Dogs?
• Does Drug Dog Sniff Outside Home Violate Privacy?
• Does the Pit Bull Deserve Its Reputation as a Vicious Dog?
• Does Your Dog Love You and What Does That Mean?
• Does Your Dog Need a Bed?
• How Can People Alleviate Dog Cruelty Problems?
• How Cooking With Dog Is a Culinary Show?
• How Can Be Inspiring Dog Tales?
• How Owning and Petting a Dog Can Improve Your Health?
• How the I-Dog Works: It’s All About Traveling Signals?
• What Can Andy Griffith Teach You About Dog Training?
• What Makes the Dog – Human Bond So Powerful?
• What the Dog Saw and the Rise of the Global Market?
• What Should You Know About Dog Adoption?
• When Dog Training Matters?
• When Drug Dog Sniff the Narcotic Outside Home?
• At What Age Is Dog Training Most Effective?
• Why Are People Choosing to Get Involved in Dog Fighting?
• Why Are Reported Cases of Dog-Fighting Rising in the United States?
• Why Dog Attacks Occur and Who Are the Main Culprits?
• Why Does Dog Make Better Pets Than Cats?
• Why Every Kid Needs a Dog?
• Why Should People Adopt Rather Than Buy a Dog?
• Why Could the Dog Have Bitten the Person?
• Will Dog Survive the Summer Sun?
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New Study Shows Importance of Understanding Dog Behavior

A study of pain shows why one should become "fluent in dog".

Posted March 21, 2018

The importance of knowing your dog as the individual they are

I'm a fan of all people who choose to bring a dog into their homes and hearts taking the time to become amateur ethologists and spending time becoming "fluent in dog ." This really isn't asking too much, because when we make this decision we become their caregivers and they assume we have their best interests in mind from "cradle to grave," the cradle begins when we welcome them into our lives.

Learning about dog behavior, even some of the basic rudiments of why they do what they do, is not only fun, but also can be used to know how they're feeling. It's also an excellent way to learn about individual behavioral variability, even among littermates, and to use this information on the individual's behalf. Those who carefully watch, train, and treat dogs for various psychological and medical conditions know that there is no individual being we can accurately call "the dog," and generalizations often fail when an individual's background and personality are ignored (for more discussion please see " My Own Dog Is an Idiot, but She’s a Lovable Idiot " and Canine Confidential: Why Dogs Do What They Do ).

Because of my own interests in "all things dog" and behavior in particular, I was very pleased to learn of a new study by Ana Luisa Lopes Fagundes and her colleagues called " Noise Sensitivities in Dogs: An Exploration of Signs in Dogs with and without Musculoskeletal Pain Using Qualitative Content Analysis. " The entire piece is available online as is a brief and adequate easy-to-read summary titled " Dogs with noise sensitivity should be routinely assessed for pain by vets. " The latter essay begins, "Dogs which (sic) show fear or anxiety when faced with loud or sudden noises should be routinely assessed for pain by veterinarians, a new study has found." The noises that can trigger behavioral responses such as fear and anxiety range from "fireworks, thunderstorms and aeroplanes, to gunshots, cars and motorbikes."

To study the relationship between noise sensitivity and pain, the researchers examined the clinical records of 20 dogs at the University of Lincoln (UK). The data set was comprised of 10 “clinical cases” of dogs exhibiting neuromuscular pain and 10 “control cases” of dogs who did not show any pain. Both groups were similar in breed and age. It's hypothesized that noises that make dogs startle may cause muscles to tense and this can exacerbate pain. Lead researcher Ana Luisa Lopes Fagundes notes, "The aim of the study was to explore the presenting signs of dogs with generalised noise sensitivity with and without pain in their muscles or joints. We think that dogs with this sort of chronic pain may experience the noise quite differently, because if the noise makes them startle it may cause them to tense their muscles and as consequence they feel pain associated with the noise."

Age of onset of behavioral responses to pain is important to consider. The researchers learned that the average age of onset of noise sensitivity was nearly four years later in the “clinical cases.” They write, "This strong theme of an older age of onset suggests that the pain may develop later in life and that owners seek treatment more readily, perhaps because the appearance of the problem is out of character in the subject." Knowing this means that the humans have a good idea of what is typical behavior for their dog(s), and this means that they have previously watched them carefully.

The researchers also note that one marker of pain is that dogs might generalize noise sensitivity to a wider environment and this might prompt their humans to seek medical attention . In the summary we read, "In both cases, the presenting signs of the dogs' behavioural issue included shaking, trembling and hiding, but those with a diagnosed pain issue also showed a higher level of avoidance when it came to places they had a bad experience with noise - for example attempting to avoid a certain area at a park altogether compared with those without pain." Dogs in pain also avoided other dogs.

Becoming fluent in dog: The importance of knowing your dog and watching them carefully

Clearly, to know what a dog is feeling it is essential to know them as an individual . What's a loud or disturbing noise for one dog might not be for another dog. Among the many dogs with whom I share my home, there was great variation. A couple were truly scared of thunder, whereas some didn't show any response at all. One dog trembled when there were sirens, while others weren't affected at all. I did note that as my canine companion Jethro aged, he became more sensitive to sounds, and I knew that he was suffering from a neuroma near the base of his tail. However, I never thought that his heightened sensitivity to noises might have been related to the pain from which he suffered but didn't display behaviorally. Along these lines the researchers note, "It is also possible that the presence of a musculoskeletal pain focus and sound sensitivity interact to lower reactivity thresholds to related stimuli."

When people take the time to become amateur ethologists and citizen scientists they can acquire skills that can truly benefit the dogs with whom they share their lives. It's a win-win for all, and the current study shows just how important it is to pay careful attention to changes in behavior because they can be reliable indicators of pain that might otherwise go undiagnosed. And the good news, according to the researchers about whose work I'm writing, is, "Prognosis seems to be excellent if the case is properly managed following the identification of the role of pain."

Far too many dogs don't get what they want and need in a human-dominated world (for more discussion please see " Dogs Want and Need Much More Than They Usually Get From Us "). They depend on us to know what they want and what they need, perhaps especially when they're suffering and in pain. We are obliged to do so.

Bekoff, Marc. Canine Confidential: Why Dogs Do What They Do . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2018.

Ana Luisa Lopes Fagundes et al, Noise Sensitivities in Dogs: An Exploration of Signs in Dogs with and without Musculoskeletal Pain Using Qualitative Content Analysis , Frontiers in Veterinary Science (2018). DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00017

Marc Bekoff, Ph.D. , is professor emeritus of ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of Colorado, Boulder.

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Essays About Dogs: Top 5 Examples and 8 Easy Prompts

Essays about dogs address the close relationship between a man and his best friend. Discover our top essay examples and prompts to assist you in writing.

There are 69 million households in the US with dogs. This statistic attests to the fact that many are fond of dogs and have them for many reasons, primarily for their unconditional love and emotional support. In addition, having a dog at home helps improve physical and mental health.

5 Best Essay Examples

1. long essay on dog by prasanna, 2. dogs are better than cats essay by anonymous on papersowl.com , 3. dogs are not just companions — they are true bae by anonymous on gradesfixer.com, 4. dog is a man’s best friend by anonymous on eduzaurus.com, 5. lessons we can learn from the life of our pet dogs by anonymous on gradesfixer.com, 1. the truths about dogs, 2. pros and cons of having a dog, 3. the most famous dog breeds, 4. dogs and expenses, 5. a dog’s lifespan, 6. dogs and society, 7. my first dog, 8. dogs and mental health.

“Dogs have been a companion to man for almost 40,000 years. Dogs perform many functions. They are trained and are one of the popular pets to have.”

Prasanna’s essay contains general facts about dogs, such as their origin, characteristics, behavior, love for meat, and more. She describes the dog as a four-legged animal with sharp eyes, sensitive ears and nose, and of different breeds, sizes, and colors. The essay includes the various functions of dogs, such as hunting, pulling sleds, protecting, comforting their owners, and improving their well-being. Check out these articles about animals .

“… Dogs are better than cats. The loyalty, bravery, and human characteristics of dogs, as well as, the service and personal benefits of owning a dog far exceed those owning a cat.”

In this essay, the writer mentions how dogs are more energetic, friendly, protective, and easier to train and bond with than cats. The writer effectively discusses the advantages and disadvantages of owning these pets as a dog and cat owner. It also provides the readers with the relevant information they need when they look for a pet to adopt. If you disagree with this stance, check out these articles and essays about cats .

“They can read your facial expression, socialize and communicate just like any other human does. Dogs can empathize with human feeling and match with the wavelengths of their owners in an instant. They can easily decipher your depressed condition and they can smell your fears.”

The author uses research findings and a real-life story to prove that humans and dogs share a strong bond that’s unbreakable and unfathomable. In addition, they say dogs are the best therapy animals because they are compassionate, respond in a friendly way, and do not show stressful behavior while playing with patients. 

To prove that dogs show loyalty, unconditional love, and strong friendship, the writer uses the story “Hachi: A Dog’s Tale.” The story is about Hachiko, the Akita dog that walks his owner to and from the train station until his owner suddenly dies at work. As a loyal dog, Hachiko always comes to the station and waits with anticipation to witness his return until his last breath showing that they are truly best friends for life.

“… Not just a pet, but a part of the family. When we give love freely to dogs, we receive their love and affection in return. Dogs can truly be a man’s best friend, and we should be grateful to be theirs as well.”

This essay talks about the indescribable bond between a dog and its owner. Harley is the name of the writer’s big and muscular white female bulldog with a soft heart. The writer discusses how she gives them so much joy every time they play, train, and ride in the car. This essay also shows how protective the dog is and how it barks whenever someone strange approaches them. The author firmly believes that dogs are gifts sent by God.

“Dogs are not called man’s best friend for nothing. Aside the fact that they are a delight to look upon, they are also sweet creatures that act in ways we can learn from.”

This essay includes essential life lessons humans can learn from dogs, such as being adaptable to different environments or situations and remaining loyal and faithful to anything or anyone. Dogs’ carefree attitude allows them to be comfortable with themselves. It demonstrates how people can live freely to enjoy life happily. You might also be interested in these essays about animal testing .

8 Writing Prompts for Essays About Dogs

Did you know dogs are domesticated wolves ? If you plan to write a fun and engaging essay, look for amusing dog facts that many are unaware of. You can focus on one breed or discuss dogs in general. First, share the dog’s history, characteristics, and unique behaviors. Then, search for common dog myths and correct them.

If this sounds like a lot of work, do a 5 paragraph essay instead.

It has been proven that dogs are excellent for human well-being. They make people happy and comfort their owners whenever they’re sad. However, dog ownership is not just rainbows and sunshine. 

For this prompt, consider the benefits and drawbacks of adopting a dog. In the conclusion, give your own opinion on whether people should have dogs or not. Add your reasons; this could be the cost, aggressive dog breeds, or allergies.

There are many dog breeds today. Pick the most popular ones and include why they are the ones usually seen, bought, or adopted. Write their characteristics and behaviors to help your readers learn about the similarities and differences between each dog. Use pet articles, scientific research, or other reliable sources to make your essay more credible.

You can also tackle the issue of dog crossbreeding , which can lead to genetic mutations.

Dogs need a place to sleep, training, grooming essentials, and other supplies besides the basics, such as food and water. These additional and continuous expenses hinder others from adopting dogs. Use this prompt to share factors that will help you decide whether to pursue adoption. Then, identify dog essentials and items and offer cheaper alternatives to save money.

The average lifespan of a dog is 10 to 13 years , which is much shorter than humans. This means humans usually outlive their canine companions. In this prompt, you can teach the readers how to calculate the lifespan of their dogs based on size and type. Then, advise the dog owners how they can make their dog’s stay on Earth worth it. For an interesting piece of writing, look for a story of a dog outliving its owner and how it reacted or lived out its remaining days, and include this in your essay.

Many households believe dogs symbolize protection and love. Society also adjusted to accommodate dogs with animal laws and dog parks. Further explain how interwoven dogs and the community are, that they’re now a necessary part of some people’s lives. For example, having a dog can make someone more sociable by setting a play date with other dogs and interacting with the other fur parents.

Use this prompt to share your first dog ownership experience with your readers. First, introduce your dog and how you got it. Next, describe your first dog’s unique qualities and add your unforgettable memories together.  End your essay with the greatest life lesson your dog taught you that you still practice today.

Aside from helping their owners have a more active lifestyle, dogs also improve mental health. For this prompt, focus on therapy dogs. Discuss what they offer, including their therapeutic effects on their owners. Then, identify who needs them the most. Add the best breeds for therapy dogs and why.

Do you want to know one of our top grammar checkers? Check out our ProWritingAid review .

Maria Caballero is a freelance writer who has been writing since high school. She believes that to be a writer doesn't only refer to excellent syntax and semantics but also knowing how to weave words together to communicate to any reader effectively.

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122 Dog Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Dogs are a popular topic for essays, as they are beloved by many people and have a wide range of interesting characteristics and behaviors. If you are looking for inspiration for your next essay on dogs, here are 122 topic ideas and examples to get you started:

• The history and evolution of dogs as pets
• The benefits of owning a dog for mental health
• The different breeds of dogs and their unique characteristics
• The role of dogs in therapy and emotional support
• The impact of dogs on human physical health
• Training techniques for dogs and their effectiveness
• The importance of proper nutrition for dogs
• The ethics of breeding dogs for specific traits
• The bond between humans and dogs
• The role of service dogs in assisting people with disabilities
• The impact of dogs on children's development
• The cultural significance of dogs in different societies
• The myths and misconceptions about certain dog breeds
• The history of dog shows and competitions
• The role of dogs in search and rescue operations
• The dangers of leaving dogs in hot cars
• The benefits of adopting a dog from a shelter
• The impact of social media on dog culture
• The role of dogs in literature and popular culture
• The training process for therapy dogs
• The differences between purebred and mixed breed dogs
• The impact of puppy mills on the pet industry
• The benefits of using dogs in police work
• The history of dogs in warfare
• The role of dogs in wildlife conservation efforts
• The impact of climate change on dogs and their habitats
• The benefits of owning a senior dog
• The history of dog breeding and genetics
• The impact of technology on dog care
• The benefits of owning a dog for seniors
• The impact of music on dogs' behavior
• The benefits of dog parks for socialization
• The history of dog training techniques
• The impact of dogs on wildlife populations
• The benefits of owning a dog for families
• The history of dogs in art and photography
• The impact of dogs on human relationships
• The benefits of owning a dog for singles
• The impact of dogs on the environment
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with depression
• The history of dogs in ancient civilizations
• The impact of dogs on crime rates
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with anxiety
• The impact of dogs on children's education
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with PTSD
• The impact of dogs on wildlife conservation efforts
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with autism
• The impact of dogs on the economy
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with physical disabilities
• The impact of dogs on public health
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with hearing impairments
• The impact of dogs on community safety
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with visual impairments
• The impact of dogs on crime prevention
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with diabetes
• The impact of dogs on disaster response efforts
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with epilepsy
• The impact of dogs on mental health treatment
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with chronic illnesses
• The impact of dogs on healthcare costs
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with cancer
• The impact of dogs on workplace productivity
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with heart disease
• The impact of dogs on stress levels
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with chronic pain
• The impact of dogs on physical fitness
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with arthritis
• The impact of dogs on socialization
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with Alzheimer's disease
• The impact of dogs on loneliness
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with dementia
• The impact of dogs on community cohesion
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with substance abuse disorders
• The benefits of owning a dog for people with eating disorders
• The impact of dogs on domestic violence prevention efforts
• The benefits of owning a dog for

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59 Dog Essay Topics

Dog essay topics that are best

Raising dogs and human babies Raising dogs is different than raising children. Dogs will always be like infants and are dependent on you for everything.

Dog Fashion is an extension of personal style The best way to treat your pet dog is to dress him well. This literature review shows that dog fashion does not have to be a part of your personal style.

The Role Of A Dog In Human Life Loyalty is a key characteristic of all dogs.

– The Role Of A Dog in a Family I was raised with dogs and learned to love them.

– How to groom your pet dog The article discusses the five main stages in self-care for dogs: bathing, trimming, trimming and brushing.

– He refuses to allow a service dog in his apartment The Americans with Disabilities Act protects service dogs and landlords can’t refuse tenants access.

Carolina Dog: The only wild dog breed in the USA According to the paper, Carolina dogs are a pack dog that can adapt well to social groups of other dogs and people.

Dog training at home – Is it possible? This blog will give you the five best ways to train your dog at-home.

Dog Aggression: Nature Versus Nurture It is incorrect to assume that dogs are responsible of aggression or stereotyping certain breeds.

These are the most interesting titles in dog research – Walking your dog: The effect of pet ownership on health behavior and human health Advanced Dog Training points for conditioning your dog Health problems and illnesses commonly found in cats and dogs. Universal Principles of Dog Training Success Walking your dog can help you improve your health and lose weight How can people reduce dog cruelty? Do Pit Bulls Have a Right to Be Known as Vicious Dogs? Parents of children with autism spectrum disorder should consider pet dog ownership. Aggression when another dog invades her space – Dog Behavior: Are Dogs to Blame for Aggressive Behaviors? – Reduce the dog population by spaying/neutering – Behind The Bag: Commercial Dogfood Dog owners’ interaction styles: The components and associations with reactions of pet dogs to a social threat Operant conditioning and classical conditioning are two ways to teach tricks for dogs – Anthropomorphism: Does Your Dog Like You? – Dog bite injury: Hyoid bone fracture and larynx trauma – Capacity & Product Market Competition: Measuring market power in the Puppy-Dog industry – Is it a violation of privacy for drug dog to sniff outside the home? – The Best Dog: A New Approach to Dog Care Amazing Dog Facts You Most Likely Didn’t Learn Natural Dog Health Care for a Longer Lives What does it mean to have a dog that loves you? A journey in cognitive science and moral philosophy – Furry friends: Why owning a dog is a positive thing American Pit Bull Terrier is an American Icon and Demon Dog Dog housebreaking tips: What you should and shouldn’t do

Simple Ideas for Dog Essays Dog behavior training starting at an early age – Animal Cruelty: Dog Fighting – Training your dog to obey commands Pitbulls: Misconceptions associated with the Dog Breed – Emotional wreckage after losing a dog Dog Care and Health of Animals. – Stereotypies: The Antecedents of Domestic Dogs and the Consequences – Poodles: A Dog with Many Charms in a Variety of Sizes Facts about Asian Dog Meat Trade – What Causes Dog Attacks and Who Is Responsible? Bones to Your Dog: Delicious Treat Or Deadly Snack Organic Dog Food: Making the Right Choice Dog aggression: Children and their pets AKC dog owners who wish to purchase health insurance should be aware of the potential problems Choosing healthy foods for your dog Preventing your dog from contracting diseases Vaccinations are a must for all dogs Dog: Man’s best friend and first domesticated animal Pavlov’s Experiment and Dog’s Environment Stimulus Barking Problems? Train your dog to stop barking – Productivity differential and competition: Can an older dog learn new tricks Keeping your dog healthy and happy You can pass the time with your dog and he will enjoy it too – Dog Behavior Training: Dog Aggression Toward Its Owners Teaching children and parents how to understand dog signaling

Isabelle Fox is an educational blogger and mother who loves sharing her knowledge and insights with her readers. She has a passion for helping others achieve their educational goals and is always open to sharing her advice and insights.

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Dogs Supporting Human Health and Well-Being: A Biopsychosocial Approach

Nancy r. gee.

1 Department of Psychiatry, Center for Human Animal Interaction, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States

Kerri E. Rodriguez

2 Human-Animal Bond in Colorado, School of Social Work, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States

Aubrey H. Fine

3 Department of Education, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA, United States

Janet P. Trammell

4 Division of Social Sciences and Natural Sciences, Seaver College, Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA, United States

Humans have long realized that dogs can be helpful, in a number of ways, to achieving important goals. This is evident from our earliest interactions involving the shared goal of avoiding predators and acquiring food, to our more recent inclusion of dogs in a variety of contexts including therapeutic and educational settings. This paper utilizes a longstanding theoretical framework- the biopsychosocial model- to contextualize the existing research on a broad spectrum of settings and populations in which dogs have been included as an adjunct or complementary therapy to improve some aspect of human health and well-being. A wide variety of evidence is considered within key topical areas including cognition, learning disorders, neurotypical and neurodiverse populations, mental and physical health, and disabilities. A dynamic version of the biopsychosocial model is used to organize and discuss the findings, to consider how possible mechanisms of action may impact overall human health and well-being, and to frame and guide future research questions and investigations.

Introduction – A Historical Perspective on Dog-Human Relationships

The modern relationship between humans and dogs is undoubtedly unique. With a shared evolutionary history spanning tens of thousands of years ( 1 ), dogs have filled a unique niche in our lives as man's best friend. Through the processes of domestication and natural selection, dogs have become adept at socializing with humans. For example, research suggests dogs are sensitive to our emotional states ( 2 ) as well as our social gestures ( 3 ), and they also can communicate with us using complex cues such as gaze alternation ( 4 ). In addition, dogs can form complex attachment relationships with humans that mirror that of infant-caregiver relationships ( 5 ).

In today's society, dog companionship is widely prevalent worldwide. In the United States, 63 million households have a pet dog, a majority of which consider their dog a member of their family ( 6 ). In addition to living in our homes, dogs have also become increasingly widespread in applications to assist individuals with disabilities as assistance dogs. During and following World War I, formal training of dogs as assistance animals began particularly for individuals with visual impairments in Germany and the United States ( 7 ). Following World War II, formal training for other roles, such as mobility and hearing assistance, started to increase in prevalence. Over the decades, the roles of assistance dogs have expanded to assist numerous disabilities and conditions including medical conditions such as epilepsy and diabetes and mental health disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). At the same time, society has also seen increasing applications of dogs incorporated into working roles including detection, hunting, herding, and protection ( 8 , 9 ).

In addition to these working roles, dogs have also been instrumental in supporting humans in other therapeutic ways. In the early 1960s, animal-assisted interventions (AAI) began to evolve with the pioneering work of Boris Levinson, Elizabeth O'Leary Corson, and Samuel Corson. Levinson, a child psychologist practicing since the 1950s, noticed a child who was nonverbal and withdrawn during therapy began interacting with his dog, Jingles, in an unplanned interaction. This experience caused Levinson to begin his pioneering work in creating the foundations for AAI as an adjunct to treatment ( 10 ). In the 1970s, Samuel Corson and Elizabeth O'Leary Corson were some of the first researchers to empirically study canine-assisted interventions. Like Levinson, they inadvertently discovered that some of their patients with psychiatric disorders were interested in the dogs and that their patients with psychiatric disorders communicated more easily with each other and the staff when in the company of the dogs ( 11 , 12 ). Over the following decades, therapy dogs have been increasingly found to provide support for individuals with diverse needs in a wide array of settings ( 13 ).

Theoretical Framework for Dog Interaction Benefits

For over 40 years, the biopsychosocial model ( 14 ) has been widely used to conceptualize how biological, psychological, and social influences combine to determine human health and well-being. Biological influences refer to physiological changes such as blood pressure, cortisol, and heart rate, among others; psychological influences include personality, mood, and emotions, among others; and social influences refer to cultural, socio-economic, social relationships with others, family dynamics, and related matters. Figure 1 presents a graphical illustration of the relationship among these three influences in determining overall health and well-being. Although the model has dominated research and theory in health psychology for decades, more recently, it was re-envisioned as a more dynamic system ( 15 ) that construes human health as the result of the reciprocal influences of biological, psychological and social factors that unfold over personal and historical time. For example, if a person breaks his/her arm, there will be a biological impact in that immune and muscle systems respond and compensate. Social, or interpersonal, changes may occur when support or assistance is offered by others. Psychological changes will occur as a result of adjusting to and coping with the injury. Thus, the injury represents a dynamic influence initiated at one point in time and extending forward in time with diminishing impact as healing occurs.

A biopsychosocial perspective of how biological, psychological, and social influences may impact one another (solid lined arrows) and influence human health and well-being (represented here by the large thick circular shape).

This dynamic biopsychosocial approach to understanding health and well-being is appealing to the field of human-animal interaction (HAI) because of the dynamic nature of the relationship between humans and animals. For example, a person may acquire many dogs over his/her lifetime, perhaps from childhood to old age, and each of those dogs may sequentially develop from puppyhood to old age in that time. Behaviorally, the way the human and the dog interact is likely to be different across the lifespans of both species. From a biopsychosocial model perspective, the dynamic nature of the human-canine relationship may differentially interact with each of the three influencers (biological, psychological, and social) of human health and well-being over the trajectories of both beings. Notably, these influencers are not fixed, but rather have an interactional effect with each other over time.

While a person's biological, psychological, and social health may affect the relationship between that person and dogs with whom interactions occur, the focus of this manuscript is on the reverse: how owning or interacting with a dog may impact each of the psychological, biological, and social influencers of human health. We will also present relevant research and discuss potential mechanisms by which dogs may, or may not, contribute to human health and well-being according to the biopsychosocial model. Finally, we will emphasize how the biopsychosocial theory can be easily utilized to provide firmer theoretical foundations for future HAI research and applications to therapeutic practice and daily life.

Psychological Influences

Much research has been conducted on the impact of dog ownership and dog interactions on human psychological health and functioning. Frequent interactions with a dog, either through ownership or through long-term interventions, have been associated with positive psychological outcomes across the lifespan [for a systematic review of this evidence see ( 16 )]. One psychological aspect of interest to many HAI researchers is depression, especially among older adults. However, the relationship of pet dog ownership and depression over the lifespan continues to have inconsistent and inconclusive findings ( 16 ). Nevertheless, there are examples in the literature highlighting the beneficial role of dog ownership in reducing depression. As is frequently the case in HAI, the evidence from intervention studies is stronger than that of pet ownership studies ( 16 ), with the preponderance of this evidence linking animal-assisted interventions to a decrease in depression, as measured by self-report indices. Among the mechanisms for this reduction in depression are biological and social influences. For example, one such study found that an attachment relationship with a pet dog may serve as a coping resource for older women by buffering the relationship between loneliness (also measured by self-report indices) and depression, such that the presence of the pet dog appears to ameliorate the potential for loneliness to exacerbate depression ( 17 ). A causal relationship between dog ownership and mental health is difficult to determine. Not only may owning a pet dog increase stress, but those who are already suffering from loneliness or depression may be more inclined to have a pet dog than those who do not.

Another psychological outcome related to dog interaction that receives considerable research attention is anxiety. Studies have found that short-term, unstructured interactions with a therapy dog can significantly reduce self-reported anxiety and distress levels [e.g., ( 18 )]. For example, children with their pet dog or a therapy dog present during a stressful task exhibit lower perceived stress and more positive affect compared to when alone ( 19 ), when a parent was present ( 20 ), or when a stuffed dog was present ( 21 ). In addition to psychological mechanisms, there are social and biological mechanisms at play as well. In these short-term stressful contexts, a dog may serve as both a comforting, nonjudgmental presence as well as a positive tactile and sensory distraction. Dog interaction might also reduce anxiety and distress by influencing emotion regulation while coping with a stressor ( 22 ). During animal-assisted therapy, having a dog present during psychotherapy such as cognitive behavioral therapy can aid in decreasing self-reported anxious arousal and distress for patients who have experienced trauma, making the therapeutic treatment process more effective ( 23 ).

In addition to the negative aspects of psychological functioning, HAI research has also aimed to quantify the effects of dog interaction and ownership on positive psychological experiences such as happiness and well-being. Some studies have found that dog ownership is associated with higher life satisfaction and greater well-being ( 24 ), while other studies show that this is the case only when the dog provided social support ( 25 ) or satisfied the owner's needs ( 26 ). However, other large-scale surveys have found no significant differences in self-reported happiness between dog owners, cat owners, and non-pet owners ( 27 ), contributing to mixed findings. Recent discussions argue that too much focus has been placed on the relationship between mental health and the simple variable of dog ownership, when the specific activities that owners engage in with their dogs (e.g., walking, tactile interaction, and shared activities,) may be more important in explaining positive well-being ( 28 ). Further, many other factors may be driving these inconsistent findings in depression, anxiety, and well-being, including the owner's personality ( 24 ), gender and marital status ( 29 ), and attachment to the dog ( 30 ).

Dogs may also provide a source of motivation; for example, people with dogs are more likely to comply with the rigors of their daily life ( 31 ). The relationship with a pet dog may provide motivation to do things that may be less desirable. For example, for older adults who own pets, it is not uncommon for them to be more involved in daily life activities because of the need to take care of their animals ( 32 ). Likewise, children also complete less desired activities due to their relationship with the dog [for a discussion of this topic see ( 33 )].

An accumulation of research also suggests that dog interaction may have specific psychological benefits for individuals with physical disabilities and chronic conditions. Cohabitating with a specially trained assistance dog, including guide, hearing, and service dogs, can be associated with increased psychological and emotional functioning among individuals with disabilities ( 34 ). For individuals with mental disorders such as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), recent research has also found that having a psychiatric service dog is associated with fewer PTSD symptoms, less depression and anxiety, and better quality of life [For a review see ( 35 )]. These benefits appear to be due to a combination of the service dog's specific trained tasks and aspects inherent to cohabitating with a pet dog, including having a source of love, nonjudgmental social support, and companionship ( 36 ).

Similar research has also highlighted the value of dogs for children with disorders of executive functioning and self-regulation, especially autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). For some children with ASD, dogs may provide a calming and positive presence ( 37 ) and may both reduce anxiety ( 38 ) and improve problematic behaviors ( 39 ). Parents report that both pet dogs and service dogs can provide certain benefits for children with ASD, including benefits to children's moods, sleep, and behavior ( 40 , 41 ). Therapy dogs have also been found to be impactful in supporting children with ADHD in their emotional regulation ( 42 ) and aspects of character development ( 43 ). Nevertheless, the outcome of dog interactions may not be positive for all individuals with ASD and ADHD; despite evidence of psychological benefits of dog interaction for some children, others may be fearful or become over-stimulated by dogs ( 44 ).

In addition to impacts on psychological health, dog interaction can also impact psychological functioning, cognition, and learning. Among children, emerging research suggests short-term interactions with a therapy dog may lead to improvements in specific aspects of learning and cognition. A recent systematic review of research on therapy dog reading programs indicated that reading to a dog has a number of beneficial effects including improved reading performance ( 45 ). Studies suggest that interacting with a therapy dog may also improve speed and accuracy on cognitive (e.g., memory, categorization, adherence to instructions) and motor skills tasks among preschool-aged children compared to interacting with a stuffed dog or human ( 46 ). Similarly, a recent study showed that 10–14-year-old children had greater frontal lobe activity in the presence of a real dog as compared to a robotic dog, indicating a higher level of neuropsychological attention ( 47 ).

Among young adults, similar effects on cognition and learning have been found. Numerous colleges and universities now offer interactions with therapy dogs, typically during high stress times (such as before exams). In this sense, a biological mechanism through which dog interaction may positively impact cognition and learning is via stress reduction and improvement in positive affect. Even such short and infrequent interactions with therapy dogs may decrease perceived stress and increase perceived happiness in college students [e.g., ( 48 , 49 )]. Further, some institutions have permanent resident therapy dogs and/or long-term intervention programs; one such program showed that students who interacted with therapy dogs for 8 weeks reported significantly less homesickness and greater satisfaction with life than wait-listed controls ( 50 ). These effects may translate to additional effects on students' academic success, learning, and cognition. For instance, a recent randomized controlled trial ( 51 ) paired a standard academic stress management program with therapy dog interaction; the pairing produced significantly higher levels of self-reported enjoyment, usefulness, self-regulation, and behavior change than the stress management program or dog interaction alone. However, when therapy dog interaction is closely paired with more specific learning experiences, beneficial effects on stress remain, but benefits to academic performance may not manifest. For example, a recent study showed that interacting with a therapy dog resulted in significant improvements in students' perceived stress and mood, but not in actual exam scores ( 52 ). Similarly, interacting with a therapy dog during the learning and recall phase of a memory test did not improve memory compared to a control group ( 53 ). Taken together, dog interaction may improve stress and affect among college-aged adults as well as dimensions important for academic success and learning, but these results may or may not translate to cognitive performance benefits.

Biological Influences

The psychological and biological effects of HAI are often closely interwoven, as seen in the Psychological Influences section above and as demonstrated by the frequency with which psychological effects are evaluated using biological assessments of stress, anxiety, and arousal ( 54 ). For example, a plethora of studies have examined how short-term interactions with dogs can influence stress by measuring physiological biomarkers. Studies have found that dog interaction can influence parameters such as blood pressure, heart rate, and electrodermal activity ( 55 ) as well as neurochemical indicators of affiliative behavior [e.g., beta-endorphins, prolactin, and dopamine; ( 56 )].

However, one of the most popular physiological measures in HAI research is the stress hormone cortisol ( 57 ). Studies have found that short-term interactions with a dog can decrease both subjective stress and circulating cortisol concentrations [e.g., ( 58 )]. Cohabitating with a dog has also been found to impact circulating cortisol after waking among children with ASD ( 39 ) and military veterans with PTSD ( 59 ). Experimental studies have also examined how having a dog present may modulate the stress response and cortisol secretion among individuals undergoing a stressful situation. Among adults, studies have found that having a dog present during a socially stressful paradigm can attenuate cortisol compared to when alone or with a human friend ( 60 ). A recent randomized controlled trial similarly found that interacting with a therapy dog, for 20 min, two times per week, over a 4-week period resulted in reduced cortisol (basal and diurnal measurement) among typically developing and special needs school children compared to the same duration and length of delivery for a yoga relaxation or a classroom as usual control group ( 61 ). However, it is of note that many methodologically rigorous studies have not found significant effects of interacting with a dog on physiological parameters, including salivary cortisol ( 21 , 62 , 63 ). A recent review of salivary bioscience research in human-animal interaction concluded that significant variation exists with regards to sampling paradigms, storage and assaying methods, and analytic strategies, contributing to variation in findings across the field ( 57 ).

As research quantifying the physiological outcomes from dog interaction continues to increase, so does research attempting to understand the underlying mechanisms of action leading to stress reduction. One theoretical rationale for dogs' stress-reducing benefits consists of the dog's ability to provide non-judgmental social support ( 60 ), improve positive affect ( 64 ), and provide a calming presence ( 22 ). Dogs may also contribute to a feeling of perceived safety and provide a tactile and grounding comfort ( 65 ). For these reasons, dogs are often incorporated into treatment and recovery for individuals who have experienced a traumatic event ( 66 ). Another mechanism contributing to these stress reducing benefits may be tactile stimulation and distraction derived from petting or stroking a dog. For example, Beetz et al. ( 67 ) found that the more time a child spent stroking the dog before a stressful task, the larger the magnitude of cortisol decrease. In fact, calming tactile interactions such as stroking, touching, and petting may be a key mechanism explaining animal-specific benefits to stress physiology, as touch is more socially appropriate in interactions with animals than as with other people ( 22 ). While there are many hypothesized mechanisms underlying positive psychophysiological change following human-dog interaction, more research is needed to determine how individual differences in humans, animals, and the human-animal relationship affects outcomes ( 21 , 57 , 62 , 63 ).

Another mechanism in which positive dog interaction may result in psychophysiological benefits is via the secretion of oxytocin. Oxytocin not only buffers the stress response and cortisol secretion ( 68 ) but is also involved emotion, trust, and bonding ( 69 ). The oxytocin system has been hypothesized to be a primary mechanistic pathway involved in human-dog interactions ( 70 ). Positive dog-owner interactions including stroking, petting, and talking have been shown to result in increased oxytocin levels in both dog owners and dogs, which has been related to the strength of the owner-dog relationship ( 71 ) and dog-human affiliative behaviors ( 72 , 73 ). Some studies have also found differential effects in oxytocin reactivity after dog interaction between human males and females ( 74 ), giving context to potential gender and/or hormonal differences in dog-human interactions. However, even though the oxytocin system exhibits potential as a pathway by which dogs provide psychophysiological benefits, it should be noted that mixed findings and methodological and measurement differences limit strong conclusions ( 75 ).

In regards to pet dog ownership, many studies have also sought to understand the biological effects of long-term interactions with a pet dog. Some research suggests that sharing animal-associated microbes with a pet dog can have long-term impacts on human health ( 76 ) while others have found that cohabitating with a pet dog can be beneficial for child allergies ( 77 ) and immune system development ( 78 ). However, most research on the long-term health impacts of pet dog ownership has focused on cardiovascular functioning. Epidemiological research suggests that dog ownership is linked to greater physical activity levels (presumably linked to dog-walking), and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease, stroke, and all-cause mortality [for a summary see ( 79 )]. A recent meta-analysis of ten studies amassing data from over three million participants found that pet dog ownership was associated with a 31% risk reduction for mortality due to cardiovascular disease ( 80 ). However, dog ownership research of this nature will always suffer from an important chicken and egg type question: do dogs make us healthier, or do healthy people opt to own dogs?

Social Influences

A final way in which dog companionship and interaction may contribute to human health and well-being is through the social realm. Dogs may impact social functioning by providing direct social support ( 81 ) and a source of an attachment bond ( 82 ) which in turn may contribute to better social and mental health by providing companionship. Acquiring a pet dog has been reported to reduce both short-term and long-term self-reported loneliness ( 83 ). Particularly for those who live alone, dog ownership may serve as a protective factor against loneliness in times of social isolation, such as during the COVID-19 pandemic ( 84 ). Among older adults living in long-term care facilities or who live alone, dog visitation may also decrease loneliness by providing a source of meaningful companionship and social connectedness ( 85 , 86 ). However, the literature on pet dogs and loneliness is also characterized by mixed findings, raising the possibility that dog ownership may be a response to loneliness rather than protection from loneliness. Further, there remains a lack of high quality research in this area which limits any causal conclusions ( 87 ).

Another way in which the social support from a pet dog may benefit social functioning is by facilitating social interactions with others. For example, observational studies have found that being accompanied by a dog in public increases the frequency of received social interactions ( 88 ) and social acknowledgments [e.g., friendly glances, smiles; ( 89 )]. For those who engage in dog walking, social interactions are perceived as a rewarding side effect ( 90 ). Dogs can also provide a source of social capital, defined as the glue that holds society together ( 91 ). The research of Wood and colleagues ( 92 ) suggests that dogs can function as facilitators for social contact and interaction, with pet owners reporting higher perceptions of suburb friendliness and more social interactions with neighbors compared to non-pet owners.

For children and adolescents, pet dog ownership may contribute to healthy social development. Positive child–pet dog interactions have been shown to have benefits to children's social competence, interactions, and play behavior [for a review see ( 93 )]. Not only can children form attachment relationships with dogs ( 94 ), but pet dogs may promote feelings of safety and security ( 95 ) that can facilitate childhood social development. Pet ownership may also help children develop skills to form and maintain social relationships with their peers ( 96 ). For example, cross-sectional studies found that children with a pet dog in the home have fewer peer problems and have more prosocial behavior with children without a dog [e.g., ( 97 , 98 )].

Among children with developmental disorders, dog interaction has also been similarly shown to impact social functioning. For children with ADHD, two randomized controlled trials have found that 12 weeks of visits with a therapy dog, incorporated into curricula designed to improve skills and reduce behavioral problems, can result in improved social skills, prosocial behaviors, and perceptions of social competence ( 42 , 43 ). One potential explanation for these benefits is that children may interpret the dogs' nonverbal communication as less threatening and easier to interpret than human interaction ( 99 , 100 ). A recent eye-tracking study found that children with ASD exhibit a bias in social attention to animal faces, including dogs, compared to human faces ( 101 ). The presence of a dog in clinical applications may also promote more social engagement with a therapist while reducing negative behaviors ( 102 , 103 ). Further, there is some evidence that having a pet dog in the home can have a positive impact on social interactions of children with ASD, especially among verbal children, while teaching children responsibility and empathetic behavior ( 104 , 105 ).

Potential Mechanisms of Action

We have discussed how, in the psychological realm, interacting with a dog can positively relate to depression, anxiety, and well-being as well as psychological functioning in the areas of cognition, learning, and attention. It is interesting to note that most psychological constructs are measured using self-report indices, such as the Beck Depression Inventory ( 106 ) or the UCLA Loneliness Scale ( 107 ), while a smaller group of constructs are measured using speed and accuracy to detect targets (attention) or to remember information (learning and memory). In the biological realm, we discussed how interacting with dogs can influence stress-related physiological parameters and long-term biological and cardiovascular health. Biological measures are often recorded in real-time, such as heart rate or blood pressure, or are collected at critical time points during the study (e.g., saliva, urine, or blood samples for such measures as cortisol or oxytocin). Finally, we discussed the social realm, in which interacting with a dog can provide social support, facilitate social interactions, and improve social development and social skills. Measures used to assess variables in the social realm include self-report indices (e.g., demographics such as marital status, numbers of family members and friends), real time observations of social interactions (e.g., video analyses of interactions using ethograms), and parent/teacher reports of social functioning [e.g., Social Skills Rating System; ( 108 )]. To better understand and organize these various findings, we now consider potential mechanisms of action in the context of the biopsychosocial model, and as part of this discussion we will consider the potential for different types of measurement to have their own influence.

The mechanisms that underly positive human-dog interactions are likely to be interrelated and broadly, yet differentially, impactful across the three influencers of health (biological, psychological and social). According to the biopsychosocial model, impacts on one of the influencers of health is likely to impact the others ( 14 ). Further, an underlying mechanism of change may have a larger immediate impact on one realm than on the other two ( 15 ). Although this applies to the many influences we have discussed above, we will describe a reduction in stress as a more detailed example of how the biopsychosocial model can be considered. Stress is likely to have an immediate and measurable impact on the biological system through endocrinological (e.g., changes in cortisol) and psychophysiological (e.g., changes in blood pressure) processes. This same reduction in stress is likely to impact the psychological system through changes in mood or affect, concentration, and motivation, but that impact may not be immediately measurable or may be smaller in magnitude. This conjectured delay or reduction in effect size stems at least in part, from the way these changes are typically measured and the time course for potential effects to become measurable. For example, some biological changes indicative of increased stress (e.g., heart rate) can be measured in direct correspondence with the experimental manipulations (e.g., interacting with the dog vs. experiencing a control condition), and provide real time biological indications of changes in stress levels. Psychological indications of stress may be measured by a self-report survey instrument assessing state or trait anxiety. This type of measure cannot be completed in real time during the various experimental conditions (e.g., interacting with the dog vs. experiencing a control condition), but must be completed at some point following the experimental manipulation. It is possible that psychological measures are not as immediately sensitive to changes in the constructs they measure because of the required delay between manipulation and measurement. Such a delay may underestimate the real time effect as it may fade over time. Finally, reductions in stress have the potential to impact social systems by increasing social approaches and acceptance of approaches by others, but that impact may be of a small size or require even more time to be measurable. For example, exposure to stress may have immediate physiological effects, but it could take more time (prolonged exposure to stress) for those effects to impact some measures of social influence such as number of friends.

In Figure 2 , the mechanism of stress reduction is used as one example for the purposes of this discussion to exemplify how human-dog interactions may influence human health and well-being, as explained by the biopsychosocial model. Stress reduction may have a more immediate or larger impact on the biological realm as demonstrated by the larger arrow, while having a smaller (or perhaps delayed) impact on the psychological realm and an even smaller (or potentially more delayed) impact on the social realm.

An example of the potential for differential impact (represented by the different arrow thickness) of one mechanism of action (stress reduction) on the three realms of influence of overall health and well-being (depicted by the larger encompassing circle).

Based on the research described earlier, we have seen that interacting with a dog can have stress reducing impacts in the biological realm such as decreased cortisol, heart rate, and blood pressure, and increases in oxytocin. In the psychological realm, stress reduction can be a driver of immediate improvements in self-report measures of stress, mood, and anxiety and more delayed improvements in overall mental health and quality of life. The social realm is also likely to be directly and indirectly impacted by this stress reduction from both immediate and delayed psychophysiological changes as well as more long-term improvements in social support, social networks, social development, and overall social health. Therefore, it is important to consider the dynamic nature of these three realms in that there may be a strong immediate effect of dog interaction on one realm, but a lesser, delayed impact in the other two realms. Similar to our more detailed example of stress above, other influences we have discussed (e.g., social support, positive affect, etc.) are likewise mechanisms that operate in a similar reciprocal biopsychosocial framework. Further, although it likely that the three influences are interrelated, it is not known from the current evidence the degree to which they may be interrelated and thus have shared and overlapping effects on one another and on overall health and well-being. Therefore, a consideration of mechanisms that influence human-dog interactions from a dynamic and flexible biopsychosocial perspective, instead of from a single realm, is an important addition to the study of human-animal interaction.

Conclusion and Future Directions

In conclusion, the biopsychosocial model is a promising theoretical model to be applied to human-animal interaction research for several reasons. First, the field of HAI has been plagued by mixed findings in which some research suggests that dogs have beneficial effects on human health and well-being and others suggest no effect or even a negative effect [for a discussion see ( 109 )]. This variability in HAI research outcomes caused by differing methodologies, measurement, populations, and interventions is described in detail by Rodriguez et al. ( 110 ). However, we also argue that some of the variability seen in HAI research may be explained by the potential for differential immediate and delayed impacts within each of the three biopsychosocial model realms. For example, if dog interaction shows immediate reduction in physiological measures of stress, how long does that reduction last, and do we see corresponding immediate and/or delayed responses in the psychological and social realms? Therefore, more information about differential impacts of dog interactions on each of the three influencers at various points in time is needed. In addition, it may be necessary to apply a variety of measures (at least one measure per influencer realm) over time to fully disentangle the existing mixed results in the field of HAI.

Secondly, due to the flexibility that this dynamic biopsychosocial model offers in explaining HAI research outcomes, we propose this model as an effective avenue to promote future theoretically grounded research in our field. Saleh ( 111 ) stresses that practice, research, and theory are the corner stones of any field, HAI is not exempt from this consideration. The field of HAI will benefit from applying an accepted model, like the biopsychosocial model, because it provides a useful framework for understanding and predicting how interactions between humans and animals impacts human health and well-being. As Saleh ( 111 ) explains, “it is the result of the relationship between the process of inquiry (research) and the product of knowledge (theory)” that our understanding of a process may become clearer. Therefore, current research should continue to modify and impact a present theory, which should act as a guide for researchers to constantly generate and test the basis of a theory ( 111 ). The findings from such theory-driven research could then help practitioners, as well as health care policy makers, in how to effectively incorporate dogs in therapeutic settings and in homes.

Lastly, the reciprocal relationship of the psychological, biological, and social domains can be used to elucidate the mechanisms that both impact and are impacted by interactions between humans and animals. Theory-driven science (for which we have proposed the biopsychosocial model as a useful framework) should be used to influence and inform research, practice, and policy. Thus, researchers and practitioners applying the biopsychosocial model will be instrumental not only in guiding future research in the field, but also in clarifying existing research as well people's perceptions of benefits derived from canine-human interactions.

Author Contributions

NG provided the initial organization and theoretical framework. All authors wrote and edited the document in shared collaboration and discussed and conceived the idea for the paper.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to express their appreciation to the Wallis Annenberg Petspace for supporting this theoretical framework and exploration of the Human-Canine bond.

Funding. As part of the conferment of Fellowship status to all authors, the Wallis Annenberg Petspace provided the funding for publication fees of this document.

Introduction to Behavior of Dogs

Behavioral medicine is the scientific study of everything animals do, whether the animals are insects, birds, mammals, fish, or people. The field of animal behavior is concerned with understanding the causes, functions, development, and evolution of behavior. Behavior refers to the actions or reactions of an organism. Behavior is usually in relation to the environment, and is controlled by the endocrine and nervous systems. The complexity of animal behavior is related to the complexity of its nervous system. Generally, animals with complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new responses and thus adjust their behavior.

An animal’s behavior is influenced by many factors. Some of these factors include genetic predisposition, experience and learning, environment, and physiology. Several dog studies have shown that behavior can be inherited to some degree. In addition, maternal influences can affect personality and temperament. If puppies are separated from a fearful mother, the puppies are less likely to be fearful than if they are left with their mother. The effect of other puppies in the litter, the amount and type of human handling, and exposure to new objects and experiences all influence a dog’s behavior. The brain and its associated neurotransmitters also play a fundamental role in temperament and behavior. Abnormal levels of various hormones play a role in certain forms of aggression and fear.

Understanding the nature of behavior problems is essential to developing a rational basis for their treatment. While this chapter focuses primarily on the abnormal behavior of dogs, the extent to which a dog’s behavior is abnormal is defined by how much it deviates from “normal” or by the severity of the problem that this behavior poses to its owner.

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Analyzing Dog Behavior and Puppy Behavior

A positive dog trainer and canine behavior expert dispels common and pervasive myths about dogs and their behavior..

[Updated March 18, 2016] 

Hang with dog folks long enough and you’re sure to hear some pretty interesting theories about dog behavior. Some are, of course, useful and accurate, but the dog training world is littered with myths, many of which are at least several generations old. Some of them are just silly; some have the potential for causing serious damage to the dog-human relationship; and still others are downright dangerous. It’s time to get past the myths.

Veterinary behaviorist Dr. Lore Haug of Sugar Land, Texas, recently compiled a comprehensive list of dog behavior myths. With her blessing, we’re sharing 10 of our “favorites” from her list, and explaining why these “busted” myths should not be used as the justification for a training or behavior modification technique. I am always exhorting my interns, apprentices, and clients to be critical thinkers. When someone offers you an alleged nugget of canine wisdom, regardless of who the someone is, you’re wise to run it through your own rigorous filters before accepting it as real wisdom or adopting it as the basis for a training technique. These should include:

• A scientific filter. Does it make sense scientifically? If someone assures you that shock collar training is actually positive reinforcement training because the shock is no different than someone tapping you on the shoulder to get you to stop a behavior, does that concur with your understanding of positive reinforcement? (That a dog’s behavior makes a good thing happen, so the behavior increases.) Don’t be fooled by the euphemisms “e-collar” and “tingle,” “tap,” or “stim” for the word “shock.”

• A philosophical filter. Is it congruent with your own philosophies about dog training and relationships? Positive punishment (dog’s behavior makes a bad thing happen; behavior decreases) makes sense from a scientific standpoint. That doesn’t mean you want to – or have to – use it with your dog, and risk the damage it can do to your relationship. Trainers with a positive training philosophy generally try to avoid the use of positive punishment, or any methods that work through the use of fear, pain, aversives, and avoidance.

• An “acid test” filter. It may seem sound scientifically, and it may feel okay philosophically, but does it work? If you’re comfortable trying it out and you don’t like the results, feel free to continue on and explore why it’s not working or simply toss it out. Just because it works for someone else doesn’t mean it has to work for you.

Now, keeping these filters in mind, let’s see how some of the most common and harmful myths about canine behavior create a flawed foundation for training.

Myth #1: “Puppies should not go to puppy classes/the mall/friends’ houses until they have had all their vaccinations at 16 weeks/6 months of age.”

– Fails all three tests.

This one lands squarely at the top of the “dangerous myth” category. It’s generally perceived as credible by new puppy owners because it’s often offered by the pup’s veterinarian.

While it appears scientifically sound on its face (an unvaccinated puppy is at risk for contracting deadly diseases!), puppies who aren’t properly socialized are at a much greater risk for developing behavior problems, including aggression, that are likely to shorten their lives.

The vet is right on one hand; the best way to ensure that your pup isn’t exposed to dog germs is to avoid other dogs. It’s certainly true that you want to prevent your pup’s exposure to unknown and/or possibly unhealthy dogs (and their waste). But it’s also critically important that your pup get lots of exposure to the rest of the world, including healthy puppies in a controlled environment, before the critical socialization period ends at 12 to 16 weeks. If he doesn’t, he’ll be at risk of developing serious, sometimes deadly, behavior problems. (See “ Puppy Training School ,” Whole Dog Journal September 2007, for more information on early education for puppies.)

In addition, during the period leading up to the age of four to six months, your pup has protection from his mother’s immunities, and should receive “puppy shots” to cover that period of time when his mother’s protection starts to decrease. Not only is it “okay” to take your pup places while exercising reasonable caution, you have an obligation to provide him with extensive socialization in order to maximize his chances of leading a long and happy life.

Myth #2: “Dogs pull on leash, jump up on people, (add your own) because they are dominant.”

– Fails scientific and philosophical tests.

Like the first myth discussed, this one can be dangerous, because those who believe this myth are likely to believe that they need to use forceful methods to assert their status over their “dominant” dogs.

No one disputes that dogs living in a group understand and respond to the concepts and dictates of a social hierarchy. The fact that canine social structures share elements with human social structures is probably one of the reasons that dogs make such wonderful companions for us. However, most experts in animal behavior today believe that canine social hierarchies are much more based on deference than dominance, and that most canine behavior that many misguided humans attribute to dominance . . . isn’t!

A dog’s goal in life is to make good stuff happen. Behaviors often labeled “dominant” because they are perceived as pushy and assertive – like pulling on leash and jumping up – simply persist because the dog has learned that the behaviors are reinforced; they make good stuff happen. Pulling on leash gets her where she wants to go. Jumping up gets attention. Behaviors that are reinforced continue, and even increase – but they have nothing to do with social status.

If you remove all reinforcement for the unwelcome behaviors (pulling makes us stop; jumping up makes attention go away) and reinforce more appropriate behaviors in their place, the dog will change her behavior.

Myth #3: “If you let your dog sleep on the bed/eat first/go through doors first/win at tug-o-war, he will become the alpha.”

This one is mostly just silly. Some sources even suggest that the entire family must gather in the kitchen and take turns buttering and eating a cracker before the dog can be fed. Seriously!

See Myth #2 for the mythbusting response to this one. If you don’t want your dog on the furniture, that’s your lifestyle choice, but you don’t need to defend it with the alpha-garbage argument. I feed my dogs before I eat so I don’t have to feel guilty about them being hungry while I fill my own belly. I teach my dogs to sit and wait for permission to go through the door (“say please!”) because it’s a polite, safe behavior and reinforces deference, but not because I’m terrified that they’ll take over the house. And I like to win tug-o-war a lot because it reinforces polite behavior. You can quit worrying about your dog becoming alpha just because you don’t rule with an iron first.

If you are concerned that your dog is too pushy you can implement a “Say Please” program, where your dog asks politely for all good things by sitting – a nice, polite, deference behavior (see “ Why Force-Based Training is Not Advocated ,” August 2003). If you think your dog is potentially aggressive, it’s even more important to avoid conflict; your attempts to physically dominate him are likely to escalate his aggression rather than resolve it. (See “ Puppies Who Deomonstrate “Alpha” Behavior ,” July 2006.) If aggression is a real concern, we recommend you consult with a qualified, positive behavior professional who can help you modify your dog’s behavior without the use of force.

Myth #4: “Dogs can’t learn from positive reinforcement. You have to punish them so they know when they are wrong.”

– Fails scientific and philosophical tests; fails acid test unless punisher is very skilled.

This myth has good potential for causing serious harm to the canine-human relationship. Research confirms what positive trainers hold dear: that positive reinforcement training is more effective and has far fewer risks than positive reinforcement training combined with positive punishment.

One study, conducted by scientists at the University of Southampton in the UK and the University of Life Sciences in Norway, evaluated whether punishment was a contributor to behavior problems, and examined the effects of reward, punishment, and rule structure (permissiveness/strictness and consistency) on training and behavior problems. Information was collected via questionnaires from 217 dog guardians. Those who used strong and/or frequent punishment had a significantly higher level of training problems and lower obedience in their dogs. A similar study, conducted at Britain’s University of Bristol, also found that dogs trained only with positive reinforcement exhibited fewer problem behaviors.

For most humans, this makes sense. Do you learn better if someone acknowledges (and rewards) you when you do it right, or slaps you upside the head when you do it wrong? Even if you get rewarded for doing it right, if you also get slapped for doing it wrong, your fear of getting slapped will likely impede your learning and make you more reluctant to try things.

Of course, a good positive training program makes use of management to avoid giving the dog opportunities to be reinforced for unwanted behaviors, and will also make judicious use of negative punishment (dog’s behavior makes a good thing go away) to let him know he made an unrewarding behavior choice.

For more information on why training programs that utilize positive reinforcement are most effective, see “ Dog Training Using Positive Techniques ,” January 2007.

Myth #5: “If you use treats to train, you will always need them.”

This just isn’t true. A good positive training program will quickly “fade” the use of food as a constant reinforcer while moving to a schedule of intermittent reinforcement and expanding the repertoire of reinforcers to include things like toys, play, petting, praise, and the opportunity to perform some other highly reinforcing behavior.

Treats can be a very high-value reinforcer and quite useful in training a wide variety of behaviors, so it’s plain silly to turn your back on them. Just be sure to fade food lures quickly in a training program, move to an intermittent schedule of reinforcement when your dog will perform a behavior on cue 8 out of 10 times, and incorporate a variety of reinforcers so you’re never dependent on any one particular reward choice. (For more information about how some people might fail when applying positive training techniques the wrong way, see “ Common Dog Training Mistakes ,” May 2007.)

Myth #6: “A dog who urinates inside/destroys the house/barks when he is left alone does so because he is spiteful.”

– Fails the scientific and philosophical tests.

This myth definitely causes harm to the dog-human relationship. Dogs don’t do things out of spite, and to think so gives owners a negative perspective on their relationship with their canine family member. Dogs do things because they feel good, they work to make good stuff happen (or to make bad stuff go away), or because they are reacting to events that occur in their environment. While our dogs share much the same range of emotions as we humans, they don’t seem to indulge in all the same motives. Spite requires a certain amount of premeditation and cognitive thinking that science doesn’t support as being evident in the canine behavior repertoire.

There are two rational explanations for the behaviors described in this myth. The first is that the dog isn’t fully housetrained and hasn’t yet learned house manners. In the absence of direct supervision, the dog urinates when he has a full bladder (an empty bladder feels good) and becomes destructive because playing with/chewing sofa cushions, shoes, ripping down curtains, tipping over the garbage, and barking are fun and rewarding activities.

The other explanation is that the dog suffers from some degree of isolation distress. These behaviors are often a manifestation of stress and the dog’s attempt to relieve his anxiety over being left alone. If your dog regularly urinates (or worse) in the house or destroys things when he is left alone, he may be suffering from a moderate degree of isolation distress, or more severe separation anxiety. This condition can worsen without appropriate management. For more information, see “ Relieving Separation Anxiety Symptoms ,” August 2001 – and consider a consultation with an animal behavior specialist.

Myth #7: “If you feed a dog human food, he will learn to beg at the table.”

This is silly! One dog owner’s “begging” is another’s “attention” behavior, eagerly sought-after and highly valued. Behaviors that are reinforced continue and/or increase. If you fed your dog his own dog food from the table, he would learn to beg at the table. It has nothing to do with what type of food he’s being fed! If you don’t want your dog to beg at the table, don’t feed your dog from the table.

Whole Dog Journal readers know full well that human-grade food is better for dogs than much of the junk that’s in many brands of dog food. Whether it’s fed in a form that we recognize as something we might consume, or it’s been transformed into something that more resembles our mental concept of “dog food,” it all still comes from the same basic food ingredients.

Myth #8: “He knows he was bad/did wrong because he looks guilty.”

This myth is damaging to the relationship, as it leads owners to hold dogs to a moral standard that they aren’t capable of possessing. When a dog looks “guilty,” he is most likely responding to a human’s tense or angry body language with appeasement behaviors. He’s probably thinking something like, “I don’t know why, but my human looks upset. I’d better offer some appeasement behaviors so her anger isn’t directed at me!” Even when the “guilty” expression is a direct and immediate result of your dog’s behavior because your punishment was timely – “Hey! Get out of the garbage!” -your dog’s turned head, lowered body posture, averted eyes – are simply an acknowledgement of your anger and his attempt to reconcile with you.

A trainer friend of mine once did an experiment to convince a client that her dearly held “guilty look” belief was a myth. He had the client hold her dog in the living room while he went into the kitchen and dumped the garbage can on the floor, strewing its contents nicely around the room. Then he had the client bring the dog into the kitchen. Sure enough, the dog “acted guilty” even though he had nothing to do with the garbage on the floor. He just knew from past experience that “garbage on floor” turned his owner into an angry human, and he was already offering appeasement behavior in anticipation of her anger, and to divert her ire from his dog-self. (For more information about canine body language, see “ Understanding How Dogs Communicate with Each Other ,” April 2006.)

Finally, most owners who have punished a dog for something that was done in their absence can attest to the fact that the punishment generally does not prevent the dog from repeating the behavior another time. What does work is simple management. Put the garbage somewhere that the dog can’t get to it; under a sink with a safety latch on it, for example. Keep counters clear of anything edible. Leave the dog in a part of the house that is comfortable but not easily destroyed. Hire a dog walker to come by in the middle of your dog’s longest days home alone to let him out, give him some stress-relieving exercise, and leave him with a food-filled chew toy. These actions will result in an intact home – and a dog who is not afraid to greet you when you return.

Myth #9: The prong collar works by mimicking a mother dog’s teeth and her corrections.

It’s a little discouraging to think that people actually believe this myth. It would be silly if it weren’t so potentially damaging to the relationship and potentially dangerous as well.

Prong collars work because the prongs pressing into the dog’s neck are uncomfortable at best, painful at worst. Because dogs will work to avoid pain and discomfort, the prong collar does work to stop a dog from pulling on the leash, and can shut down other undesirable behaviors as well, at least temporarily. However, like all training tools and techniques that are based on pain and intimidation, there is a significant risk of unintended consequences.

In the case of the prong collar, the primary risk is that the dog will associate the pain with something in his environment at the time he feels it, and this can lead to aggression toward the mistakenly identified cause. A dog’s unmannerly, “I want to greet you” lunge toward another dog or person can turn into, “I want to eat you,” if he decides that the object of his attention is hurting him.

If you have used or are considering the use of a prong collar to control your dog, please consult with a qualified positive behavior consultant to learn about more effective and less potentially harmful methods.

Myth #10: “Aggressive/hand-shy/fearful dogs must have been abused at some point in their lives.”

– Fails the scientific test.

This is a very widespread myth; I hear it so often it makes my brain hurt. Fortunately, while the behaviors described in this myth are problematic, the myth itself may be the most benign of our top 10.

There are many reasons a dog may be aggressive, hand-shy, or fearful. Lack of proper socialization tops the list, especially for fearfulness. If a pup doesn’t get a wide variety of positive social exposures and experiences during the first 12 to 14 weeks of his life, he’s likely to be neophobic – afraid of new things – for the rest of his life (see Myth #1). This neophobia manifests as fear, and for some dogs, as fear-related aggression.

Widely accepted categories of aggression include:

• defensive (fear-related) aggression • possession aggression (resource-guarding) • maternal aggression • territorial aggression • status-related aggression • pain-related aggression • protection aggression • predatory aggression • play aggression • idiopathic (we don’t know what causes it) aggression.

Note that there’s no category for “abuse-related” aggression. Abuse can be one of several causes of fear-related/defensive aggression, but is much less common than the fear-related aggression that results from undersocialization.

Regardless of the cause of a dog’s fearful or aggressive behavior, a myth-corollary to our Myth #10 is that love alone will be enough to “fix” the problem. While love is a vital ingredient for the most successful dog-human relationships, it takes far more than that to help a fearful dog become confident, or an aggressive one become friendly. For more about rehabilitating a chronically fearful dog, see “ Reducing Your Dog’s Anxieties ,” April 2007.

Pat Miller, CPDT, is Whole Dog Journal’ s Training Editor. She is the author of The Power of Positive Dog Training and Positive Perspectives: Love Your Dog, Train Your Dog .

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Why Dogs are the Best Pets: Exploting Persuasive Arguments

Table of contents, unconditional love and loyalty, stress relief and emotional support, encouragement of physical activity, enhanced social interactions, protection and security.

• Odendaal, J. S. (2000). Animal-assisted therapy—Magic or medicine? Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 49(4), 275-280.
• Anderson, W. P., & Reid, C. M. (1992). The short-term effects of pet therapy on the elderly. Gerontology, 38(6), 307-310.
• Wood, L., Martin, K., Christian, H., Nathan, A., Lauritsen, C., Houghton, S., ... & McCune, S. (2015). The pet factor—Companion animals as a conduit for getting to know people, friendship formation and social support. PLoS ONE, 10(4), e0122085.
• Wells, D. L. (2009). The effects of animals on human health and well-being. Journal of Social Issues, 65(3), 523-543.
• Nagasawa, M., Mogi, K., & Kikusui, T. (2009). Attachment between humans and dogs. Japanese Psychological Research, 51(3), 209-221.

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93 Dog Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on dog, 🎓 most interesting dog research titles, 💡 simple dog essay ideas, ❓ research questions about dogs.

• The Films “Hachi: A Dog’s Tale” and “Hachiko Monogatari”
• How to Groom Your Pet Dog: Process Analysis
• The Role of a Dog in a Family
• Dog’ and Human Baby’ Raising
• Animal Rights: Ending the Dog Meat Trade
• Nature Versus Nurture in Dog Aggression
• Dog Fashion as an Extension of Personal Style
• A Dog Sitting Start-Up’s Budget Considerations
• Dog Therapy for Socially Isolated People
• Dog Training at Home – Possible or Not?
• Carolina Dog: The Only Wild Dog Breed in the USA
• Refusing to Allow to Have a Service Dog in His Apartment
• The Role of a Dog in the Life of a Human
• Walking the Dog: The Effect of Pet Ownership on Human Health and Health Behaviors
• Advanced Dog Training Points for Conditioning Your Dog
• Common Dog and Cat Diseases and Health Problems
• Universal Principles For Successful Dog Training
• Improve Your Health and Lose Weight by Walking Your Dog
• How Can People Alleviate Dog Cruelty Problems?
• Does the Pit Bull Deserve Its Reputation as a Vicious Dog?
• Pet Dog Ownership Decisions for Parents of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder
• Aggression When Another Dog Invades Her Space
• Dog Behavior: Should Dogs Be Blame for Their Aggressive Behavior?
• Cut Down the Dog Population by Spaying or Neutering
• Behind the Bag: Commercial Dog Food
• Dog Owners’ Interaction Styles: Their Components and Associations With Reactions of Pet Dogs to a Social Threat
• Using Operant and Classical Conditioning to Teach Tricks to a Dog
• Anthropomorphism: Does Your Dog Like You?
• Larynx Trauma and Hyoid Bone Fracture After Bite Injury in Dog
• Capacity and Product Market Competition: Measuring Market Power in a Puppy-Dog Industry
• Does Drug Dog Sniff Outside Home Violate Privacy?
• Finding the Best Dog: New Ideas Into Dog Never Before Revealed
• Amazing Dog Facts That You Probably Didn’t Know
• Natural Dog Health Care Giving Man’s Best Friend a Longer Life
• Does Your Dog Love You and What Does That Mean? A Journey in Cognitive Science and Moral Philosophy
• Furry Friends: Why Owning a Dog Is a Positive Thing
• American Pit Bull Terrier: American Icon or Demon Dog
• Dog Housebreaking Tips: What You Should and Shouldn’t Do
• Dog Behavior Training From an Early Age
• Animal Cruelty: Dog Fighting
• Obedience Training for Your Dog
• Pitbulls and the Misconceptions Associated With the Dog Breed
• Emotional Wreckage After Losing a Dog
• Dog Care for the Health of Animals and Work to Improve
• Stereotypies: Antecedents and Consequences in Domestic Dog
• Poodles: One Adorable Dog in Many Convenient Sizes
• Facts About the Asian Dog Meat Trade
• Why Dog Attacks Occur and Who Are the Main Culprits?
• Bones for Your Dog: Delicious Treat or a Deadly Snack
• Organic Dog Food and Making the Right Choice
• Dog Aggression: Children and Their Pets
• Potential Problems for AKC Dog Owners Who Wish to Purchase Health Insurance
• Choosing Healthy Foods for Your Dog
• Preventing Your Dog From Catching Diseases
• Fatal Mistake: Why Your Dog Needs Vaccinations
• Dog: Man’s Best Friend and First Domesticated Animal
• Pavlov’s Experiment and Dog’s Environmental Stimulus
• Barking Problems: Train Your Dog to Stop Barking
• Productivity Differential and Competition: Can an Old Dog Be Taught New Tricks
• Feeding and Keeping Your Dog Healthy
• Passing the Time Away With Your Dog and He Will Enjoy It Too
• Dog Behavior Training: Dog Aggression Toward Its Owners
• Teaching Children and Parents to Understand Dog Signaling
• Do Dogs Have Opposable Thumbs?
• Why Do Short Dogs Walk With Quicker Strides Than Do Tall Dogs?
• Do African Wild Dogs Bark?
• What Is the DHLPP Vaccine for Dogs?
• Why Does Dog Nuclear DNA Have a Very High Degree of Sequence Homology?
• How Did Dogs Affect Human Evolution?
• Can Dogs Learn Sign Language?
• Why Are Dogs So Gentle With Babies?
• What Is the Scientific Name of a Dog?
• How Many Chromosomes Do Dogs Have?
• How Do African Wild Dogs Survive in the Desert?
• What Adaptations Help Dogs Keep Cool?
• Can Alien Hand Syndrome Occur in Dogs?
• How Many Olfactory Receptors Do Dogs Have?
• How Were Dogs Used in the Klondike Gold Rush?
• Who Was the First Dog in Space?
• Do Dogs See the World in Color or Black-and-White?
• How Does the Human Body’s Molecular System Differ From Dogs?
• Are All Dogs the Same Species?
• Are Native American Indian Dogs Wolf Hybrids?
• What Is the Evolutionary or Biological Purpose of a Dog’s Tail?
• Do Dogs Have Pack Mentality?
• Can Anesthesia Cause Neurological Disorders in Dogs?
• Why Are Dogs Domesticated?
• Why Do Dogs Roll Around in the Grass?
• Why Are Dogs Tails Docked?
• Why Do Some Dogs Have Two Different Colored Eyes?
• Why Do Dogs Live Short Lives?
• Are Dogs Immune System Stronger Than Humans?
• What Were Pavlov’s Dogs Experiments?

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Canine Body Language

In this section, learn more about dog body language and how they communicate .   Understanding dog body language can help you:

• recognize fear
• assess when it is safe to handle or approach a dog
• identify when your dog needs help

Dog body language can be complex. Learning how to understand body postures and behaviors is important. Dogs communicate in many ways:

• with their full body
• using more subtle cues with ears, eyes, mouth, and tail positioning
• via muscle tension and weight distribution

Dogs also show specific behaviors when threatened or when trying to calm themselves.

Learning dog body language helps you understand how a dog feels in specific environments and situations. Then you can avoid placing their dogs in situations where they may be fearful. We want to prevent our dogs from feeling like they need to protect themselves by fighting or fleeing.

Understanding signs of stress and fear:

• increases dog and human safety
• promotes canine physical, emotional, and behavioral well-being
• protects the human-animal bond

People are better at identifying happy body language in dogs rather than fear.

Pet owners don’t always recognize stress in their dogs .

Wan, M., Bolger, N., and Champagne, F.A. (2012). Human perception of fear in dogs varies according to experience with dogs. PLoS One, 7(12), e51775, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051775

Mariti, c., raspanti, e., zilocchi, m., carlone, b., and gazzano, a. (2015). the assessment of dog welfare in the waiting room of a veterinary clinic. animal welfare, 24(3), 299-305..

A dog’s body language such as fear of an approaching stranger can be used to assess animal welfare.

Bauer A.E., Jordan M., Colon M., Shreyer T., Croney C.C. (2017). Evaluating FIDO: Developing and pilot testing the Field Instantaneous Dog Observation tool.Pet Behaviour Science, 4, 1-16.

Dog experience makes it easier to recognize signs of fear in dogs .

Canine Body Language Library

Search Entire Library »

Bare Bones – If you only have a few minutes for the basics 

At-a-glance: dog body language: application - croney research group, at-a-glance: dog body language: decoding - croney research group, how dogs communicate with their body language - croney research group, snacks – if you want to learn more, the four "fs" of fear, never stare at a dog, doggie language: a dog lover's guide to understanding your best friend, understanding canine facial expressions and body postures, dog body language 101, on talking terms with dogs: calming signals, canine behavior: a photo illustrated handbook, kibble – if you want to take a deep dive into the science , the relationship of adult morphology and early social signaling of the domestic dog (canis familiaris), refining canine welfare assessment in kennels: evaluating the reliability of field instantaneous dog observation (fido) scoring - croney research group, evaluation of an easy-to-use protocol for assessing behaviors of dogs retiring from commercial breeding kennels - croney research group, evaluating fido: developing and pilot testing the field instantaneous dog observation tool - croney research group, human perception of fear in dogs varies according to experience with dogs,  additional resources to support dogs in other environments, shelter & rescue.

Dogs living in shelter or rescue kennels face challenges specific to their living environments. Practical applications for their management and care may also differ. Additional resources for their caretakers, including those caring for dogs in home-based foster systems or rescue networks, are provided to support efforts to improve, maintain, and protect their welfare.

PET FAMILIES

Dogs living in homes as family pets face challenges specific to their living environments. Practical applications for their management and care may also differ. Additional resources for their caretakers, support the human-animal bond, keep pets in their homes, and improve, maintain, and protect their welfare.

Research & Teaching

Dogs living in research or teaching kennels face challenges specific to their living environments. Practical applications for their management and care may also differ. Additional resources for their caretakers are provided to support efforts to improve, maintain, and protect their welfare.

Applications for Research & Teaching

Applications for pet families, self-reported comprehension ratings of dog behavior by puppy owners.

Dogs show a range of behaviors that reflect their emotional state. It is important that dog owners recognize these behaviors to accurately assess their dog's emotional state. We examined dog owners' self-reported comprehension (SRC) of their dog's emotional state. Eighty-nine participants attending puppy socialization classes at local veterinary clinics in the Melbourne Metropolitan area, Victoria, Australia, rated their comprehension of their dog's emotional states (Happy, Sad, Anxious, Angry, Friendly Greeting, and Anxious Greeting) and listed the behaviors they used to judge the emotional state of their dog.

The 4F’s of Fear- Fear Responses

Leslie, R. (2022, July 25). The 4f's of fear- fear responses. Welfare For Animals. Retrieved January 2, 2023, from https://www.welfare4animals.org/blog/the-4fs-of-fear-fear-responses

What is Your Dog Trying to Tell You?

Schurman, R. (2021, September 21). What is your dog trying to tell you? Dog Adventures Northwest. Retrieved April 21, 2022, from https://dogadventuresnw.com/what-is-your-dog-trying-to-tell-you/

How Can I Tell if My Dog is Afraid?

Todd, Z. (2018). How Can I Tell if My Dog is Afraid? Retrieved June 21, 2023, from https://www.companionanimalpsychology.com/2018/07/how-can-i-tell-if-my-dog-is-afraid.html.

Calm and Relaxed? Or Shut Down? Body Language References

Eileen and Dogs (2013). Calm and Relaxed? Or Shut Down? Body Language References. Retrieved June 21, 2023, from https://www.dropbox.com/s/bkb1lbpr6820eh7/CALMandRELAXEDorShutDown.jpg?dl=0.

Doggie Language

Chin, L. (2011). Doggie Language. Retrieved June 21, 2023, from https://www.flickr.com/photos/lilita/5652847156/sizes/l/.

Applications for Shelter & Rescue

Let's speak dog.

I Speak Dog (n.d.) Let's Speak Dog. Retrieved June 21, 2023, from http://www.ispeakdog.org/lets-speak-dog.html.

Transition and Stress

Center for Shelter Dogs. (n.d.). Transition and Stress. Tufts University: Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine. Retrieved June 21, 2023, from https://centerforshelterdogs.tufts.edu/dog-welfare/transition-and-stress/.

Canine Body Language in the Shelter

Bennett, S. (2012). Canine Body Language in the Shelter. Maddie's Fund. Retrieved June 21, 2023, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gFFto1XVtxI.

Behavioral Problems of Dogs

• Fears and Phobias |
• Separation Anxiety: |
• Abnormal Repetitive Behaviors |
• Aggression |
• Fear-related Aggression: |
• Possessive Aggression (Resource Guarding): |
• Play Aggression: |
• Redirected Aggression: |
• Irritable/Conflict/Impulse Control Aggression: |
• Aggression Toward Other Dogs: |
• Territorial/Protective Aggression: |
• Predatory Aggression: |
• Pain-induced and Medical Causes of Aggression: |
• Maternal Aggression: |
• Treatment of Fears, Phobias, Anxiety, and Aggression |
• Hyperactivity |
• Destructive Behaviors |
• Eating Disorders |
• Elimination Behavioral Problems |
• Housesoiling: |
• Marking Behavior: |
• Excitement, Submission, and Conflict-related Elimination: |
• Other Elimination Disorders: |
• Aging and Cognitive Dysfunction |

When behavior of dogs is undesirable, there are three levels of consideration: 1) Behaviors within the normal range for the species, age, and breed. In these cases, the owners need guidance on how to effectively manage the behaviors. 2) Behaviors more difficult or challenging, because they might fall within or just beyond the range of what is considered normal but are particularly intense or difficult to manage. Examples include mouthing, urine marking, mounting, barking, chasing, predation, or overactivity. Also in this category might be what could be normal for the breed but unsuitable for the family and home (ie, mismatch). These cases require behavior assessment and counseling to ensure the owners have a realistic understanding of what might be achieved and to implement treatment strategies, including environmental management and behavior modification, to achieve an acceptable level of improvement for both the owners and the pet. 3) Behaviors that are abnormal or pathologic, as a result of emotional disorders or mental health issues. These may have developed as a result of genetic factors, stressful perinatal environment (prenatal, neonatal), insufficient early socialization, medical conditions affecting brain health and development, or particularly traumatic environmental events. For these pets, the prognosis may be guarded, and owner expectations altered to achieve an acceptable outcome. Treatment generally requires both environmental management and behavioral modification, often in combination with medication (natural products, diet, drugs) to improve underlying pathology and facilitate learning.

The process to diagnose behavior problems and their treatment with behavior modification and drugs has been previously described ( see Treatment of Behavioral Problems ). If the problem is determined to be a normal but undesirable behavior, the owners will need counseling on how to effectively provide for the pet’s needs and how to reinforce what is desirable while preventing what is undesirable. For most canine behavior management problems, counseling from veterinary staff or trainers and quality resources are required, as well as hands-on guidance from a trainer. Trainers should be selected based on their credentials and screened to ensure they use reinforcement-based training techniques. Positive punishment−based techniques should not be used in training, because at best they serve only to suppress undesirable behavior and can lead to fear, avoidance, and even aggression. Management issues include inappropriate play (eg, nipping or mouthing of people); unruly behavior (eg, pulling, lunging, jumping up, mounting, overactivity); and some forms of barking, destructive behaviors, and housesoiling.

If the problem is determined to be an emotional disorder or abnormal behavior, resolution will require a combination of behavior modification techniques, modifications to the environment to prevent further problems, and medications to help reestablish a more normal mental state and facilitate new learning ( see Treatment of Behavioral Problems ).

Fears and Phobias

Fear is a normal response to an actual or perceived threatening stimulus or situation. Anxiety is a response to fear and agitation, or apprehension when the animal anticipates a threat or fearful situation. Phobia is an exaggerated fear response ( see Phobia: ). The fear response may include panting and salivation, tucked tail, lowered ears, gazing away, low body posture, piloerection, vocalization, or displacement behaviors such as yawning or lip licking. While avoidance and escape is one strategy, some dogs use aggression to remove the fear-evoking stimulus and are reinforced by success (negative reinforcement).

Some of the more common presentations include the following: 1) fear of other dogs, especially those that are unfamiliar, appear threatening to the dog, or with which the dog has had an unpleasant experience; 2) fear of unfamiliar people, especially those who are novel or look, act, or smell different than those the dog is accustomed to (eg, young children); 3) fear of inanimate stimuli such as loud or unfamiliar noises (eg, construction work, trucks, gunshot), visual stimuli (eg, umbrellas, hats, uniforms), environments (eg, backyard, park, boarding kennel), surfaces (eg, grass, tile or wood floors, steps), or a combination of stimuli (eg, vacuum cleaners, car rides); and 4) fear of specific situations such as veterinary clinics or grooming parlors. Some dogs have a more generalized anxiety, in which the fearful reaction is displayed in a wide range of situations to which a “normal” pet would be unlikely to react. Although there can be a genetic component to fear and anxiety, prenatal and neonatal stressors, including maternal separation, lack of socialization (ie, unfamiliarity), or a previous unpleasant outcome during encounters with the stimulus (or similar stimuli), can also be causative factors.

Phobic responses in dogs are generally associated with loud noises (eg, thunder, fireworks, gunshots) and the stimuli associated with these events, including rain, lightning, and perhaps even static or pressure changes associated with a thunderstorm. Some fears (eg, veterinary clinics, going outdoors, entering certain rooms, or walking on certain types of flooring) may become so intense that they meet the definition of a phobia.

Separation Anxiety:

It is estimated that ~14% of dogs have separation anxiety, or an inability of the pet to find comfort when separated from family members. The problem may be primary (eg, hyperattachment, dysfunctional attachment) as the puppy ages and matures; in fact, the chances of the problem developing can be reduced by having puppies regularly spend time during the day on their own (preferably in a safe haven). In other cases, the anxiety about being left alone is secondary to an event such as a change in the household or dog's daily routine, or associated with an underlying state of anxiety along with other behavioral issues such as noise phobias and separation anxiety. Anxiety may lead to destructive behavior (particularly at exits or toward owner possessions), distress vocalization, housesoiling, salivation, pacing, restlessness, inability to settle, anorexia, and repetitive or compulsive behaviors. The behaviors are exhibited when the dog is left alone and generally arise within the first 15–30 min after departure. A video recording can be an invaluable diagnostic aid to visualize the behavior and determine whether there are other concurrent signs of anxiety (autonomic stimulation, increased motor activity, and increased vigilance and scanning). The diagnosis requires that other common causes of the signs be excluded (eg, incomplete housetraining, exploratory play and scavenging, external stimuli leading to arousal and anxiety, noise aversion, or confinement anxiety). Many pets with separation anxiety begin to exhibit signs as the owner prepares to depart (eg, putting on shoes, getting keys, going to the door). When the owner is home, the dog may crave constant contact or proximity to the owner. When the owner returns, the welcoming responses are commonly exaggerated and the dog is hard to calm down.

Abnormal Repetitive Behaviors

Abnormal repetitive behaviors may actually comprise a number of conditions with different pathogeneses, including compulsive disorders, stereotypies, neurologic disorders, and other forms of behavioral pathology. Therefore, until a diagnosis is made, the term abnormal repetitive behavior may better describe the clinical presentation.

Compulsive disorders may be repetitive, stereotypic, locomotory, grooming, ingestive, or hallucinogenic behaviors that occur out of context to the time and situation in which they take place, and occur in a frequency or duration that is excessive. There may be lack of control over onset or termination. Although it can be debated whether animals can obsess, they do perceive and experience concern; therefore, the term obsessive-compulsive has also been used to describe this disorder. The diagnosis should start with a description and observation of the behavior, including video recordings if necessary. Because there is likely a genetic component for many compulsive disorders, the signalment and age of onset is also important. For example, German Shepherds and Bull Terriers are known to spin or tail chase, while a genetic locus for flank sucking has been identified in Doberman Pinschers. The problem may first arise as a displacement behavior when the dog is frustrated, conflicted, or highly aroused. Lack of predictability in the daily routine, alterations in the environment, unpredictable consequences, lack of sufficient outlets for normal behaviors, and chronic or recurrent anxiety might be initiating factors. At this point, if the owners can teach appropriate acceptable alternative responses (eg, sitting before greeting or play as an alternative to spinning) and provide constructive alternatives (eg, feeding from toys), the problem might be resolved. However, as the frequency or intensity increases, the behavior may become compulsive. The diagnosis is considered to be a compulsive disorder when the behavior interferes with normal function or when it becomes independent of (or emancipated from) the inciting stimulus. There is likely altered serotonin transmission.

Stereotypies are defined as repetitive behaviors that are unvaried in sequence and have no obvious purpose or function. They may arise when the environment lacks sufficient outlets for the dog to engage in normal behaviors, or when caused by maternal deprivation or as a result of a neurologic disorder. It is possible that stereotypic behaviors, at least in their early stages, may provide a coping mechanism for the pet. Stereotypies might be induced by dopaminergic stimulation.

Although most dogs respond to drugs that inhibit serotonin reuptake including the SSRIs and clomipramine, alterations in other neurotransmitters may play a role, eg, dopamine, endorphins, N -methyl- D -aspartic acid (NMDA). Because medical problems might be the cause of the signs, these should first be excluded. In cases in which the physical examination, history, and diagnostic testing do not clearly identify the cause, a therapeutic response trial might be indicated (eg, anticonvulsants to exclude focal seizures as a cause of fly snapping or light chasing; clomipramine or fluoxetine to exclude compulsive disorders). Also see Table: Clinical Presentation and Medical Differentials for Compulsive Disorders .

Aggression is the most common problem in referral practices across North America, approximating 70% of the caseload. It is also a major human concern, because at least 5 million people are referred to the hospital each year in the USA alone for treatment of dog bites. Most forms of aggression, except for predation, are distance-increasing behavior (ie, the dog is attempting to actively increase the distance between itself and the stimulus). There are many types of aggressive behaviors with different motivations; however, fear, anxiety, conflict (uncertainty), genetics, and learned responses generally play a role in most cases; however, in some cases the behavior may be abnormal or pathologic. The effects of early development (prenatal, postnatal), socialization, and previous experience all play a role in development of aggression.

Aggression refers to threatening behavior or harmful attacks and can range from subtle changes in body posture, facial expressions, and vocalization to biting. Dogs that are easily aroused are at high risk of aggression, because their decision-making is affected by their physiologic state (ie, flight or fight). For treatment to be effective, the pet’s anxiety and arousal must first be managed by avoiding situations or staying below the threshold at which aggression might arise. Some or all of a combination of reward-based training, behavior products that can help to better manage the pet, and medications to help achieve a behavioral state most conducive to new learning is required to successfully modify the behavior to achieve desirable outcomes and countercondition the pet to the stimuli that incite aggression.

Before treating aggression, the practitioner must assess the potential risk of injury. All stimuli that might incite aggression should be accurately identified to ensure initial safety. Predictability is a critical issue in prognosis, both to prevent further incidents and to develop a stimulus gradient for treatment. The signalment, environment, history, and target of the aggression also provide invaluable information as to whether the problem might be safely and effectively managed. The type of aggression is an additional factor: some can be managed and improved, whereas others require prevention. Finally, the clinician must assess the ability of the owner to effectively and safely prevent the problem. Aggression that is unpredictable, arises during relatively benign interactions, involves targets that cannot realistically avoid exposure to the aggressive dog (eg, young children, other household pets), or is performed by a large dog or in an uninhibited manner worsens the prognosis. Any medical condition that might cause or contribute to aggression must be identified, because they are important factors in diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment. (See www.esvce.org for risk assessment guidelines.)

Fear-related Aggression:

Fear is the underlying cause of most forms of canine aggression. It is triggered by a stimulus that is threatening to the dog. When the aggression is a direct response to a challenge or confrontation, it might be referred to as defensive aggression. Fearful dogs may try to avoid the stimulus but become aggressive if they cannot escape (eg, leashed, confined, cornered, or physically grasped), are motivated to maintain their place (eg, on property, between the owner and stimulus, near food or toy), or if they learn that aggression is successful at removing the threat. Inadequate socialization, learning, genetics (temperament), reinforcement of aggressive behavior (eg, retreat of the stimulus), and associating a negative outcome with the stimulus (eg, punishment) can all lead to the development of fear-related aggression. The diagnosis is based on identifying signs of fear as well as the history beginning with the first event, because dogs can exhibit fear at the initial exposure but with time may display a more offensive form of aggression (without threats) when they learn it can be successful. (For treatment of fear-related and other types of aggression, see Treatment of Fears, Phobias, Anxiety, and Aggression .)

Possessive Aggression (Resource Guarding):

Possessive aggression is most likely to arise when a person or an animal approaches the dog while it is in possession of something it wants to retain. Pets in the process of ingesting or chewing an object might be more likely to display aggression, but the behavior can also be seen in dogs near an object. Aggression is most commonly displayed when in possession of highly motivating food, treats, chew toys, stolen items, or even sleeping places. While genetics and early experience play a role in development, the relative value of the object to the pet and the threat of losing the object to another dog or person determine whether the pet is likely to be possessive. Items that are novel or scarce may be more desirable. Fear and defensive behavior also play a role if the owners threaten, punish, or confront the pet when it takes an object or has it in its mouth. The dog may also learn that it can successfully retain the object with aggression.

The problem might be prevented by tossing the puppy high-value treats whenever the owner approaches or passes by the food bowl, and by offering a high-value treat or toy whenever the puppy voluntarily gives up another toy or chew. Food bowls, toys, and chews should not be removed by confrontation, because this can contribute to an increase in anxiety and aggression when approached. In adult dogs, the problem should be managed by preventing access to these items or confining the dog when it is given items over which it might be possessive and by training the dog to give and drop on cue (beginning with items of low value for high-value rewards). If safety is an issue (ie, the dog may hurt itself by chewing on the item), it may be possible to trade the object for one of higher value. Providing more toys and multiple small meals (eg, in feeding toys) may reduce the value and novelty of the resource.

Play Aggression:

Aggressive play is a normal puppy behavior, which may persist into adulthood as a result of genetics, neotinization, and learning. When puppies play aggressively with other puppies, they may nip and bite but will generally resolve the conflicts among themselves. However, if the problem becomes excessive, owner intervention may be required to redirect the dog’s activities into other forms of play (eg, feeding toys) or to interrupt the behavior with commands or a leash and head halter. If play with people escalates to biting, the interaction can be immediately stopped (negative punishment) and resumed when oral play ceases (positive reinforcement). Alternatively, a leash and head halter or verbal distraction ("off") can be used to interrupt play biting. In all interactions, the puppy should be taught to sit before given anything of value (eg, food, toys, affection). In addition, the puppy should be engaged in regular alternative acceptable forms of play, including fetch, tug games, and manipulation and chew toys. Punishment should not be used to stop play, because it can lead to fear of the owner, defensive aggression, or conflict-induced aggression, or serve as inadvertent reinforcement for some puppies.

Redirected Aggression:

Aggression is directed toward a third party when the dog is prevented or unable to exhibit aggression to its primary target. This type of aggression is most commonly described when the dog bites the owner as he or she grasps or restrains the dog when trying to prevent or break up a dog fight. Similarly, dogs that might be aggressive toward a veterinarian might bite the person restraining the dog. Redirected aggression arises as a result of the frustration or interruption of other forms of aggression or arousal.

Irritable/Conflict/Impulse Control Aggression:

Aggression directed toward family members is often mislabeled as dominance or status-related aggression. However, aggression toward family members generally arises from fearful or defensive behaviors, resource guarding, redirected behavior, or situations of conflict (competing emotional states and unpredictable consequences). In some dogs, the problem may be traced back to the owner’s attempts to inhibit excessive play aggression ( see above).

When a dog successfully uses aggression to achieve a goal (retaining a resource) or remove a threat, the pet learns that aggression is successful (negative reinforcement). If the owner continues to threaten, confront, challenge, or punish the pet, some dogs may inhibit their responses, but a large proportion become more aggressively defensive. When dogs are resting or sleeping, chewing on a favored object, or no longer desirous of human affection, they may respond with either deferent displays or threats. However, if the owner continues to approach, tries to remove the resource, or attempts to pet the dog despite its signaling, aggression may escalate and future signaling may be lost. The owner-pet relationship can quickly deteriorate as the dog becomes more wary and defensive while the owner becomes more fearful and/or confrontational.

Genetic factors and early experience likely also play a role; many of these dogs are easily aroused, excessively fearful, or may have emotional disorders or behavioral pathology ( see below). Other cases are primarily a result of learning. Aggression when grabbing the collar or during bathing, nail trimming, or ear cleaning is a defensive response. Interrupting a pet that is aroused may lead to redirected aggression. Therefore, when a dog is presented for aggression toward family members, it can be difficult to determine the dog’s underlying motivation because each incident has added to prior learning, fear conditioning, and underlying conflict. Dominance might refer to the relationship between two individuals of the same species within a social group, as described by actions, interactions, and intraspecific communication/signaling. These relationships are not established by aggression of the dominant individual but rather by the deferent signaling of others. Relationships between species, particularly dogs and people, are established through early socialization, the personality of the individual, and what it learns from its observations and interactions with family members. Physical techniques intended to assert dominance (eg, pinning, rolling over) and verbal discipline (yelling "no") are therefore ill advised and can result in fear, anxiety, and further aggression.

Dogs with impulse control aggression may respond with aggression to relatively benign interactions with family members. In some lines of English Cocker Spaniels and English Springer Spaniels, this aggression is associated with alterations in serotonin in blood samples or CSF.

When aggression is excessive, unpredictable, and disproportionate to the level of threat, safety is a serious concern and the prognosis generally guarded. However, when behavior is abnormal or pathologic, substantial improvement might be achieved with a combination of drugs (eg, SSRIs) and behavior modification.

Aggression Toward Other Dogs:

Dogs in the same group or household usually avoid conflict without aggression. Communication is based on dominant and submissive signals, with the deference of one of the two individuals to avoid escalation of the encounter. Dominance is a relative concept—the dog that displays deferent signaling may vary between resources and situations. Aggression between individuals living in the same household is generally an abnormal behavior caused by fear and anxiety, redirected aggression, impulse dyscontrol, or poor intraspecific communication skills as a result of genetics or lack of early socialization and compounded by experience and learning. Redirected aggression and competition over a valued resource may also lead to aggression between dogs in the home.

Owners may play a role by inadvertently supporting or encouraging a dog during an encounter in which it would normally defer. Age or illness may also play a role, if the way in which one dog signals or responds to the other is altered. Male-to-male aggression may have underlying hormonal factors that can be improved by neutering; however, learning may play a role in maintaining aggression.

If any situations arise in which the dogs are unable to resolve conflicts without aggression or injury, behavioral guidance should be sought. Aggression toward unfamiliar dogs and those that are not members of the family group are likely fearful, possessive, protective, or territorial.

Territorial/Protective Aggression:

Aggression may be displayed when the dog is approached in its territory. Territory can be stationary (eg, yard, home) or mobile (eg, car). What defines the behavior as territorial is that the dog does not display fear to similar stimuli when outside its territory. Fear, anxiety, defensive, and possessive behaviors may all be components, because the pet is most likely to display the behavior toward unfamiliar stimuli, and the motivation to escape or avoid (flight) is decreased or absent when the pet is on its own property. Learning (negative reinforcement when the stimulus retreats) and fear conditioning (unpleasant outcomes such as yelling, discipline, and confinement) can also play a role.

Predatory Aggression:

This is one of the most dangerous types of aggression, because there is usually no warning. The attack is intended to kill prey, and the bite is uninhibited. The sequence of events may include stalking, chasing, biting, and killing. Young children and babies may be at risk because their size and behaviors mimic those of prey. Although extensive socialization to a species might reduce predation toward that species, the behavior may be enhanced when predatory individuals are together in a group. Predation is a normal and dangerous canine behavior; thus, any dog that exhibits the behavior must be prevented from opportunities to repeat it.

Pain-induced and Medical Causes of Aggression:

Any disease that causes pain or increases irritability (eg, dental disease, arthritis, trauma, allergies) can lead to aggression. The dog may become aggressive when it is handled or anticipates handling. Organ dysfunction (eg, renal, hepatic), CNS disease, and endocrinopathies (eg, hyperadrenocorticism, functional testicular and ovarian tumors, and thyroid dysfunction) might also contribute to irritability and aggression. (Also see Table: Medical Causes of Behavioral Signs .) While hypothyroidism is more likely associated with lethargy, dermatologic signs, and heat seeking in the early stages, it has been suggested that dogs might display an increase in aggression, particularly toward family members. Treatment should likely be reserved for cases in which diagnostic tests are also consistent with hypothyroidism, because excessive supplementation could lead to a hyperthyroid state (with associated medical and behavioral consequences). Treating the medical problem may resolve the aggression, but the behavior, once learned, may persist.

Maternal Aggression:

Maternal aggression may be seen in intact females with a litter of puppies or in females with pseudocyesis. It can be directed toward people or other animals. Signs of aggression arise when the bitch’s puppies or toys that mimic puppies are protected, and the aggression should resolve when the hormonal state returns to normal and/or the puppies are weaned. The term maternal aggression has also been used to describe the aggression or cannibalism directed toward the puppies by the bitch. Although the problem may have a genetic component, it is reported to occur more frequently after a first litter. Ovariohysterectomy can prevent further incidents.

Treatment of Fears, Phobias, Anxiety, and Aggression

Before implementing specific therapy to manage, improve, or resolve a behavior problem, some common elements that apply to most cases should be considered. The initial discussion should focus on 1) an understanding of normal behavior as it relates to the problem, 2) learning to read canine body language and facial expressions, 3) ensuring that all of the dog’s needs are adequately being met, 4) reviewing the principles of learning and reinforcement-based training (predictable consequences), and 5) managing both the environment and the dog to prevent further incidents. The cause, diagnosis, and motivation behind the behavior should be reviewed. Finally, the owner should be given a prognosis with realistic expectations for both short- and longterm outcomes.

In most cases, treatment focuses on changing the dog’s emotional response with the stimulus (counterconditioning) and/or replacing the undesirable response with one that is desirable using reinforcement-based techniques (response substitution). However, dogs that are highly aroused respond with autonomic fight-or-flight responses and tend to make reflexive responses. Therefore, arousal must be reduced before treatment can proceed. This can be achieved by training the dog to settle on cue, by minimizing the intensity of the stimulus during exposure (desensitization), or by using management devices such as head halters that can change the dog’s focus and help it to settle, and with drugs or natural products that reduce anxiety and behavioral pathology. Early intervention with medication may be necessary to achieve success and can be in the best interest of the fearful, anxious, or phobic dog.

There are common elements to the treatment of fear, anxiety, phobias, and most types of aggression. The first step in the treatment program is to identify each situation stimulus or interaction in which the problem might arise, so that a preventive program can first be implemented. Prevention ensures safety (eg, in aggression cases), prevents further damage to the household or injury to the dog, avoids further anxiety-evoking situations for the dog, and ensures no further aggravation of the problem through fear conditioning (ie, unpleasant outcomes) and learning (ie, negative reinforcement if the stimulus retreats).

Prevention can be most effectively achieved by identifying and avoiding any situation in which the dog might be exposed to the stimulus. A leash and head harness, leash and body harness, or verbal commands (when effective) can also prevent access to the stimulus. If avoidance cannot be ensured and aggression is a possibility, then a basket muzzle might be the best alternative.

A common starting point to begin to reduce anxiety, improve communication and training, teach self-control, and allow the dog to control its consequences/outcomes is to establish a program of structured interactions in which the dog is not given anything it values (or wants) until it sits (or lies down). If the owners' response is consistent and predictable by ensuring the dog sits (or lies down) every time a treat (food or toy) is given, the leash is attached, the dog goes in and out of the door or car, or the dog wants affection, the dog will soon learn that the sit or down action is required to get the reward, at which point gradually longer and more relaxed responses can be taught. This is sometimes termed structured interactions, predictable consequences, learn to earn, or “saying please.”

Because the ultimate goal is to successfully expose the dog to controlled levels of the stimuli while achieving calm and positive outcomes, it is necessary to determine what behaviors need to be trained to achieve desirable outcomes during exposure training. For example, if problems arise indoors, the dog may first need to learn a focused sit, a relaxed down, and a mat command (or other location such as room or crate). A drop or give command and a come or recall may also need to be trained. When problems arise outdoors, sit and focus or down and settle may also be useful, but loose leash walking, backing up, or turning and walking away may be the best options for stimulus exposure. These behaviors should be learned reliably and consistently in a variety of environments with a minimum of distractions before the owners proceed to a graduated stimulus exposure ( see Counterconditioning and Desensitization: and see Response Substitution: ).

By identifying a range (gradient) of the dog’s most favored rewards, the most desirable can be used for training and shaping new behaviors that approximate the final goal; less-motivating rewards can then be used to ensure immediacy and timing of previously learned commands. In addition, a way to minimize and control the intensity of the stimulus will also need to be designed (eg, volume, distance, location). Exposure exercises can then be implemented by setting up situations in which high-value rewards are used to reinforce the desired behavior and condition a positive response during exposure to low-intensity stimuli and gradually proceeding through more intense stimuli. Setbacks can be avoided by determining the level of stimulus intensity at which a calm and positive outcome can be achieved and reinforced, and with the use of management devices such as a head halter (sit, reorient head, turn and walk away) or front control body harness (turn away from the situation) to ensure safety and success. Drugs and natural therapeutics might be used concurrently in dogs with excessively intense or abnormal behaviors to enable the successful implementation of behavior modification.

For noise phobias, controlled exposure can best be achieved through recordings that can be gradually increased after each successful session of desensitization and counterconditioning. Concurrent behavioral management to reduce stimuli (with sound proofing, ear covers, eye covers, crate covers, or white noise) and develop a safe haven to help the dog settle might also help the dog to cope. For separation anxiety, once a regular routine of play, exercise, and training is established, any additional reinforcement should focus on shaping gradually longer inattention sessions when the dog rests or occupies itself with favored chew and food- or treat-filled toys, ideally in a comfortable safe haven (bed, crate, or room) where the owners can house the dog while gradually increasing their time away. Any attention- or affection-soliciting behavior should be ignored, unless the dog is sitting or lying down calmly (sit for all interactions) or resting on its bed or mat. Visual and auditory cues that signal departure should be avoided if possible; alternatively, they can be decoupled from departure by exposing the dog while remaining home, and associating with play and treats (counterconditioning). In addition to preventive and environmental management strategies and behavior modification, drugs or natural therapeutics can be used to reduce underlying fear, anxiety, arousal, reactivity, or impulse dyscontrol to help facilitate learning; to improve underlying behavioral pathology; and in many cases to improve the behavioral well-being of the dog.

For impulsivity, generalized anxiety disorders, excessive stimulus anxiety, and phobias, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) are commonly used. Because fluoxetine has been evaluated in and licensed for dogs, it is generally the first choice of the SSRIs, although fluvoxamine, sertraline, paroxetine, and citalopram might be alternatives when fluoxetine is insufficiently effective or adverse effects such as anorexia are an issue. SSRIs are also used to treat compulsive disorders. Among the TCAs, clomipramine is licensed for use in dogs and is an alternative to fluoxetine for the treatment of anxiety disorders and phobias. Because clomipramine is the most selective of the TCAs to inhibit serotonin reuptake, it could be used for compulsive disorders, as an alternative to SSRIs. Other TCAs might be selected for their more potent antihistaminic effects (eg, doxepin, amitriptyline), whereas imipramine has been used as an aid in improving sphincter control with behavioral incontinence. Although the full effect might not be achieved for 3–4 wk, some effect might be noted in the first week. For some compulsive disorders, especially those in which there is a self-traumatic component, gabapentin or carbamazepine might be used concurrently, whereas in those cases in which focal seizures might be causing the behavioral signs, levetiracetam, phenobarbital, or potassium bromide might be used in a therapeutic response trial.

When an anxiety-evoking event can be predicted (eg, thunderstorms, fireworks, owner departure, visit to the veterinarian, car ride, exposure to dogs or strangers on a walk, visitors coming to the home), a benzodiazepine can be given with the antidepressant ~1 hr before the event. Because benzodiazepines have variable effects and relatively short half-lives, their efficacy, dose, and duration should be determined in advance of their therapeutic use. Clonidine, trazodone, or propranolol are other options that might be used adjunctively with SSRIs ~1 hr before an expected fear-evoking event (eg, thunder, fireworks, owner departure). In some refractory anxiety cases, trazodone, clonidine, a benzodiazepine such as clonazepam, or perhaps gabapentin might be used concurrently with an SSRI.

Buspirone, a nonsedating anxiolytic, is another option for ongoing use. Caution should be exercised when using anxiolytics, because some may disinhibit fearful dogs, which could lead to increased confidence and aggression.

Selegiline, which is licensed in North America for treatment of cognitive dysfunction syndrome in dogs, is also licensed for treatment of emotional disorders or chronic anxiety in Europe.

Natural products might be used alone or adjunctively with drugs or other natural products to help calm or reduce anxiety, although evidence of efficacy is more limited. A number of studies support the use of pheromone therapy. Adaptil™ simulates the intermammary-appeasing pheromones produced by the lactating bitch and is available as a spray, diffuser, or collar. Pheromones have been used for anxiety associated with car rides, veterinary visits, separation anxiety, storm and fireworks aversions, and to reduce the stress of adoption and aid socialization. A calming or anxiety-modulating effect has been reported for alpha-casozepine (Zylkene ® , a milk protein hydrolysate), Harmonease ® (containing Magnolia officinalis and Phellodendron amurense ), l -theanine (Anxitane ® ) and Sin-Susto™ (a Souroubea plant blend), and aromatherapy (with lavender). In addition, studies with l -tryptophan in combination with a low-protein diet have demonstrated a possible reduction in some forms of aggression. A commercial diet also has been developed that combines l -tryptophan and alpha-casozepine (Royal Canin Calm ® ) that might aid in reducing stress and anxiety.

Hyperactivity

Although hyperactivity or attention deficit disorder has been poorly documented in dogs, there have been published cases studies of dogs with excessive motor activity and an altered ability to acquire new tasks (learn), sometimes accompanied by stereotypic behaviors. It may be particularly difficult to train such dogs to behaviorally settle. There may also be signs of sympathetic activity even at rest (eg, increased heart and respiratory rate, vasodilation). Affected dogs may respond to treatment with methylphenidate. If no improvement with an initial dose of 0.25–0.5 mg/kg, bid, the dosage can be gradually increased every few days to a maximum of ~2 mg/kg until a measurable therapeutic response is seen (reduced motor activity, heart rate, respiratory rate, repetitive activities), provided no adverse effects develop. Differential diagnoses include impulse control disorders that might respond to SSRI therapy, and normal behaviors in dogs with behavioral needs that are not being adequately met. In fact, it can be quite challenging to meet these needs in some breeds and individuals, depending on the home and family.

Destructive Behaviors

Many of the destructive behaviors, including chewing, stealing, garbage raiding, and digging, are normal exploratory behaviors that arise when the dog is unsupervised and not otherwise engaged in more desirable activities. A regular daily routine with sufficient reward training, exercise, and social enrichment can help to ensure that these behaviors do not arise when the owners are home, although varying degrees of supervision may be required. When the owners cannot supervise the dog, it should be provided with adequate outlets for exploratory play in the form of chews, food-stuffed toys, or manipulation toys, or in the case of outdoor dogs, perhaps even a designated area for digging. These dogs may also need to be confined away from the areas in which problems might arise or housed in crates, pens, or runs to prevent access to potential targets of destruction. Some dogs engage in destructive behaviors because of anxiety (eg, separation anxiety, confinement, noise phobias). Together with the history, videotaping or camera monitoring is generally the best way to diagnose behavior problems that occur when the owner is absent, as well as assess response to treatment.

Eating Disorders

Behavioral problems related to ingestion include those in which food intake is excessive (polyphagia), inadequate (hyporexia), or too fast ( gorging); water intake is excessive (polydipsia); and nonfood items (pica) or feces (coprophagia) are eaten. Medical causes should be excluded first. Some dogs that scavenge do so as a normal component of food acquisition and are reinforced by success. Coprophagia may occasionally have a medical cause, but normal maternal behavior includes consumption of feces and urine of young puppies. In addition, as part of exploratory behavior, many dogs are attracted to and may ingest feces, compost, and prey (dead or live). Similarly, although some dogs with pica and polyphagia have compulsive disorders, many dogs, especially puppies, begin to chew and ingest nonfood items as part of investigative and exploratory behavior.

Dogs with hyporexia may have an anxiety disorder, and some may develop specific taste preferences and aversions that reduce what they will eat.

Many feeding problems can be improved through a work-for-food program in which dogs are given food as reinforcers for training, with the balance placed inside toys that require chewing or manipulation to release the food. This encourages exploration, makes feeding an enjoyable, time-consuming, and mentally challenging activity, and can limit the quantity consumed and prevent gorging. As with most behavior problems, correcting feeding problems needs to be accompanied by management strategies to prevent access to potential targets at any time the dog cannot be supervised or actively engaged in other chew and play behaviors.

Elimination Behavioral Problems

Housesoiling:.

Dogs may soil in inappropriate locations because of inadequate or insufficient training, as a marking behavior, or as a result of fear or anxiety. However, pain, sensory decline, cerebrocortical disease including cognitive dysfunction, or any medical condition that leads to increased volume, more frequent elimination, pain on elimination, or lack of control, must first be excluded as potential causes or contributing factors.

A detailed behavioral history is necessary to determine whether the dog has ever been housetrained. If not, a housetraining regimen should be reviewed in which the focus is solely on reinforcement of elimination in desirable locations rather than punishment of elimination in inappropriate locations. This requires the owner to accompany the dog to its elimination area (eg, outdoors), reinforce elimination, supervise the dog indoors to prevent or interrupt any attempts at elimination (perhaps with the aid of a leash to ensure continuous supervision), and return the dog to its elimination site at appropriate intervals or if there are signs that the dog is ready to eliminate (eg, sniffing, heading to the door, sneaking away). When the owner is not able to supervise, a combination of scheduling (ensuring that the dog eliminates before departure and having someone return to take the dog to its elimination area before it must eliminate) and confinement training/prevention are required.

Dogs can either be confined away from areas where they might eliminate or kept in an area where they will not eliminate, such as a pen, room, or crate, where the dog eats, plays, or sleeps. Alternatively, the dog can be provided with an indoor elimination area (eg, paper, indoor puppy potty) within its confinement area where it can relieve itself when the owner is gone. Puppies obtained from pet stores or any location where they have been extensively caged may be more difficult to housetrain, because they have never had to inhibit elimination and may have learned to play with or eat feces.

Marking Behavior:

Although marking is most often seen in intact males as a form of social and olfactory communication, it is also seen in females (especially when in heat) and in neutered males and females, often as an overmarking of other odors (eg, where other pets have urinated, or on items such as blankets with the residual odor of other dogs, people, or cats). Some dogs will mark when they visit unfamiliar households, especially when another dog’s odor is present. There is often a typical posture of a raised or partially raised leg when the surface to be marked is vertical. Fecal marking is uncommon.

Although marking is likely a component of normal communication, it is unacceptable when it occurs indoors. Neutering intact males will reduce the behavior, and good supervision can prevent or inhibit most marking. As with housesoiling, dogs should be confined away from areas that might be marked when owners are not able to supervise. Marking that is related to anxiety may be reduced by identifying and treating the cause, perhaps with the aid of drugs or natural products that reduce anxiety.

Excitement, Submission, and Conflict-related Elimination:

Dogs may eliminate when they are overly excited, such as when greeting people. Some dogs will urinate when showing submissive postures (eg, crouching to the ground or turning over to expose the belly) or when highly aroused. Because loss of urine control may be associated with a concurrent desire to both greet and show deferential behavior, many cases may be due to conflicting behavioral motivations. Treatment should focus on avoiding the stimuli (reaching, approach, eye contact) that incite the behavior and avoiding any punishment during greeting, which would add to fear and conflict behaviors. Acceptable alternative behaviors that are incompatible with excitable greeting or deferent postures can be taught, such as a relaxed sit, or any game or “trick” the pet may have learned such as fetch or giving a paw. Phenylpropanolamine might increase sphincter control, whereas imipramine may improve control and reduce anxiety.

Other Elimination Disorders:

Dogs with separation anxiety or other fears and phobias (eg, thunderstorm phobia, firework phobia) may soil during these times.

Aging and Cognitive Dysfunction

The aging process is associated with progressive and irreversible changes in body systems that can affect behavior ( see Medical Causes of Behavioral Signs and see Medical Causes of Behavioral Signs ). In older dogs, these might include hepatic or renal failure, endocrine disorders (eg, Cushing disease), pain, sensory decline, or any disease affecting the CNS (eg, tumors) or circulation (eg, anemia, hypertension). To diagnose the cause of behavioral signs in a geriatric dog, a detailed history, physical examination, neurologic evaluation, and diagnostic tests are required to exclude potential medical causes of the presenting signs. Many owners do not report these signs, perhaps because the owners think they are insignificant or assume little can be done. Yet in one study, 30% of dogs 11–12 yr old and nearly 70% of dogs 15–16 yr old had signs consistent with cognitive dysfunction syndrome (CDS). A more recent Internet survey estimated CDS in 14.2% of dogs >10 yr old, with prevalence increasing with age, but >85% of these had not been diagnosed. It is therefore essential that owners be informed of the importance of reporting signs when they arise and for veterinarians to take a proactive approach in asking owners about behavior at each visit. Early detection provides the best opportunity to improve signs and slow the decline of cognitive function.

Aging dogs may exhibit a decline in cognitive function (memory, learning, perception, awareness) that manifests as one or more of a group of clinical signs. These are sometimes referred to by the acronym DISHA and include disorientation, interactions, sleep-wake cycles, housesoiling, and activity changes (which may be decreased or increased and repetitive). In addition, anxiety, agitation, and altered responses to stimuli are frequently reported. The first and most prominent sign of brain aging is a decline in learning or memory, which is generally impractical for pet owners to assess. However, neuropsychologic testing of older dogs has documented memory decline beginning at 6–8 yr of age and learning deficits by 9 yr of age. CDS in dogs is analogous to the early stages of Alzheimer disease in people, both in clinical signs and brain pathology. As with people, some dogs show minimal to no clinical impairment with age, whereas others develop varying degrees of deficits.

Treatment should first focus on environmental enrichment (both physical and mental stimulation), which has been shown to slow cognitive decline and improve the signs of CDS. Selegiline is a monoamine oxidase B inhibitor that may improve the signs of CDS by enhancing dopamine and other catecholamines in the cortex and hippocampus and by decreasing free radical load. Propentofylline, which is licensed in Europe and Australia for the treatment of dullness, lethargy, and depressed demeanor in old dogs, may increase blood flow and inhibit platelet aggregation and thrombus formation.

A number of natural products, including diets and supplements, have also been shown to have beneficial effects in improving the signs and potentially slowing cognitive decline. Two such diets are Canine b/d ® , which is supplemented with fatty acids, antioxidants, and dl -alpha-lipoic acid and l -carnitine to enhance mitochondrial function, and a specialized Purina One ® diet that uses botanic oils containing medium-chain triglycerides to provide ketone bodies as an alternative source of energy for aging neurons.

Other natural supplements that have demonstrated efficacy in improving cognitive function include Senilife ® , which contains a combination of phosphatidylserine, Ginkgo biloba , resveratrol, and vitamins E and B 6 ; Activait ® , which contains phosphatidylserine in combination with α-lipoic acid, carnitine, fatty acids, glutathione, and other antioxidants; S -adenosyl methionine (Novifit ® ); and apoaequorin (Neutricks ® ), a calcium-buffering protein found in jellyfish.

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A Rare Bright Spot for a Canine Lover Doing Time: Raising Puppies to Become Service Dogs

Adam roberts reflects on the highs and occasional lows of training labrador retrievers for the puppies behind bars program..

C hristmastime 2022 saw me getting up on another wall in Fishkill Correctional Facility. As in, painting another mural, the seventh since early November — when my pup Lexi left. I was staying busy to avoid spinning too adrift in a spacey dark void of loss.

“That's why I couldn’t join that program,” my friend Ant said. He was talking about Puppies Behind Bars (PBB), a program that allows incarcerated people to live in a special unit and train Labrador retrievers to become service dogs.

I took my first PBB class in August 2019. I signed the puppy raiser contract, agreeing that if I was assigned a dog, it would stay with me no longer than two years before being placed with a wounded war veteran, first responder or law enforcement agency.

The housing unit for PBB was serene relative to the madhouse maximum security dorm I’d come from two months prior. Before I could set down my bags, two Labs came wagging over, sniffing out the new guy. I was so happy. Between the dogs, single rooms and the courtyard with trees, I didn’t feel imprisoned. And for the first time since 1999, I was touching a dog.

A s the new guy, I looked for opportunities to contribute — exercising dogs, wiping them down, picking up poop. Outside of the weekly classes taught by outside instructors, I learned from senior raisers and by closely watching the dogs. I developed favorites: There was Charlotte, a big yellow girl, and Shadow, an elder statesman.

After a month, when instructors and peers deemed me ready, I was permitted to have my first overnight with a dog — Shadow — who slept in a crate in the room. For 24 hours, I was responsible for his feeding and toileting. I had to provide him with three hours of exercise and review commands he’d been taught by his raiser, Ron.

Ever since, I’ve been giving PBB my all, back-burnering my art and publishing , and decreasing the amount of hours I work as a peer counselor in Transitional Services.

I n March 2020, when COVID-19 happened, there was death and deprivation the world over. But my life was a luxury vacation of sleeping in, playing with dogs, training, learning, napping, cooking elaborate meals, more playing, sleeping and repeating. Puppy life, at least, kept on. When Atticus was destined for a family (“fear barking” disqualified him from working as a service dog), I walked him to the gate, crying — he was the only pup who chose to hang out with me.

Roberts’ drawing of Lee.

Three months into the pandemic, I was selected for a puppy! Lee arrived with siblings, Maddie and Jules. They were all beautiful black Labs, aged 10 weeks. On June 8, 2020, our bond began. I was now responsible for another’s well-being: I was Lee’s raiser, trainer and first responder. I celebrated every accomplishment, fretted over problematic behaviors and saved baby teeth to tape into the weekly journal we keep for our pups, showing the dog’s sponsor and their forever person what puppyhood was like. Oh, to be a Lab in its first years! And what you think of as a harsh prison, is actually a dog’s dream: pack mates ready to romp, humans who “speak dog” and weekend socialization trips to New York City with volunteers.

I was learning so much about dogs and their behavior, but also about softening my ego by asking others for help. Then November struck.

Through a video screen, I learned that Lee’s “environmental awareness” suited him for scent work. He’d be leaving for further training to become an explosive detection canine. You might envision a dog being blown up, but what I learned in preparing Lee is that detection work is fun for a dog. They get to sniff, jump, climb and find. On Dec. 21, 2020, I walked my best friend to the gate one last time, sobbing the entire way.

Over the six months we had together, I had watched Lee grow, helped him learn and nursed him post-neuter. When he left, I remember coming back to the unit and staring at a blank TV. I realized just how close we’d become and what he meant to me as someone who’s always looking to connect with others. It was a dark, cold winter.

W hen I was selected for my next pup, Lexi, I felt I wouldn’t be able to love her as I did Lee. I needn’t have worried. On Feb. 18, 2021, I got Lexi, a little yellow furball who looked up and, as I tucked her into my coat, sighed with contentment.

Every month, I charted her height on my door, and I began to think of her eventual departure. That summer, Lexi was chosen for breeding. Upshot: She’d be with me for at least another year.

The memories we made could fill a book, and someday will. Like all the dogs I’ve worked with, I brought Lexi to the facility’s weekly orientation for new arrivals. Guys on the compound, registering her growth, asked, “Is that the same dog?”

O n May 6, 2022, Lexi began a two-month “swap” with Bedford Hills Correctional Facility, the women’s prison where Gloria Gilbert Stoga founded Puppies Behind Bars in 1997. (Fishkill was the next site, in 1998.) Swaps “generalize” the dog to working with others. Typically, a swap lasts one month, but Lexi’s was extended so I could work with Mikey, a funny, quirky girl who quickly grew on me. And it wasn’t just Mikey. There were other dogs who visited. Though I wasn’t their swap raiser, I enjoyed playing uncle to Lee’s brother, Vinny, and Lexi’s sister, Lori.

Still, every departure is a disconnection. It doesn’t get easier with practice, but I know I can do it. Though knowing is not always enough. With 24 years in prison and a parole hearing in sight, incarceration lands on me differently these days.

Is this a “darkest before the dawn” situation? PTSD? Anxiety and depression? Likely, it’s some funky combination. So, when I got the heads-up that Lexi would be staying for at least a year, I was partially relieved.

For 20 months we moved as partners. All you need to know about Lexi is that she’s a unicorn who happens to look like a dog. She is the best of all things: smart (seeming to learn commands by osmosis); spunky (ready to romp with big boys like her buddy, Jules); self-contained (making her own fun with toys in the yard); a rockstar partner (moving through crowds was a breeze). Because people aren't used to seeing me without a dog, I could hear in advance, ‘Hey, where is she?’”

I resisted the urge to note our last time doing something — last nail cutting, last fetch session, last night in art class. When her final morning with me came, it was so hard.

I used all the tools: writing about it, drawing, talking to others, self-referring to a mental health clinician. Staying busy helping newer raisers and making art provided the gift of space and time to work through the loss of Lexi.

I n the winter of 2023, with a week’s notice, I received Annie. She was my third dog, and puppy-proofing was old hat: set up the crate for a tiny pup, remove choking hazards from the floor and bank lots of sleep.

On Jan. 5, an instructor came after dark. She handed Phil, a puppy who looked like a baby polar bear, to my unit-mate Josue. She gave me Annie, a big-eyed little girl who was an animation studio’s version of cute. Annie’s a different dog from Lexi — they’re all unique — but she is equally lovely in different ways. She challenges me to be a better trainer.

Each of my dogs has been a teacher. Lee: Stay present, you can choose what you pay attention to. Lexi: Smile and get on with it. Annie has taught me the most. And what I’ve learned is that caring for others is my special purpose.

Annie may “graduate” this summer. She’ll be 20 months, and I’ll be going before the parole board after 25 years. Who knows? Maybe we’ll leave prison around the same time.

I sure hope so, but one thing is certain: Like the contract stipulates, we’ll part company. I will miss Annie something fierce. But I will move forward, richer for her unconditional love.

Adam Roberts is an artist, writer and actor. See his work on Instagram at @adam_drawseverything. He is serving time in New York for arson and murder.

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